HUMAN DEVELPOMENT ACROSS THE
LIFESPAN
INTRODUCTION
Changes in each system of the body interact in important ways with psychological
changes in areas such as cognition, emotions, and identity. In addition, the “nature–nurture”
issue presents numerous complexities regarding the interaction between genetic and
environmental influences on development.
1. Nature and nurture in development:
Development is influenced by both “nature,” or heredity, and “nurture,” or the
environment.
A. Although each individual inherits a specific pattern of genes from his or her parents, the
expression of those genes is influenced by the environment in which the individual grows.
B. It no longer is a case of nature versus nurture because researchers understand that both play a
role in influencing the changes throughout life.
C. Furthermore, specific environmental factors can influence the expression of genes.
.2 Continuity and change in development
For ease of studying life span development, we speak of stages from infancy through old
age, but in reality, people develop in continuous fashion throughout life. Even periods marked by
specific biological changes, such as puberty and the climacteric (menopause in women), occur in
gradual fashion.
3 Critical periods:
In early development in particular, certain factors must be present at specific ages for growth to
occur normally.
A. Critical periods can involve biological changes, such as the growth of the nervous system,
which may be affected negatively by maternal illness early in pregnancy.
B. Critical periods can also involve the development of sensory abilities, such as depth
perception in early infancy.(1)
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
The social and psychological development of children from birth to adolescence is
described using the framework of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This theory
proposes that children's understanding of the world proceeds through four broad stages, with
each stage demonstrating an increasingly sophisticated understanding of concepts and how they
can be used. (2)
The theory of Jean Piaget for child development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a renowned psychologist of the 20th century and a pioneer
in developmental child psychology. Piaget did not accept the prevailing theory that knowledge
was innate or a priori. Instead, he believed a child’s knowledge and understanding of the world
developed over time, through the child’s interaction with the world, empirically. His cogitations
on cognitive development in parallel with his epistemological view gave birth to the study of
genetic epistemology.
Most famously, Piaget was able to perceive how children created schemas that shaped their
perceptions, cognitions, and judgment of the world. He classified the child’s development into
four sequential periods:
(1) The sensorimotor period from birth through the first 18 to 24 months,
(2) the pre-operations period between the ages of two and seven years old,
(3) the concrete operations period between the ages seven and 11 years old, and
(4) the formal operations period that begins around age 11 and continues through adolescence.
(3)
Psychosocial theories of development
Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning:
Kohlberg's theory of moral development was based on extensive research done on the
reactions of people of all ages to specific moral situational dilemmas. Kohlberg was specifically
interested in reasoning processes involved in decision-making. The way in which children
perceive their rights is also based on reasoning processes that are inextricably linked to their
level of development and more specifically to their level of moral development since the area of
human rights can be considered essentially moral. Since Kohlberg's theory is primarily
concerned with development, a great deal of insight can be gained into the developmental shift
that occurs in children's reasoning about the rights to which they feel they should be entitled(4)
Erikson:
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development is a theory introduced in the 1950s by the
psychologist and psychoanalyst Erik Erikson. It built upon Freud’s theory of psychosexual
development by drawing parallels in childhood stages while expanding it to include the influence
of social dynamics as well as the extension of psychosocial development into adulthood. It posits
eight sequential stages of individual human development influenced by biological,
psychological, and social factors throughout the lifespan.(5)
II. Sociocultural theories of development
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Before Urie Bronfenbrenner, child psychologists studied the child, sociologists the
family, anthropologists the society, economists the economic framework, and political scientists
the structure. As the result of Urie's extension of the concept of the ecology of human
development, these environments--from the family to economic and political structures--are
viewed as part of the life course, embracing both childhood and adulthood. Bronfenbrenner,
widely regarded as one of the world's leading scholars in developmental psychology, child
rearing, and human ecology(6)
. The four major hierarchically nested levels of social organization proposed by Bronfenbrenner
were as follows:
1. The Microsystem, which includes the social structures closest to child (family, school,
neighborhood, childcare environments).
2. The Mesosystem, which includes the connections between the microsystem structures
(between child’s teacher and parents, between child’s church and neighborhood, etc.).
3. The Ecosystem, which includes the larger social system interacting with microsystem (parent
workplace schedules, community-based family resources, etc.).
4. The Macrosystem, which includes the outermost layer in the child’s environment (cultural
values, customs, laws, etc.). (7)
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE NEWBORN
Fetal growth is an important determinant of health and disease in child- and adult-hood.
Measures of abnormality of fetal growth are associated with perinatal morbidity and mortality,
and long-term adverse health outcomes. Complex interactions between genetic and
environmental factors including fetal and parental genetic variations, maternal nutrition, and
placental function play important roles in fetal growth. additive genetic effects vary at different
stages of development during infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood .
Shared environmental effects comprise maternal factors including age, nutritional status, and
adiposity. Several animal and human studies demonstrated the impact of these factors at different
critical pregnancy time periods. Maternal third-trimester cigarette consumption was found to be a
strong and independent predictor of birth weight percentile 39. Fetuses of mothers with a higher
body mass index had smaller head circumferences at early gestation (8)
CHILDHOOD
Time spent outdoors engaging in physical activity through active and outdoor play may
be associated with higher levels of physical activity which is important for improving health
outcomes, including fitness, weight management, bone density and mental wellbeing . However,
children are increasingly engaging in low levels of physical activity and high amounts of
sedentary time . Given that physical activity levels decline around the time children start primary
school , it is important to intervene early and early childhood education (ECE) settings offer a
potentially cost-effective and sustainable solution to addressing low levels of physical activity,
promoting active and outdoor play and improving health outcomes(9)
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD
Children’s social environments shape their cognitive development, including their
general cognitive ability and executive functions (i.e., higher-order cognitive abilities including
working memory, attention, cognitive flexibility, and planning) . This development is critical for
future health and achievement .(10)
Early childhood is the most critical and rapid period of complete and healthy motor and
cognitive development in human life ; increased physical activity may provide motor and
cognitive benefits across childhood and adolescence . Therefore, gaining a better understanding
of physical activity’s potential in improving motor skills and cognition in young children is
critical and can inform pediatricians and other health professionals regarding its efficacy as an
intervention strategy(11)
EMERGING ADULTHOOD , A PRE- ADULT LIFE
The duration of human maturation has been underestimated; an additional 4–6-year pre-
adult period of “emerging adulthood,” should be included in models of human maturation. It is a
period of brain maturation, learning about intimacy and mutual support, intensification of pre-
existing friendships, family-oriented socialization, and the attainment of those social skills that
are needed for mating and reproduction
Puberty produces an endocrine transformation with striking somatic and behavioral
changes, especially in body image, sex identity, aggression, and impulsivity. To
define a maturational stage between adolescence and adulthood, we need first to
define the end of adolescence. During this transition, growth velocity decelerates,
blood and tissue hormone levels increase, aggression becomes less overt, and learning
and maturation mitigate hormonal impact.
The attainment of these cognitive, emotional, and social abilities is the result of a
complex interplay of maturation and interaction with the environment, but it is now
possible to say that at least in the earlier years of emerging adulthood, they are
correlated with and possibly caused by brain maturation. There is also evidence that
brain size growth continues into the third decade in some individuals. In these
individuals, hypothalamic maturation, puberty, and the resultant hormonal surges are
dissociated from and even precede development and maturity of frontal cortex
Emerging adulthood is associated with other physiological changes, such as bone
mineral accretion, the completion of growth, and [frequently] first reproduction.
CONCLUSION
The idea that one of the outcomes of human evolution is a very prolonged
period of adolescent growth and delayed maturity is old, and is consistent with life-
history theory, comparative primatology, and the hominin fossil record. We suggest in
addition that emerging adulthood is a life-history stage that is part of the foundation
the high productivity of human beings: our metabolic potential exceeds the metabolic
requirements of survival and this excess is first used to support growth and brain
maturation before being allocated to reproduction (12) .
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