Sl:1"4 CHEM ISTRY: l,VV"~- J

CAMBRIDGE 1GC

· 5-tate
Changes in
gas
0 Evaporation and
0 condensation take
C C
,Q .g
.., ro
place over a range
of temperatures; boiling
o ·c"' takes place at a specific
a. 0
ro a. temperature.
> ro
C Q) >
Sublimation: a few 0
solids change directly . . -~
·d to gas on heating,
from so l1 -~
1i::,
liquid
the term sublimation .
is used for the change in "' Melting: a pure substance
either direction. melts suddenly at a particular
Note that sublimation is Ol temperature.
C
not required knowledge. ·.;:; Freezing: the reverse takes
"iii place sharply at the same
E
temperature.

solid

f h • I tate and the effect of increasing temperature at atmospheric pressure.

~Fi~gu~r:e~1-~4:~C~h~an~g~es:_'.o~ p~y:_s1:ca: s= ~ - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - -- -- - ----

Lar e increases, or decreases, in temperature and.

g cause changes that are more dramatic than
pressure can
expansion or contraction. They can cause a substance to melting point (m.p): the temperature at which a
change its physical state. The changes between the thre: solid turns into a liquid - it has the same value as
states of matter are shown in Figure 1.4. At atmosph_enc the freezing point; a pure substance has a sharp
pressure, these changes can occur by raising or lowermg melting point
the temperature of the substance.

•
increasing temperature
Melting and freezing
The temperature at which a substance turns to a liquid solid
is called the melting point (m.p.). This always happens
at one particular temperature for each substance
(Figure 1.5). The process is reversed at precisely the
same temperature if a liquid is cooled down. It is then
called the freezing point (f.p.). The melting point and
freezing point of any given substance are both the same
temperature. For example, the melting and freezing of
ld melting point
(m.p.)
boiling point
(b.p.)
!_.l

pure water take place at O0 C.

decreasing temperature

I· nd boiling
Figure 1.5: Relationship between the me ting a
points of a substance. ----

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 States of matte r

Sublimation
A few solids, such as solid carbon dioxide, do not
melt when they are heated at normal pressures.
Instead, they turn directly into gas. Solid ca rbon
dioxide is often ca ll ed 'dry ice' because th e
surface of the block is dry (Figure 1.6). This is
different to a norma l ice cube, which has a thin
film of liquid water on the surface.
This change of state is ca ll ed su bl imation: the
solid sublimes (see Figure 1.4). Sublimation is
a direct change of state from solid to gas, or
gas to solid; the liquid phase is bypassed. As
with melting, this also happens at one particular
temperature for each pure solid.

Evaporation, boiling and condensation

If a liquid is left with its surface exposed to the air, it
evaporates. When liquids change into gases in this way,
the process is called evaporation. Evaporation takes place
from the surface of the liquid. The larger the surface Figure 1.6: Solid carbon dioxide subl imes. The whit e smoke
area, the faster the liquid evaporates. The warmer the is composed of water drop lets condensed from t he air; there
liquid is, the faster it evaporates. The hot climate around is no liquid fi lm on the solid pieces.
the Dead Sea means that water evaporates easily and the
sea has a high salt concentration (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7: An aerial view showing large surface salt

formations in the southern part of the Dead Sea.
 SErM CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK
CAMBRIDGE IGC
> . tcmpeniturc, a liquid becomes
ventua lly, at a certainf, rm within the 1tq111
. 'd and no t JUS . t
E
hot enough for gabsbllo ~f gas appear inside the liquid
at tI1e su1-race
, · Bu . . cs . • It ta kes
....,.css is known us bo1hng.
. re I g,1) 1 lus p1v~ •1• ,
(Figu · ' · ·ri t npcrature. known as the bo1 mg pomt
place al a spec1IC Cl •
for each pure liquid (figure 1.5) .
. tcs rairly easily and has a relatively low
w,,1er
'..
evapora 1' •
. l (tOO"C) Water is quite a rnlahlc 1qu1 .
• 1· 'd
bo1hng poin'ti a boiling · point, of 78 oC, 1· s more vo Iat1·1e
E1hanoI, w1 1•
than water. II has a higher yoh11ility than water and
evaporates more easily.
The reverse of evaporation is condensation. This is
usually brought about by cooling. However, we saw
earlier that the gas state is the one most affected
by changes in pressure. It is possible, at normal
temperatures, to condense a gas into a liquid by
increasing the pressure, without cooling.
We can see these different processes in action if we look
closely at a kettle as water boils (Figure 1.8b). Colourless,
invisible water vapour escapes from the kettle. Water
vapour is present in the clear region we can see at the
mouth of the kettle. The visible cloud of steam is made
up of droplets of liquid water formed by condensation as
the vapour cools in the air.
Figure 1.8 a: Water boiling in a gl k
formed throughout the liquid b· ;~s . ettle; bubbles are
KEYWORDS colourless, invisible water vap.ou.r tha;~~:~ kettle produces
boiling: the process of change from liquid to gas produce a cloud of steam. condenses to
at the boiling point of the substance; a cond ition
under which gas bubbles are able to form within a For a beaker of boiling water the b b
liquid - gas molecules escape from the body of a
liquid, not just from its surface
there are enough high-energy' water ':n~!:~
a pocket of gas with a pressure equal t tes to gi~e
form w~en

pressure. The. boi ling point of a J'1qu1'docan a mosphenc

change if
boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid
boils, when the pressure of the gas created above
th e surrou
·i· n d mg. pressure changes Th 1 . for
· e va ue given
the liquid equals atmospheric pressure .tht e bo1
. Im ~. ;;ornt is usually stated at the pressure of the
a mosp ·,,,, -.: -. • ,.i:,~ level (atmosnheri
re5sun-· , . ," , . . ,- c pressure or standard
volatile: term that describes a liquid that P .' . "ll w undmg pressure falls, the boiling
ev~porates easily; it is a liquid with a low boiling pom t 1·- : '' .,t!mg point of water at standard
point because there are only weak intermolecular pressv,., 0 n a high mountain, the boiling
forces between the molecules in the liquid point i:; : . · , r, i 00 °C. If the surrounding pressure is
mcreaseu , , -~ ·,, , ::,ng point rises.
volatility: the property of how easily a
liquid evaporates

~onde~sa~ion: t~e change of a vapour or a gas

into a liquid; during this process heat is given out
to the surroundings

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1111111
 1 States of matter

Effect of impurit ies

Pure substances Seawater is impure water. This fact can be easily
•t ncc consists of only one substance without demonstrated if yo u put some seawater in a dish and heat
A pure subs •3 .. 1 it until all of the water evaporates. A solid residue of salt is
any contaminating impunt1es. A pure substance me ts
left behind in the dish (you can see this effect in Figure 1.7,
. d boils al definite temperatures. Table 1.2 shows
,Ill ·1· . f which shows solid salt formations on the surface of the
the precise melting points and bo1_111g po111ts o some
common substances at atmospheric pressure. Dead Sea).
Impurities often affect the value of the melting or_boiling
point of a substance. An impure substance sometimes
melts or boils over a range of temperatures, not at the
precise point of the pure substance.
Seawater freezes at a temperature below the freezing
point of pure water (0°C) and boils at a temperature
oxygen gas
-210 -196 above the boiling point of pure water ( I00 °C). Other
nitrogen gas substances that contain impurities show differences in
ethanol -117 78 their freezing and boiling points when compared with the
liquid
(alcohol) known values for the pure substance.
0 100
water liquid
115 444
sulfur solid
Questions
common 801 1465
solid State the names for the following physical changes:
salt (sodium
chloride) a liquid to solid
solid 1083 2600 b liquid to gas at a precise temperature
copper
carbon gas -781•l c gas to liquid .
dioxide 2 The melting and boiling points of three pure
!•!Sublimes at atmospheric pressure substances are given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.2: Melting and boiling points of some common
Melt ing point Boiling point
chemical substances. [ Substance
r_.__..,. ;oc 1°c
- 117 78
----·-
·t \•...J;·,o!
KEY WORDS ~~i1J.f ., __ ,,....
..
< . ~· ·it.:
' ...~,--
-182 -164
pure substance: a single chemical elernrm , '\. . _____, -30 357
or compound - it melts and boils at defin t.: ; •·'.,: r:g ;,nd boiling points of ethanol,
precise temperatures ,.-,! mercury.

The values for the melting point and boiling point of ,J .::.. Uthree substances have negative values for
pure substance are precise and predictable. This means their melting point. Which of them has the
that we can use them to test the purity of a sample. lowest melting point?
These values can also be used to check the identity of
b Which two substances are liquids at room
an unknown substance. The melting point of a solid can
be measured using an electrically heated melting-point temperature? Explain your answer.
apparatus or by the apparatus described later in Figure 1.9. c What effect does the presence of an impurity
have on the freezing point of a liquid?
A substance's melting and boiling points in relation to
room temperature (standard taken as 25 °C) determine
whether it is usually seen as a solid, a liquid or a gas.
For example, if the melting point is below 25 °C and
the boiling point is above 25 °C the substance will be a
liquid at room temperature. '

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 ) CAMBRIDGE /GCSE"" CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

3 a Wbnt do you undmLnJld by the word rolat/le

\\ bcn used in chcnmu·y?
b Put tltCSC tltrre IJquii!J in ort/cr of volalillly, with
the rllOll wlnl.iJc fint: wnlcr (b.p. IOO 'C). ctlurnoic
acid (hp. f28 °C) nnd cllm11ol (b.p. 78'C).
C:
Table 1.4 sholl's 1hr 111clling 011d bolling points
of four substances A- D. 111 which of U1esc four
rubber band --- -. J
substances ore the particles nrmugcd In a IJtlfkt· oil or water _ _,_
(n regular slructun:) nl room temperature?

A - 115
t
heat
8 BO 218
Figure 1. 9: Apparatus for me .
C - 91 -88 'd asuring th
a so I1 • A water-bath can be us d f e rl'lelr
- 23 77 • . e or m I . '~ 9
D 100 C and an 01I bath for me/tin . e ting P . Pc.,,~
- - - - - - - - ~~ g Points ab o,~ii,·;
Table 1.4: Melting and boiling points of four . . Ove1 ~ .~,
unknown substances. It 1s possible to continue to heat h . C
apparatus unt1·1 its e hqu·d
. boiling point ist re I in lhe

4 Iodine is often seen as an example of a substance the temperature stays the same u t'l achect. Ag . s;i~
I
that changes directly from a solid to a gas. However, completely evaporated. n all the Iiqu~}
. hai
data books that give the standard physical We can perform this experiment •
in reverse
measurements for substances show values for the apparatus can be used to produce · Suni1
melting point (114 °C) and boiling point (184 °C) of h a cooJi ar
but t e thermometer must be placed . ng CUrv
iodine at atmospheric pressure. . . h . in at e,
contammg t e sohd being studied. The :st-tube
a Explain why iodine seems to miss out the melted completely and the liquid heatedsohd Ii is.th...,,
liquid stage if crystals are heated strongly in a then stopped. The temperature is not d · eating i
e eve s
boiling tube. as the su bstance cools. This produce ry lllinu,.
.
(F1gure 1.10) . The level (horizontal) s a coor1ng curv"'
b Suggest how you could demonstrate that iodine . . Part of th e
can melt to form a liquid at atmospheric pressure. occurs where the hqmd freezes form · ecurv
' ing the Solid e

KEYWORD
lattice: a regular three-dimensional arrangement
of atoms, molecules or ions in a crystalline solid

Heating and cooling curves

The melting point of a solid can also be measured using solid
the apparatus shown in Figure 1.9. A powdered solid Time
is put in a narrow melting-point tube so that it can be
heated easily. An oil bath can be used so that melting Figure 1.10: A cooling •·;,:•1e . The temperature stays
points above I00°C can be measured. We can follow the constant while the liqu; , , :iiclifi es. A cooling mixture ofice
temperature of the sample before and after melting. and salt could be use:' ·,'er the temperature belowO'C.
On heating, the temperature rises until the solid starts
to melt. However, close observation shows that the These experimen ts sk _;-;t heat energy is needed to
temperature stays constant until all the solid has melted. change a solid into a Ee ·'. or a liquid into a gas. Durini
The temperature then rises as the liquid warms further. the reverse processes, l!::~ , ncrgy is given out.

8 )
 1 States of matter

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 1.1

Safety
Plotting a cooling curve
It is importa nt that you fo llow t he safety rules
In this experiment, you are going to plot
set out by you r teach er for all practicals. In
cooling curves for two substances, A and B. This
particular, pay attent ion t o t he t ype of Bunsen
experim ent investigates the energy changes
b urner fla me needed as well as th e concentrations
taking place as a liquid cools down below its
and vol umes of chemicals used. Wear eye
freezing point.
protect ion th roughout.

You will need: Getting started

• two beakers (250cm3) Before starting the experiment, make sure you
are familiar with the scale on the thermometer
• Bunsen burner you are using. You will need to be able to read it
confidently. You can check on your reading of the
• tripod
thermometer as you are heating up the water-bath.
• gauze
Make sure you and your partner are clear as to the
• heat-resistant mat tasks you each have.
• stopwatch, stopclock or other timer
Method
• two boiling tubes labelled A and B 1 Fill a 250cm 3 beaker three-quarters full of water
• two stirring thermometers (-10 to 110°C). and heat using a Bunsen burner to make a
water-bath . Place a thermometer in the water.
Substance A is paraffin wax (choose a low m.p. Heat the water until it is at 90 ·c.
type, m.p. around 55 °C). Substance B is either 2 Put boiling tubes containing a sample of each
octadecanoic acid (stearic acid) m.p. 70°C or solid A and B into the water-bath (Figure 1.11 ).
phenyl salicylate (salol) m.p. 43 °C.
3 Wh en the solid has melted, place a
the rmometer in each tube. There should be
boiling tube enClu gh liquid to cover the bulb at the base of
th ;; 1·herm ometer.

r:.- ·--.w:, tii e tu bes from the water-bath and

•. ·, ·, : ' , :,- , !fl an empty beaker for support.
250cm 3
hot water
beaker { 2 :he·mometer and record the
sample A sample e · . ··. _. :,,i.J r,, ir, each tube. Then start the timer.
gau:e ,_;· .; ·. ~-, 1.he thermometer and record the
terr;perarn re in each tube every minute until the
tempe ratu re reaches 40°C.

i
heat
tripod
7 Plot a graph for each set of readings with time
on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis.

Questions
1 Which of the two substances is a pure
substance? Explain your answer.
Figure 1.11: Samples A and B are melted in a water-bath.
2 Explain any ways in which your method could
be improved to give more reliable results.

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 > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED
-, I

Self-assessment
Complete th e self-assessm ent ch eck list be low to as sess y o u r g r aph draw in g ski ll s.

For each point, aw ard you rse lf:

2 marks if yo u did it rea lly w e ll

I
1 mark if you m ad e a goo d atte m pt at it and p art ly su cceed e d

o marks if you did not try to do it, o r did not su ccee d

Checkpoint
Marks aw
Have you drawn the axe s with a ruler, using most of the width and height of the grid?

Have you used a good scale for the x-axis and the y -axis, going up in 0 .25 s, 0 .5 s,
1 s or 2 s? (Note that the axes do not necessarily need to start at the orig in (0,0).)
Have you labelled the axes correctly, giving the correct units for the scales on --------
both axes?
---------
Have you plotted each point precisely and correctly?

-----
----
------
Have you used a small, neat cross or encircled dot for each point?

Have you drawn a single, clear best-fit line through each set of points?

Have you ignored any anomalous results when drawing the line through each set

-
of points?

Total (out of 14):

Your total score will reflect how clear and well-presented your graph is. D rawing graph s is an import
in chemistry as you need be able to deduce reliable information from y ou r graph . ant skill

Take a look at where you gave yourself 2 marks and where you gave you rse lf le~s tha n 2 marks. What d'd
you do well, and what aspects will you focus on nex t time? Having t h ou ght ;,!, · · 1 )'Our assessment tal~ -
1
through with your teacher to gain further advice on areas that wou ld h elp y ou ' '.- '.:>Ve y our prese~tatio~
of graphical data.

Questions
energy absorb ec1 energy absorbed
5 Sketch a cooling curve for water fro m 80 °C to A _ _ _ _ __ _ . . ,.,;1 ,::, gas
- 20°C, noting what is taking place in the different
regions of the graph .
6 Energy is needed to overcome the forces of
attraction holding the particles in position in a solid.
Energy is absorbed during melting. Figure 1.12 energy released
shows how energy is involved in the different
changes of state. Complete F igure 1.12 by providing Figure 1.12: Energy chang es involved in different changes
labels for the positions A , B and C. of state.

10 )
7 As "" ultcnrntivc to following 1lt0 cooling or a
substn nec. ii Is possible to dmw n hcruing curve.
Figure I. IJ shows the heating curve for substance X.

C D
I-' A solid cannot A liquid can fl ow; rt 1s a A gas 1s a Au1d
8 and spreads
flow. It has a fluid. It has a def mite
definite shape volume but takes the throughout rts
solid + container It
C. and volume. shape of ns container.
E liquid has no defrn1te
volume.
A
Figure 1.14: The basic differences between the phys ical
Time
properties of the three states of matter.
Figure 1.13: Heating curve fo r substance X.

What physical state, or states, will X be in at points Main points of the kinetic
A. B, C and D on the curve?
particle theory
The kinetic particle theory of matter describes the three
1.2 Kinetic particle different states, and the changes between them, in terms
or the movement of particles. The major points of the
theory of matter theory are:
All matter is made up of very small particles
(different substances contain different types of
Existence of atoms particles, such as atoms, molecules or ions).
Particles are moving all the time (the higher the
and molecules temperature, the higher the average energy of
Elements and compounds mix and react to produce the the particles).
world around us. They produce massive objects such as The freedom of movement and the arrangement of 1he
the 'gas giants' (the planets Jupiter and Saturn) that we particles is different for the th ree states of matter.
met at the start or this chapter. They also give rise to the
tiny highly structured crystals of solid sugar or salt. How The press ure of a gas is produced by the ato ms
do the elements organise themselves to give this variety? or molecules of the gas hitting the walls of the
How can an element exist in the three different states of container. The more often the particles collide with
matter simply through a change in temperature? the walls. the greater the pressure.
Our modern understanding is based on the idea that
all matter is divided into very small particles known as I KEYWORDS
atoms. The key ideas in our understanding are tha t:
,tr,n': the smallest particle of an e lement that can
each element is composed of ils own lype of atur-1 take pa rt in a chemica l reaction
atoms of different element s ca n coml1i:1·.: it? mihr , . tidP theory: a theory which accou nts
the molecules of a compound. •~,- the bulk properties of the different states of
This idea that all substances consist of \1'.tV •;1,:.:.:! ! ·: ·:. : :., ,,,,,tter in terms of the movement of particles
begins to explain the structure of the thtc;d,!J,•; ,' 1 ,•,: -. (atoms or molecules)- the theory explains what
of matter. The different levels of frredom (.1( i r•\Y, e:r;,_ : 11 i..:: hc,ppens during changes in physical state
the particles explains some of the difl~r~11: k .,tl, r•.::. ~if tn..:
·,, ·:'Ila: a group of atoms held together by
three states. Figure 1.14 illustrates the basic li:atu1<.,: of the
covalent bonds
three states we discussed earlier (sec Table 1.1 ).

11 )
 ) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

Figure I. 15 is a more detailed summary of the organisation In a liquid, the particles are still cl
ose
of the particles in the three states of matter and explains the However, th_ey can now move about 10 &ethe
changes involved in the different changes in state. The separation between particles i Pa s, each1·
a gas. In a gas, the particles are ve:y~Uch &reai°1¾

WOO
move randomly. ar apart ,er i11 ,

\
GII
The particles in a gas are: lrj
, arranged totally The ability of the particles to move in lh .
lrregJ!!.!dY. and gas phases produces their fluid P e 11 %;d
• ~ead Y.!.'Y @! particles are very w,'deIy separated in roPerr1es. t L
compared to solids and
together m· a 1·1qu1'd or so I'd
1 . The spacea bgas' bu1 Cl''e
liquids
• able to move wmJy. particles is called the intermolecular sp etwee, ~
1
the intermolecular space is large and c: cc~n ag.

t
by increasing the external pressure. Then f, 1edu~,
On heating, the pllticl11 move faster 111d !!!! l.!9!!!!!
gases are east·1y compress1'bl e. In h~uids,
. rethis
ore' .'IJ
In the liquid, IOme pertides havt enough energy to escape 1s very much smaller. As a result, liquids spaee
from the IU!face-!!!P.2!!!!!!!! takts place. k the
temperature rises, more partid11 have enough energy to very compressible. are nor
IISQpe - evaporation !! f!!!!! !! !!i!l!l!r !!!!lP.!raturas.
Changing the external pressure on a sarnpl
At the boiling poin~ the particles have enough '""ll)' to
lnlk the fortes l!lracting them together - the partJdes -~ produces a change in volume that can easiJ; : a&ls
move very fast and separate from each other- l!JA lillllid boifi. 8. • ·
An mcrease . ex terna I pressure produce SCen ·
m
l · m
contraction · vo Iume. Th e gas 1s· comp sa
ressCd
!,!_q!!l!/ A decrease in external pressure produces ·
The particles in a liquid are: increase in volume. The gas expands. an

i
, closely packed together
• in an ~gular arrangement The volume of a gas is also altered by changes
• able to move around in temperature.
past each other.
An increase in the temperature of a
gas produces an increase in volume.
The gas expands.
When the lemperltult is raised, the particles gain energy and
vibrate mont llrangly, the partldes occupy mora space - this
A decrease in temperature produces a
CIUlathelOlidto!!Ql!!!j. "'
Eventually the particles have enough energy to tn,k the ..§ contraction of the volume of a gas.
lon:es holding the llttice together, and they can move around ]
-lbumid •
KEY WORDS , !'~,
intermolecular space: the space between
Solid
The particles in a solid are: atoms or molecules in a liquid or gas. The
• packed close together intermolecular space is small in a liquid, but
• inar!9~ relatively very large in a gas.
arrangement or 1!!!1.£!.
• not able to move freely,
but simply vibrate in
their fixed positions, The movement of particles in u :,· ' d also helps to
explain evaporation from the s 1. ,: of a liquid.
Figure 1.15: Applying the kinetic particle theory to changes in Some of the particles are movili/ ,ter than other
physical state. particles. At the surface, these f'. •i10ving particles
may have enough energy to esca1. ,; to the gaseous
slate (Figure 1.16).
Th_e highly structured, ordered microscopic arrangements in
solids can produce the regular crystal structures seen in this
stat~. In a solid, the particles are packed close together. The
particles cannot move freely. They simply vibrate about fixed
pos1t10ns m their regular arrangement (lattice).

12 >
 1 States of matter

Condensation:
A gas and liquid
both present

Freezing:
B liquid and solid
id both present

C
solid

Time

Figure 1.17: The energy changes ta king place during the

Figure 1.16: Faster moving particles leaving the surface of cooling of a gas to a solid.
a liquid, causing evaporation .
The cooling of the gas gives rise to a sequence of changes
The fact that the space between the rapidly moving during which the particles move less rapidly and interact
particles in a gas is much greater than in the other two more strongly with each other. The substance passes
states of matter explains why the volume of a gas is through the liquid state, eventually becoming a solid.
much more easily changed by conditions of temperature Over the course of the experiment the temperature falls.
and pressure. If the temperature is raised then the However, the graph shows two periods during which the
gas particles move faster and there is less chance of temperature remains constant. These regions are the time
interaction between them. The gas particles move when first condensation, and then freezing takes place.
faster and more freely and occupy a greater volume.
The opposite is true if the temperature is lowered . The In region A (Figure 1.1 7), the temperature is falling.
particles arc moving more slowly. They are more likely to The energy of the particles decreases. The particles
interact with each other and move together to occupy a move more slowly and interact with each other more
smaller volume. strongly. The particles begin to come together to form
the liquid. As the intermolecular forces increase between
Changes in pressure also affect the volume of a gas
the particles. energy is given out. This results in the
sample. An increase in pressure pushes the particles
ttmp,,r;11mc staying constant until the gas is completely
closer together meaning that the moving particles are
l',J'J' 1-.'.1· • '. iC iiq 1:id .
more likely to interact with each other and move closer
together. The opposite is true when the external pre~:;,:• · -;,,rn~d the temperature starts to fall
is lowered. The particles occupy a greater space ,rncJ \ '·.,_ !· ,1uid cools. The particles in the
interactions between the particles are less li kely. · •, :' ·1ent ually the solid begins to form.
•":• ',.csolid together form and energy
• • · c1: ' .~ solid is forming this release of
The interpretation of a " · ·· 1cmperatu re constant. The temperature
,,. . ,!• -•.-.1:·.,· t,n til freezing is complete.
cooling curve After lite solid has fo rmed the temperature falls again
!he way ~e particles in the three states are arranged and (region C). The particles in the solid vibrate less strongly
mteract ~1th each other also helps to explain the energy as the temperature falls.
changes mvolved when a substance is heated or cooled.
Figure .17 summarises the energy changes that take place -- -, - .
at the different stages of a cooling-curve experiment. KEYWORDS
intermolecular forces: the weak attractive forces
that act between molecules

13 )
 ) CAMBRIDG E !GCSE™ CHEMISTRY: COURSEBOOK

T he key po in ts abo u t t he p rocesses lak ing place du rin g 1.3 Mixtures of

co nde nsa tio n :rnd freezin g are :
• as th e particles come cl ose r toget he r. new fo rces of substances and diffu 51.0
•
int eracti o n la ke pl ace
th is mea ns th al e nergy is give n o ut d ur ing
Th e c hemical world is very complex ow·
' ing lo th
n
range of pure su b sta nces avail able and t O I h e Vast
these chan ges ways 111 w JC t ese pure su bsta nces ca n . e va riety
· h' h h · of
. b mix With
th cn:fo rc. the temperature rema in s uncha nged until o t he r. E ac h mix ture must e ma de from , t 1 each
th e liq uid o r so lid is tota ll y fo rmed . parts, which may be either so li d , liq uid 0 ~ eaSl lwo
a number o f different ways in wh ich t he tl gas. There ar
As en ergy is given o ul d uri ng these cha nges, . d I th 1ree Slate e
b e com b me ._ n some, esta tes are comp lete! 1 _s can
cond ensatio n a nd freezing are exo thermic changes become one smgle sta te or phase. Technicall th 1
y n xect to
(C hap ter 7). soluti on is used for this type of m ixtu re com Y, e ler111
C a rrying o ut the experiment in the opposite d irection, or more substances. posed of 1110
sta rt in g from the solid , wo uld give a heating curve. In Solid salt dissolves in liquid water to produc 1. .
this case. the tem perat ure stays co nstan t during meltin g .
mixture.
Th . . II d l ·
1s 1s ca e a sat solut10n (Figure I 18
e a iq u1ct
a nd boiling. A t these stages, energy has to be put in to The solid has completely. disap pea red into the 1· · >:
overco me the fo rces between the pa rticles. T he energy .
In general terms, the solid that dissolves in the r . ·.
put in breaks these interactio ns a nd the particles a re able called the solute . The liquid in which the solid di qu,d is
to move mo re freely a nd fa ster. As energy has to be put · 11 d h I
1s ca e t e solvent. n other types o f mixture, the
issolves
in during these cha nges, mel ti ng, evaporatio n a nd boi ling
states remam separate. One phase is broken up into
a rc endothermic changes (Cha pter 7). small particles, dropl_e ts or bubbles, within the main
Wh a t a re the forces th at ho ld a solid or liquid together? phase. The most obv10us example o f this type of
T hey must be attractive forces between the pa rticles. mix~ure is a suspension of fine p a rticles of a solid in a
T hey a re the force s that act when a substance con denses hqmd , such as we often get after a precipitation reacJion
o r freezes. Their fom, ati on releases energy. However, (Chapters 12 and 22).
their nature depends on the substance involved . For
substances such as water or ethanol they act between the
KEYWORDS ""'
mo lec ul es present , a nd so are intermolecular forces.
mixture: two or more substances mixe d togeth er
KEYWORDS but not chemically combined - t he substa nces
can be separated by physical mean s
e xothermic changes: a process or chemical
reaction in which heat energy is produced and solution: is formed when a su b stan ce (so lute)
released to the surroundings. dissolves into another substan ce (so lve nt)

> t,.H for an exotherm ic change has a

negative value.
solute: the solid substance th a t ha s di sso lved in a
liquid (the solvent) to form a sol ution
e ndothermic changes : a process or chemical solvent: the liquid that dissolve s t he so lid solute
reaction that takes in heat from the surroundings. to form a solution ; water is th e most co mm on
> t,.H for an endothermic change has a
positive value.
solvent but liquids in orga n ic c he mi stry t hat can
act as solvents are called orga nic so lve nts
suspension: a mixture co nta inin g sma ll particl es
of an insoluble solid , or d rop lets of a n in so lubl e
liquid , spread (suspende d) t hrough o ut a li quid
precipitation reaction : a rea ctio n in which an
insoluble salt is prepared from so lution s of two
soluble salts

LI 14 )
 States of matter

Solubilit y of solids in liquids

1r WC t~y lo ?issolve a substance such as copper(II)
su lfate in a fixed volume of water, the solution becomes
more_ concentrated as we add more solid. A concentrated
solution contains a high proportion of solute. A dilute
so lution contains a small proportion of solute. If we
keep adding more solid, a point is reached when no
more will dissolve at that temperature. This is a saturated
~olutiun. To get more solid to di ssolve, the temperature
must be increased. The concentration of solute in a

•
dissolving
saturated solution is the solubility of the solute at
that temperature.
The solubility of most solids increases with temperature.
liquid solvent solution - The process of crystallisation depends on these
solute particles observations. When a saturated solution is cooled, the
cannot be seen
solution can hold less solute at the lower temperature
Figure 1.18: When solute dissolves in a solvent, the solute and some solute crystallises out.
particles are completely dispersed in the liquid.
KEYWORDS
soluble: a solute that dissolves in a
Sol ution s particular solvent
We most often think of a solution as being made of a insoluble: a substance that does not dissolve in a
solid disso lved in a liquid. Two-thirds of the Earth's particular solvent
surface is covered by a solution of various salts in
water. The salts are totally dispersed in the water and miscible: if two liquids form a completely uniform
mixture when added together, they are said to
cannot be seen . However, other substances that are not
be miscible
no rmally solid are dissolved in seawater. For example,
the dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, are alloys: mixtures of elements (usually metals)
im po rtant for life to exist in the oceans. designed to have the properties useful for a
particular purpose, e.g. solder (an alloy of tin and
A closer look at solutions lead) has a low melting point
Water is the commonest solvent in use, but other saturated solution: a solution that contains
liquids are also important. Most of these other solvents as much dissolved solute as possible at a
are organic liquids, such as ethanol, propanone and particular temperature
trichloroethane. These organic solvents are important
beca use they will often dissolve substances that do not concentration : a measure of how much solute
dissolve in water. If a substance dissolves in a solvent, it is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution .
is sa id to be soluble; if it does not dissolve, it is insoluble. Solutions can be dilute (with a high proportion of
solvent), or concentrated (with a high proportion
Less obvio us, but quite common, are solutions of one of solute)
liquid in another. Alcohol mixes (dissolves) completely
with water. Alcohol and water arc completely miscible: solubility: a measure of how much of a solute
this means that they make a solution. dissolves in a solvent at a particular temperature

Alloys arc similar mixtures of metals, though we do not

usually call them solutions. They are made by mixing the
liq uid metals together (dissolving one metal in the other)
before solidifying the alloy.

15 )
 > CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™CHEMISTRY: COURSE BOOK
Solubility of gases in liquids
Unlike most solids. gases bernme less soluble in waller as
the temperature nses. TI1c so Iub·1 11·1y or gases· from
. t 1ed
ai r in \later is qu ite small. but the amount or d1ssolv1·er
llxvgcn is enough lo support f.islI .,111 d other '·1quallc 11c.
The· solubility or gases increases w1l· Ii prcssure. Sp·1rkling
,
drinks , onla111. carbon d1ox1, • · 1e ct·1sso
· lved under pressure.
.
They •fizz' when the pressure 1·.s re Iea. . sed by
. opcnmg the
. . . Tl
contamcr. icy g ' 'O 'fl-it ' if the con tamer is left lo stand
. lace
open. and more quickly if lei'! lo stand ma warm p .

Diffusion in fluids
Figure 1.19: The diffusion of potassium rn
Some or the earliest evidence for the kinetic mod~! or. angan
in water. ate1V111
the states of matter came rrom observations on d1ffuswn,
where particles spread to fill the space available to them.
Whether a solid begins to break up like th' .
The main ideas involved in diffusion are: .
depends on the particular sohd. and liquid1•s 1n ar19Uid
particles move from a region or higher But the spreadmg of the solute particles thrtnvoJved•
.
concentration towards a region of lower liquid is an example of diffusion. Diffusion oughou1the
1
concentration; eventually, the particles are evenly also important when the solute is a gas. This.n so1ulion
·
11
spread. Their concentration is the same throughout. important m . breat h'mg. D'ff . contributesis espec°
1 us10n th 1aUl
movement of oxygen from the lungs to the blo d e 10
the rate of diffusion in liquids is much slower than
carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs. 0 ' and or
in gases.
• diffusion does not take place in solids as the Diffusion of gases
particles cannot move from place to place.
A few drops of liquid bromine are put into a gas·
. 'db romme
the lid is replace d. Th e I1qu1 . evaporatesJaranct .
KEYWORD Liquid bromme · 1s· htg
· hiy vo Iat1·1e. After a short tuneasi1hy.
brown gas begms . to sprea d throughout thejar. Thee,1 iar e
diffusion: the process by which different
fluids mix as a result of the random motions of becomes full of brown gas. Bromine vaporises easilyand
their particles its gas will completely fill the container (Figure 1.20).
Gases diffuse to fill all the space available to them.
Diffusion is important for our 'sensing' of the world
around us. It is the way that smells reach us.
Dissolving
The atoms or molecules in gases move at high speeds.
A potassium manganate(VII) crystal is placed at the
We are being bombarded constantly by nitrogen and
bottom of a dish of water. The dish is then left to stand.
oxygen molecules in the air, which are travellingal abom
At first the water around the crystal becomes purple as
1800 km /hour. However, these particles collidevery
the solid dissolves (Figure 1.19). Particles move off from
the surface of the crystal into the waler. Eventually, frequently with other particles in the air (manymillions
the crystal dissolves completely and the purple colour of collisions per second), so their path is not direct.
spreads through the liquid. The whole solution becomes These frequent collisions slow down the overall rateof
purple. The particles from the solid become evenly diffusion from one place to another. The pressure of_a
spread through the water. gas is the result of collisions of the fast-moving parlicki
with the walls of the container.

16 )

.I :rr4
 States of matter

Not all gases dilTuse at the same rate. The speed at

which a gas di ITuses depends on the mass of the particles
involved. At the same temperature, molecules that
have a lower mass move. on average, fos ter than those
wi th a higher mass. This is shown by the experiment in
Figure 1.2 1 The ammonia and hydrochloric acid fumes
react when they meet, producing a white smoke ring of
ammonium chloride. This smoke ring is made of fine
particles of so lid ammonium chloride. The fact that th e
ring is not fonned halfway along the tube shows that
ammonia. the lighter molecule of the two. dilTuses faster.
The important points derived from the kinetic particle
theory relevant here are:
heavier gas particles move more slowly than lighter
particles at the same temperature
larger molecules di ITuse more slowly than
sma ller ones
the rate of diffusion is inversely related 10 the mass
of the particles
the average speed of the particles increases with an
increase in temperature.

Figure 1.20: Bromine vapour diffuses th rougho ut the

container to fill the space ava ilable .

Figure 1.21 : Ammonia and hydroch loric acid fumes diffuse at different rates.

17 )
 ) CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEM ISTRY: COURSEBOOK

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 1.2

lnvesti atin diffusion in Ii uids Method

This experiment helps to de monstrate the process Put a Petri dish on a wh ite til
of diffusion in a liquid. Diffusion is shown by th ~ paper. Fill the Petri dish nearf ~r Piece of I
formatio n of an insoluble precipitate where the ions deionised water. y O the top •1~11c I
meet in a solution. •·iitf1.
2 Using tweezers, put a crysta l of .
one s1'de of th e d'1s h and a cryst si Ver nitrat
1

You will need: iodide at the other side (Figur a,I of Potas e 01
e -22). sru~,
Petri dish 3 Look at the crystals. Notice that
tweezers begin to dissolve in the water a as crystals
. f , new
compoun d 1s ormed within the .
• white tile so 1Utron.
• silver nitrate, one crystal Petri dish
• potassium iodide, one crystal containing
v,ate,
I
1 crystal of
• distilled or deionised water silver nitrate
I
• test-tubes 1 Co,
·,stale/
silver nitrate solution Potassiu~
iodide
potassium iodide solution
• dropping pipettes.
Figure 1.22: Experiment to investigate diffusion

- -- -------
Safety through water.

Wear eye protection throughout. Use tweezers

to handle the crystals. Be careful with chemicals. Questions
Never ingest them and always wash your
hands after handling them. Note that silver What is the precipitate formed in this re t·
ac 1on1
nitrate is corrosive, oxidising and can stain 2 Wr!te a word equation to show the reaction
the skin. Silver nitrate is also hazardous to the taking place .
aquatic environment. Waste silver nitrate solution
must not be poured down the drain . 3 What factors control where the solid is form d
in the Petri dish? e
Getting started
4 Why does the solid not fo rm exactly in the
Before starting, try the reaction between potassium middle of the dish?
iodide and silver nitrate solutions in a test-tube.
Add 1cm 3 of aqueous silver nitrate to a similar
volume of potassium iodide solution. Note the
formation of the precipitate, particularly its colour.

18 )
 States of matter

porous pot
Questions allows gas
\ , 11111 11 a111 P1111t .,r liquid bro111i11c is placed in a gas
air ~
8 mol ecules
J,11 , winch is th,·n scaled with a lid . Evaporation of' to diffuse
tin: hq11id bron1111c takes place. ai r
ll1,(ll -+ Br,(g)
l ,,. the tdcas or the kinetic theory lo explain why,
,d'i c1 11bout an lwur, the gaseous bromine molecules
h.ii c , prcad 111 cwnly occupy the whole container.
same level
9 \ teacher ,·arri,·d out a da ss demonstration on both sides
dil1 11,1on similar to that using ammonia (M, = 17)
,111d hydrochloric acid (M, = 36.5) (Figure 1.21 ).
coloured
l l,lllcvcr, they replaced the ammonia with
liquid
111cth) !amine (M, = 31 ), which reacts in a similar
11av to ammonia (note that M, is the relative
molecular mass of the substance).
a
a Where would you predict the position of the
smo ke ring to be in this experiment? Explain
your answer. hydrogen
b Suggest other gases similar to hydrochloric porous pot
acid that could replace it in this demonstration
(use textbooks or the internet to find a
air
possible acid).
1O Ex periments comparing the rate of diffusion of
different gases can be done using the apparatus higher level
shown in Figure 1.23. this side
large
A cylinder of porous pot is used through which gas beaker
molecules are able to pass. Any change in pressure
in the cylinder pot shows itself in a change of liquid
levels in the side tube. When there is air both inside
and outside the pot, the liquid levels are the same.
Explain why the levels of liquid change when
hydrogen is placed outside the porous pot cylinder
(Figure 1.23 b). b

Figure 1.23: Gas diffusion through a porous pot a: with air

KEYWORDS inside and outside the pot, b: with hydrogen outside, air
inside, the pot.
porous pot: an unglazed pot that has channels
(pores) th rough which gases can pass

19 )
 ) C AMBR IDG E IGCSE' ,. CHEMI STRY: COU RSEB OO K

ACTIVITY 1.1

T h o kln otl c mod o l of m ot to r Yo ur mode l, diagram or display sh

three of t h e following questions : cu 1d answ.,r
--
M odell in g th e arrangom e nt o f th e particl es ,n a
so lid , liqu id or gas 1s ono way to h e lp und erS t and Why ca n three states of matter e><is t?
th e propertie s o f th e d,ffo ron t st ates o f m atter
Why is it that it t a kes time for a s /·d
0
W o rking "' a sm ull group, c reate a mod el or vi su al ' to
r eprese ntation th at e xplains th e movem en t of th e Why do so lids not diffuse over a n "1e;t?
time period? orma1
particles in th e differe nt st ates Th ink abou t.
Wha t is diffe re nt a bout substances th
Wh at c ou ld you u se t o represen t t he part icles?
(~alls or m arb les in a tray o r di sh , circul ar tha t they each have different me/ting at "1 eans
Points,
pi eces o f card on a p late, groups o f p eo1,lc, Differe nt substances also have different b . :
sym bo ls perhaps?)
ints. Is the reaso n for this simila r to Wh 0 •1 1n9
How w ill you arrange the p ar ticl es to ~~ve differe nt melting points? Y th ey
demonstrate solids, liquids and gases?
Why is it that you can feel a liquid coo l Wh .
How could you represent the movement of evaporates .in your h an d?. en •t
the particles?
After you have taken time to answer the questions
each group sh o uld choose one of the questions to'
demonstrate how your model works to the rest of
the class .

T~ Understand so m e the ideas introduced in this

Are th ere any exp eriment~ which ~ive y~u dues
~Pt<;r, You n eed t o be able to think about the
e aviou r of part icles smaller than you can see. to the existence of sub-m1croscop1c particles?

~hat s trateg ies could you use to help you to How useful do you find the different approaches?
visualise particles such as atoms and molecules?

and
The motion.
st ructure s of solid s, l iquids and gases can be described in term s of particle separation, arrangement

Different
an changes in st a t e can take pl ace, includ ing melting and freezing, evaporation and condensation.
d boiling.

Changes of sta t e can be produced by changi ng conditions of temperature and/or pressure.

Pure su bstances h ave preci s e melting a nd boiling points.

The k i netic particle model describ es t he id ea that the_ particles of a substance arc in constant motion and that
the nature and aniount of m o ti o n o f t hese pa rticles differs in a sohd, hqu1d or gas.

20 )
 1 States of matter

Changing physical state involves energy b_eing absorbed or given out, the temperatu re of the substance staying
) a .:COIIJ:::::ta:.:: t v_v1_
n.:.. 1i_le_11_1e_c_h_an_g:....e_ta_k_e_s_Pl_a_ce_(_as_1_ll_us_t_ra_te_d_b...:.y_t_he_e_x..:.p_er_im
__en_t_al_c_o_ns_t_ru_c_ti_on_.:.of_c.. :o.:.o.:. lin:.::g:.:cu:..:.:. rv.:. :e:.:s)::_-_ __.
Changes in temperature or the external pressure produce changes in the volumes of gases which can be
explained in terms of the kinetic particle theory.
Di!Tusion in liquids and gases is the spreading of particles to fill all of the space available.
The rate of diffusion of a gas is dependent on molecular size, with molecules of lower mass diffusing more
> quickly than those of higher mass.

PROJECT
The 'Goldilocks Zone': Earth orbits the Sun at
The 'Goldilocks principle'
just the right distance for liquid water to exist on
How we experience the world around us depends its surface. It is neither too hot nor too cold for
upon the physical conditions and states in which this. Research this situation, which is known as the
substances exist. This is particularly true in the case 'Goldilocks Zone', and its meaning. Then think how
of water. The Earth is the only body in our solar it applies to the orbits of Venus, Earth and Mars.
system where water exists in all three states of matter.
Exo-planets and life beyond our solar system:
Work in a group of three or four. Use the internet to The Kepler and CHEOPS probes have searched
search for some information on the topics listed for planets outside our solar system (exo-planets)
here. Then select one to research in detail. where life may have evolved. Research these
The presence of water: What is distinctive about missions and find out the characteristics of the
the physical conditions on Earth that mean that life other solar systems and planets they were hoping
could begin, and continue to exist, here? Why is to find .
water so important when thinking about how life Decide how you will share out the tasks between
began? Is Earth the only planet to have water and the members of your group. Then bring your
therefore life? Have other planets had water in their research together as an illustrated talk delivered
past? Recent space to the whole class. A good illustrated talk should
probes have been include the following:
sent to try to find
water on Mars • a clear structure
and the moons
a strong introduction that includes details of
of Jupiter and
the question(s) you have investigated
Saturn (Figure
1.24). Research the ;, • a short summary of the different areas you
various missions to J \
researched: make sure your points are in a
find out whether sensible order
there are other
planets in our solar a list of the key conclusions at the end
system where life
may have existed. • the key information presented in a graphic
Figure 1.24: Saturn's moon fo rmat (e.g. as a table, chart, pie chart)
Enceladus has a global ocean instead of just text: illustrations will make your
of liquid salty water beneath presentation much easier for your audience to
its crust. understand and help them to remember your
key points.

21 )
) C AMBRID G f IC.C Sl , w Cllf MI STRY CO URSEOOOK

EXAM -STYLE QUESTIONS

J\ ~roup of friends \It sharing a ~pc<ool meal together. When the food
"'" put on the table. they could all smell the appettsing food. How drd
the ,mell reach them when the drshe, were placed on the table?
A dccomposrlion
B diffusion
C distillation
D dccolourisuuon 111
2 The figure shows one of the changes of physical state.

•.•I'I,
• • '1ll
•••••
•

Which change of state is shown?

A boiling
B condensation
C melting
D evaporation
3 The figure shows ice cubes floating on the surface in a glass 0 f fi u.y dnnk.
.

ice cubes

glass drink

bubbles

In which of A-D are the particles close together but free t 0

each other? move past

A bubbles B glass C drink D ice cubes

22 )
 States of matter

CONTINUED
Which of A- D in the figure shows the process of diffusion?

Key

o} .
• different atoms

B oooo • •
0 •••

(1)

5 An experimen t on the diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases

is carried out in a glass tube. The gases are given off by solutions held at
each end of the tube.

iii
A

[Jy] GJ[]
\
cotton wool cotton wool
soaked in soaked in
concentrated concentrated
hydroch loric ammonia
acid solution

When the two gases meet, they react to produce a white solid,
ammonium chloride.

Which line (A- D) shows where the white solid is formed? 11 I

23 )
 --:.:.::==-==-=- - =----
)

CONTINUED
CAM.,,oG.,GCS,<• C"'M,m Y·. COU RSEBOOK _ _ __ _ _ _ - - - - - - - ----.___

·•'p
1
6
The figure shows the arrangement of partides .Ill cac I1 state of
•=. --· ...... """
-
--. "-'"-""
-... .A
0
0

.. - ._ Q

solid
liquid gas
11
In a &as, the particles are moving rapidly and rand<' nl) ,1 ribc the describe: state the
movement of the particles in a liquid . . [2]
points of a topic/
b is
liow does the movement of the particles in a solid change when 11
heated? give characteristics
[1] and main features
c What narne is given to the process which happens when liquid \later
changes to water vapour at room temperature? explain: set out
[1]
d What is meant by the termJreezinlfl purposes or
[1] reasons/make
7 [Total: 5] the relationships
A teacher opens a bottle of perfume at the front of her laboratory. She between things
notices a smell of flowers. A few minutes later, students at the front of evident/provide
the lab
Until notice the srnel) too. Those students at the back do not notice it
later. why and/or how and
support with relevant
a What two processes must take place for the smell from the perfume to evidence
reach the back of the lab? [2]
Later in the day, when the room bad cooled, the teacher tries the same
experiment with a d ifferent class. The smell is the same but it takes
longer to reach the back of the lab.

b Explain th is observation by reference to the particles of perfume. [2]

[Total: 4]

24 )
 States of matter

11~ LH:D
1111 111,' , 111111 ~ 1hc d1111111c ill ll'll1(1CIUIIII C II ~ a NUh~11111tc wuls tlown.

.,
11:'
(•

&
E
A

MPllln g pol nl

25 )
) CAM BRIDGE !GCSE™ CHEMISTRY: couRSEBOOK

CONTINUED
.
b 1\ ,, urt 1cr c,111:nme1111s
1
. sho1111 in the 11gure,
n 111c•asuring the rules of

diffu,i1111 of 11111111m1i11 ,md hydrogen chloride.

In the ammonia tube, the colour changed in 34s. Estimate

approximately how long it took for the indicator paper in the HCI
lube lo change colour. Choose your answer (A- D) and give a reason.
A 34s
B l00 s
C 50s
D 25s

26 )
 St.tea of matter

' II EVALUATION CHECKLI ST

Confident
Needs Almost to move
more work there on
I ( ,Hl

atc 1hc 11111J11r d11li:1,· 11,c, lwtwce11 the th ree , t11 te.~ I I
11
of m,tllCI
describe the di:111gc, 111 , t11 te ol"c rved w11h I I
incrc~,i11g ,,r d,·, 1'l'll <i11 g 1,·111pcrat111 c
dCICribc th,· _.tk,·t ,,f dw11gc, 1111c111pcrat11re 011 the 1.2
motion uf pa rti, ks i11 thl' differe nt states or matt er
inltfPICI the shupe of u cooling curve for 11 I
) 111wncc in terms of the kinetic particle theory
•.;.111
st;;a,.tc..l"h_
." e _d::k-·,-·ts-· ,~,I:--
. ,-·h
:_a_n_g:i--11-g-:-tc-·1-n-pe_r_a_t1_1r_c _a_11-;--
<l =-----+ - - - --/-- - - -~ - - - - -J-- - -_j

pressure on the v,1l11111e 11f a gas 1.2

explain, in terms of the ki netic particle theory, the
clfects of changing temperature and pressure on the 1.2
) volumes of gases
understand how solid s and gases can di ssolve in 1.3
liquids and the tcnn s used to describe this
1.3
describe diffusion in gases and liquids
describe the cfTcct of relative molecular mass on the
rate of di ffusio n of a gas