DISCRETIONARY POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

UNDER THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Mrinal Satish*

Traditionally, the structure of government has been divided into three

components: (1) the legislature to make laws; (2) the executive to implement laws
and (3) the judiciary to interpret laws and administer justice. The Central Executive
in India consists of the President and the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime
Minister. The executive power of the Union is vested in the President) He is not
elected directly by the people, but by an electoral college consisting of the elected
members of both Houses of Parliament and the State Legislative Assemblies.2 A
candidate for the President's office should be a citizen of India of at least thirty
five years of age, qualified for election to the House of People and should not hold
any office of profit under the Government of India or a state government or under
any local authority.3 Before assuming office, the President takes an oath whereby
he vows to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law.4 He can be
impeached for violation of the Constitution.'
To analyse the position and powers of the President of India, one needs to
analyse the model of government that we have. Most authors are of the view that
we have a parliamentary form of government. Some go the extent of saying that
we have a system akin to the British, with the President being equivalent to the
British Crown, i.e., he is merely a Constitutional Head and has absolutely no powers
of his own. 6 It would be pertinent to examine the forms of government in Britain
and the United States of America to determine the system of government that the
Indian Constitution envisages.
In Britain, the Crown is the supreme authority in whose name all executive
action is taken. The Crown is bound by tradition and convention. The monarch
can do no wrong and hence, cannot be impeached. Munshi says that the British
Monarch is the apex of the social system and quotes Finer, who says that the
Crown is a natural fact.7 Over the years, Parliament has become supreme and the

* IV Year, B.A., LL.B. (Hons.), National Law School of India University, Bangalore.
I Article 53(1), Constitution of India.
2 Article 54, Constitution of India.
3 Article 58, Constitution of India.
4 Article 60, Constitution of India.
5 Article 61, Constitution of India.
6 M. P. Jain, Indian ConstitutionalLaw, 94 (1994).
7 K. M. Munshi, The Presidentunder the Indian Constitution, 13 (1963).
50 The Student Advocate [ 2000

Crown has been reduced to a rubber stamp. It is said, ultimately, that England
follows a Cabinet form of Government.
In the United States, the presidential form of government is followed. There
the President is both the de jure as well as the de facto head. He is vested with a
great deal of discretionary power and is not bound by the advice given by his
Secretaries.
When we talk about "power", we need to comprehend what the term actually
means. Power in a general sense could mean strength or authority. Being vested
with a power carries with it the implied authority to determine the occasions that
call for the exercise of that power as well as the manner in which it shall be exercised.
This should be contrasted with the term " function". A function is a duty orjob. To
perform a function, one is generally dependent on another, who exercises his power
in asking one to do a certain job. Thus, a crude distinction between the terms
power andfunction can be drawn. It is necessary to understand the implications of
these terms to interpret various Articles of the Constitution that refer to the powers
of the President of India and to examine the manner in which they have been
interpreted by the Courts.
The Powers of the President
An overview of the powers of the President, if any, has to begin with the
judicial interpretation on this issue. The words "if any" have been used here since
the Supreme Court has concluded in numerous judgments, that the President of
India is a powerless entity.
In Ram Jawaya Kapur v. State ofPunjab*, the Supreme Court held that the
Indian Constitution had adopted the English system of a parliamentary executive
and that the real power lay with the "Cabinet". The Court in U. N. R. Rao v. Indira
Gandhi', ruled that the conventions in England governing the relationship between
the Crown and the Council of Ministers were pertinent to the Indian Constitution
as well, and that the exercise of powers under the Indian Constitution should be
read in the light of those conventions. The powers of the President were further
curtailed by the Court in R. C. Cooper v. Union of India"o, where it held that the
President is merely a Constitutional Head and has to work only on the advice of
the Council of Ministers. In Samsher Singh v.. State of Punjabu, Krishna lyer, J.,
went to the extent of saying that in India, where both the parliamentary and cabinet
forms of government have been adopted, the President for all practical purposes
8 AIR 1955 SC 549.
9 AIR 1971 SC 1002.
10 AIR 1970 SC 564.
11 AIR 1974 SC 2192, 2226.
Vol. 12] DiscretionaryPowers of the President under the Indian Constitution 51

means the Council of Ministers. Thus, the judiciary has consistently held that the
President, in practice, has no powers at all. All these decisions subscribe to that
school of thought which argues that the position of the Indian President is analogous
to that of the British Monarch. He is only a titular or Constitutional Head of State,
with real power being exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of
Ministers.' 2
There is a contrary view which says that the President being bound by oath
to defend the Constitution and being the Head of the executive, has all the powers
that are given to him by the Constitution, in the exercise of which he can use his
discretion.
Before attempting to determine which of the above views is correct, it is
necessary to differentiate between the powers and functions of the President. The
distinction between powers and functions in general usage has been made earlier.
In a very simplistic sense, the President is granted the power to do something
when he is required to apply his mind before taking a decision. He has the authority
to assent or dissent. In other words, provisions of the Constitution which require
the President to use his discretion, can be said to lay down presidential powers.
Functions of the President, on the other hand, can be said to be those duties that
have been imposed on him in order to serve as a check on the powers of the
Council of Ministers and the other two branches of government. When performing
his duties, the President merely acts like a screening mechanism.
The provisions of the Constitution that can be regarded as conferring powers
on the President are Articles 53, 72, 76, 85, 86, 108, 111, 123, 124(2), 124(3), 127,
128, 143, 148, 240, 263, 304, 352, 354, 356, 359, 360 and 366(22). The exercise
of power under these provisions carries a strong element of discretion. Some
provisions such as Articles 103, 118(3) and 258 can be considered to confer powers
in one sense and impose duties in another. Articles 87, 112, 115 and 124(4) may be
considered purely functions of the President.
The question that arises in this context is whether all these powers are in
reality those of the President. Does the President have to heed the advice of the
Council of Ministers while exercising these powers?
The Doctrine of Aid and Advice: A Study of Article 74
Article 74(1) reads thus: "There shall be a Council of Ministers with the
Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise
of his functions, act in accordance with such advice."
12 K. V. Kuriakose, "The President of India: Status and Position", 14 Indian Bar Review 238
(1987).
 52 The Student Advocate [2000

If literally interpreted, it is very clear that the Council of Ministers has to

advise the President only in the exercise of his functions, in which case he has to
act in accordance with such advice. By implication, the President can act on his
own in the exercise of his powers. However, this has not been put into practice.
Previous Presidents have rarely exercised the powers given to them by the
Constitution. In fact, former President R. Venkataraman states in his book, that the
President is not an appellate or supervisory authority over the Prime Minister and
that it is his duty to act as per the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers,
provided it is not violative of the Constitution. 3
Article 74 has been interpreted in an absurd manner by various authors as
well. For instance, M. P. Jain says that it was widely recognised even before the
amendment to Article 74 in 197614, that under the "cabinet" form of government
followed in India, the President had to act as per the instructions given to him by
the Council of Ministers. This sort of understanding has emerged because of the
manner in which the judiciary has been interpreting Article 74.
In Ram JawayaKapur 5 and SamsherSingh' , the Supreme Court held that
since India follows the "cabinet system" as in England, it would be legitimate to
refer to British conventions when interpreting Articles 74 and 75. The Court in U.
N. R. Rao" ruled that Article 74(1) is mandatory and therefore, the President
cannot exercise executive power without the aid and advice of the Council of
Ministers. The Court went on to say that any exercise of executive power without
such aid and advice would be unconstitutional in view of Article 53(1). This view
was reiterated in Samsher Singh.
Two issues are worthy of note here. Firstly, all these decisions pre-date the
1976 amendment to Article 74. Hence, at the time, Article 74 actually read: "There
shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head, to aid and
advise the President in the exercise of his functions." There appears to be no logical
reason why the court had to interpret this to mean that such advice would be binding
on the President. The Court relied on British conventions to reach this absurd
conclusion. Ironically, it was in the English case of Adegbenre v. Akintolan, that
the Golden Rule of interpretation was stated as follows: "It is in the end the wording

13 See generally, R. Venkataraman, My PresidentialYears, (1994).

14 Prior to 1976, Article 74 read thus: "There shall be a Council of Ministers
with the Prime
Minister at the head, to aid and advise the President in the exercise of his functions."
15 AIR 1955 SC 549.
16 AIR 1974 SC 2192.
17 AIR 1971 SC 1002.
18 [1963] 3 All E.R. 544.
Vol. 12] DiscretionaryPowers of the President under the Indian Constitution 53

of the Constitution itself that is to be interpreted and applied and this wording can
never be overridden by extraneous principles of other Constitutions, which are not
explicitly incorporated in the formulae that have been chosen as the frame of the
Constitution." Hence, the cases discussed above do not seem to rest on a logical
foundation.
Secondly, the Court seems to have used the words power and function
interchangeably. Article 74 clearly uses the term "functions" and since the
Constitution makes a clear distinction between powers and functions, they cannot
be used interchangeably.
The theoretical position, therefore, is that the President can take the aid and
advice of the Council of Ministers in the exercise of his functions and in such
cases, following the 1976 amendment, the advice shall be binding upon him.
However, the amendment has not changed the fact that the President has total
discretion in the exercise of his powers.
The Presidential Power of Pardon
The President is empowered to grant pardon, reprieve, respite or remission
of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted
of any offence in all cases where punishment is by a court martial, where the
punishment is for an offence against a law relating to a matter to which the executive
power of the Union extends, or where the sentence imposed is one of death, by
virtue of Article 72. It is to be noted that Article 72 expressly uses the term power.
Hence, theoretically, Article 74 should not apply to this provision. The President's
power of pardon is a discretionary power to be exercised alone.
Not surprisingly, practice indicates otherwise. The issue of whether Article
72 is a discretionary power of the President arose in Maru Ram v. Union ofIndia'9 .
In this case, the Court held that the power under Article 72 was to be exercised on
the aid and advice of the "Central Government" and not by the President on his
own and that the advice of the "government" would be binding on the President.
Justice Krishna Iyer went on to say that the Presidentis but a functional euphemism,
promptly acting on and only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
The issue arose again in Kehar Singh v. Union of India 0 . In this case, the
Supreme Court reiterated its decision in Maru Ram and held that in using his
power under Article 72, the President has to take the advice of the Council of
Ministers and is bound by such advice. However subsequently in the judgment",

19 AIR 1980 SC 2147.

20 1989 Cri. L.J. 941.
21 Ibid. at p.946.
54 The Student Advocate [2000

the Court expressed the view that it is open to the President in the exercise of the
power vested in him by Article 72, to scrutinise the evidence on record of the
criminal case and come to a different conclusion from that reached by the Court in
regard to the conviction and sentence of the accused. The case contains a clear
contradiction because if the President can take an independent decision on the
basis of the evidence placed before him, it cannot be said that he is bound by the
advice of the Council of Ministers. The Supreme Court's verdict did little to dispel
the existing confusion on where the power of pardon really lay. When Kehar Singh's
mercy petition was submitted to President Venkataraman, he referred the matter to
the Home Ministry. He was of the opinion that he was bound to accept the advice
of the Council of Ministers. Indeed, he observes in his book that despite the Supreme
Court giving him discretion in Kehar Singh, he believed that it was for the
Government to decide the matter and render advice to him.22 It is precisely because
of such an attitude that the position of the President has been reduced to that of a
mere rubber stamp.
In comparison, the President of the United States of America has the power
to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in
cases of impeachment. The power of the President is not subject to the control of
Congress. It cannot limit the effect of a pardon nor exclude from its operations any
class of offenders. The power to pardon includes the power to reduce or commute
a sentence, but not to substitute one of a different nature.23 Thus, the President has
the exclusive power to grant pardon at his discretion. A similar model seems to
have been incorporated in the Indian Constitution, although the courts have
repeatedly followed British practice.
Assent to Bills - President's Powers under Article 111
Article 111 provides that "When a Bill has been passed by the Houses of
Parliament,it shall be presented to the President, and the President shall declare
either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds assent therefrom." The proviso
allows the President to send a Bill back to the Houses for reconsideration, but
obliges him to sign it after it has been reconsidered. Does this provision confer
discretionary power on the President or must it also pass through the filter of
Article 74?
The provision requires the President to decide whether to give assent to a
Bill or to withhold such assent or refer it back to Parliament for reconsideration. If
read through the filter of Article 74 this provision would be unnecessary, because
22 Supra., n. 13 at p. 248.
23 Thomas M. Cooley, The General Principles of Constitutional
Law in the United States ofAmerica,
C
142-143 (1994).
Vol. 12] DiscretionaryPowers of the President under the Indian Constitution 55

even if Parliament passed an unconstitutional law, the Council of Ministers could

advise the President to give his assent and the President (as has been the practice
over the years) would comply, despite the consequent violation of Article 60. Who,
then, would preserve, protect and defend the Constitution?
No case has arisen as yet on the interpretation of this article. There have
been rare instances when the President has refused to give his assent to Bills. The
first President, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, raised a dissenting voice when on 18 September
1951, he informed Prime Minister Nehru of his intention to act independently on
the issue of assenting to the Hindu Code Bill. 24 However, legal experts such as M.
C. Setalvad assured Nehru that the President was not constitutionally empowered
to do this. What Dr. Rajendra Prasad would have done if the Bill were passed can
only be a point of speculation, since the Bill was shelved. If he had acted according
to his discretion, he might have provided the necessary impetus for a constitutional
exercise of Presidential powers.
The American Constitution provides that a Bill, other than a Tax Bill, may
originate in either house. If a Bill is passed in the House of Representatives by a
majority vote, it goes to the Senate, where it must secure a majority vote to be sent
to the President for his assent. The President may sign the Bill and make it law. He
may veto it and return it with objections to the House in which it originated. If it is
sent to the House of Representatives, it has to obtain a two-thirds majority to be
sent to the Senate. If it secures a two-thirds majority in the Senate, it becomes law
without the President's assent. This is called overriding the President's veto. If it
fails to pass either House, it cannot become law. This is called sustaining the
President's veto. In such a case, it could be reintroduced in the very next session
of Congress. If the President neither signs nor vetoes a Bill within ten days, it
becomes law. If Congress adjourns within those ten days, however, the Bill does
not become law, but is automatically vetoed. This is called the pocket veto.26
When the power of the Indian President to assent or withhold assent to bills
is compared with the American President's power of veto, it is evident that the
Indian President has more power than his American counterpart, but has never
exercised it. The American President, except in the case of the pocket veto, cannot
withhold assent to Bills, whereas the Indian President can do so under Article 111.
Hence, it can be inferred that the framers of the Constitution vested the President
with greater powers than the American President, which he is expected to exercise
at his discretion.

24 Supra., n. 12 at p. 246.
25 Floyd G. Cullop, The Constitution of the UnitedStates, 36-37 (1984).
26 Ibid.
56 The Student Advocate [2000

The Power to Issue Ordinances

The President has the power to promulgate ordinances when both Houses
of Parliament are not in session. These remain in force until 6 weeks after both
Houses have been reconvened, unless both Houses pass resolutions disapproving
of them before that time. This power permits the executive to deal with emergency
situations arising when Parliament is not in session. Article 123 confers the power
to promulgate ordinances on the President, subject to two conditions. Firstly, both
Houses of Parliament should not be in session and secondly, the President must be
"satisfied" that a situation exists which warrants the issuing of an ordinance.
A literal interpretation of Article 123(1) makes it clear that the promulgation
of an ordinance is a discretionary power of the President. This is obvious because
of the use of the word "satisfied". Hence, in theory, the President need not take the
aid and advice of the Council of Ministers in the course of issuing ordinances.
As is to be expected, judicial interpretation has been to the contrary. In R. C
Cooper v. Union of India", the Supreme Court ruled that the President has to act
in all matters, including the promulgation of an ordinance, on the advice of the
Council of Ministers. The Court speaking through Justice Shah said that although
in a constitutional sense an ordinance is promulgated on the satisfaction of the
President, in truth, it is promulgated on the advice of the Council of Ministers and
upon their satisfaction. The Court therefore implied that the promulgation of
ordinances was a function of the President. This position was reiterated in Venkata
v. State of Andhra Pradesh8 .
However, in Sardari Lal v. Union of India29 , the Supreme Court speaking
through Justice Grover held that in all places in the Constitution where the term
satisfaction is used, it refers to the personal satisfaction of the President on the
basis of the material placed before him. This was overruled in Samsher Singh",
where the Court held that satisfaction of the President was not his personal
satisfaction, as also held in JayantilalShodhan v. EN.Rana31 , but the satisfaction
of the Council of Ministers. Hence, Samsher Singh effectively ruled that the
President had no discretion in the exercise of his powers under Article 123.

27 AIR 1970 SC 564.

28 AIR 1985 SC 724.
29 AIR 1971 SC 1547.
30 AIR 1974 SC 2192.
31 AIR 1964 SC 648.
Vol. 12] DiscretionaryPowers of the President under the Indian Constitution 57

In recent years, however, the President has used his discretion and refused
to promulgate ordinances as advised by the Council of Ministers. This realisation
of the nature of the power conferred by Article 123 is a welcome development.
The Discretionary Power of the President with respect to Emergency
Provisions
The emergency provisions undoubtedly require checks and balances in their
exercise, since rash usage of these provisions could throw the country into disarray.
It is therefore important to enquire into whether the President has the power to
refuse to invoke the emergency provisions when asked to do so by the Council of
Ministers.
Article 352 of the Constitution provides that "If the President is satisfied
that a grave emergency exists whereby the security of India or of any part of the
territory thereof is threatened, whether by war or external aggression or armed
rebellion, he may, by proclamation, make a declaration to that effect..." The use
of the word "satisfied" means that all the arguments advanced in respect of Article
123 apply to this provision as well. However, this power of the President is
circumscribed by the requirement under Article 352(3), of a written communication
from the Union Cabinet, directing the issuance of a proclamation of emergency.
The President could exercise his discretion and refuse to issue such a
proclamation. The only option then available to the Council of Ministers would be
to initiate impeachment proceedings against him, if they were assured of a two-
thirds majority. In the interests of the Constitution and the mandate of Article 60,
it is imperative that the President exercise his discretion.
With respect to Article 356, in State of Rajasthanv. Union of India3 2 , the
Supreme Court ruled that the word "shall" in Article 74(1) suggests that regardless
of whether the President has received a report from the Governor, he can act under
Article 356(1) only in accordance with the advice tendered by the Union Council
of Ministers and if the latter so advise, the President cannot but issue a proclamation
under Article 356(1) in respect of the concerned state. This seems to be an incorrect
interpretation of both Articles 356 and 74. As stated earlier, the use of the word
"satisfied" should clarify that what is envisaged in the provision is the personal
satisfaction and discretion of the President. Further, an interpretation to the effect
that the President is bound to solicit and accept the advice of the Council of Ministers
implies that Article 356 is a function, which it is not.

32 AIR 1977 SC 1361.

58 The Student Advocate [2000

This incorrect position was reiterated in S. R. Bommai v. Union of India3 3 .

Justice Sawant ruled that the power under Article 356 was vested de jure in the
President and defacto in the Council of Ministers. In the same case, Justice B. P.
Jeevan Reddy said that the President has to decide on the basis of the material
befdre him, whether the situation contemplated by Article 356(1) has arisen. The
learned judge was of the opinion that the provision permits discretion, which has
to be exercised fairly. Hence, the view that the President has to use his discretion
when exercising power under Article 356 has received judicial recognition.
Theoretically it is evident that the emergency powers have to be exercised
at the discretion of the President and not on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
Thanks to judicial interpretation, however, as well as the views of numerous writers,
the position seems to be quite different in practice. Indeed, D. D. Basu goes to the
extent of saying that Article 352 is a function to be exercised as per the advice of
the Council of Ministers. 34
Conclusion
Does the President have any discretionary powers? A study of the powers
of the President makes it abundantly clear that most of the powers conferred on
the President under the Constitution of India are discretionary in nature. Words
and phrases such as "pleasure", "if the President is satisfied", "if the President is
of the opinion", "with the previous consent of the President", "the President may
by order determine", "as he may deem necessary", etc., imply that the President
has discretion in a number of matters.
It is to be noted that what we have is neither the "cabinet" form of government
prevalent in England, nor the Presidential form adopted in the United States. India
has a unique system of government, which vests equal power in the three branches
maintained in equilibrium by an effective system of checks and balances.
However, while interpreting the provisions of the Constitution, the judiciary
has consistently held that India follows the "cabinet" system of government, with
the President acting as a mere figurehead on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
It has held that British conventions have to be followed. This clearly reflects a
flawed understanding of the Constitution. It is to be noted, however, that any
interpretation carried to an extreme would achieve absurd results. Thus, applying
the alternative interpretation suggested in this article, it would be possible to use
Dinesh Chandrav. ChaudharyCharanSingh35 , to argue that "pleasure" could be

33 AIR 1994 SC 1918, 1976.

34 D. D. Basu, Shorter Constitution of India, 1171 (1994).
35 AIR 1980 Del 114.
Vol. 12] DiscretionaryPowers of the Presidentunder the Indian Constitution 59

interpreted in Article 75(2) to mean that the President can dismiss any minister at
will. Following S. R Anand v. H. D. Deve Gowda 36, it could then be said that
since "Minister" also includes the Prime Minister, the President can dismiss the
Prime Minister at will.
Of course, this sort of interpretation is absurd and upsets the delicate balance
wrought by the Constitution. It is unlikely to find acceptance among elected
representatives because it vests potentially dangerous powers in the President.
The prevailing situation is exactly the opposite. Because of a flawed interpretation
of the Constitution, power that the Constitution expressly vests in the President is
usurped by the Council of Ministers, using Article 74.
The President of the Constituent Assembly, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, realised
the extent of power vested in the President and attempted to use it, but was prevented
from doing so by Nehru, who using M. C. Setalvad's interpretation that India had
a "Cabinet" form of government, ensured that the President was virtually powerless.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad's actions reveal an understanding of Presidential powers as
discretionary.
Finally, Article 361 would have been considered unnecessary if the President
did not have discretionary powers. If the President were not expected to exercise
his powers personally, the framers of the Constitution would have considered the
immunity granted to him by Article 361, unnecessary. Such immunity would have
been given to the Council of Ministers instead.
The President has a great deal of power vested in him. In some respects, he
is more powerful than the American President. That power has remained in theory
and has rarely been put into practice. It is imperative that the President plays an
assertive role and respects the provisions of the Constitution. That is not only his
duty, but also his solemn obligation.

36 (1996) 6 SCC 734.