Chapter 1

Building blocks of matter Atom

Fundamental, complex building blocks of matter Atom
Anything that occupies space and has mass matter
Material substance of which physical objects are composed matter
Quantity of matter contained in any physical object Mass
Distinguishable characteristics of matter Mass
It is described by its energy equivalence Mass
Term use to describe mass of an object Weight
Force exerted on a body under the influence of gravity Weight
Ability to do work Energy
Ability to do work by virtue of position Potential energy
Example: Guillotine blade to its high position Potential energy
Energy of motion Kinetic energy
Energy release by a chemical reaction Chemical energy
Example: Energy provided by our body through chemical reactions involving Chemical energy
the food we eat
Biochemistry Chemical energy
Work that can be done when an electron moves through an electric potential Electric energy
difference (voltage)
Example: electricity Electric energy
Heat Thermal energy
Kinetic energy of molecules and is closely related to temperature. Thermal energy
The faster the molecules of a substance are vibrating, the more thermal Thermal energy
energy the substance has and the higher is its temperature
The energy that is contained within the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear energy
Energy of electric nuclear power plants Nuclear energy
X-rays, gamma rays and other electromagnetic energy Electromagnetic energy
Transformed from electricity Electromagnetic energy
Emitted from the radionuclide Electromagnetic energy
E=mc Albert Einstein
Theory of relativity Albert Einstein
Mass-energy equivalence Albert Einstein
Energy emitted and transferred through space Radiation
Transfer of energy Radiation
Matter intercept and absorb radiation Exposed or irradiated
Example: patient under radiographic examination
Special type of radiation that includes X-rays Ionizing radiation
Any type of radiation that is capable of removing an orbital electron from the Ionizing radiation
atom with which it interacts.
Type of interaction between radiation and matter ionization
When an x-ray passes close to an orbital electron of an Atom and transfers ionization
sufficient energy to the electron to remove it from the atom.
Removal of an electron from an atom Ionization
The electron is a negative ion and the remaining atom is a positive ion Ion pair
Forms.of electromagnetic radiation with sufficient energy to jonize X-rays, gamma rays and
ultraviolet light
Fast moving particles with high kinetic energy are also capable of ionization Alpha and beta particle
Incorrect to call them rays
Natural environmental radiation (NER) Source of ionizing
radiation
Man-made artificial radiation (MMR) Source of ionizing
radiation
Annual dose of NER 300 mrem/3 mSy
Annual dose of MMR 60 mrem/0.6 mSv
Cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, internally deposited radionuclides Natural Environmental
Radiation
Potassium-40 (K-40) Internally deposited
radionuclide
Largest source of natural environmental radiation Radon
Decay from Uranium Radon
Largest man-made source of ionizing radiation Diagnostic X-rays
Annual dose of diagnostic X-rays- 1990 39 mrem/0.39 m Sy
Annual dose of diagnostic X-rays- recent 320 mrem/3.2 mSv
Due to use of multislice spiral computed tomography
Due to high level fluoroscopy
Currently accepted annual dose from medical application of ionizing radiation 50 mrem/0.5 mSv
Cathodes rays Electrons
Partially evacuated tube Crookes tube
Developed Crookes tube Sir William Crookes
Forerunner of modern fluorescent lamps and X-ray tubes Crookes tube
Discovered X-rays Wilhelm Roentgen
Discovery of X-rays November 8, 1895
Where X-rays was discovered Wurzburg University
Germany
Used to enclosed the Crookes tube Black photographic
paper
Substance use to coat the plate used by Roentgen and considered fluorescent Barium Platinocyanide
or glowing material
Glow Fluorescence
X Unknown
First Nobel Prize in physics W. Roentgen
First Nobel Prize 1901
First medical x-ray image 1896
First x-ray examination in USA February 1896
First x-ray examination in USA Dartmouth College
Uses X-ray films and usually an x-ray tube mounted from ceiling on a track that Radiography
allows the tube to be moved in any direction
Examinations provide the radiologist with fixed images Radiography
Conducted with an X-ray tube located under the examination table Fluoroscopy
X-ray tube voltages Kilovolt peak (kVp)
1000 volt of electric potential 1 kVp
X-ray tube currents Milliampere (mA)
Electric current Ampere
Demonstrated the use of radiographic intensifying screen 1896 Michael Pupin
Demonstration of double emulsion film in 1904 Charles L. Leonard
Developed the fluoroscope in 1898 Thomas Edison
Fluorescent material Zinc cadmium sulfide
Fluorescent material Calcium tungstate
Suffered a severe x-ray burn that eventually required amputation of both arms Clarence Dally
First x-ray fatality in the USA Clarence Dally
Developed diaphragm which led to adoption of collimation and filtration William Rollins
Introduced a substitute high voltage power supply, an interrupterless H.C. Snooke
transformer in 1907
Composed of static machines and induction coils Snooke transformer
Showed the hot-cathode ray tube to the medical community in 1913 William D Coolidge
Tube that is more superior than the Crookes tube Coolidge tube
Vacuum tube that allowed x-ray intensity and energy to be selected separately Coolidge tube
and with great accuracy
Matching of Snooke transformer and Coolidge tube Modern radiography
kVp and mA levels become possible
Stationary grid (Glitterblende) in 1913 Gustav Bucky
Invented moving grid in 1915 H Potter
Potter-Bucky grid 1921
As Low As Reasonably Achievable ALARA
Metal Filters- Aluminum or copper Filtration
Absorbed low energy radiation before reaching the patient Filtration
Restricts the useful X-ray beam to that part of the body to be imaged Collimation
Reduced the scatter radiation and thus improves image contrast Collimation
Reduced exposure of the patient to X-rays by more than 95% compared Intensifying screen
without screen
Tead impregnated material is used to make aprons and gloves Protective apparel
Shields should be used with all persons of childbearing age when the gonads Gonadal Shielding
are in or near the useful x-ray beam
Barrier is lead lined and is equipped with a leaded-glass window Protective barrier
Relationship between the loop and the intensity of the magnetic field Direct proportional
Coil of wire Solenoid
Studied the electromagnetic induction Michael Faraday
An electric current is induced in a circuit if some part of that circuit is in a Electromagnetic
changing magnetic field induction
Magnitude of the induced current Faraday's Law
1. Strength of the magnetic field
2. Velocity of the magnetic field as it moves
3. The angle of the conductor to the magnetic field
4. The number of turns in the conductor
Varying magnetic field intensity induces Electric current
It switches the direction of current and forces the loop to rotate again Commutator ring
It powers the rotating anode of the x-ray tube Induction motor
It changes the intensity of alternating voltage and current Transformer
Transformer will operate only with changing electric current Alternating current
Is used to change the magnitude of voltage and current Transformer
Relationship between the number of turns and the voltage Direct proportional
Transformer with a turns ratio greater than 1 Step-up
Transformer with a turns ratio less than 1 Step-down
Filament transformer Step-down
Transformer that is built up of laminated layers of iron that helps energy losses Closed-core
resulting in greater efficiency transformer
It is built up about a square core of ferromagnetic material Closed-core
transformer
It consists of an iron core with only one winding of wire about it Autotransformer
The single (one) winding acts as both primary and secondary winding and Autotransformer
varies both the voltage and current
It is not suited for use as the high voltage transformer in an X-ray imaging Autotransformer
system
Confines even more of the magnetic field lines. The secondary winding is Shell-type transformer
wrapped around by the primary winding
It composed of two close-core transformer Shell-type transformer
It is more efficient than the close-core transformer Shell-type transformer
Most currently used transformers Shell-type transformer
Electric current produces mechanical motion Electric motor
Mechanical motion produces electric current Electric generator
Alternating electric current and electric potential are transformed in intensity Transformer

Chapter 2
Standard unit of length Platinum -iridium bar
International bureau of weights and measures in Paris Platinum -iridium bar
Standard unit of length Meter
1 yard 0.9144 m
1 inch 2.54 cm
the meter is based on the speed of light Length
the mass of 1000 cm of water at 4° Celsius Kilogram
Standard unit of mass Platinum- iridium
cylinder
Standard unit of mass Kilogram
Newton and the Pound British unit
Unit of weight Newton and the Pound
Standard unit of time Seconds
It is measured by atomic clock Time
It is based on the vibration of cesium atoms Time
Capable of keeping time correctly to about 1 second in 5000 years Time
Magnitude and unit Measurement
Exposure C/kg
Exposure Air kerma (Gy a)
Dose J/kg (rad)
Dose Gyt
Equivalent dose J/kg (rem)
Equivalent dose Sievert (Sv)
Radioactivity Becquerel (Bq)
Grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter Mass density
Deals with objects at rest (statics) and objects in motion (dynamics) Mechanics
Velocity Motion
Acceleration Motion
Speed Velocity
Measure of how fast something is moving or the rate of change of its position Speed
with time
Unit of velocity m/s
Formula of velocity V=d/t
Velocity of light in a vacuum 3 x 108 m/s
The rate of change of velocity with time Acceleration
First law of motion Inertia
Second law of motion Force
F=ma Force
SI Unit of force Newton (N)
Third law of motion Action/ reaction
Force on a body caused by the pull of gravity on it Weight (W)
Constant Acceleration rate Acceleration due to
gravity
g=9.8 m/s² in SI units Acceleration due to
gravity
W-mass x acceleration due to gravity Weight
1 lb = 4.5 N Weight
Product of the mass of an object and its velocity Momentum
Product of force applied to an object times the distance over which it is Work
applied
Unit of work Joule
Product of force and distance Work
The rate of doing work Power
SI unit of power Joule per second
Joule per second Watt
British unit of power Horse power (hp)
Quotient of work by time Power
Energy may be transformed from one form to another, but it cannot be Law of conservation of
created or destroyed energy
Ability to do work Energy
Stored energy of position or configuration Potential energy
It depends on the mass of the object and on the square of its velocity Kinetic energy
Energy associated with the motion of an object Kinetic energy
PE=mgh Potential energy
Kinetic energy of the random motion of molecules Heat
Transfer of heat through a material or by touching Conduction
Molecular motion from high-temperature object that touches a lower- Conduction
temperature object equalizes the temperature of both
Mechanical transfer of hot molecules in a gas or liquid from one place to Convection
another
Transfer of heat by the emission of infrared radiation Thermal radiation
The reddish glow emitted by the hot object is evidence of heat transfer Thermal radiation
Primary cooling system of x-ray tube Thermal radiation
Device that measure temperature Thermometer
°F to °C, subtract 30 and divide by 2 Temperature
'C to °F, double, then add 30 Temperature
International Commission on Radiation Units and ICRU
Measurements Roentgen (R)
Equal to radiation intensity that will create 2.08 x 10⁸ ion pairs in a cubic Roentgen (R)
centimeter of air
Electric charge per unit mass of air (2.58 x 10⁴ C/kg) Roentgen (R)
Calibrated Radiation Monitors Roentgen (R)
Interactions of x-rays and gamma rays in air Roentgen (R)
Unit of radiation exposure or intensity Air kerma (mGy a )
SI unit of exposure Rad (Gyt )
Quantity of radiation received by a patient Rad (Gyt )
1 rad = 100 erg/g Rad
Unit of radiation absorbed dose Rem (Sv)
Radiation equivalent man Rem (Sv)
Quantity of radiation received by radiation workers and populations Rem (Sv)
Unit of quantity of radioactive material not the radiation emitted by that Curie (Ci) (Bq)
material
Quantity of radioactivity in which 3.7 x 10 dps or Bq Curie (Ci) (Bq)
Common quantities of radioactive material mCi and µCi

Chapter 3
Earth, water, air, fire Greek atom
Earth, water, air, fire Substances of matter
Wet, dry, hot, cold Essences of matter
Indivisible Atom
Number of Natural element 92
Number of artificial element 20
The smallest particle of matter that has properties of an element Atom
Dalton atom in 1808 John Dalton
An element was composed of identical atoms that reacted the same way Dalton atom
chemically
Eye and hook affair Dalton atom
Developed periodic table of element Dmitri Mendeleev
All element react chemically in a similar fashion and have similar physical Group
properties
Alkali metals Group
Alkaline earth metals Group II
Halogens Group VII
Noble gases Group VIII
Soft metals that combine readily with oxygen and react violently with water Alkali metals
Easily vaporized and combine with metals to form water soluble salts Halogens
Highly resistant to reaction with other elements Noble gases
Cathode rays (electrons) 1890 JJ Thomson
Plum pudding model JJ. Thomson
Plums represented negative electric charges Thomson model
Pudding shapeless mass of uniform positive electrification Thomson model
Introduced the nuclear model Ernest Rutherford
Atom is containing s small, dense, positively charged center surrounded by a Emest Rutherford
negative cloud of electrons
He called the center of the atom the nucleus
Developed the model of atom as miniature solar system Niels Bohr
Electrons revolved about the nucleus in prescribed orbits or energy levels Bohr's model
High energy particle accelerators Atom smashers
Protons and neutrons Nucleons
Composition of protons and neutrons Quarks
It bind the quarks together Gluons
Fundamental particles of an atom Electron, proton,
neutron
Mass of an electron 9.1 x 10−31 kg
One half the mass of a carbon-12 atom I amu
000549 amu Electron mass
Mass of a proton 1.673 x 10−27 kg
Mass of a neutron 1.675 x 10−27kg
Chapter 4
An atom of light Photon
Smallest quantity of any type of electromagnetic energy Photon
Small bundle of energy Quantum
Quantum of electromagnetic energy X-ray photon
Showed that visible light has both electric and magnetic properties- James Clerk Maxwell
Electromagnetic energy
Energy disturbances that move through space at the speed of light Photons
Constant speed of light/electromagnetic rad’n 3 x 10°m/s
Constant speed of light/electromagnetic rad'n 186, 400 mi/s
Where interactions among different energies, forces, or masses Field
Governs the interaction of different masses Gravitational field
Governs the interaction of electrostatic charges Electric field
Governs the interaction of magnetic poles Magnetic field
Rate of rise and fall of cycles/pulses Frequency
Unit of measurement of frequency Hertz (Hz)
Is equal to the number of crests or the number of valleys that pass the point of Frequency
an observer per unit of time
Is the distance from crest to another, form one valley to another, or from any Wavelength
point on the sine wavelength to the next corresponding point
Relationship between frequency and wavelength Inversely proportional
Product of frequency and wavelength Velocity
Quotient of velocity over frequency Wavelength
Quotient of velocity over wavelength Frequency
Relationship between wavelength and penetration Inversely proportional
Relationship between energy of a photon and frequency Directly proportional
Deviation in line of travel or path Refraction
The only difference between x-ray and gamma ray Origin
Size of matter is the same with the photon wavelength Easy Interaction
Behave more like waves Visible light photons
Behave more like particles X-ray photons
Photons possessed both types of behavior Wave-particle duality
Reduction in intensity that results from scattering and absorption Attenuation
Structures that absorb X-rays Radiopaque
Structures that transmit x-rays Radiolucent
The intensity is inversely proportional with the square of distance of the object Inverse square law
from the source.
Discrete bundle of energy X-ray photon
Planck's quantum equation E=hf
Relationship between photon energy and frequency Directly proportional
Planck's constant 4.15 x 10
Planck's constant 6.63 x 10
Relationship between photon energy and wavelength Inversely proportional
1 joule is equal to 6.24 x 10 eV
Law or Relativity Emc
It is essentially an empty space Atom
It determines the chemical element Number of protons
It represents different electron binding energies or energy levels Shells
The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater is its binding energy Binding energy
Energy required for an x-ray to transfer its energy to an orbital electron and 34 eV
ejects that electron from the atom
The number of neutrons is always greater than the number of protons. The Heavy atoms
larger the atom, the greater the abundance of neutrons over protons
Maximum electron per shell 2n²
The principal quantum number n
The number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is equal to its group Electron arrangement
in the periodic table
The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the valence of an Electron arrangement
atom
The number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is equal to its Electron arrangement
period in the periodic table
Center seeking force Centripetal force
Flying out from the center force Centrifugal force
The force that keeps an electron in orbit Centripetal force
Strength of attachment of an electron to the nucleus Electron binding energy
The value, 34 eV Ionization potential
Number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Atomic mass number
Symbolized by A. It must always a whole number
The atomic mass number and the precise mass of an atom are not equal Atomic mass number
The actual atomic mass of an atom is determined by measurement and rarely Actual atomic mass
is a whole number number
Only one atom in which the atomic mass equal to its atomic mass number Carbon- 12
Atom that have the same atomic number but different atomic mass numbers. Isotopes
They react the same way chemically
Atomic nuclei that have the same atomic mass number but different atomic Isobars
numbers
Isobaric radioactive transition
They release beta particle or positron.
Atoms that have the same number of neutrons but different numbers of Isotones
protons
Constant quantity of Atomic mass number (A) -- atomic number (Z)
Atoms of various elements may combine to form structures. Molecules
Example: Two molecules of water 2H2O
A quantity of one type of molecule Compound
Example: measurable quantity of sodium bicarbonate is Baking soda