Chapter 15

Single-phase series a.c.

circuits

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

• draw phasor diagrams and current and voltage waveforms for (a) purely resistive (b) purely inductive and
(c) purely capacitive a.c. circuits
1
• perform calculations involving X L = 2πfL and X C =
2π f C
• draw circuit diagrams, phasor diagrams and voltage and impedance triangles for R–L, R–C and
R–L–C series a.c. circuits and perform calculations using Pythagoras’ theorem, trigonometric ratios and
V
Z=
I
• understand resonance
• derive the formula for resonant frequency and use it in calculations
 
V L (or VC ) ωr L 1 1 L
• understand Q-factor and perform calculations using or or or
V R ωr C R R C
• understand bandwidth and half-power points
fr
• perform calculations involving ( f2 − f1 ) =
Q
• understand selectivity and typical values of Q-factor
• appreciate that power P in an a.c. circuit is given by P = VI cos φ or I R2 R and perform calculations using
these formulae
• understand true, apparent and reactive power and power factor and perform calculations involving these
quantities

DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00015-X
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 195

15.1 Purely resistive a.c. circuit Problem 1. (a) Calculate the reactance of a coil
of inductance 0.32 H when it is connected to a
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current I R and 50 Hz supply. (b) A coil has a reactance of 124  in
applied voltage V R are in phase. See Figure 15.1. a circuit with a supply of frequency 5 kHz.
Determine the inductance of the coil.

(a) Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL= 2π(50)(0.32)

= 100.5 
(b) Since X L = 2πfL, inductance
XL 124
L= = H
2π f 2π(5000)
Figure 15.1 = 3.95 mH

Problem 2. A coil has an inductance of 40 mH

Part 2
15.2 Purely inductive a.c. circuit and negligible resistance. Calculate its inductive
reactance and the resulting current if connected to
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current I L lags (a) a 240 V, 50 Hz supply, and (b) a 100 V, 1 kHz
the applied voltage V L by 90◦ (i.e. π/2 rads). See supply.
Figure 15.2.
(a) Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL
= 2π(50)(40 × 10−3 )
= 12.57 
V 240
Current, I = = = 19.09 A
X L 12.57

(b) Inductive reactance, X L = 2π(1000)(40 × 10−3 )

Figure 15.2
= 251.3 
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the V 100
flow of alternating current is called the inductive Current, I = = = 0.398 A
X L 251.3
reactance, XL

VL
XL = = 2πfL  15.3 Purely capacitive a.c. circuit
IL

where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads
inductance, in henrys. the applied voltage VC by 90◦ (i.e. π/2 rads). See
X L is proportional to f as shown in Figure 15.3. Figure 15.4.
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the
flow of alternating current is called the capacitive react-
ance, X C

VC 1
XC = = 
IC 2πfC

where C is the capacitance in farads.

Figure 15.3 X C varies with frequency f as shown in Figure 15.5.
 196 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Problem 4. A capacitor has a reactance of 40 

when operated on a 50 Hz supply. Determine the
value of its capacitance.

1 1
Since X C = , capacitance C =
2π f C 2π f X C
1
= F
2π(50)(40)
106
= µF
2π(50)(40)
= 79.58 µF

Problem 5. Calculate the current taken by a 23 µF

capacitor when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
Figure 15.4
Part 2

V V
Current I = = 
XC XC 1
(V)
2πfC
= 2πfCV = 2π(50)(23 × 10−6)(240)
= 1.73 A
0
f (Hz)
CIVIL
Figure 15.5 The relationship between voltage and current for the
inductive and capacitive circuits can be summarized
Problem 3. Determine the capacitive reactance of using the word ‘CIVIL’, which represents the follow-
a capacitor of 10 µF when connected to a circuit of ing: in a capacitor (C) the current (I) is ahead of
frequency (a) 50 Hz (b) 20 kHz. the voltage (V), and the voltage (V) is ahead of the
current (I) for the inductor (L).
1
(a) Capacitive reactance X C = Now try the following exercise
2π f C
1
= Exercise 52 Further problems on purely
2π(50)(10 × 10−6)
inductive and capacitive a.c.
106 circuits
=
2π(50)(10)
1. Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance
= 318.3  0.2 H when it is connected to (a) a 50 Hz, (b) a
1 1 600 Hz, and (c) a 40 kHz, supply.
(b) XC = = [(a) 62.83  (b) 754  (c) 50.27 k]
2π f C 2π(20 × 103)(10 × 10−6)
106 2. A coil has a reactance of 120  in a circuit
= with a supply frequency of 4 kHz. Calculate
2π(20 × 103)(10) the inductance of the coil. [4.77 mH]
= 0.796  3. A supply of 240 V, 50 Hz is connected across
Hence as the frequency is increased from 50 Hz to a pure inductance and the resulting current
20 kHz, X C decreases from 318.3  to 0.796  (see is 1.2 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil.
Figure 15.5). [0.637 H]
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 197

From the phasor diagram of Figure 15.6, the ‘voltage

4. An e.m.f. of 200 V at a frequency of 2 kHz is triangle’ is derived.
applied to a coil of pure inductance 50 mH. For the R–L circuit:
Determine (a) the reactance of the coil, and
(b) the current flowing in the coil. √ 2
[(a) 628  (b) 0.318 A] V= (V R + V L2 ) (by Pythagoras’ theorem)

5. Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capaci- VL

and tan φ = (by trigonometric ratios)
tor of 20 µF when connected to an a.c. circuit VR
of frequency (a) 20 Hz, (b) 500 Hz, (c) 4 kHz
[(a) 397.9  (b) 15.92  (c) 1.989 ] applied voltage V
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio is called
current I
6. A capacitor has a reactance of 80  when con- the impedance Z, i.e.
nected to a 50 Hz supply. Calculate the value
of its capacitance. [39.79 µF] V
Z= 
7. A capacitor has a capacitive reactance of 400  I
when connected to a 100 V, 25 Hz supply. If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 15.6 is
Determine its capacitance and the current taken divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is

Part 2
from the supply. [15.92 µF, 0.25 A] derived.
√
8. Two similar capacitors are connected in paral- For the R–L circuit: Z = (R 2 + X 2L )
lel to a 200 V, 1 kHz supply. Find the value of
each capacitor if the circuit current is 0.628 A. XL XL R
tan φ = , sin φ = and cos φ =
[0.25 µF] R Z Z

Problem 6. In a series R–L circuit the p.d. across

the resistance R is 12 V and the p.d. across the
15.4 R–L series a.c. circuit inductance L is 5 V. Find the supply voltage and the
phase angle between current and voltage.
In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance
R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of V R and From the voltage triangle of Figure 15.6,
V L (see Figure 15.6), and thus the current I lags the √
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0◦ and supply voltage V = (122 + 52 ) i.e. V = 13V
90◦ (depending on the values of V R and V L ), shown as (Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not the
angle φ. In any a.c. series circuit the current is common arithmetic sum of the p.d.’s across components. It is, in
to each component and is thus taken as the reference fact, the phasor sum.)
phasor.
 
VL 5 −1 5
tan φ = = , from which φ = tan
VR 12 12
= 22.62◦ lagging

(‘Lagging’ infers that the current is ‘behind’ the voltage,

since phasors revolve anticlockwise.)

Problem 7. A coil has a resistance of 4  and an

inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate (a) the reactance,
(b) the impedance, and (c) the current taken from a
240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and current.

R = 4 ; L =9.55 mH = 9.55 × 10−3H;

Figure 15.6 f = 50 Hz; V = 240 V
 198 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(a) Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL The circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 15.6.
= 2π(50)(9.55 ×10−3) (a) Inductive reactance X L =2πfL=2π(50)(0.3183)
=3  = 100 
√ 2 √ √ 2 √
(b) Impedance, Z = (R + X 2L ) = (43 + 32 ) = 5  (b) Impedance Z = (R + X L )= [(200)2 + (100)2 ]
2

V 240 = 223.6 
(c) Current, I = = = 48 A V 240
Z 5 (c) Current I = = = 1.073 A
The circuit and phasor diagrams and the voltage and Z 223.6
impedance triangles are as shown in Figure 15.6. (d) The p.d. across the coil, V L = I X L = 1.073 × 100
XL XL 3 = 107.3 V
Since tan φ = , φ = tan −1 = tan−1
R R 4 The p.d. across the resistor, V R = IR = 1.073 × 200
◦
= 36.87 lagging = 214.6 V
√ 2 √
[Check: (V R + V L2 ) = [(214.6)2 + (107.3)2 ] = 240 V,
Problem 8. A coil takes a current of 2 A from a
the supply voltage]
12 V d.c. supply. When connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply the current is 20 A. Calculate the resistance, XL
(e) From the impedance triangle, angle φ = tan−1
Part 2

impedance, inductive reactance and inductance of R

 
the coil. −1 100
= tan
200
d.c. voltage 12
Resistance R = = =6 Hence the phase angle φ = 26.57◦ lagging
d.c. current 2
a.c. voltage 240
Impedance Z = = = 12  Problem 10. A coil consists of a resistance of
a.c. current 20 100  and an inductance of 200 mH. If an
√
Since Z = (R 2 + X 2L ), inductive reactance, alternating voltage, v, given by v = 200 sin 500t
√ volts is applied across the coil, calculate (a) the
X L = (Z 2 − R 2 )
√ circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the
= (122 − 62 ) p.d. across the resistance, (d) the p.d. across the
= 10.39  inductance and (e) the phase angle between voltage
XL 10.39 and current.
Since X L = 2πfL, inductance L = =
2π f 2π(50)
= 33.1 mH Since v = 200 sin 500t volts then Vm = 200 V and
ω = 2π f = 500 rad/s
This problem indicates a simple method for finding the
Hence r.m.s. voltage V = 0.707 ×200 = 141.4 V
inductance of a coil, i.e. firstly to measure the current
when the coil is connected to a d.c. supply of known Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL= ωL
voltage, and then to repeat the process with an a.c.
= 500 ×200 × 10−3 = 100 
supply.
√
For a practical laboratory experiment on the measure- (a) Impedance Z = (R 2 + X 2L )
ment of inductance of a coil, see the website. √
= (1002 + 1002 ) = 141.4 
V 141.4
Problem 9. A coil of inductance 318.3 mH and (b) Current I = = =1A
negligible resistance is connected in series with a Z 141.4
200  resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (c) p.d. across the resistance V R = IR = 1 × 100
(a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the = 100 V
impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the (d) p.d. across the inductance V L = IX L = 1×100
circuit, (d) the p.d. across each component, and (e) = 100 V
the circuit phase angle.
(e) Phase anglebetween
 voltage and current is given
L =318.3 mH = 0.3183 H; R = 200 ; XL
by: tan φ =
V = 240 V; f = 50 Hz R
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 199

from which, φ = tan−1 (100/100), hence φ = 45◦

π resistor to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the
or rads impedance of the circuit, (b) the current in the
4
circuit, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the p.d.
across the 60  resistor and (e) the p.d. across the
Problem 11. A pure inductance of 1.273 mH is coil. (f) Draw the circuit phasor diagram showing
connected in series with a pure resistance of 30 . If all voltages.
the frequency of the sinusoidal supply is 5 kHz and
the p.d. across the 30  resistor is 6 V, determine the
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.8(a). When
value of the supply voltage and the voltage across
impedances are connected in series the individual resist-
the 1.273 mH inductance. Draw the phasor diagram.
ances may be added to give the total circuit resistance.
The equivalent circuit is thus shown in Figure 15.8(b).
The circuit is shown in Figure 15.7(a).

Part 2
Figure 15.8
Figure 15.7
Inductive reactance X L = 2πfL
Supply voltage, V = IZ = 2π(50)(159.2 × 10−3)
VR 6 = 50 
Current I = = = 0.20 A √
R 30 (a) Circuit impedance, Z = (RT2 + X 2L )
Inductive reactance X L = 2πfL √
= (802 + 502 )
= 2π(5 × 103 )(1.273 × 10−3) = 94.34 
= 40  V 240
√ 2 √ (b) Circuit current, I = = = 2.544 A
Impedance, Z = (R + X 2L ) = (302 + 402 ) = 50  Z 94.34
 
−1 XL
Supply voltage V = IZ = (0.20)(50) =10 V (c) Circuit phase angle φ = tan
R
Voltage across the 1.273 mH inductance, V L = IX L = tan −1(50/80)
= (0.2)(40) = 32◦ lagging
=8V
From Figure 15.8(a):
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.7(b).
(d) V R = IR = (2.544)(60) = 152.6 V
(Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not the
√
arithmetic sum of the p.d.’s across components but the (e) VCOIL = IZ COIL , where Z COIL = (RC2 + X 2L )
phasor sum.) √
= (202 + 502)
= 53.85 
Problem 12. A coil of inductance 159.2 mH and
resistance 20  is connected in series with a 60  Hence VCOIL = (2.544)(53.85) = 137.0 V
 200 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(f) For the phasor diagram, shown in Figure 15.9,

a 100  resistor to a 250 V, 50 Hz supply.
VL5 127.2 V VCOIL5 137.0 V V5240 V
Calculate (a) the inductive reactance of the
coil, (b) the impedance of the circuit, (c) the
current in the circuit, (d) the p.d. across each
component, and (e) the circuit phase angle.
32º I5 2.544 A [(a) 200  (b) 223.6  (c) 1.118 A
VR COIL5 50.88V VR 5 152.6V (d) 223.6 V, 111.8 V (e) 63.43◦ lagging]

Figure 15.9

V L = IX L = (2.544)(50) =127.2 V 15.5 R–C series a.c. circuit

V R COIL = IRC = (2.544)(20) =50.88 V
In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and
The 240 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum
VCOIL and V R of V R and VC (see Figure 15.10) and thus the current I
leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying between
Part 2

0◦ and 90◦ (depending on the values of V R and VC ),

Now try the following exercise shown as angle α.

Exercise 53 Further problems on R–Lseries

a.c. circuits

1. Determine the impedance of a coil which has

a resistance of 12  and a reactance of 16 .
[20 ]

2. A coil of inductance 80 mH and resistance

60  is connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz sup-
ply. Calculate the circuit impedance and the
current taken from the supply. Find also the
phase angle between the current and the supply Figure 15.10
voltage. [78.27 , 2.555 A, 39.95◦ lagging]

3. An alternating voltage given by From the phasor diagram of Figure 15.10, the ‘voltage
v = 100 sin 240t volts is applied across a triangle’ is derived. For the R–C circuit:
coil of resistance 32  and inductance √
V = (V R2 + VC2 ) (by Pythagoras’ theorem)
100 mH. Determine (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d. across VC
the resistance, and (d) the p.d. across the and tan α = (by trigonometric ratios)
VR
inductance.
[(a) 40  (b) 1.77 A (c) 56.64 V (d) 42.48 V] As stated in Section 15.4, in an a.c. circuit, the ratio
(applied voltage V )/(current I ) is called the impedance
4. A coil takes a current of 5 A from a 20 V d.c. V
Z, i.e. Z = 
supply. When connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. I
supply the current is 25 A. Calculate (a) the If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 15.10 is
resistance, (b) impedance, and (c) inductance divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is
of the coil. [(a) 4  (b) 8  (c) 22.05 mH] derived.
√
For the R–C circuit: Z = (R 2 + X C2 )
5. A coil of inductance 636.6 mH and negli-
gible resistance is connected in series with XC XC R
tan α = , sin α = and cos α =
R Z Z
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 201
 
XC 30
Problem 13. A resistor of 25  is connected in (c) Phase angle, α = tan −1 = tan−1
series with a capacitor of 45 µF. Calculate (a) the R 40
impedance, and (b) the current taken from a 240 V, = 36.87◦ leading
50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle between the
(d) P.d. across resistor, VR = IR = (3)(40) =120 V
supply voltage and the current.
(e) P.d. across capacitor, VC = IX C = (3)(30) =90 V
R = 25 ; C = 45 µF = 45×10−6 F; V = 240 V;
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.11, where the
f = 50 Hz supply voltage V is the phasor sum of V R and VC .
The circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 15.10
VR 120 V I 3 A
1
Capacitive reactance, X C = 36.87
2π f C
1
=
2π(50)(45 × 10−6) VC  90 V V  150 V
= 70.74  Phasor diagram

Part 2
√ √ Figure 15.11
(a) Impedance Z = (R 2 + X C2 ) = [(25)2 + (70.74)2 ]
= 75.03 
V 240 Now try the following exercise
(b) Current I = = = 3.20 A
Z 75.03
Phase angle Exercise 54 Further problems on R–C series
 between
 the supply voltage and current,
XC a.c. circuits
α = tan −1
R
  1. A voltage of 35 V is applied across a C–R series
70.74
hence α = tan−1 = 70.54◦ leading circuit. If the voltage across the resistor is 21 V,
25 find the voltage across the capacitor. [28 V]
(‘Leading’ infers that the current is ‘ahead’ of the
voltage, since phasors revolve anticlockwise.) 2. A resistance of 50  is connected in series with
a capacitance of 20 µF. If a supply of 200 V,
Problem 14. A capacitor C is connected in series 100 Hz is connected across the arrangement
with a 40  resistor across a supply of frequency find (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the cur-
60 Hz. A current of 3 A flows and the circuit rent flowing, and (c) the phase angle between
impedance is 50 . Calculate: (a) the value of voltage and current.
capacitance, C, (b) the supply voltage, (c) the phase [(a) 93.98  (b) 2.128 A (c) 57.86◦ leading]
angle between the supply voltage and current, (d)
3. An alternating voltage v = 250 sin 800t volts is
the p.d. across the resistor, and (e) the p.d. across
applied across a series circuit containing a 30 
the capacitor. Draw the phasor diagram.
resistor and 50 µF capacitor. Calculate (a) the
√ circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c)
(a) Impedance Z = (R 2 + X C2 ) the p.d. across the resistor, (d) the p.d. across
√ √
Hence XC = (Z 2 − R 2 ) = (502 − 402 ) = 30  the capacitor, and (e) the phase angle between
voltage and current.
1
XC = [(a) 39.05  (b) 4.526 A (c) 135.8 V
2π f C (d) 113.2 V (e) 39.81◦ leading]
1 1
hence C = = F 4. A 400  resistor is connected in series with
2π f X C 2π(60)30
a 2358 pF capacitor across a 12 V a.c. supply.
= 88.42 µF Determine the supply frequency if the current
V flowing in the circuit is 24 mA. [225 kHz]
(b) Since Z = then V = IZ = (3)(50) =150 V
I
 202 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

When X L = X C (Figure 15.12(d)), the applied voltage

15.6 R–L–C series a.c. circuit V and the current I are in phase. This effect is called
series resonance (see Section 15.7).
In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, induc-
tance L and capacitance C, the applied voltage V is the
Problem 15. A coil of resistance 5  and
phasor sum of V R , V L and VC (see Figure 15.12). V L
inductance 120 mH in series with a 100 µF
and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180◦ , and there
capacitor, is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz supply.
are three phasor diagrams possible — each depending
Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b) the phase
on the relative values of V L and VC .
difference between the supply voltage and current,
When X L > X C (Figure 15.12(b)):
(c) the voltage across the coil and (d) the voltage
√ across the capacitor.
Z = [R 2 + (X L − X C )2 ]
(X L − X C )
and tan φ = The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.13
R
When X C > X L (Figure 15.12(c)):
√
Z = [R 2 + (X C − X L )2 ]
Part 2

(X C − X L )
and tan α =
R

Figure 15.13

X L = 2πfL = 2π(50)(120 × 10−3) = 37.70 

1 1
XC = = = 31.83 
2π f C 2π(50)(100 × 10−6)

Since X L is greater than X C the circuit is inductive.

X L − X C = 37.70 − 31.83 =5.87 
√
Impedance Z = [R 2 + (X L − X C )2 ]
√
= [(5)2 + (5.87)2 ]
= 7.71 
V 300
(a) Current I = = = 38.91 A
Z 7.71
 
−1 X L − XC 5.87
(b) Phase angle φ = tan = tan−1
R 5
= 49.58 ◦

(c) Impedance of coil, Z COIL

√ √
= (R 2 + X 2L ) = [(5)2 + (37.70)2 ] =38.03 
Voltage across coil VCOIL = IZ COIL
= (38.91)(38.03)
= 1480 V
 
XL 37.70
Phase angle of coil = tan−1 = tan−1
R 5
Figure 15.12 = 82.45◦ lagging
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 203

(d) Voltage across capacitor

VC = IX C = (38.91)(31.83)
= 1239 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.14. The
supply voltage V is the phasor sum of VCOIL and VC
VCOIL  1480 V

82.45
Figure 15.15
V  300 V
  49.58
equivalent circuit diagram may be drawn as shown in
I  38.91 A
Figure 15.16(b)

Part 2
Inductive reactance, X L = 2πfL
= 2π(20 × 103 )(130 × 10−6)
= 16.34 
Capacitive reactance,
VC  1239 V 1
XC =
2π f C
Figure 15.14 1
=
2π(20 × 103)(0.25 × 10−6)
Series connected impedances = 31.83 
For series connected impedances the total circuit Since XC > X L , the circuit is capacitive (see phasor
impedance can be represented as a single L–C–R circuit diagram in Figure 15.12(c)).
by combining all values of resistance together, all val-
XC − X L = 31.83 −16.34 = 15.49 .
ues of inductance together and all values of capacitance
√
together, (a) Circuit impedance, Z = [R 2 + (X C − X L )2 ]
(remembering that for series connected capacitors √
= [232 + 15.492]
1 1 1 = 27.73 
= + + · · ·).
C C1 C2
For example, the circuit of Figure 15.15(a) show-
ing three impedances has an equivalent circuit of
Figure 15.15(b).

Problem 16. The following three impedances are

connected in series across a 40 V, 20 kHz supply:
(i) a resistance of 8 , (ii) a coil of inductance
130 µH and 5  resistance, and (iii) a 10  resistor
in series with a 0.25 µF capacitor. Calculate (a) the
circuit current, (b) the circuit phase angle and (c)
the voltage drop across each impedance.

The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.16(a). Since

the total circuit resistance is 8 + 5 +10, i.e. 23 , an Figure 15.16
 204 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

V 40 For impedance Z 2 :
Circuit current, I = = = 1.442 A
Z 27.73
1
(b) From Figure 15.12(c), circuit phase angle R2 = 8  and X C =
  2π f C
XC − X L 1
φ = tan−1 =
R 2π(5 × 103)(1.273 × 10−6)
 
−1 15.49
i.e. φ = tan = 33.96◦ leading = 25.0 
23
√ √
(c) From Figure 15.16(a), V1 = IR1 = (1.442)(8) V2 = I Z 2 = I (R 2 + X C2 ) = 5 (82 + 25.02 )
= 11.54 V = 131.2 V
√ 2
V2 = IZ 2 = I (5 + 16.342 ) = (1.442)(17.09)  
XC
= 24.64 V Phase angle φ2 = tan −1
R
√ 2
V3 = IZ 3 = I (10 + 31.832) = (1.442)(33.36)  
25.0
= 48.11 V = tan−1 = 72.26◦ leading
8
Part 2

The 40 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of V1,

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.18.
V2 and V3

V1 5 49.18 V
Problem 17. Determine the p.d.’s V1 and V2 for
the circuit shown in Figure 15.17 if the frequency of
668
the supply is 5 kHz. Draw the phasor diagram and
72.268
hence determine the supply voltage V and the 53.138 I 5 5A
circuit phase angle.

V 5 100 V

V2 5 131.2 V

Figure 15.18

Figure 15.17
The phasor sum of V1 and V2 gives the supply voltage
V of 100 V at a phase angle of 53.13◦ leading. These
For impedance Z 1 : values may be determined by drawing or by calcula-
tion — either by resolving into horizontal and vertical
R1 = 4 and X L = 2πfL components or by the cosine and sine rules.
= 2π(5 × 103 )(0.286 × 10−3 )
Now try the following exercise
= 8.985 

√ √ Exercise 55 Further problems on R–L–C

V1 = I Z 1 = I (R 2 + X 2L ) = 5 (42 + 8.9852 ) series a.c. circuits
= 49.18 V
1. A 40 µF capacitor in series with a coil of resis-
  tance 8  and inductance 80 mH is connected
XL
Phase angle φ1 = tan−1 to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the
R
  circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c)
−1 8.985
= tan = 66.0◦ lagging the phase angle between voltage and current,
4
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 205

(d) the voltage across the coil, and (e) the 15.7 Series resonance
voltage across the capacitor.
[(a) 13.18  (b) 15.17 A (c) 52.63◦ lagging As stated in Section 15.6, for an R–L–C series circuit,
(d) 772.1 V (e) 603.6 V] when X L = X C (Figure 15.12(d)), the applied voltage
V and the current I are in phase. This effect is called
2. Find the values of resistance R and inductance series resonance. At resonance:
L in the circuit of Figure 15.19.
[R = 131 , L =0.545 H] (i) V L = VC
(ii) Z = R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance pos-
R L 40 mF sible in an L–C–R circuit)
I 5 1.5 2358 A V
(iii) I = (i.e. the maximum current possible in an
R
240 V, 50 Hz L–C–R circuit)
1
Figure 15.19 (iv) Since X L = X C , then 2π fr L =
2π fr C
3. Three impedances are connected in series 1

Part 2
from which, fr2 =
across a 100 V, 2 kHz supply. The impedances (2π)2 LC
comprise:
1
(i) an inductance of 0.45 mH and 2  resis- and, fr = √ Hz
tance, 2π (LC)
(ii) an inductance of 570 µH and 5  resis- where fr is the resonant frequency.
tance, and
(v) The series resonant circuit is often described as
(iii) a capacitor of capacitance 10 µF and
an acceptor circuit since it has its minimum
resistance 3 .
impedance, and thus maximum current, at the
Assuming no mutual inductive effects between resonant frequency.
the two inductances calculate (a) the circuit (vi) Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z
impedance, (b) the circuit current, (c) the cir- against frequency are shown in Figure 15.21.
cuit phase angle and (d) the voltage across each
impedance.
[(a) 11.12  (b) 8.99 A (c) 25.92◦ lagging
(d) 53.92 V, 78.53 V, 76.46 V]

4. For the circuit shown in Figure 15.20 determine

the voltages V1 and V2 if the supply frequency
is 1 kHz. Draw the phasor diagram and hence
determine the supply voltage V and the circuit
phase angle.
[V1 = 26.0 V, V2 = 67.05 V, V = 50 V,
53.14◦ leading]

Figure 15.21

Problem 18. A coil having a resistance of 10 

and an inductance of 125 mH is connected in series
with a 60 µF capacitor across a 120 V supply. At
what frequency does resonance occur? Find the
Figure 15.20 current flowing at the resonant frequency.
 206 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

1 Voltage magnification at resonance

Resonant frequency, fr = √ Hz
2π (LC) voltage across L (or C)
1 =
=    Hz supply voltage V
125 60
2π This ratio is a measure of the quality of a circuit (as a
103 106
1 resonator or tuning device) and is called the Q-factor.
=   V L IXL X L 2πfr L
125 × 6 Hence Q-factor = = = =
2π V IR R R
108
1 VC I XC XC 1
= √ Alternatively, Q-factor = = = =
[(125)(6)] V IR R 2πfr CR
2π
104 1 1
At resonance fr = √ i.e. 2π fr = √
104 2π (LC) (LC)
= √ = 58.12 Hz  
2π [(125)(6)]  
2π fr L 1 L 1 L
Hence Q-factor = =√ =
At resonance, X L = XC and impedance Z = R R (LC) R R C
V 120 (Q-factor is explained more fully in Chapter 28,
Part 2

Hence current, I = = = 12 A
R 10 page 391)
Problem 19. The current at resonance in a series
L–C–R circuit is 100 µA. If the applied voltage is Problem 20. A coil of inductance 80 mH and
negligible resistance is connected in series with a
2 mV at a frequency of 200 kHz, and the circuit
capacitance of 0.25 µF and a resistor of resistance
inductance is 50 µH, find (a) the circuit resistance,
12.5  across a 100 V, variable frequency supply.
and (b) the circuit capacitance.
Determine (a) the resonant frequency, and (b) the
current at resonance. How many times greater than
(a) I = 100 µA =100 × 10−6 A;
the supply voltage is the voltage across the
V = 2 mV = 2 × 10−3 V reactances at resonance?
At resonance, impedance Z = resistance R
(a) Resonant frequency fr
V 20 ×10−3 2 × 106
Hence R = = −6
= = 20 
I 100 × 10 100 ×103 1 1
=    =  
(b) At resonance X L = X C 80 0.25 (8)(0.25)
2π 2π
1 103 106 108
i.e. 2πfL =
2π f C 104
Hence capacitance = √
2π 2
1 = 1125.4 Hz = 1.1254 kHz
C=
(2π f )2 L
V 100
1 (b) Current at resonance I = = =8A
= F R 12.5
(2π × 200 × 103 )2 (50 × 10−6)
Voltage across inductance, at resonance,
(106 )(106 )
= µF V L = IX L = (I )(2πfL)
(4π)2 (1010 )(50)
= (8)(2π)(1125.4)(80 × 10−3)
= 0.0127 µF or 12.7 nF
= 4525.5 V

15.8 Q-factor (Also, voltage across capacitor,

I 8
At resonance, if R is small compared with X L and X C , VC = IX C = =
2π f C 2π(1125.4)(0.25 × 10−6)
it is possible for V L and VC to have voltages many times
greater than the supply voltage (see Figure 15.12(d)). = 4525.5 V)
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 207

VL Vc (c) Voltage across coil at resonance,

Voltage magnification at resonance = or
V V
V L = IX L = I (2π fr L)
4525.5
= = (5)(2π × 355.9 × 100 × 10−3)
100
= 45.255 V = 1118 V
i.e. at resonance, the voltage across the reactances Voltage across capacitance at resonance,
are 45.255 times greater than the supply voltage.
Hence Q-factor of circuit is 45.255 I
VC = IXC =
2π fr C
Problem 21. A series circuit comprises a coil of 5
resistance 2  and inductance 60 mH, and a 30 µF =
2π(355.9)(2 × 10−6)
capacitor. Determine the Q-factor of the circuit at
resonance. = 1118 V
 
1 L (d) Q-factor (i.e. voltage magnification at resonance)
At resonance, Q-factor =
R C VL VC
  = or
60 × 10−3

Part 2
1 V V
=
2 30 × 10−6 1118
= = 22.36
  50
1 60 × 106
= Q-factor may also have been determined by
2 30 × 103  
2π fr L 1 1 L
or or
1√ R 2π fr CR R C
= (2000) = 22.36
2

Problem 22. A coil of negligible resistance and Now try the following exercise
inductance 100 mH is connected in series with a
capacitance of 2 µF and a resistance of 10  across Exercise 56 Further problems on series
a 50 V, variable frequency supply. Determine (a) the resonance and Q-factor
resonant frequency, (b) the current at resonance,
(c) the voltages across the coil and the capacitor at 1. Find the resonant frequency of a series a.c. cir-
resonance, and (d) the Q-factor of the circuit. cuit consisting of a coil of resistance 10  and
inductance 50 mH and capacitance 0.05 µF.
(a) Resonant frequency, Find also the current flowing at resonance if
the supply voltage is 100 V.
1 [3.183 kHz, 10 A]
fr = √
2π (LC)
2. The current at resonance in a series L–C–R cir-
1 cuit is 0.2 mA. If the applied voltage is 250 mV
=   
100 2 at a frequency of 100 kHz and the circuit capac-
2π
103 106 itance is 0.04 µF, find the circuit resistance and
inductance. [1.25 k, 63.3 µH]
1 1
=  = √ 
3. A coil of resistance 25  and inductance
20 2π 20
2π 100 mH is connected in series with a capac-
108 104
itance of 0.12 µF across a 200 V, variable
104 frequency supply. Calculate (a) the resonant
= √
2π 20 frequency, (b) the current at resonance and
(c) the factor by which the voltage across the
= 355.9 Hz
reactance is greater than the supply voltage.
V 50 [(a) 1.453 kHz (b) 8 A (c) 36.51]
(b) Current at resonance I = = =5A
R 10
 208 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

4. Calculate the inductance which must be con- frequency of 5 kHz. Included within the filter is a
nected in series with a 1000 pF capacitor to give 20 mH inductance and 10  resistance. Determine
a resonant frequency of 400 kHz. the bandwidth of the filter.
[0.158 mH]
Q-factor at resonance is given by
5. A series circuit comprises a coil of resistance
ωr L (2π5000)(20 × 10−3)
20  and inductance 2 mH and a 500 pF capac- Qr = = = 62.83
itor. Determine the Q-factor of the circuit at R 10
resonance. If the supply voltage is 1.5 V, what Since Qr = fr /( f2 − f1 )
is the voltage across the capacitor? fr 5000
[100, 150 V] bandwidth, ( f2 − f1 ) = = = 79.6 Hz
Qr 62.83

Selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond more

readily to signals of a particular frequency to which it is
15.9 Bandwidth and selectivity tuned than to signals of other frequencies. The response
becomes progressively weaker as the frequency departs
Figure 15.22 shows how current I varies with frequency from the resonant frequency. The higher the Q-factor,
Part 2

in an R–L–C series circuit. At the resonant frequency the narrower the bandwidth and the more selective is the
fr , current is a maximum value, shown as Ir . Also
circuit. Circuits having high Q-factors (say, in the order
shown are the points A and B where the current is 0.707
of 100 to 300) are therefore useful in communications
of the maximum value at frequencies f1 and f2 . The
engineering. A high Q-factor in a series power circuit
power delivered to the circuit is I 2 R. At I = 0.707Ir , has disadvantages in that it can lead to dangerously high
the power is (0.707Ir )2 R = 0.5Ir2 R, i.e. half the power voltages across the insulation and may result in electrical
that occurs at frequency fr . The points corresponding breakdown.
to f1 and f2 are called the half-power points. The dis-
tance between these points, i.e. ( f2 − f1 ), is called the (For more on bandwidth and selectivity see Chapter 28,
bandwidth. page 399–400)
It may be shown that For a practical laboratory experiment on series a.c.
circuits and resonance, see the website.
fr fr
Q= or ( f2 − f1 ) =
f2 − f1 Q
15.10 Power in a.c. circuits
(This formula is proved in Chapter 28, page 400)
In Figures 15.23(a)–(c), the value of power at any instant
is given by the product of the voltage and current at that
instant, i.e. the instantaneous power, p =vi, as shown
by the broken lines.
(a) For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the average power
dissipated, P, is given by:
V2
P = VI = I 2 R = watts
R
(V and I being r.m.s. values).
See Figure 15.23(a).
(b) For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average
Figure 15.22 power is zero. See Figure 15.23(b).
(c) For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average
power is zero. See Figure 15.23(c).
Problem 23. A filter in the form of a series
L–R–C circuit is designed to operate at a resonant Figure 15.24 shows current and voltage waveforms for
an R–L circuit where the current lags the voltage by
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 209

Problem 24. An instantaneous current,

i = 250 sinωt mA flows through a pure resistance of
5 k. Find the power dissipated in the resistor.

Power dissipated, P = I 2 R where I is the r.m.s. value

of current.
If i = 250 sin ωt mA, then Im = 0.250 A and r.m.s. cur-
rent, I = (0.707 × 0.250) A
Hence power P = (0.707 × 0.250)2 (5000)
= 156.2 watts

Problem 25. A series circuit of resistance 60 

and inductance 75 mH is connected to a 110 V,
60 Hz supply. Calculate the power dissipated.

Inductive reactance,

Part 2
X L = 2πfL = 2π(60)(75 × 10−3) = 28.27 
Impedance,
√ √
Z = (R 2 + X 2L ) = [(60)2 + (28.27)2 ] = 66.33 
V 100
Current, I = = = 1.658 A
Z 66.33
To calculate power dissipation in an a.c. circuit two
Figure 15.23 formulae may be used:
angle φ. The waveform for power (where p = vi) is (i) P = I 2 R = (1.658)2 (60) = 165 W
shown by the broken line, and its shape, and hence
average power, depends on the value of angle φ. R
or (ii) P = VI cos φ where cos φ =
Z
60
= = 0.9046
66.33
Hence P = (110)(1.658)(0.9046) = 165 W

15.11 Power triangle and power

factor

Figure 15.24 Figure 15.25(a) shows a phasor diagram in which the

current I lags the applied voltage V by angle φ. The
For an R–L, R–C or R–L–C series a.c. circuit, the horizontal component of V is V cos φ and the vertical
average power P is given by: component of V is V sin φ. If each of the voltage phasors
is multiplied by I , Figure 15.25(b) is obtained and is
P = VI cos φ watts known as the ‘power triangle.
or
Apparent power, S =VI voltamperes (VA)
P = I 2 R watts (V and I being r.m.s. values)
True or active power, P =VI cos φ watts (W)
The formulae for power are proved in Chapter 26, Reactive power, Q=VI sin φ reactive
page 367. voltamperes (var)
 210 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Hence sin φ = sin 36.87◦ = 0.6

Hence reactive power, Q =(200 × 103 )(0.6)
= 120 kvar

Problem 28. The power taken by an inductive

circuit when connected to a 120 V, 50 Hz supply is
400 W and the current is 8 A. Calculate (a) the
resistance, (b) the impedance, (c) the reactance, (d)
the power factor, and (e) the phase angle between
voltage and current.

P 400
Figure 15.25 (a) Power P = I 2 R. Hence R = = = 6.25 
I2 (8)2
True power P V 120
Power factor = (b) Impedance Z = = = 15 
Apparent power S I 8
√
(c) Since Z = (R 2 + X 2L ),
Part 2

For sinusoidal voltages and currents,

√
P VI cos φ then X L = (Z 2 − R 2 )
power factor = = , i.e. √
S VI = [(15)2 − (6.25)2]
R = 13.64 
p.f. = cos φ = (from Figure 15.6)
Z true power
(d) Power factor =
The relationships stated above are also true when current apparent power
I leads voltage V . More on the power triangle and power VI cos φ
factor is contained in Chapter 26, page 369. =
VI
Problem 26. A pure inductance is connected to a 400
= = 0.4167
150 V, 50 Hz supply, and the apparent power of the (120)(8)
circuit is 300 VA. Find the value of the inductance. (e) p.f. = cos φ = 0.4167. Hence phase angle,
Apparent power S = VI φ = cos−1 0.4167
S 300 = 65.37◦ lagging
Hence current I = = =2A
V 150
V 150 Problem 29. A circuit consisting of a resistor in
Inductive reactance X L = = = 75  series with a capacitor takes 100 watts at a power
I 2
XL 75 factor of 0.5 from a 100 V, 60 Hz supply. Find
Since X L = 2πfL, inductance L = = (a) the current flowing, (b) the phase angle, (c) the
2π f 2π(50)
resistance, (d) the impedance, and (e) the
= 0.239 H capacitance.

Problem 27. A transformer has a rated output of true power

200 kVA at a power factor of 0.8. Determine the (a) Power factor =
apparent power
rated power output and the corresponding reactive
100 100
power. i.e. 0.5 = . Hence I = = 2A
(100)(I ) (0.5)(100)
VI = 200 kVA =200 ×103 ; p.f. = 0.8 = cos φ (b) Power factor =0.5 = cos φ. Hence phase angle,
Power output, P = VI cos φ = (200 ×10 )(0.8) 3
φ = cos−10.5 = 60◦ leading
= 160 kW P 100
Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ (c) Power P = I 2 R. Hence resistance R = =
I 2 (2)2
If cos φ =0.8, then φ = cos−1 0.8 = 36.87◦ = 25 
 Single-phase series a.c. circuits 211

V 100
(d) Impedance Z = = = 50  5. A substation is supplying 200 kVA and
I 2 150 kvar. Calculate the corresponding power
√
(e) Capacitive reactance, X C = (Z 2 − R 2 ) and power factor. [132 kW, 0.66]
√
= (502 − 252 ) 6. A load takes 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Calculate the apparent power and the
= 43.30 
reactive power. [62.5 kVA, 37.5 kvar]
1
XC = hence capacitance, 7. A coil of resistance 400  and inductance
2πfC
0.20 H is connected to a 75 V, 400 Hz supply.
1 1 Calculate the power dissipated in the coil.
C= = F
2π f X c 2π(60)(43.30) [5.452 W]
= 61.26 µF 8. An 80  resistor and a 6 µF capacitor are
connected in series across a 150 V, 200 Hz
Now try the following exercise supply. Calculate (a) the circuit impedance,
(b) the current flowing and (c) the power
dissipated in the circuit.

Part 2
Exercise 57 Further problems on power in
[(a) 154.9  (b) 0.968 A (c) 75 W]
a.c. circuits
9. The power taken by a series circuit containing
1. A voltage v = 200 sinωt volts is applied resistance and inductance is 240 W when
across a pure resistance of 1.5 k. Find the connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. If the
power dissipated in the resistor. [13.33 W] current flowing is 2 A find the values of the
2. A 50 µF capacitor is connected to a 100 V, resistance and inductance. [60 , 255 mH]
200 Hz supply. Determine the true power and 10. A circuit consisting of a resistor in series with
the apparent power. [0, 628.3 VA] an inductance takes 210 W at a power factor
3. A motor takes a current of 10 A when sup- of 0.6 from a 50 V, 100 Hz supply. Find (a) the
plied from a 250 V a.c. supply. Assuming a current flowing, (b) the circuit phase angle,
power factor of 0.75 lagging find the power (c) the resistance, (d) the impedance and (e)
consumed. Find also the cost of running the the inductance.
motor for 1 week continuously if 1 kWh of [(a) 7 A (b) 53.13◦ lagging (c) 4.286 
electricity costs 12.20 p. (d) 7.143  (e) 9.095 mH]
[1875 W, £38.43]
11. A 200 V, 60 Hz supply is applied to a capac-
4. A motor takes a current of 12 A when sup- itive circuit. The current flowing is 2 A and
plied from a 240 V a.c. supply. Assuming a the power dissipated is 150 W. Calculate the
power factor of 0.70 lagging, find the power values of the resistance and capacitance.
consumed. [2.016 kW] [37.5 , 28.61 µF]