WW2 British Army Battlefield Wireless

Communications Equipment
Anthony C Davies, Life Fellow, IEEE

Visiting Professor, Faculty of Computing, Information Systems and Mathematics, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston-
upon-Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, England, UK, and Emeritus Professor, King’s College London, WC2R 2LS, England, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract— Features of wireless communications equipment used weather or climate’ and was designed to float in water and
by the British Army during and shortly after World War Two remain operational. REME Workshop repairs to this unit were
are described, within the context of advances in technology and required to maintain the appropriate seals to preserve these
their influence on repair and maintenance methods.
properties. Perhaps the most innovative was the WS 10,
introduced just in time to be used before the end of WW2,
Keywords- Battlefield communications, wireless transceiver which provided eight speech channels over line of sight
history, World War Two radio technology
communications at 4⋅5 GHz, using pulse-width-modulated
time-division multiplex [1].
I. INTRODUCTION
By the time of World War Two (WW2) radio II. WIRELESS SET NOMENCLATURE
communication between ground troops and between vehicles The set-naming was based on a two digit code: The second
including tanks was essential, to support increased mobility, digit indicated the application category and the first digit
for which the previously dominant land-line based telephone indicated the chronological sequence of the developments in a
links were inadequate. The paper describes some of the particular category. Thus WS 08, 18, 38, 68, 88 was a
technical characteristics and design features of the widely- chronological sequence of developments of portable one-man
used British Army radio-transmitter sets of this period and the transceivers. ‘Missing numbers’ correspond to sets which
immediate post-war period. The material presented is based were either not widely used, or were designed but not ordered.
mainly on the author’s experience of using them in a high- Some later designs were slightly modified versions of US
school cadet-force in the 1950s and subsequently, in the Royal Army equipment – for example, the WS 31 was an 18 valve
Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME), being trained to f.m. double-superhet transceiver, based closely on the
repair them. The overall training scheme used by REME for American BC-1000 (SCR 300) later adopted by NATO and
this purpose in 1955-1957 is also outlined, when detailed widely used for many years.
repair at the individual component level, rather than
replacement of plug-in modules, was the universal approach, In the mid-1950s the naming scheme was replaced by one
requiring a thorough understanding of electronics. involving a letter followed by a two digit code. The letter (A -
A. Technology advances – effect upon Repair and E) denoted the power consumption, and the code indicated the
Maintenence frequency band. For example the digits 10 to 39 covered
The Royal Corps of Signals (founded in August 1920) was 300 kHz to 30 MHz. The WS 88 was superseded by the A40
originally responsible for both the operation and repair of all and the WS 19 first by the C12, and then the C13. The
army communications equipment, but in the early 1950s, abbreviation WS (for Wireless Set) was replaced by SR (for
responsibility for all maintenance was transferred to REME. Station Radio).
During the period described, significant advances took place:
the transition to miniature all-glass valves, the change from III. CAPABILITIES AND CONSTRAINTS
a.m. at frequencies within the 1-10 MHz range to f.m. in the A major weight component of portable sets was the battery.
frequency-range 38-50 MHz, and a change from continuously- Special purpose designs were usual, providing in a single
tuned transceivers to crystal-controlled transceivers operating package both the HT and filament supplies for the directly-
on pre-set frequency channels. At the same time, the circuit heated valves (e.g. 162 V, 3 V for the WS 18 and 90 V, 1⋅5 V
complexity increased – from six valves used in the WS 18 to for the WS 88). In operational use, short battery life and need
fourteen in the WS 88, and environmental protection of the to supply replacements was a severe limitation of portable
equipment was substantially improved; for example the equipment, and efficiency, in terms of transmitter power
WS 88, weighing 5 kg, was claimed to be ‘unaffected by output for battery power input, was low by modern standards.
The ~ 0⋅3 W sender power output of the WS 31 required a and the BFO on transmit produces a drive signal exactly equal
battery input power of 11.25 W, e.g. an overall efficiency of to the incoming frequency (see Appendix II). The audio
below 3%. Sets for use with vehicle batteries generally stages of the receiver are typically used as the microphone
derived their HT supply from a rotary transformer or amplifier on transmit. Send-receive switching is often
sometimes a vibrator. Directly heated valves require less achieved by several wafer-switches on a common spindle, or,
power for the heater supply – for example, 100 mW for the in some cases, by a multi-contact relay.
ARP12, compared with 1.89 W for many indirectly-heated
valves of the time, up to 4 W for the ARP36. Directly heated Speech input was via a carbon microphone, either a throat-
valves were therefore used in the battery-operated portable contact type (which left both hands of the operator free) or a
sets, while vehicle operated sets had sufficient power to use hand held type with a side pressel-switch, which turned the
indirectly heated valves (or sometimes a mixture of both). transmitter on and off. Some hand-held ones were moving-
Many used the ‘Mazda octal’ valve base – similar to but not coil construction. Commonly used headphones were a metal-
interchangeable with the International Octal, used for most cone type of medium impedance (~30 Ω), Fig. 1, very
commercial radios of the time. To prolong battery life it was different from the high impedance (~ 2 kΩ) flat-metal-
essential that the transmitter was switched to a low power diaphragm type usual in the ‘crystal set’ era.
consumption mode when not transmitting. Switching off the
filament supply to directly-heated transmitting valves while
receiving conserved power, but could not be done for
indirectly-heated valves because of the much longer warm-up
time.

The earlier designs all provided Wireless Telegraphy (W/T)

communications (e.g. Morse code) and Radio Telephony
(R/T). W/T came in two forms: Carrier Wave (CW) for which
the carrier was keyed on and off, and Modulated Carrier Wave
(MCW) for which 950 Hz amplitude modulation was keyed on
and off while maintaining a continuous carrier. Reception of
CW required a Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) in the
receiver, tunable around the intermediate frequency, which Fig 1. Low impedance cone headphone (DLR no 5)
could be adjusted to give an audible tone at around 1 kHz.
Operator preference and interference could be accommodated The simpler sets had no means of adjusting the matching
by increase or decrease of the beat frequency. between the transmitter and the aerial, but most had a system
of adjustment and of aerial metering which coupled a rectified
The BFO assisted with another necessary function: to proportion of the antenna current to an ammeter, enabling
support the formal protocol for establishing a group of tuning for maximum current. Fig. 2 shows a variometer, used
communicating wireless sets on the same frequency. One with the WS 19 to add inductance to short aerials.
would be designated as the master (“control station”), and all
others would need to tune to it (“netting”). The master
transmitter would send a burst of unmodulated carrier
(“netting call”) for a few seconds, and the receivers would all
use their BFO to tune in to zero beat, ensuring all were
operating on exactly the same frequency. The lack of
frequency stability meant that this process had to be repeated
from time to time.

Equipment for mobile use was almost invariably a

transceiver, which is a transmitter/receiver combination so
designed that the transmitter always transmits on the
frequency to which the receiver is tuned. Not only does this
simplify operation by having less controls, it may also reduce
weight by sharing many components between the receiver and Fig 2. Aerial Variometer
transmitter parts. For example, by having the receiver local
oscillator tuned to the sum of the incoming frequency and the Coverage of some short-wave broadcast bands enabled the
i.f. (as in a normal superhet) and with the BFO tuned to the i.f. sets to be also used to listen to the transmissions of Radio
(achieved during netting), the mixing of the local oscillator Moscow, BBC, Voice of America, etc. (not possible after the
introduction of the WS 88 and WS 31) denotes a transmitter pentode. The opportunity to deduce the
type of valve from the name is limited. For example, AR8 is a
In addition to transceivers, there were medium power combination double-diode-triode. Later, all valves were
transmitters capable of battlefield deployment, such as a high- allocated a common Services name beginning with CV, so
power version of the WS 12 and the WS 53, used in ARP12 became CV1331.
conjunction with receivers such as the R107 (Fig. 3) until it
was superceded by the much lighter R209 after the end of V. TRAINING ENVIRONMENT OF REME IN MID 1950S
WW2. The WS 53 had a power output of 250 watts on R/T, Recruits for training in ‘electronic’ trades were motivated
giving a ground-wave range of up to 100 miles. These were by being regularly assured that they had been selected to
normally used in vehicles equipped as communications- become the most skilled of REME soldiers, and therefore
stations for battle commanders. The WS 12 sender should not superior to the electromechanical trades. The ‘electronics’
be confused with the much later C12 transceiver which was training establishments were based in Arborfield, Berkshire
designed as a replacement for the WS 19, and was in use from (now the locations of the REME School of Electronic and
the mid 1950s to mid 1960s. Aeronautical Engineering until a planned move to South
Wales, and of the REME Museum of Technology).

No 3 Battalion at Baillieul Barracks, Arborfield was the

main site for ‘telecommunications training’ and was divided
into A Company (for theory), B Company (for practice),
C Company (for administration). The progression of skills
(trades) for non-commissioned officers were:
Telecommunications Mechanic, Classes 1, 2, 3, Leading
Artisan Sergeant, Staff Sergeant Artificer. For the lower
qualifications, there was a distinction between radio
mechanics and line mechanics, the latter being involved with
telephony including multi-channel carrier systems and data
Fig. 3 R107 Communications Receiver, 1⋅2−17⋅5 MHz
systems such as teleprinters.

Hickman [2] describes the WW2 network configurations of Radar training was separate (at the nearby No. 5 Battalion,
these sets as deployed in infantry battalion and division Hazebrouk Barracks); there was a tendency for Radar
formations and in armoured regiments. mechanics to consider themselves superior to mere
Telecommunications mechanics.
The later sets did not include a capability for Wireless
Telegraphy communications, since Radio Telephony had by Maintenance techniques required a good conceptual
then become almost universal in the Army Communications understanding of all aspects of circuit operation; test points
context. and fault-finding flow-charts were rare, and the most skilled at
fault-finding relied very much on experience and a kind of
Over this period, the British Radio and Electronics industry intuition. Fig. 4 shows typical wiring and component layout.
consisted mainly of a large number of small and independent
companies. These companies were capable of providing
designs and prototypes for the various army communications
needs, but often did not have the resources for large scale
production. Some sets were therefore made overseas – for
example many WS 19 sets, primarily for tank
communications, were made in Canada from 1941, some with
Cyrillic text labelling intended for supply to the Russian front.

IV. VALVE NOMENCLATURE

Many valves were developed specifically for military use,
while others were minor variants of commercial types. At
first, valves for army use had a name beginning AR (for an
Army Receiving valve) or AT (for an Army Transmitting
valve) – thus, ARP12 denotes a pentode for receiver
applications, 12th in a sequential progression, and ATP4 Fig. 4. Underneath the WS 22
 There were no ‘wobbulators’ or spectrum analysers, and the the anode connected to the top cap, so that the most readily
ability to work with simple test equipment had to be accessible part was at around 250 V d.c. above the chassis or
developed. The available oscilloscopes had a maximum ground potential. (Later, it became usual for the control-grid
frequency of 5 MHz. The signal-injection philosophy was not to be taken to the top cap). In addition to the danger, touching
adopted, signals were generally ‘tracked’ from the aerial in the top caps (with or without a ‘wet finger’) was a standard
sequence to the receiver output. Initial general fault-finding preliminary step in fault-finding.
skills were taught with the aid of a ‘Blackboard superhet’ – a
huge standard 5 valve superhet laid out vertically in pictorial For economy some civilian radios used a live-chassis
form with all parts available for test, controlled by an electro- construction with metalwork connected to one side of the
mechanical ‘telephone exchange’ – the instructor used a mains power supply, and series-connected valve heaters – so
telephone dial which enabled a variety of pre-programmed as to avoid the cost of a mains transformer. The common use
faults to be applied (one at a time) – for example, short- of two-pin mains plugs meant that this metalwork was equally
circuited or open-circuited components, valve failures, etc., likely to be connected to the live or the neutral of the supply.
and the student was required to find the fault in a reasonable By contrast with these early civilian radios, many of the
time, standing in front of the class, and using simple test military wireless sets were relatively safe to work on.
equipment, sometimes no more than an AVO 7 multimeter
(Fig. 5). The current drawn by this instrument on its voltage Typical courses were from six weeks duration to nearly a
ranges meant that measurements at high-impedance points year. ‘Military activities’ (formal parades, marching around,
were highly inaccurate. wearing army boots, etc) were kept to a minimum, though the
philosophy was that each person was first of all a ‘fighting
Fault-finding on actual equipments was typically taught by soldier’ and technical expertise was secondary.
the instructor creating one or more deliberate faults for the
students to locate. Looking for freshly-soldered joints was Courses normally involved some weeks of theory followed
therefore a trick that was soon learned. by some weeks of practice. Failure in one of the many
examinations required the student to drop back and repeat the
‘Health and safety’ was not a prominent issue – perhaps failed part, and several failures would mean demotion to a
because the risk of death from electrocution seemed low lower grade course or even transfer to some other, less
compared to the everyday risks of weapons training and demanding trade. Excellent results could, unusually, result in
carrying a rifle everywhere. High voltages from the anode transfer to a higher level course. The curriculum was taught in
supply to valves did represent a real danger, and maintenance a sequential way, unlike the parallel teaching of typical
on medium power short-wave transmitters involved disabling civilian schools or universities where many different subjects
safety interlocks and working with a live 1500 V d.c. power taught by different people are ‘multiplexed’ over each week of
supply rail. We were taught to keep one hand in a pocket the timetable. At Arborfield, the class in which the student
whenever working with dangerous voltages. was enrolled would typically meet a new instructor early on a
Monday morning and would stay continuously with the same
instructor for the length of the course module which he was
teaching until the examination two or three weeks later, with
only short interruptions for such weekly events as ‘padre’s
hour’, current-affairs classes, and some university-style
laboratory sessions. All instructors were male, with a very
few being civilians.

The laboratory sessions included detailed study and

adjustment of actual equipment. For example we were
required to carry out i.f. alignment of the R208
Communications Receiver, measuring sensitivities and
bandwidths of each stage. The R208 covers 10-60 MHz, with
an i.f. of 2 MHz.

An important text book for basic theory was the Royal

Signals Handbook [3], agreed to be somewhat out of date.
The even more out-of-date Admiralty Handbook was also a
Fig. 5. AVO 7 advertisement 1938 useful theory-reference [4].

In pre-WW2 days, most civilian radios used valves having These were intended to be replaced by the Services
Textbook of Radio [5], a large multi-volume project which construction methods, and operator skills needed for army
failed to live up to expectations. This was commissioned just communications equipment, leading to sets with a minimum
at the time when technology was beginning to change rapidly, of operator controls, preset switched tuning, and maintenance
with increased miniaturisation, the use of transistors, and a by diagnostic test points and replaceable plug-in modules not
maintenance philosophy of replacing faulty modules rather designed for field or even workshop repair.
than detailed repairs. Volume 3 ‘Electronics’ allocated only
A. Some specific examples (see also [6], [7])
one chapter (less than 10% of the book) to semiconductors,
mostly about rectifiers and diodes, of which only 3 of 20 WS 18: A back-pack transceiver, with a two valve (AR8,
pages were devoted to the transistor. As a result, it was soon ATP4) transmitter and a four valve (three ARP12, AR8)
obsolete as an electronics textbook. Training included receiver. The complete equipment is installed in a metal box,
receiver-alignment and the calibration and repair of all test- carried as a back-pack, with the receiver above the sender, and
equipment including signal generators, impedance bridges, the battery below. When mobile, it needs two people (one to
wavemeters, etc. carry, one to operate).
The 6⋅0−9⋅0 MHz range includes the 49 m and 41 m
broadcast bands, permitting its use for general short-wave
reception. Fig. 9, 10 show, respectively, the sender and
receiver front panels.
It was a development by Pye Radio Co. of the WS 8, made
by Murphy Radio Co. until 1940, with many similarities in
concept and appearance,

Fig. 6. 1915 short-wave crystal receiver for use in trench warfare

Fig. 9. WS 18 sender

Fig. 7. WS 19, designed 1940 for use in tanks and other vehicles

Fig. 10. WS 18 receiver

WS 19: Perhaps the most ‘famous’ of WW2 sets, also

Fig 8. B44, introduced ~ 1960 (VHF/AM ) designed by Pye Radio Co., particularly popular with hobby
groups which preserve and use historic military radios. It was
Figs. 6, 7, 8 illustrate the progression in technology, for tanks and other armoured vehicles.
 The frequency range of the main ‘A’ set is 2⋅5−6⋅25 MHz 1⋅6−4⋅0 MHz and 4⋅0−10⋅0 MHz (the upper range for
for the first version, made by Pye Radio, the Mk II extended emergency use only because of poor performance). ~14 mile
this to 2⋅0−8⋅0 MHz. An ingenious mechanical ‘flick’ scheme range on R/T with 14 ft (4.2 m) aerial. Operated from a 12 V
enables tuning to be switched rapidly between two previously- vehicle battery with a rotary transformer to generate 300 V
set frequencies. Nine indirectly-heated valves are used, with HT. The WS 62 was a development of the WS 22 general
an ATS25 beam tetrode (similar to the 807 and CV124) for the purpose set, using a much lighter weight (aluminium) casing.
main transmitter power-amplifier valve, operated in Class ‘C’.
The range of ~15 km from the 5W output can be boosted by
‘RF Amplifier No2 (in a metal box similar in size and shape to
the WS 19) to 35W giving a range of ~70 km.
The amplifier uses four ATS25 valves (the later Mk 3 uses
two, but achieves the same power output)
The WS 19 also contains a VHF ‘B’ set for inter-tank
communications, operating at 240 MHz, which was seldom
used and considered obsolete by the mid-1950s, and an
intercom amplifier for communications within a tank. The ‘B’
set has a super-regenerative receiver, using a CV6 triode
valve, which is distinctive in having both anode and grid
brought out to top caps. Fig. 12 WS 62: Note similarities to WS 19 in the front panel

WS 38: A pouch transceiver, weighing 10 kg, range WS 68: A development of WS 18, almost identical but for
7⋅3−9⋅0 MHz, 200mW Transmitter output, Receiver i.f. lower frequencies (1⋅75−2⋅9 MHz or 3⋅0−5⋅2 MHz) to avoid
285 kHz. Five valves, of which two are shared between congestion and give a longer range. An additional feature is
transmitter and receiver. an option for crystal control of the Master Oscillator. An 11 ft
Fig. 11 shows the primitive tuning arrangement. (3.3 m) rod aerial can give a range of 8 km (e.g. more than
Well over 100,000 had been manufactured by the end of WS 18) from the 250 mW output.
WW2.
Interworking with WS 18 was commonplace over the WS 88: Similar in size and shape to the WS 38, and
shared part of the frequency range available by 1947, this overcame congestion in the low HF
A WS 38 AFV variant allowed infantry to tank band by moving to VHF and using f.m. Initial versions had
communications, and a later (Mk. III) version had an adequate frequency stability over a 3 week period, which was
improved construction and tuning control, a more elegant a huge change from the continual frequency drift accepted for
appearance, and could be operated ‘remotely’ while carried on previous transceivers, and crystal-control was introduced in
the back. later versions. Weighing 5 kg, and using 4 preset frequencies
in the 40 MHz region with 15 kHz max deviation, it can
achieve a 1 mile range in open areas with its 250 mW output,
with a battery life of 24 hours for a 1/5 transmit/receive ratio.

Fig. 13. Contol panel of WS 88

Fig. 11 WS 38
The battery was carried in a similar-sized pouch to the
WS 62: A tropicalized transceiver, mainly for vehicle use, receiver. There are two types of WS 88 with different pre-set
but could be carried, and would float and support 9kg. frequencies: A for infantry, B for mortar groups. A large
proportion of the internal chassis is taken up by the 14 tunable and uses a velocity-modulated valve (CV228, Heil
miniature glass valves. The crystal controls the local tube), giving much increased power output but was not
oscillator of the receiver and automatic frequency control of introduced until after WW2.
the transmitter is achieved by a signal from the discriminator
which alters the frequency of a variable reactance valve in the
transmitter (also used to provide frequency modulation from
the microphone). Interworking with the later WS 31 is
possible, because the four WS 88 frequencies are a subset of
the 41 channels of the WS 31.
The extreme simplicity of the controls compared to earlier
sets can be seen from Fig. 13. One switch turns the set on and
off, the other selects one of four channels. Send-receive
switching is by a press-lever on a cable (not shown).

WS 31: A tropicalized and splash-proof short-range

(~12 km) VHF f.m. transceiver, weight 11 kg, covering
40−48 MHz. Continuously tunable, providing 41 channels
spaced by 200 kHz, 500 mW transmitter output. A double
superhet with i.f. of 4⋅3 MHz and 2⋅515 MHz and, compared
to the earlier transceivers, notable for its circuit complexity.
An adjustable squelch circuit is included to cut out the high
frequency noise produced by an f.m. receiver when no input Fig. 15 WS 10 trailer and aerials
signal is being received. 18 valves, of which three were used
for the squelch circuit. On later versions, the squelch control For each of the eight speech channels, the pulse width is
is absent. Automatic frequency control is included to provide 3.5 μs, varied by modulation ±2.3 μs. A 20 μs synchronising
compensation for tuning errors of up to one quarter of a pulse is added to each 111 μs frame containing the eight
channel-division. A 4⋅3 MHz crystal oscillator is used for the channel pulses. Amplification of the incoming frequency was
transmit mixer, and a 6⋅815 MHz crystal oscillator for the not possible, so the incoming signal is converted to a 45 MHz
receiver second mixer (using a heptode valve to provide both i.f. using a crystal mixer and the 3rd harmonic of a tunable
oscillation and mixing). The 4⋅3 MHz oscillator also provides ~1500 MHz triode oscillator.
a means of calibration by providing audible beat frequencies at
specific points on the frequency dial when a ‘calibrate’ button VI. TRENDS AND CONCLUSIONS
is pressed. As army battlefield radio equipment developed, technology
advances enabled sets to be operated with less expertise (for
example, continuous, unstable tuning replaced by stable
crystal controlled switching between a few preset
frequencies), and needing much less expertise to maintain,
with intricate fault-finding and repair of faulty parts being
superceded by simpler fault detection systems and
replacement of faulty modules instead of repair. Clearly this
led to lesser requirements for theoretical understanding and
practical skills. Even in mid 1950s the need for a three week
course including transmission line theory and m-derived filter
design was being questioned. However, the much greater
complexity and reliance on electronic and computer
technology in modern warfare has resulted in a completely
different operational and maintenance environment, although
Fig 14. WS 31 (a later version without squelch control)
one in which the expertise of REME is still crucial in the
WS 10 Mk I (used during last stages of WW2). Two British Army. The present day military communications
transmission frequencies, 4⋅547 GHz and 4⋅762 GHz, with a framework would have been unimaginable in the 1940s and
different magnetron (CV79 or CV89) for each one, conveying 1950s. System complexity and integrated circuit electronics
the microwave output via a circular waveguide to parabolic makes local repairs and ad-hoc improvisation impossible,
aerials. The magnetron power output is 200 mW, giving a despite the need for battlefield survival of communications
line-of-sight range of around 50 miles. The Mk II version is equipment in a destructive environment.
 VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES
The Radio Society of Great Britain is thanked for [1] Wireless World, Dec 1945, pp 383-384, June 1946, pp187-192, and
Sept 1946, pp 282-285
permission to photograph items in their former museum in [2] J.B. Hickman ‘Military radio communications’, Proc. IEE, Part IIIA,
Potters Bar, January 2008 (Figs. 6, 8), R. Howes, Pye Historic 1947, pp60-73 (IEE Radio Communications Convention, 1947)
Collection Custodian for permission to use Figs. 4, 10, Martin [3] Royal Signals ‘Handbook of Line Communication’, Vol I, H.M.S.O.,
London 1964 (W.O. Code 1698). [Several reprinting dates]
Swift (G4NCE) for permission to use Fig. 14, John Blaney, [4] Admiralty Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy, Vols I and II, H.M.S.O.,
Collections Manager, REME Museum of Technology, for London, 1938
permission to photograph Figs. 2,3 7, 9 and L. Meulstee for [5] The Services Textbook of Radio, H.M.S.O., London
providing Figs. 11, 12, 13, 15, and who has published Vol 1 (Fundamentals), 1956; Vol 3 (Electronics), 1955; Vol 5
(Transmission and Propagation), 1958
comprehensive information on military radio sets and [6] VMARS Newsletters (at www.vmarsmanuals.co.uk)
systems [7]. Louis Meulstee, Martin Swift and Richard [7] L. Meulstee ‘Wireless for the warrior’ Vol 2, 1998, G.C. Arnold,
Hankin are thanked for many helpful comments which have Dorset, England.
improved the paper.

APPENDIX I FREQUENCY RANGES

(overlaps with the 75, 60, 49, 41 and 31 metre broadcast bands illustrated by the vertical bars)

WS62

WS68R

WS68P

WS19

WS38

WS18

0 5 10
Frequency (MHz)

APPENDIX II TRANSCEIVER PRINCIPLE

(LO = local oscillator, Tx – Transmitter, Rx =Receiver)

Rx
RF mixer IF det

aerial
tuning LO BFO AF

Tx
PA mixer
microphone