Mining and Estimating Production Off-the-Job

Earthmoving ● Grade Resistance

● Total Resistance
● Traction

Grade Resistance is a measure of the force that must Total resistance can also be represented as consisting
be overcome to move a machine over unfavorable grades completely of grade resistance expressed in percent
(uphill). Grade assistance is a measure of the force that grade. In other words, the rolling resistance component
assists machine movement on favorable grades (downhill). is viewed as a corresponding quantity of additional
Grades are generally measured in percent slope, which adverse grade resistance. Using this approach, total
is the ratio between vertical rise or fall and the horizontal resistance can then be considered in terms of percent
distance in which the rise or fall occurs. For example, a grade.
1% grade is equivalent to a 1 m (ft) rise or fall for every This can be done by converting the contribution of
100 m (ft) of horizontal distance; a rise of 4.6 m (15 ft) rolling resistance into a corresponding percentage of
in 53.3 m (175 ft) equals an 8.6% grade. grade resistance. Since 1% of adverse grade offers a
4.6 m (rise) resistance of 10 kg (20 lb) for each metric or (U.S.) ton
= 8.6% grade of machine weight, then each 10 kg (20 lb) of resistance
53.3 m (horizontal distance) per ton of machine weight can be represented as an
15 ft (rise) additional 1% of adverse grade. Rolling resistance in
= 8.6% grade percent grade and grade resistance in percent grade can
175 ft (horizontal distance)
then be summed to give Total Resistance in percent or
Uphill grades are normally referred to as adverse Effective Grade. The following formulas are useful in
grades and downhill grades as favorable grades. Grade arriving at Effective Grade.
resistance is usually expressed as a positive (+) percent-
Rolling Resistance (%) = 2% + 0.6% per cm tire
age and grade assistance is expressed as a negative (–)
penetration
percentage. = 2% + 1.5% per inch tire
It has been found that for each 1% increment of penetration
adverse grade an additional 10 kg (20 lb) of resistance Grade Resistance (%) = % grade
must be overcome for each metric (U.S.) ton of machine Effective Grade (%) = RR (%) + GR (%)
weight. This relationship is the basis for determining
the Grade Resistance Factor which is expressed in kg/ Effective grade is a useful concept when working with
metric ton (lb/U.S. ton): Rimpull-Speed-Gradeability curves, Retarder curves,
Brake Performance curves, and Travel Time curves.
Grade Resistance Factor = 10 kg/m ton × % grade Traction — is the driving force developed by a wheel
= 20 lb/U.S. ton × % grade or track as it acts upon a surface. It is expressed as usable
Grade resistance (assistance) is then obtained by mul- Drawbar Pull or Rimpull. The following factors affect
tiplying the Grade Resistance Factor by the machine traction: weight on the driving wheel or tracks, gripping
weight (GMW) in metric (U.S.) tons. action of the wheel or track, and ground conditions.
Grade Resistance = GR Factor × GMW in metric The coefficient of traction (for any roadway) is the ratio
(U.S.) tons of the maximum pull developed by the machine to the
total weight on the drivers.
Grade resistance may also be calculated using per-
centage of gross weight. This method is based on the Pull
relationship that grade resistance is approximately equal Coeff. of traction =
weight on drivers
to 1% of the gross machine weight for 1% of grade.
Therefore, to find the usable pull for a given machine:
Grade Resistance = 1% of GMW × % grade
Usable pull = Coeff. of traction × weight on drivers
Grade resistance (assistance) affects both wheel and
track-type machines. Example: Track-Type Tractor
Total Resistance is the combined effect of rolling What usable drawbar pull (DBP) can a 26 800 kg
resistance (wheel vehicles) and grade resistance. It can (59,100 lb) Track-type Tractor exert while working on
be computed by summing the values of rolling resistance firm earth? on loose earth? (See table section for
and grade resistance to give a resistance in kilogram coefficient of traction.)
(pounds) force.
Total Resistance = Rolling Resistance +
Grade Resistance

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 Estimating Production Off-the-Job Mining and
● Altitude Earthmoving

Answer: The horsepower deration due to altitude must be

Firm earth — Usable DBP = considered in any job estimating. The amount of power
0.90 × 26 800 kg = 24 120 kg deration will be reflected in the machine’s gradeability
(0.90 × 59,100 lb = 53,190 lb) and in the load, travel, and dump and load times (unless
Loose earth — Usable DBP = loading is independent of the machine itself). Altitude
0.60 × 26 800 kg = 16 080 kg may also reduce retarding performance. Consult a Cat
(0.60 × 59,100 lb = 35,460 lb) representative to determine if deration is applicable.
If a load required 21 800 kg (48,000 lb) pull to move Fuel grade (heat content) can have a similar effect of
it, this tractor could move the load on firm earth. derating engine performance.
However, if the earth were loose, the tracks would spin. The example job problem that follows indicates one
method of accounting for altitude deration: by increas-
NOTE: D8R through D11R Tractors may attain higher ing the appropriate components of the total cycle time
coefficients of traction due to their suspended by a percentage equal to the percent of horsepower
undercarriage. deration due to altitude. (i.e., if the travel time of a
Example: Wheel Tractor-Scraper hauling unit is determined to be 1.00 minute at full HP,
the time for the same machine derated to 90% of full HP
What usable rimpull can a 621F size machine exert will be 1.10 min.) This is an approximate method that
while working on firm earth? on loose earth? The total yields reasonably accurate estimates up to 3000 m
loaded weight distribution of this unit is: (10,000 feet) elevation.
Drive unit Scraper unit Travel time for hauling units derated more than 10%
wheels: 23 600 kg wheels: 21 800 kg should be calculated as follows using Rimpull-Speed-
(52,000 lb) (48,000 lb) Gradeability charts.
1) Determine total resistance (grade plus rolling) in
Remember, use weight on drivers only.
percent.
Answer:
GROSS MACHINE WEIGHT (GMW)
Firm earth — 0.55 × 23 600 kg = 12 980 kg EMPTY LOADED 28
(0.55 × 52,000 lb = 28,600 lb)
Loose earth — 0.45 × 23 600 kg = 10 620 kg
(0.45 × 52,000 lb = 23,400 lb)

TOTAL RESISTANCE
On firm earth this unit can exert up to 12 980 kg
(28,600 lb) rimpull without excessive slipping. How-
RIMPULL

ever, on loose earth the drivers would slip if more than

10 620 kg (23,400 lb) rimpull were developed.
● ● ●

Altitude — Specification sheets show how much pull

a machine can produce for a given gear and speed
when the engine is operating at rated horsepower.
SPEED
When a standard machine is operated in high altitudes,
the engine may require derating to maintain normal
2) Beginning at point A on the chart follow the total
engine life. This engine deration will produce less
resistance line diagonally to its intersection, B, with the
drawbar pull or rimpull.
vertical line corresponding to the appropriate gross
The Tables Section gives the altitude deration in
machine weight. (Rated loaded and empty GMW lines
percent of flywheel horsepower for current machines. It
are shown dotted.)
should be noted that some turbocharged engines can
3) Using a straight-edge, establish a horizontal line
operate up to 4570 m (15,000 ft) before they require
to the left from point B to point C on the rim-pull scale.
derating. Most machines are engineered to operate up
4) Divide the value of point C as read on the rim-
to 1500-2290 m (5000-7500 ft) before they require
pull scale by the percent of total horsepower available
deration.
after altitude deration from the Tables Section. This
yields rimpull value D higher than point C.

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 Mining and Estimating Production Off-the-Job
Earthmoving ● Job Efficiency
● Example Problem (English)

5) Establish a horizontal line right from point D. Job Efficiency is one of the most complex elements
The farthest right intersection of this line with a curved of estimating production since it is influenced by fac-
speed range line is point E. tors such as operator skill, minor repairs and adjustments,
6) A vertical line down from point E determines personnel delays, and delays caused by job layout. An
point F on the speed scale. approximation of efficiency, if no job data is available,
7) Multiply speed in kmh by 16.7 (mph by 88) to is given below.
obtain speed in m/min (ft/min). Travel time in minutes Efficiency
for a given distance in feet is determined by the formula: Operation Working Hour Factor
Distance in m (ft) Day 50 min/hr 0.83
Time (min) = Night 45 min/hr 0.75
Speed in m/min (ft/min)
The Travel Time Graphs in sections on Wheel These factors do not account for delays due to weather
Tractor-Scrapers and Construction & Mining Trucks or machine downtime for maintenance and repairs.
can be used as an alternative method of calculating You must account for such factors based on experience
haul and/or return times. and local conditions.
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

The following example provides a method to manually 1. Estimate Payload:

estimate production and cost. Today, computer pro- Est. load (LCY) × L.F. × Bank Density = payload
grams, such as Caterpillar’s Fleet Production and Cost 31 LCY × 0.80 × 3000 lb/BCY = 74,400 lb payload
Analysis (FPC), provide a much faster and more accurate 2. Establish Machine Weight:
means to obtain those application results. Empty Wt. — 102,460 lb or 51.27 tons
Wt. of Load — 74,400 lb or 37.2 tons
Example problem (English)
Total (GMW) — 176,860 lb or 88.4 tons
A contractor is planning to put the following spread on 3. Calculate Usable Pull (traction limitation):
a dam job. What is the estimated production? Loaded: (weight on driving wheels = 54%) (GMW)
Equipment: Traction Factor × Wt. on driving wheels =
11 — 631G Wheel Tractor-Scrapers 0.50 × 176,860 lb × 54% = 47,628 lb
2 — D9T Tractors with C-dozers Empty: (weight on driving wheels = 69%) (GMW)
2 — 12H Motor Graders Traction Factor × Wt. on driving wheels =
1 — 825G Tamping Foot Compactor 0.50 × 102,460 lb × 69% = 35,394 lb
4. Derate for Altitude:
Material: Check power available at 7500 ft from altitude dera-
Description — Sandy clay; damp, natural bed tion table in the Tables Section.
Bank Density — 3000 lb/BCY 631G — 100% 12H — 83%
Load Factor — 0.80 D9T — 100% 825G —100%
Shrinkage Factor — 0.85
Traction Factor — 0.50
Altitude — 7500 ft
0% Grade
Job Layout — Haul and Return:
rade
4% G
0% Grade 0% Grade ' Sec. D — Fill 400'
10 0 0
— Haul RR = 200 lb/ton
. C n
Sec /to Eff. Grade = 10%
Sec. A — Cut 400' Sec. B — Haul 1500' 80 lb
RR = 200 lb/ton RR = 80 lb/ton RR = rade = 8%
Eff. G
Eff. Grade = 10% Eff. Grade = 4%

Total Effective Grade = RR (%) ± GR (%)

Sec. A: Total Effective Grade = 10% + 0% = 10%
Sec. B: Total Effective Grade = 4% + 0% = 4%
Sec. C: Total Effective Grade = 4% + 4% = 8%
Sec. D: Total Effective Grade = 10% + 0% = 10%

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 Estimating Production Off-the-Job Mining and
● Example Problem (English) Earthmoving

Then adjust if necessary: 6. Compare Total Resistance to Tractive Effort on return:

Load Time — controlled by D9T, at 100% power, no Grade Assistance —
change. GA = 20 lb/ton × tons × negative grade in percent
Travel, Maneuver and Spread time — 631G, no change. Sec. C: = 20 lb/ton × 51.2 tons × 4% grade =
5. Compare Total Resistance to Tractive Effort on haul: 4096 lb
Grade Resistance — Rolling Resistance —
GR = lb/ton × tons × adverse grade in percent RR = RR Factor × Empty Wt (tons)
Sec. C: = 20 lb/ton × 88.4 tons × 4% grade = Sec. D: = 200 lb/ton × 51.2 tons = 10,240 lb
7072 lb Sec. C: = 80 lb/ton × 51.2 tons = 1,4091 lb
Rolling Resistance — Sec. B: = 80 lb/ton × 51.2 tons = 1,4091 lb
RR = RR Factor (lb/ton) × GMW (tons) Sec. A: = 200 lb/ton × 51.2 tons = 10,240 lb
Sec. A: = 200 lb/ton × 88.4 tons = 17,686 lb Total Resistance —
Sec. B: = 80 lb/ton × 88.4 tons = 1,7072 lb TR = RR – GA
Sec. C: = 80 lb/ton × 88.4 tons = 1,7072 lb Sec. D: = 10,240 lb – 0 = 10,240 lb
Sec. D: = 200 lb/ton × 88.4 tons = 17,686 lb Sec. C: = 4096 lb – 4096 lb = 0
Total Resistance — Sec. B: = 4096 lb – 0 = 1,4096 lb
TR = RR + GR Sec. A: = 10,240 lb – 0 = 10,240 lb
Sec. A: = 17,686 lb + 0 = 17,686 lb Check usable pounds pull against maximum pounds
Sec. B: = ,7072 lb + 0 = 1,7072 lb pull required to move the 631G.
Sec. C: = ,7072 lb + 6496 lb = 14,144 lb Pounds pull usable … 35,349 lb empty
Sec. D: = 17,686 lb + 0 = 17,686 lb Pounds pull required … 10,240 lb
Check usable pounds pull against maximum pounds Estimate travel time for return from 631G empty
pull required to move the 631G. travel time curve.
Pull usable … 47,628 lb loaded Travel time (from curves): 28
Pull required … 17,686 lb maximum total resistance Sec. A: 0.40 min
Estimate travel time for haul from 631G (loaded) Sec. B: 0.55
travel time curve; read travel time from distance and Sec. C: 0.80
effective grade. Sec. D: 0.40
Travel time (from curves): 2.15 min
Sec. A: 0.60 min 7. Estimate Cycle Time:
Sec. B: 1.00 Total Travel Time (Haul plus Return) = 5.55 min
Sec. C: 1.20 Adjusted for altitude: 100% × 5.55 min = 5.55 min
Sec. D: 0.60 Load Time 0.7 min
3.40 min Maneuver and Spread Time 0.7 min
NOTE: This is an estimate only; it does not account for Total Cycle Time 6.95 min
all the acceleration and deceleration time, therefore
it is not as accurate as the information obtained
from a computer program.

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