ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES

The development of artificial light based on electric energy sources began at the end of the 19 th and early
20th centuries.  In developing artificial lights, the technological effort is aimed at producing light that will
resemble natural daylight (sunlight).  Artificial light is measured in two ways – the specific frequency range
  
of the source and the strength of illumination, measured in lumens.  Artificial light can be classified into
three main sources, in accordance with its developmental generation and the technology that enabled its
existence.
 First generation – bulbs based on heating of a wire
filament (incandescent lamps) or an arc
A standard modern incandescent lamp is composed of a
glass bulb containing a coil of metal wire, such as tungsten
(W), in a vacuum.  Incandescent lamps emit non-ionizing
radiation in the visible light range and do not usually emit
radiation in the ultraviolet (UV) range, except in extreme
conditions of very high power. Additionally, this type of
lamp also emits invisible infra-red non-ionizing radiation
which is felt as heat.
 
The halogen lamp is a type of incandescent lamp filled with     
a halogen gas such as iodine (I) or bromine (Br).  It emits
visible light and a little UV light.  As UV is ionizing
radiation  that may cause, with prolonged exposure, burns
and skin cancer, prolonged close exposure to halogen lamps
should be avoided.
 
The carbon arc lamp comprises two tubular carbon (C)
electrodes connected to an electric voltage source in the
open air.  This lamp emits visible light and also UV
radiation.  Because of its high intensity it is forbidden to
look at its light source directly.
 
 
Second Generation – Gas discharge lamps
Fluorescent lighting is based on electric discharge of a gas (mercury) leading to emission of high-
energy photons (usually UV), that impact the fluorescent coating of the bulb, producing visible light.
 
The type of radiation emitted by fluorescent tubes and compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) includes, in
addition to visible light, a small amount of UV radiation in the UVA range (315-380 nanometers), and   
even shorter wavelengths (higher energy) in the UVC range.
 
Exposure to UV radiation from CFL lamps containing mercury may be reduced by distancing the lamps
from the user by 30 cm or more.

 
Third generation – Light-Emitting Diode (LED) lamps
A light-emitting diode (LED) consists of a semiconductor  that has undergone doping.  An
electric current passing through the diode excites the atoms to high energies.  When the atoms
Modern
return to lower energy levels, energy in the form of photons in the visible light range is
  LED
released.
lamps
 
LED lamps emit visible light and do not emit UV radiation.
 
 
 
 
The first experimental attempts to produce artificial light from electricity began some 40 years before Thomas Edison
registered a patent in 1879 on the incandescent light bulb he developed.  Other scientists, including William Sawyer,
Joseph Swan and Albon Man were involved in the development of the incandescent electric light bulb, and even
registered patents on different versions of the light bulb during the same period of time.
 

Thomas Edison, inventor of the incandescent light bulb – wax effigy

 
Artificial electric lighting completely transformed human life.  It enabled activity after dark, changed the daily timetables
of workers, and expanded the hours of leisure and social activity.  It provided a tremendous impetus to improving and
expanding sources of energy in view of the ever-increasing demand, and consequently to the economic development of
many countries on a global scale.
 
Details on the development of artificial light, including the incandescent bulb, fluorescent lighting and LED lighting may
be found on the US Department of Energy website.
 
Sources of artificial light are of three main types: incandescent or arc lamps, lamps based on discharge of gas, and light-
emitting diodes.  The quality of light produced by each of these sources is characterized by its effect on the sense of sight
in the human eye, and it is measured in one of two ways – the specific range of frequencies of each light source, and the
strength of illumination.  The strength of illumination is measured in lumen units – the intensity of visible light as
perceived by the human eye.
 
 
 

  

Light bulbs of different generations

Standard incandescent lamps, halogen lamps, arc lamps and special materials          
Incandescent lamps

A standard modern incandescent lamp is composed of a glass bulb containing a metal wire filament such as tungsten (W)
in a vacuum.  The wire filament has high electrical resistance.  When an electric current passes through this wire filament,
collisions among the electrons and atoms of the wire lead to incandescence of the wire (i.e. make it glow) resulting in light
production.  Because over time the incandescence leads to evaporation of the atoms of the wire filament, in order to
prolong the lifetime of the lamp and to preserve the quality of light, the lamp is sometimes filled with a noble gas (for
example, argon), which reduces the evaporation of the wire filament.
 
Incandescent lamps are manufactured in a variety of sizes, voltages and electric powers.  The standard basic form of the
incandescent lamp is considered as energy-wasteful because its efficiency is only 4%. Over the years more economical
sources of light were developed, such as the halogen lamp, the fluorescent lamp, the LED lamp  and others.  In recent
years, with increasing awareness of the need to conserve energy, both for economic reasons and to protect the
environment, many countries have prohibited or reduced the use of incandescent lamps.
 
 
  
Modern incandescent
lamps using tungsten
filaments
 Old style incandescent lamps 
using carbon filaments 
 

Type of radiation emitted by incandescent lamps

Standard modern incandescent lamps produce non-ionizing radiation in the visible light range and do not usually emit
radiation in the ultraviolet (UV) range, except in extreme conditions of very high power. The radiation range depends on
the material of the metal filament in the lamp. Additionally this type of lamp also emits invisible infra-red non-ionizing
radiation which is felt as heat.

 Halogen lamps

The halogen lamp is a type of incandescent lamp generally containing a tungsten (W) filament and filled with a halogen
gas such as iodine (I) or bromine (Br).  The halogen gas reduces the amount of tungsten gas vapor emitted by the filament,
thus prolonging the life of the lamp and improving the quality of the light.  The lamp may therefore operate at a higher
temperature than a standard incandescent lamp filled with noble gas, thus increasing its efficiency (by as much as 10% or
more) and providing better illumination and effective use of electrical energy. This feature allows for the use of relatively
smaller halogen lamps, integrated into compact lighting systems, such as floodlights.
 

Type of radiation emitted by Halogen lamps

Halogen lamps produce visible light. A small amount of the radiation emitted is in the UV range.   Because some of the
radiation in this range is ionizing (like some of the sun's light) and may cause burns or skin cancer with prolonged
exposure, such exposure in proximity to halogen lamps should be avoided.
 
To reduce the potential for exposure to UV radiation the quartz of the glass bulb is usually mixed with a minimal amount
of UV-absorbing material (a process known as 'doping') or by optical thickening.  Another approach is to encase the
halogen lamp in a glass case that reduces the risk of burns.
 
Halogen lamps that emit UVB radiation are used intentionally for scientific or medical purposes, such as dental
treatments.
 
Occasionally, halogen lamps explode when reaching high temperatures.  One of the risks in using them is the danger of
fires when they are located close to inflammable materials, such as in the roofs of wooden houses.
 
The USA Government Archives contain Recommendations for the use of Halogen lamps, in the section dealing with
questions and answers relating to various safety issues.
 
 Carbon arc lamps
The carbon arc lamp comprises two tubular carbon (C) electrodes connected to an electric voltage source, usually in the
open air, with an electric current passing between them, restricted by means of a mechanism known as a ballast.   The
electric voltage creates a state of plasma in the air that enables the passage of an electric current accompanied by emission
of light. The carbon arc lamp was invented in the early 19 th century and its commercial use began in 1870 for street
lighting and big buildings.  The carbon arc lamp produces better light than the incandescent lamp, but the life of the
carbon electrodes is shorter and requires appropriate care.  Today its use is restricted to equipment such as floodlights,
stage lighting and hand-held torches.
 
 Arc of light passing between two carbon coils
 
Type of radiation emitted by carbon arc lamp
This lamp emits visible light and also UV radiation.  Because of its high intensity it is forbidden to look at its light source
directly.
Fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) and light-emitting diode
(LED) lamps 
What is fluorescence?

In visible light fluorescent illumination is usually produced in one of two ways:

 A process whereby energy-bearing photons, of frequencies higher than visible light (such as UV radiation), are
absorbed by certain fluorescent materials, rapidly producing spontaneous emission of photons at visible
frequencies (usually within about 10 nanoseconds).
 Collision between energy-bearing electrons leads to excitation of electrons or molecules of certain fluorescent
materials.  The excited electrons spontaneously return to lower energy levels, a process accompanied by the
emission of photons in the visible light range.
 The fluorescent lamp
Fluorescent lighting in the form of a lamp or tube is based on electric discharge of ionized gas (plasma). Fluorescent
lamps and tubes contain noble gases (e.g. argon (Ar), neon (Ne), krypton (Kr) or xenon (Xe)) or compounds of these, as
well as substances such as mercury (Hg), sodium (Na), and compounds of metals and halogenic substances (metal
halides).  In addition, the lamp or tube is coated internally with fluorescent material.
 
The process of lighting takes place as follows:

1. The electrical connection provides the starter, the electrodes heat up, and thermal emission of electrons occurs.
2. The electric voltage between the electrodes accelerates the thermal electrons, leading to direct excitation or
ionization of the atoms of mercury (Hg) or other substances inside the lamp or tube.  In addition, indirect
ionization (Pening ionization) occurs as the atoms of the noble gas (or gas mixture) in the tube, excited by the
thermal electrons (in the electric field), transfer energy by colliding with the mercury atoms.  This energy leads to
 excitation or ionization of the mercury atoms, and the number of excited mercury atoms reaches higher energy
levels.
3. The mercury atoms that undergo excitation to high energy levels spontaneously return to lower energy levels.  
This is accompanied by emission of UV radiation, especially in the 253.7 and 185 nanometer wavelengths (and in
other materials in accordance with the wavelengths appropriate to their electronic properties).
4. The UV radiation produced in the tube causes excitation of the atoms of the inner fluorescent layer coating of the
tube which leads to spontaneous emission of visible light.
 
The perceived colors of the emitted light depends on the atomic properties of the  tube's fluorescent surface coating and is
perceived as different colors, such as 'white' light, 'warm' light, etc. according to the fluorescent material.
 

Type of radiation emitted by fluorescent lamps and tubes

Each fluorescent light has spectral lines (specific light frequencies) characteristic of the mixture of gases and coating
materials used in the lamp or tube. Ultraviolet radiation of these spectral lines is generally in the UVA range (380-420
nanometers).  Sometimes fluorescent lights emit shorter wavelengths, in the UVB and UVC ranges, if, for example,
mercury vapor is used that is not absorbed in the coating layer of the fluorescent lamp.  Emission of UV radiation of short
wavelengths can be avoided by coating the lamp or tube with a layer of photoluminescent material, which absorbs the UV
radiation and allows the emission of less energetic photons.
 
 
The coating layer is not always uniform, or it may be cracked or damaged, enabling a leakage of UV radiation.   To reduce
exposure one should remain at a distance of a few dozen centimeters (or even several meters) from the fluorescent source. 
In addition, one should purchase items only from a known manufacturer, of Standard Mark quality, and replace worn out
lamps from time to time.

Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

A CFL is a fluorescent lamp of reduced size. This type of lamp produces lighting of similar intensity to that of
incandescent lamps.  The functioning of the CFL is similar to that of regular fluorescent lamps: a CFL usually contains a
mixture of gases and mercury vapor.  The electrons of the mercury atoms undergo thermal excitation to high energy
levels, and emit UV light when they return to lower energy levels.  The UV light produced in the lamp causes excitation
of the atoms of the inner fluorescent layer coating of the lamp  which leads to spontaneous emission of visible light and
heats up other components in the lamp, such as the glass.  Although light produced in this fashion has a different spectrum
to that produced by the incandescent lamp, the use of  several special phosphorescent materials alters the light spectrum
emitted by CFLs to resemble the light emitted by incandescent lamps.  Coating the lamp with a layer of phosphorescent
materials prevents the emission of short wavelength UV radiation by photoluminescence, which absorbs the UV radiation
and enables the emission of less energetic photons (i.e. of longer wavelengths with lower frequencies).  However, UV
radiation may trickle out when the coating layer is of poor quality, or cracked or inadequately manufactured, or damaged
over time.
 
The energy consumption of a CFL is about a third or a quarter (or even less) that of a similar incandescent lamp, so that
CFLs are considered energy-conserving.  CFLs are designed in various forms, such as coil, folded tube, etc., in attempts to
maximize the amount of light while minimizing the lamp's volume.
 
 
  
Energy-conserving CFL  
 

Type of radiation emitted by CFLs:

The radiation spectrum emitted by CFLs includes, in addition to visible light, a small amount of UV radiation.   The
spectral lines of UV radiation depend on the use of phosphorus compounds in the CFL.  They include spectral lines in the
range of UVA (380-420 nanometers) and lines with even shorter wavelengths (higher energy) in the UVC range.

Possible effects of radiation of fluorescent light from CFLs

The risks entailed in the use of CFLs are low, and involve possible exposure to UV radiation from CFLs containing
mercury vapor, or exposure to the mercury from broken lamps.  Exposure to UV radiation from mercury-containing CFLs
may be reduced by having them at a reasonable distance from the user.  According to the United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), a safety distance of more than 1 ft (about 30 cm) reduces the risk of exposure to UV radiation
from CFLs.  Also, one should avoid touching broken CFLs or remaining in their vicinity; pieces of broken CFLs should
be sealed and stowed away, and discarded at a suitable collection or recycling site.
 
Further details on the safe use of CFLs may be found on the Website of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
 

Light Emitting Diode (LED) lamps

A diode allows an electric current to travel in a single direction.  A diode is created at the intersection between two types
of materials (semiconductors).  When an alternating current is applied to the diode in what is termed a forward bias
(direction), the current passes through the diode, while in a reversed bias (direction) the current does not travel through the
diode.  The diode also functions when a direct electric current passes through the diode along its own bias (direction).
 
A light-emitting diode (LED) is composed of a semiconductor that has undergone doping.  When an electric current
passes through the diode, the atoms of the semiconductor are excited (move up) to high energy levels.  When the atoms
revert spontaneously to lower levels they emit photons in the wavelengths of visible light.  The color of light obtained
depends on the properties of the materials composing the diode.  Light-emitting diodes do not emit light in all directions. 
They must therefore be combined in such a way as to enable this function.  The diodes are integrated into a structure
resembling a regular incandescent lamp.  As in such a lamp, LEDs produce strong lighting instantly.  In contrast, a
fluorescent lamp does not light up immediately.  The quality of lighting of LED lamps and their output fade over time,
although over the years the quality of LED lamps has improved.  LED lamps have a long lifetime (25,000-100,000 hours)
and they are energy-efficient.   Today, LED lamps emitting white light are gradually replacing incandescent lamps and
CFLs.  Since about a quarter of electricity consumption is for lighting, the move to LED lighting will have a tremendous
impact on global energy conservation.
 
 
 

   

Display of LED and LCD screens A variety of energy-saving LED Sign illuminated by LED
lamps
 Advantages of LED lamps

 High level of brightness and power

 High efficiency
 Use of low-voltage currents
 Low heat emission
 High reliability (physical stability)
 No UV radiation!
 Long lifetime
 Easily programmed and controlled as part of an electronic array (for example in computer and TV displays)

 Type of radiation emitted by LED lamps

LED lamps produce light in the visible range and do not emit UV radiation.
 
The LED lamp is of tremendous importance, and it is used in a considerable variety of fields.   It is sufficient to mention
that LED TV screens have replaced the cathode tube screens that were bulky and costly in production and consumption of
electric power.  Humanity is greatly indebted to the inventors of the blue LED lamp that subsequently led to the
breakthrough in developing the white LED lamp.
 
In recognition of the importance of the invention and development of the blue LED lamp, the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize for Physics to three Japanese scientists: Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano, and Shuji
Nakamura.  The blue LED posed a challenge for three decades.  The Japanese scientists reached their breakthrough when
they developed the blue P-N diode intersect from a material called gallium nitride (GaN).  While red and green LED
lamps have been known since the 1960s, without the blue light it would not have been possible to manufacture lamps
giving white light, produced by the blending of the three colors.

  NATURAL LIGHTING
Natural lighting, also known as daylighting, is a technique that efficiently brings natural light into
your home using exterior glazing (windows, skylights, etc.), thereby reducing artificial lighting
requirements and saving energy. Natural lighting has been proven to increase health and
comfort levels for building occupants.  

We start our discussion by defining the sources of natural lighting . Then in order to better
understand the design principles and the daylighting fixtures available, we introduce  natural
lighting design  and daylighting fixtures . Lastly, we include cost analysis  to help you evaluate the
most cost effective options.  
SOURCES OF NATURAL LIGHTING 
Effective natural lighting will admit natural light, but will avoid admittance of direct sun on task
surfaces or into occupants' eyes. Daylight inside a home can come from three sources:   

DIRECT SUNLIGHT
EXTERNAL REFLECTION
INTERNAL REFLECTION

NATURAL LIGHTING DESIGN 

Most daylighting components are integrated in the original construction plan, however,
technologies such as tubular daylighting devices, skylights, electric lighting controls, and
optimized interior design may be considered in retrofit projects.  

The science of daylighting design is more complex than simply bringing light into a home. When
adding a daylighting fixture, you must consider balancing heat gains and losses, glare control,
and variations in daylight availability. Additionally, window size and spacing, glass selection, the
reflectance of interior finishes, and the location of interior partitions all must be considered.
Furthermore, there are many different types of daylight fixtures and each has its own unique set
of design considerations.  

If you're considering implementing a natural lighting window, be sure to check out  Windows and
Rooftop Page to better manage the heat gains or losses through the daylighting source.  
DAYLIGHTING

Daylighting is the practice of placing windows, skylights, other openings, and reflective surfaces so

that sunlight (direct or indirect) can provide effective internal lighting. Particular attention is given to
daylighting while designing a building when the aim is to maximize visual comfort or to reduce energy
use. Energy savings can be achieved from the reduced use of artificial (electric) lighting or
from passive solar heating. Artificial lighting energy use can be reduced by simply installing fewer
electric lights where daylight is present or by automatically dimming/switching off electric lights in
response to the presence of daylight – a process known as daylight harvesting.
The amount of daylight received in an internal space can be analyzed by measuring illuminance on a
grid or undertaking a daylight factor calculation. Computer programs such as Radiance allow an
architect or engineer to quickly calculate benefits of a particular design. The human eye's response to
light is non-linear, so a more even distribution of the same amount of light makes a room appear
brighter.
The source of all daylight is the Sun. The proportion of direct to diffuse light impacts the amount and
quality of daylight.[1] "Direct sunlight" reaches a site without being scattered within Earth's
atmosphere. Sunlight that is scattered in the atmosphere is "diffused daylight". Sunlight reflected off
walls and the ground also contributes to daylight. Each climate has different composition of these
daylights and different cloud coverage, so daylighting strategies vary with site locations and climates.
There is no direct sunlight on the polar-side wall (north-facing wall in the Northern Hemisphere and
south-facing wall in the Southern Hemisphere) of a building from the autumnal equinox to the vernal
equinox at latitudes north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn.[2]
Traditionally, houses were designed with minimal windows on the polar side, but more and larger
windows on the equatorial side (south-facing wall in the Northern Hemisphere and north-facing wall in
the Southern Hemisphere).[3] Equatorial-side windows receive at least some direct sunlight on any
sunny day of the year (except in the tropics in summertime), so they are effective at daylighting areas
of the house adjacent to the windows. At higher latitudes during midwinter, light incidence is highly
directional and casts long shadows. This may be partially ameliorated through light diffusion, light
pipes or tubes, and through somewhat reflective internal surfaces. At fairly low latitudes in
summertime, windows that face east and west and sometimes those that face toward the nearer pole
receive more sunlight than windows facing toward the equator. [2]
TYPES
Passive daylighting is a system of both collecting sunlight using static, non-moving, and non-
tracking systems (such as windows, sliding glass doors, most skylights, light tubes) and reflecting the
collected daylight deeper inside with elements such as light shelves. Passive daylighting systems are
different from active daylighting systems in that active systems track and/or follow the sun, and rely
on mechanical mechanisms to do so.

Windows

A conventional window

Clerestory windows
Main article: Window
Windows are the most common way to admit daylight into a space. Their vertical orientation means
that they selectively admit sunlight and diffuse daylight at different times of the day and year.
Therefore, windows on multiple orientations must usually be combined to produce the right mix of
light for the building, depending on the climate and latitude. There are three ways to improve the
amount of light available from a window:[4] (a) placing the window close to a light colored wall, (b)
slanting the sides of window openings so the inner opening is larger than the outer opening, or (c)
using a large light colored window-sill to project light into the room.
Different types and grades of glass and different window treatments can also affect the amount of
light transmission through the windows. The type of glazing is an important issue, expressed by its VT
coefficient (Visual Transmittance),[5] also known as visual light transmittance (VLT). As the name
suggests, this coefficient measures how much visible light is admitted by the window. A low VT
(below 0.4) can reduce by half or more the light coming into a room. But be also aware of high VT
glass: high VT numbers (say, above 0.60) can be a cause of glare. On the other hand, you should
also take into account the undesirable effects of large windows.
Windows grade into translucent walls (below).

Clerestory windows]
Another important element in creating daylighting is the use of clerestory windows. These are high,
vertically placed windows. They can be used to increase direct solar gain when oriented towards the
equator. When facing toward the sun, clerestories and other windows may admit unacceptable glare.
In the case of a passive solar house, clerestories may provide a direct light path to polar-side (north in
the northern hemisphere; south in the southern hemisphere) rooms that otherwise would not be
illuminated. Alternatively, clerestories can be used to admit diffuse daylight (from the north in the
northern hemisphere) that evenly illuminates a space such as a classroom or office.
Often, clerestory windows also shine onto interior wall surfaces painted white or another light color.
These walls are placed so as to reflect indirect light to interior areas where it is needed. This method
has the advantage of reducing the directionality of light to make it softer and more diffuse, reducing
shadows.
Sawtooth roof]
Another roof-angled glass alternative is a sawtooth roof (found on older factories). Sawtooth roofs
have vertical roof glass facing away from the equator side of the building to capture diffused light (not
harsh direct equator-side solar gain).[6] The angled portion of the glass-support structure is opaque
and well insulated with a cool roof and radiant barrier. The sawtooth roof's lighting concept partially
reduces the summer "solar furnace" skylight problem, but still allows warm interior air to rise and
touch the exterior roof glass in the cold winter, with significant undesirable heat transfer. [7]
Skylights]

Modern skylight
Skylights are light transmitting fenestration (products filling openings in a building envelope which
also includes windows, doors, etc forming all, or a portion of, the roof of a building space. Skylights
are widely used in daylighting design in residential and commercial buildings, mainly because they
are the most effective source of daylight on a unit area basis.
An alternative to a skylight is a roof lantern. A roof lantern is a daylighting cupola that sits above a
roof, as opposed to a skylight which is fitted into a roof's construction. Roof lanterns serve as both an
architectural feature and a method of introducing natural light into a space, and are typically wooden
or metal structures with a number of glazed glass panels.
Atrium
Main article: Atrium (architecture)
An atrium is a large open space located within a building. It is often used to light a central circulation
or public area by daylight admitted through a glass roof or wall. Atria provide some daylight to
adjacent working areas, but the amount is often small and does not penetrate very far. [8] The main
function of an atrium is to provide a visual experience and a degree of contact with the outside for
people in the working areas. The daylighting of successive storeys of rooms adjoining an atrium is
interdependent and requires a balanced approach. [9] Light from the sky can easily penetrate the upper
storeys but not the lower, which rely primarily on light reflected from internal surfaces of the atrium
such as floor-reflected light.[10] The upper stories need less window area than the lower ones, and if
the atrium walls are light in color the upper walls will reflect light toward the lower stories. [6]
Translucent walls

Glass brick wall, outdoors

Glass brick wall, indoors

Bottle wall
Walls made of glass brick are translucent to transparent. Traditionally, they are hollow
and grouted with a fine concrete grout, but some modern glass brick walls are solid cast
glass[11] grouted with a transparent glue.[12][13] If the glue matches the refractive index of the glass, the
wall can be fairly transparent.
Increasing the amount of concrete, bottle walls embed bottles that run right through the wall,
transmitting light. Concrete walls with glass prisms running through them have also been made. [citation
needed]
 With the advent of cheaper optical fibers, fiber-optic concrete walls.[citation needed] Daylight (and
shadow images) can then pass directly through a solid concrete wall, making it translucent; fiber
optics will lead light around bends and over tens of meters. [14] Typically only a few percent of the light
is transmitted (the percent transmittance is about half the percent of the surface that is fibers, and
usually only ~5% fibers are used).[15][16]
Both glass and concrete conduct heat fairly well, when solid, so none of these walls insulate well.
They are therefore often used outdoors, as a divider between two heated spaces (see images), or in
very temperate climates.
Greenhouse walls (and roofs) are made to transmit as much light and as little heat as possible. They
use a variety of materials, and may be transparent or translucent.
Remote distribution
 Anidolic lighting
It is possible to provide some daylight into spaces that have low possibility of windows or skylights
through remote distribution devices such as mirrors, prisms, or light tubes. This is called anidolic
lighting, from anidolic (non-image-forming) optics. The non-linear response of the human eye to light
means that spreading light to a broader area of a room makes the room appear brighter, and makes
more of it usefully lit.
Remote daylight distribution systems have losses, and the further they have to transmit the daylight
and the more convoluted the path, the greater the inefficiency. [17] The efficiency of many remote
distribution systems can also vary dramatically from clear to overcast skies. Nonetheless, where there
is no other possibility of providing daylight to a space, remote distribution systems can be
appreciated.[8]
Light reflectors and shelves
Light shelves

A light reflector

Once used extensively in office buildings, the manually adjustable light reflector is seldom in use
today having been supplanted by a combination of other methods in concert with artificial illumination.
The reflector had found favor where the choices of artificial light provided poor illumination compared
to modern electric lighting.
Light shelves are an effective way to enhance the lighting from windows on the equator-facing side of
a structure, this effect being obtained by placing a white or reflective metal light shelf outside the
window.[8] Usually the window will be protected from direct summer season sun by a projecting eave.
The light shelf projects beyond the shadow created by the eave and reflects sunlight upward to
illuminate the ceiling. This reflected light can contain little heat content and the reflective illumination
from the ceiling will typically reduce deep shadows, reducing the need for general illumination. [18]
In the cold winter, a natural light shelf is created when there is snow on the ground which makes it
reflective. Low winter sun (see Sun path) reflects off the snow and increases solar gain through
equator-facing glass by one- to two-thirds which brightly lights the ceiling of these rooms. Glare
control (drapes) may be required.
Prisms[edit]
Main article: Prism lighting
Daylight redirecting film bending light upwards
The oldest use of prisms for daylighting may well be deck prisms, let into the decks of ships to
transmit light below. Later, pavement lights or vault lights were used to light basement areas under
sidewalks.[19]
Prisms that used total internal reflection to throw light sideways, lighting the deeper portions of a
room, later became popular. Early thick, slow-cooling cast glass prism tiles were often known as
"luxfer tiles" after a major manufacturer. [19] They were and are used in the upper portions of windows,
and some believe that they contributed to the trend from dark, subdivided Victorian interiors to open-
plan, light-coloured ones.[
Daylight redirecting window film (DRF) is a thin plastic version of the old glass prism tiles. It can be
used as a substitute for opaque blinds.[20]

Light tubes
Left: Diagram of a light tube.
Right: Tubular daylighting devices harvest sunlight and transmit it through a highly reflective tube into
an interior space at the ceiling level.
Main article: Light tube
Another type of device used is the light tube, also called a tubular daylighting device (TDD), which is
placed into a roof and admits light to a focused area of the interior. These somewhat resemble
recessed ceiling light fixtures. They do not allow as much heat transfer as skylights because they
have less surface area.
TDDs use modern technology to transmit visible light through opaque walls and roofs. The tube itself
is a passive component consisting of either a simple reflective interior coating or a light conducting
fiber optic bundle. It is frequently capped with a transparent, roof-mounted dome "light collector" and
terminated with a diffuser assembly that admits the daylight into interior spaces and distributes the
available light energy evenly (or else efficiently if the use of the lit space is reasonably fixed, and the
user desired one or more "bright-spots").
The tubular daylighting device was invented by Solatube International in 1986 and brought to market
first in Australia in 1991.[dubious  –  discuss]
Active daylighting
Active daylighting is a system of collecting sunlight using a mechanical device to increase the
efficiency of light collection for a given lighting purpose. Active daylighting systems are different
from passive daylighting systems in that passive systems are stationary and do not actively follow or
track the sun.[21] There are two types of active daylighting control systems: closed loop solar tracking,
and open loop solar tracking systems.

 Closed loop systems track the sun by relying on a set of lens or sensors with a limited field of
view, directed at the sun, and are fully illuminated by sunlight at all times. As the sun moves, it
begins to shade one or more sensors, which the system detect and activates motors or actuators
to move the device back into a position where all sensors are once again equally illuminated. [22]
 Open loop systems track the sun without physically following the sun via sensors (although
sensors may be used for calibration). These systems typically employ electronic logic which
controls device motors or actuators to follow the sun based on a mathematical formula. This
formula is typically a pre-programmed sun path chart, detailing where the sun will be at a given
latitude and at a given date and time for each day.

Smart glass
Main article: Smart glass

Smart glass is the name given to a class of materials and devices that can be switched between a
transparent state and a state which is opaque, translucent, reflective, or retro-reflective. [23] The
switching is done by applying a voltage to the material, or by performing some simple mechanical
operation. Windows, skylights, etc., that are made of smart glass can be used to adjust indoor
lighting, compensating for changes of the brightness of the light outdoors and of the required
brightness indoors.[24]
Solar lighting

The reflecting mirror of a heliostat

A solar street light

Heliostats
The use of heliostats, mirrors which are moved automatically to reflect sunlight in a constant direction
as the sun moves across the sky, is gaining popularity as an energy-efficient method of lighting. A
heliostat can be used to shine sunlight directly through a window or skylight, or into any arrangement
of optical elements, such as light tubes, that distribute the light where it is needed. The image shows
a mirror that rotates on a computer-controlled, motor-driven altazimuth mount.

Solar street lights

Solar street lights raised light sources which are powered by photovoltaic panels generally mounted
on the lighting structure. The solar array of such off-grid PV system charges a rechargeable battery,
which powers a fluorescent or LED lamp during the night. Solar street lights are stand-alone power
systems, and have the advantage of savings on trenching, landscaping, and maintenance costs, as
well as on the electric bills, despite their higher initial cost compared to conventional street lighting.
They are designed with sufficiently large batteries to ensure operation for at least a week and even in
the worst situation, they are expected to dim only slightly.

HYBRID SOLAR LIGHTING

Main article: Hybrid solar lighting
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has developed a new alternative to skylights called hybrid
solar lighting. This design uses a roof-mounted light collector, large-diameter optical fiber, and
modified efficient fluorescent lighting fixtures that have transparent rods connected to the optical fiber
cables. Essentially no electricity is needed for daytime natural interior lighting.
Field tests conducted in 2006 and 2007 of the new HSL technology were promising, but the low-
volume equipment production is still expensive. HSL should become more cost effective in the near
future. A version that can withstand windstorms could begin to replace conventional commercial
fluorescent lighting systems with improved implementations in 2008 and beyond. The U.S. 2007
Energy Bill provides funding for HSL R&D, and multiple large commercial buildings are ready to fund
further HSL application development and deployment.
At night, ORNL HSL uses variable-intensity fluorescent lighting electronic control ballasts. As the
sunlight gradually decreases at sunset, the fluorescent fixture is gradually turned up to give a near-
constant level of interior lighting from daylight until after it becomes dark outside.
HSL may soon become an option for commercial interior lighting. It can transmit about half of the
direct sunlight it receives.[25]

Solarium
Main articles: Sunroom and Greenhouse
In a well-designed isolated solar gain building with a solarium, sunroom, greenhouse, etc., there is
usually significant glass on the equator side. A large area of glass can also be added between the
sun room and the interior living quarters. Low-cost, high-volume-produced patio door safety glass is
an inexpensive way to accomplish this goal.
The doors used to enter a room should be opposite the sun room interior glass, so that a user can
see outside immediately when entering most rooms. Halls should be minimized with open spaces
used instead. If a hall is necessary for privacy or room isolation, inexpensive patio door safety glass
can be placed on both sides of the hall. Drapes over the interior glass can be used to control lighting.
Drapes can optionally be automated with sensor-based electric motor controls that are aware of room
occupancy, daylight, interior temperature, and time of day. Passive solar buildings with no central air
conditioning system need control mechanisms for hourly, daily, and seasonal, temperature-and-
daylight variations. If the temperature is correct, and a room is unoccupied, the drapes can
automatically close to reduce heat transfer in either direction.
To help distribute sun room daylight to the sides of rooms that are farthest from the equator,
inexpensive ceiling-to-floor mirrors can be used.
Building codes require a second means of egress, in case of fire. Most designers use a door on one
side of bedrooms, and an outside window, but west-side windows provide very-poor summer thermal
performance. Instead of a west-facing window, designers use an R-13 foam-filled solid energy-
efficient exterior door. It may have a glass storm door on the outside so that light can pass through
when the inner door is opened. East/west glass doors and windows should be fully shaded top-to-
bottom or a spectrally selective coating can be used to reduce solar gain.

Design
Architects and interior designers often use daylighting as a design element. Good daylighting requires
attention to both qualitative and quantitative aspects of design. [8]

Qualitative
Utilizing natural light is one of the design aspects in architecture; In 1929, the French architect, Le
Corbusier said that "The history of architectural material... has been the endless struggle for light... in
other words, the history of windows." As he emphasized in his architecture (such as Notre Dame du
Haut), daylighting has been a major architectural design element (See MIT Chapel and Church of the
Light for examples). Not only the aesthetic aspects, the impact of daylighting on human health and
work performance is also considered as qualitative daylighting. [26] The current studies show that
lighting conditions in workplaces contribute to a variety of factors related to work satisfaction,
productivity and well-being and significantly higher visual acceptance scores under daylighting than
electrical lighting.[27] Studies have also shown that light has a direct effect on human health because
of the way it influences the circadian rhythms.[28]
Quantitative
A well daylit space needs both adequate lighting levels and light that is well distributed. In the current
building industry, daylighting is considered a building performance measure in green building
certification programs such as LEED. Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) and the society of Light
and Lighting (SLL) provide illuminance recommendation for each space type. How much daylighting
contributes to the recommended lighting level determines daylighting performance of a building.
There are two metrics that IES has approved to evaluate daylighting performance: Spatial Daylight
Autonomy(sDA) and Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE). sDA is a metric describing annual sufficiency
of ambient daylight levels in interior environments. [29] See Daylight autonomy and LEED
documentation sections for more details.

Evaluation method
Field measurements
In existing buildings, field measurements can be undertaken to evaluate daylighting
performance. Illuminance measurements on a grid is a basic level to derive an average illuminance of
a space. The spacing of the measurement points vary with project purposes. The height of these
points depends on where the primary task is performed. In most office spaces, desk level (0.762m
above the floor) will be measured. Based on measurements, average illuminance, maximum-to-
minimum uniformity ratio, and average-to-minimum uniformity ratio will be calculated and compared
to the recommended lighting level.[30] A diagnostic survey specific to lighting can be conducted to
analyse the satisfaction of building occupants. [30]
Computational simulations
Computational simulations can predict daylighting condition of a space much faster and more detailed
than hand calculations or scale model testing. The simulations allow for the effects of climate with
hourly weather data from typical meteorological year. Computer models are available which can
predict variations in internally reflected light. Radiosity and ray-tracing are methods can deal with
complex geometry, allow complex sky distributions and potentially produce photorealistic images.
Radiosity methods assume all surfaces are perfectly diffusing to reduce computational times. Ray-
tracing techniques have accuracy and image rendering capacity. [6]

Autonomy
Daylight autonomy is the percentage of time that daylight levels are above a specified
target illuminance within a physical space or building.[31] The calculation is based on annual data and
the predetermined lighting levels. The goal of the calculation is to determine how long an individual
can work in a space without requiring electrical lighting, while also providing optimal visual and
physical comfort.[31]
Daylight autonomy is beneficial when determining how daylight enters and illuminates a space. The
drawback, however, is that there is no upper limit on luminance levels. Therefore, a space with a high
internal heat gain deemed uncomfortable by occupants, would still perform well in the analysis.
Achieving daylight autonomy requires an integrated design approach that guides the building form,
siting, climate considerations, building components, lighting controls, and lighting design criteria.
Continuous
Continuous daylight autonomy, is similar to daylight autonomy but partial credit is attributed to time
steps when the daylight illuminance lies below the minimum illuminance level. [32] For example, if the
target illuminance is 400 lux and the calculated value is 200 lux, daylight autonomy would give zero
credit, while continuous daylight autonomy would give 0.5 credit (200/400 = 0.5). The benefit of
continuous daylight autonomy is that it does not give a hard threshold of acceptable illuminance.
Instead, it addresses the transition area—allowing for realistic preferences within any given space.
For example, office occupants usually prefer to work at daylight below the illuminance threshold since
this level avoids potential glare and excessive contrast.[32]
Useful illuminance
Useful daylight illuminance focuses on the direct sunlight that falls into a space. The useful daylight
illuminance calculation is based on three factors—the percentage of time a point is below, between,
or above an illuminance value. The range for these factors is typically 100-2,000 lux. Useful daylight
illuminance is similar to daylight autonomy but has the added benefit of addressing glare and thermal
discomfort.[33] The upper threshold is used to determine when glare or thermal discomfort is occurring
and may need resolution.

LEED documentation
The LEED 2009 daylighting standards were intended to connect building occupants with the outdoors
through use of optimal daylighting techniques and technologies. According to these standards, the
maximum value of 1 point can be achieved through four different approaches. The first approach is a
computer simulation to demonstrate, in clear sky conditions, the daylight illuminance levels 108-5,400
lux on, September 21 between 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. Another prescriptive approach is a method
that uses two types of side-lighting, and three types of top-lighting to determine if a minimum of 75%
daylighting is achieved in the occupied spaces. A third approach uses indoor light measurements
showing that between 108-5,400 lux have been achieved in the space. The last approach is a
combination of the other three calculation methods to prove that the daylight illumination
requirements are achieved.[34]
The LEED 2009 documentation is based upon the daylight factor calculation. The daylight factor
calculation is based on uniform overcast skies. It is most applicable in Northern Europe and parts
of North America.[35] Daylight factor is “the ratio of the illuminance at a point on a plane, generally the
horizontal work plane, produced by the luminous flux received directly or indirectly at that point from a
sky whose luminance distribution is known, to the illuminance on a horizontal plane produced by an
unobstructed hemisphere of this same sky."[35]
LEED v4 daylighting standards are the most current as of 2014. The new standards are similar to the
old standards, but also intend to “reinforce circadian rhythms, and reduce the use of electrical lighting
by introducing daylight in the space.[36] Two options exist for achieving the maximum value of these
two most recent points. One option is to use a computer simulation to demonstrate that a spatial
daylight autonomy of 300 lux for at least 50% of the time, and an annual sunlight exposure of 1,000
lux for 250 occupied hours per year, exists in the space. Another option is to show that illuminance
levels are between 300 lux and 3,000 lux between 9:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. on a clear day at the
equinox for 75% or 90% of the floor area in the space. [36] The overall goal of the LEED v4 daylighting
metrics is to analyze both the quantity and quality of the light, as well as to balance the use of glazing
to ensure more light and less cooling load.