1

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS III

VECTORS, GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS

LECTURE NOTE
(3 CREDIT UNITS)

ALHAJI JIBRIL ALKALI(Ph.D)

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA,
NIGERIA
2

Course Outline
Geometric representation of vectors in 1-3 dimensions, components, direc-
tion cosines. Addition, scalar, multiplication of vectors, linear independence.
Scalar and vector product of two vectors. Differentiation and Integration of
vectors with respect to a scalar variable. Two-dimensional co-ordinate ge-
ometry: Straight lines, circles, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola. Tangents,
normals.
Contents

Chapter 1 Vectors and Scalars 7

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Representation of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Unit vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Localized /Free vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Addition and subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1 Triangle law of addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Types of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.1 Position Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.2 Null Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.3 Parallel Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.4 Collinear Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.5 Coplanar Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Scalar multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7.1 Laws of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8 Linear combination of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.10 Equation of a Straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.11 Miscellaneous Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 2 Scalar and Vector Products 25
2.1 Scalar (Dot) Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Properties of dot product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Applications of Dot product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.1 Vector projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.2 Work done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.1 Properties of cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.2 Geometrical Interpretation of Vector Product . 33
2.4 Applications of cross/vector product . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.1 Linear velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3
4 CONTENTS

2.4.2 Moment of a Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.5 Miscellaneous Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chapter 3 Differentiation and Integration 43
3.1 Differentiation of vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.1 Vector function of one variable . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.2 Rules of vector Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 Space curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Integration of Vector Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Miscellaneous Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Chapter 4 Straight Line 55
4.1 Rectangular Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1.1 Locating a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2 The straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.1 Distance between two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3 Gradient of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4 Mid-Point of a line segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.1 The coordinates of a point which divides a line segment
internally in the ratio p : q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.4.2 The coordinates of a point which divides a line segment
externally in the ratio p : q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.5 The area of a triangle with given vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.6 Equation of a straight line in different forms . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.6.1 The equation of a straight line parallel to one of the
coordinate axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6.2 Equation of a line with slope m and intercept c on the
y − axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6.3 Equation of a line with slope m which passes through a
point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.6.4 Equation of a line through two given points A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ) 66
4.6.5 The equation of a line in terms of the intercept with the
coordinate axes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.6.6 The equation of a line in terms of length of the perpen-
dicular from the origin and the angle this perpendicular
makes with x-axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.7 The partition of the plane by a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.8 Parallel and Perpendicular lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.9 The intersection of two lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.10 The perpendicular distance from a point to a line . . . . . . . 71
4.11 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
CONTENTS 5

Chapter 5 The circle 79

5.1 The equation of the tangent to the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.2 The point of intersection of a line with a circle . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Touching circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4 Intersection of two circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 Orthogonal circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.6 Radical axis of two given circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter 6 Basic Definitions 93
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.1 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.2 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.3 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.1.4 Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2 Basic terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2.1 Conic sections as loci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2.2 Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.3 Directrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.4 Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2.5 Axis of the conic sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2.6 Vertex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter 7 Parabola 99
7.1 General equation of a parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.2 Tangents and normals to a parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.1 Condition for a straight line to touch a parabola . . . . 106
7.3 Parametric representation of a parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.1 Chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.4 Geometrical properties of a parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chapter 8 Ellipse 125
8.1 Equation of an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.2 Curve sketching of an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.3 Tangents and normals to an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.3.1 Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.3.2 Normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.3.3 Condition that a straight line touches an ellipse . . . . 137
8.4 Parametric representation of an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.4.1 Parametric representation of tangents and normal to an
ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6 CONTENTS

8.4.2 Area of an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

8.4.3 Chords of an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.5 Conjugate diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.5.1 Condition that two diameters are conjugate . . . . . . 149
8.6 Geometrical properties of an ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Chapter 9 Hyperbola 163
9.1 Equation of a hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.2 The asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.3 Tangents and normals to a hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.3.1 Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.3.2 Normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.3.3 Condition that a straight line touches a hyperbola . . . 170
9.3.4 Geometrical properties of a hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.4 Parametric representation of a hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.4.1 Parametric representation of tangents and normal to a
hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.5 Rectangular hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.5.1 Eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola . . . . . . . . . 181
9.5.2 Parametric notation of rectangular hyperbola . . . . . 185
9.5.3 Parametric representation of tangents and normal to a
rectangular hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Chapter 1

Vectors and Scalars

1.1 Introduction
There exist two types of physical quantities, scalar quantity and vector quan-
tity. Scalar quantities are represented by numbers that is they have magnitude
but no direction. They are characterized by:
1. A number
2. Unit of measurement
and are expressed regardless of coordinate system. Examples include time,
length, mass, density, potential, power etc.
Vectors have both magnitude and direction they are characterized by:
1. A number
2. Statement of direction
3. Unit of measurements
Examples include force, displacement, velocity, acceleration etc.

1.2 Representation of vectors

An ordered list of numbers called ‘components’ can be used to express a vec-
tor in a particular coordinate system. A vector in three or two dimensions
would necessarily have three or two components. A vector is represented by a
directed line segment. Bold face letters will be used for vectors and the arrow
points in the direction of the action (fig.1)

7
8 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

The length of the directed line segment in suitable units gives the magnitude
of the vector and is written as|AB|. The components form of a vector V
in a two-dimensional plane which has its initial points at the origin and the
terminal point at (V1 , V2 ) is an ordered pair.

V =< V 1 , V2 >

While the three-dimensional form with its terminal point at V = (V 1 , V2 , V3 )

is an ordered triple.
V =< V 1 , V2 , V3 >
V1 i , V2 j, V3 k are called the components of V (fig 2)

V = V 1 i , V2 j, V3 k
√
|V |= v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2

If we consider an arbitrary point P (x, y, z) then from the origin O to P is

called the position vector, represented by r=xi,+ yj+zk
1.2. REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS 9

Any two vectors with the same length/magnitude and the same direction are
equal, consider figure 3, SR and PQ.

i.e. the displacement from S to R and from P to Q (9 − 3, 8 − 5) = (6, 3)

and (8 − 2, 5 − 2) = (6, 3) are equal in magnitude and they have the same
direction hence they are equal. The modulus |PQ|and |SR|are given by the
distance formula.
p √ √
PQ|= |SR| = (9 − 3)2 + (8 − 5)2 = 62 − 32 = 45
p
In general, |SR| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 , it returns a positive number
which gives the measure of its magnitude.

Let P = x1 i , +x2 j + x3 k and Q =y1 i+ y2 j + y3 k

Then their sum/difference is obtained by adding/subtracting corresponding

components.
P + Q = (x1 + y1 )i + (x2 + y2 )j + (x3 + y3 )k
Example 1.2.1 Let A = 3i − 2j + 3k and B = i + j − 2k
Then
A + B = (3 + 1) i+ (−2 + 1) j+ (3 − 2)k
= 4i − j + k
A − B = (3 − 1) i + (−2 − 1) j+ (3 + 2)k
= 2i − 3j + 5k
p √ √
|A| = (3)2 + (−2)2 + (3)2 = 9 + 4 + 9 = 22
p √ √
|B| = (1)2 + (1)2 + (−2)2 = 1 + 1 + 4 = 6
10 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

1.3 Unit vector

A vector which has a magnitude unity (one) is called a unit vector, in two
and three dimensions, they are represented by (i, j) and (i, j, k) and are called
based vectors
a
Mathematically, we write b a = |a| as the unit vector of a vector a in the
direction of a
Example 1.3.1 A vector displaced from A (1, 2, 1) to B(2, 5, 4) has a length
AB = (2 − 1) i + (5 − 2) j + (4 − 1) k = i + 3j + 3k
√ √
|AB| = 12 + 32 + 32 = 19 and has a unit Vector
AB i + 3j + 3k 1 3 3
= = √ = √ i + √ j + √ k in the direction of AB
|AB| 19 19 19 19
Any non-zero vector may be expressed in terms of its length and direction by
the expression
AB
AB=|AB|
|AB|

1.4 Localized /Free vectors

A vector obtained which is restricted to pass through a certain point in space
i.e. it has a specific line of action is called a localized vector. For example we
say a vertical force of 5 Newton is applied at right angles to . . . . Here, we give
not just the magnitude and direction of the force but also the line of action.
A vector not restricted to pass through any specific point or which does not
have a line of action is called a free vector.
Example 1.4.1 A force of 5N is applied in the direction of the vector u =
i + 2j − k. Express the force F as a products of its magnitude and direction.

Solution.

u
Magnitude of the force = 5 : Direction of the force |u|
 
i+2j−k
So F = 5 |u| = 5 √ 2 2
u
2
1 +2 +(−1)

1 2 1
= 5 ( √ i + √ j − √ k)
6 6 6
1.5. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS 11

1.5 Addition and subtraction of Vectors

Given two vectors x and y where x = (2, 3) and y = (−2, 1) say or in i and
j notation
x = 2i + 3j , y = −2i + j
Then their sum x + y = (2 + (−2))i + (3 + 1) j

= 0i + 4j

And their difference x − y = (2 − (−2))i + (3 − 1) j

= 4i + 2j

Or x + y = ((2 + (−2)) , (3 + 1)) = (0 , 4)

x − y = ((2 − (−2)), (3 − 1)) = (4 , 2)

1.5.1 Triangle law of addition

With reference to an origin O, given two vectors a and b represented by OA
and OB respectively, their sum a + b is given by

OB = OA + AB
If two vectors from the sides of a triangle taken in order (clockwise or anti-
clockwise say) then the third side is their sum taken in the opposite direction.
12 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

The difference of a and b (subtraction of b from a) is the sum of a and (−b)

i.e.
a − b = a + (−b)

From figure 5, the sum of the two vectors a and b is obtained by placing the
terminal point of a on the initial point of b and then joining the initial point
of a to the terminal point of b.
For any number of vectors p, q, r, s say their sum t = p + q + r + s is obtained
by connecting the terminal point of each vector to the initial point of the next.

1.6 Types of Vectors

1.6.1 Position Vector
The position vector of a point P relative to an origin O specifies uniquely the
position of P with respect to O, denoted by the vector OP.

1.6.2 Null Vector

A vector whose modulus is zero is called a null or zero vector and is denoted
by the clarendon symbol O.

1.6.3 Parallel Vectors

Where A and B are not null vectors and P is a constant, we write

A = PB

To mean A and B are parallel vectors of the same sense for p positive and of
opposite sense if p is negative and
p = ± |A|
|B|
[± Depending on the sense]
1.7. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION 13

1.6.4 Collinear Vectors

Any finite number of vectors which are parallel to the same straight line irre-
spective of their magnitudes are said to be collinear.

Thus we write b = xa

where x is a scalar for two collinear vectors a and b.

Given three vectors a, b, c if there exist scalars (x, y, z) not all zeroes such
that
xa + yb + zc = 0 and x + y + z = 0. Then said vectors are collinear. The
vectors with neither parallel nor coincidental directions are non collinear.

1.6.5 Coplanar Vectors

Vectors parallel to the same plane are said to be coplanar.
Given two non-collinear vectors a and b and two scalars x and y, we express
any vector r coplanar with a and b thus

r = xa + yb

When a vector can be expressed in terms of two or more vectors then they are
said to be coplanar otherwise non-coplanar.

1.7 Scalar multiplication

Where m is a scalar and p is a vector, remember that a vector has magnitude
and direction. The product of the scalar m and the vector p is a vector mp
with magnitude m multiplied by the magnitude of p and in the direction of
p depending on whether m is negative. If m = 0 then mp = 0 the null vec-
tor. In vector space Rn , given u=(u1 , u2 . . .un ) and m, then their product
mu = (mu1 , mu2 . . . mun )

1.7.1 Laws of vectors

Given three vectors p, q, and r and scalars x and y, the following laws are true
14 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

1. (p + q) + r = p + (q + r)

2. p + O = O + p = p (where 0 = zero vector)

3. p + (−p) = (−p) + p = 0

4. p + q = q + p commutative law

5. x (p + q) = xp + xq

6. (x + y) p = xp + yp Distributive law

7. m (np) = (mn) p Associative law

u
8. I (A) = |u|
((I = unity)

9. If p + r = q + r, then p = q (cancellation law)

Example 1.7.1 Let A = 2i + 3j + 4k B = 2i + 2j + 2k

Find 2A − B show that 2 (A + B) = 2A + 2B

Solution.
2A = 2 (2i + 3j + 4k ) = 4i + 6j + 8k

2B = 2 (2i + 2j + 2k) = 4i + 4j + 4k

2A − B = (4i + 6j + 8k ) − (2i + 2j + 2k )

= (4 − 2) i + (6 − 2) j + (8 − 2) k

= 2i + 4j + 6k

A + B = (2i + 3j + 4k ) + (2i + 2j + 2k)

= 4i + 5j + 6k

2 (A + B) = 2 (4i + 5j + 6k) = 8i + 10j + 12k

2A + 2B = (4i + 6j + 8k ) + (4i + 4j + 4k)

= 8i + 10j + 12k
Thus
2 (A + B) = 2A + 2B
1.8. LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS 15

1.8 Linear combination of vectors

The vector formed by the sum of the scalar products of n vectors P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn
and scalars m1 , m2 , . . . , mn (Q say) given by

Q = m1 P1 + m2 P2 + · · · + mn Pn

Is called a linear combination of the given vectors P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn

Whenever there exist scalars m1 , m2 , . . . , m2 (say) not all zeroes given vectors
P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn such that

m1 P1 + m2 P2 + · · · + Pn = 0

The vectors are said to be linearly dependent otherwise linearly independent.

OR

Where m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are unknown scalars. The vector equation m1 P1 +

m2 P2 +· · ·+mn Pn = 0 has the trivial/zero solution x1 = 0 , x2 = 0, . . . , xn =
0. The vectors are said to be linearly independent if the trivial solution is the
only solution, otherwise, if at least one mi 6= 0, then the vectors are linearly
dependent.

Example 1.8.1 Show that i − 2j + k, 3i + 2j − 2k and 2i − 6j − 3k are

linearly dependent.

Solution.
We have three vectors, if we can find three scalars x, y, z not all zero, such
that xp + yq + zr = 0

i.e. x (i − 2j + k) + y ( 3i + 2j − 2k) + z ( 2i − 6j − 3k) = 0

(x + 3y + 2z) i + (−2x + 2y − 6z) j + (x − 2y − 3z) k = 0

But i, j, k are non-coplanar, so we have

x + 3y + 2z = 0

−2x + 2y − 6z = 0
x − 2y − 3z = 0
16 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

OR  
 1 3 2 
 
 −2 2 −6  = 1 (−6 − 12) − 3 (6 + 6) + 2 (4 − 2)
 
 1 −2 −3 
= −18 − 36 + 4 = −50 6= 0

Hence they are nearly independent.

1.9 Direction Cosines

The cosines of the angles a vector q makes with the coordinate axes are called
the direction cosines of the vector q. Let q = xi + yj + zk and let α,β, γ be
angles which q makes with the positive directions of the coordinate axes (fig 6)

The magnitude of q p
|q| = x2 + y 2 + z 2
From triangles OVP, OWP and OGP, we have
x y z
cos α= , cos β= and cosγ=
|q| |q| |q|

respectively. These are the direction cosines.

Example 1.9.1 Find the direction cosines of r = 3i − 2j + 4k

1.10. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 17

Solution
q √ √
|r| = 32 + (2)2 + (4)2 = 9 + 4 + 16 = 29

x 3 −2 4
cos α= =√ , cosβ= √ , cos γ= √
|r| 29 29 29
 
Example 1.9.2 Given two vectors p bi + bj − 2k b and q (2 bi − 3bj − k
b )
relative to an origin O, find the direction cosines of Op, Oq and pq and the
angle between Oq and pq
Op = bi + bj − 2kb , Oq = 2 bi − 3bj − k
b
√ q √
|Oq| = 22 + (−3)2 + (1)2 = 14
p
|Op| = 12 + 12 + (−2)2 = 6

pq = Oq−Op
   
= 2 i − 3j − k − i + j − 2k = i − 4j + k
b b b b b b
q √ √
|pq| = 12 + (−4)2 + (1)2 = 1 + 16 + 1 = 18
The direction cosines of Op, Oq and pq are l, m, n corresponding to l1 , m1 , n1
and l2 , m2 , n2
1 1 −2 2 −3 −1 1 −4 1
√ , √ , √ ; √ , √ , √ ; √ , √ , √
6 6 6 14 14 14 18 18 18
respectively. Let the angle between Oq and pq be θ

Then cosθ = l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
√
(2 × 1) + (−3 × −4) + (1 × 1) 14 7
= √ √ = √ =
14 18 6 7 3
1

Note if Oq and pq are at right angles with each other then θ = 900

1.10 Equation of a Straight line

Let r be the position vector of any point C on the line which passes through
two given points A and B having position vectors a and b with respect to
an origin O.
18 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

Then, OA + AC =OC= a + AC = r

AC = r – a and OA + AB =b= a + AB

Or, AB = b – a. Since AC and AB are collinear, AC = t AB

i.e. r – a = t(b- a). Thus, the required equation of a straight line is r =(1-t)
a + t b.

Alternatively, Since AC and CB are collinear, we have scalars m and n, such

that

m AC = n AB

or, m(r-a)=n(OB-OC) = n(b-r)

i.e. (m + n) r =m a + n b

and
ma + nb a+b
r= if m = n, then r =
m+n 2
which is the required equation in the symmetric form.

Solved problems
Example 1.10.1 Let p1 = 2i − 3j + 5k and p2 = i − 2j − 2k. Find a unit
vector u parallel to their resultant vector.
1.10. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 19

Solution

Let R be their resultant vector, then

R = p1 + p2 = (2i − 3j + 5k ) + (i − 2j − 2k) = 3i − 5j + 3k

Magnitude of R
q √ √
|R| = (3)2 + (−5)2 + (3)2 = 9 + 25 + 9 = 43

Unit vector parallel to

b = R = 3i −√5j + 3k
R :R
|R| 43

Example 1.10.2 A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are the initial and terminal
points of a vector AB, find its magnitude.

Solution

Following the triangle law of vectors.

r1 + AB = r2 ⇒ AB = r2 − r1

= (x2 i + y2 j+, zk) − (x1 i + y1 j+, zk)

= (x2 − x1 )i + (y2 − y1 )j + (z2 − z1 )k
20 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

The required magnitude of the vector AB is

q
|AB| = = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

Which is the distance formula for the points A and B.

Example 1.10.3 Prove that if p , q and r are non coplanar vectors, then
xp+yq + zr=0 implies that x = y = z = 0.

Solution
Given that xp+yq+zr=0 and assuming that x 6= 0, we prove by contradiction.
Then, we can write xp= − (yq + zr)(i)

But −(yq + zr) is a vector in the plane of q and r, which implies that (from
(i)) p lies in the plane of q and r. This is a contradiction to the hypothesis
that p, q and r are non coplanar. Hence x=0. Similarly for y 6= 0 and z 6= 0.

Example 1.10.4 Prove that the coefficients of bi, j,b k

b of a unit vector are its
direction cosines.

Solution.
Let r̂be the unit vector. i.e. r̂ = xi + yj + zk
Or,
r̂ x y z
= i+ j+ k
|r̂| |r̂| |r̂| |r̂|
but
|r̂| = 1
x y z
l= , m= , n= i.e. x = l, y = m and z = n
1 1 1
Thus, the coefficients bi, j,b k
b of a unit vector are its direction cosines.

Example 1.10.5 Prove that the vectors 2i + j − 3k, i − 4k, 4i + 3j − k are

linearly dependent.

Solution
If we can find a set of scalars a, b, c not all zeroes, such that

a(2i + j − 3k) + b( i − 4j) + c( 4i + 3j − k) = 0

1.10. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE 21

i.e. (2a + b + 4c)i + (a + 3c)j + (−3a − 4b − c)k = 0

Since i, j, k are non coplanar, then

2a + b + 4c = 0
a + 0b + 3c = 0
−3a − 4b − c = 0

Solving, we obtain a = -3, b = 2, and c = 1. We conclude therefore that since

(i) is satisfied for non zero a, b, c the given vectors are linearly dependent.
22 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

1.11 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Prove that the vectors i − 3j + 2k, 2i − 4j − k and 3i + 2j − k are linearly

independent. Ans. The determinant of the coefficients =416=0

2. Determine a set of equations for the straight line passing through the
points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ). Ans. xx−x 1
2 −x1
= yy−y 1
2 −y1
= zz−z 1
2 −z1

3. A man walks due east at 4 km\h and his horse runs north east at 12
km\h. Find the velocity and speed of the man relative to his horse.
√
1
Ans. 160 − 48 2 2 km]h

4. Prove that p1 î + p2 ĵ + p3 k̂ are at right angles to each other.

5. Prove that if p and q are non- collinear, then xp + yq=0 implies x=y=0

p Show that the magnitude of the vector p = p1 î + p2 ĵ + p3 k̂ is |p| =

6.
p21 + p22 + p23

7. If the position vectors relative to an origin 0 of the axes of the points

p and q are 4î + 4ĵ − 7k̂ and 5î − 2ĵ + 6k̂ respectively. Find the direction
cosines of 0A, 0B and AB and the angle between 0A and AB.

8. Three forces P, Q and R acting on a particle are given in terms of

their components by the vector equations P=p1 i+ p2 j+ p3 k, Q=q1 i+ q2 j+
q
p3 k and R=r1 i+r2 j+r3 k. Find the magnitude of their resultant forces. Ans.
(p1 + q1 + r1 )2 + (p2 + q2 + r2 )2 + (p3 + q3 + r3 )2

9. An aircraft travels 200 miles due west, and 150 miles 600 north of west.
Find the resultant displacement.
Ans. Magnitude 304.1 (5037), direction 250 171 north of east (arcsin 3111/74)

10. Consider non-collinear vectors p and q, f ind x and y such that 3P

= 2Q

If P = (x + 4y)a + (2x + y + 1)b and Q = (y − 2x + 2)a + (2x − 3y − 1)b

11. Prove that the line joining the midpoint of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and has one half its magnitude.
1.11. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 23

12. Show that the equation of a plane which passes through three given points
A, B and C not in the same straight line and having position vectors a, b
and c relative an origin O, can be written as
r = ma+nb+sc
m+n+s
where m, n, s are scalars.

Sample Objectives Questions

1. Which of the following are scalar quantities a) time (s) b) force c) work d)
electric charge e) length

2. All of the following are vectors except

a) Frequency b) velocity c) Acceleration d) centrifugal force e) shearing

stress
_ _ _
3. A unit vector in the xy-plane which is perpendicular to 4 i −3 j +2 k is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
−j
i√ 3 i −4 j 3 i +4 j 4 i −3
√ j +2 k
A. 2
B. 5
C. 5
D. 29
E. None

4. The area
√of a triangle
√ whose
√ vertices are A (1,-1,2), B (2,1,-1) and C(3,-1,2)
1
is A. 6 B. 6 C. 2 13 D. 13 E. 13
_ _ _ _ _ _
5. The points with position vectors −40 i −52 j , 60 i +x j , 40 i −8 j
are collinear if x is A. -40 B. -3 C. 3 D. 40 E. 20

6. Two vectors are equal if

A. their magnitudes are the same B. their directions are the same C. they
originate from the same point D. they have the same magnitude and same
sense of direction E. None
 
7. If (~a × ~b)2 + (~a · ~b)2 = 256 and ~b = 2, then |~a| is equal to
 
A. 8 B. 4 C. 2 D. 3 E. 6
_ _ _ _ _
8. If 4 i + k and 2 i +3 j −2 k are the two sides of a triangle taken in
order, then its third side is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
A. 2 i −3 j +2 k B. 2 i +3 j +2 k C. 6 i +3 j − k D. 6 i +3 j + k
_ _ _
E. 6 i −3 j + k
24 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND SCALARS

_ _ _
9. The direction cosines of the vector 3 i − j +3 k are
3 −1 3 3 1 3 3 −3 3 3 −1 3
A. √ , √ , √ B. √ , √ , √ C. √ , √ , √ D. , ,
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 7 7 7
3 −1 3
E. √ , √ , √
7 7 7
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
10. If the vectors 2 i − j + k , i +2 j −3 k and 3 i +λ j +5 k are
coplanar, then λ is
A. 2 B. Â 21 C. -3 D. -4 E. -2
_ _ _ _ _ _
11. If the vectors x i + j , j + k and k + i are linearly independent,
then x is
A. -1 B. 1 C. -2 D. 2 E. 3.
Chapter 2

Scalar and Vector Products

2.1 Scalar (Dot) Product

Two vectors p and q can be multiplied in two ways, one way results in a real
number hence the name scalar (dot) product.

It is written p.q and read ‘p dot q’ given by

p.q = |p| |q| cos θ = pqcosθ
Where θ is the angle between the vectors p and q.

2.1.1 Properties of dot product

1. p.q = q.p = pq cos θ [it is commutative]
2. If θ = 900 i.e. they are mutually perpendicular then cosθ = 0 and p.q =
0 with respect to the rectangular axes, i, j, k , i.j = j.k = k.i = 0
3. If p and q are parallel vectors then
p.q = ±pq
Since either θ = 0 (same direction) or θ = π (opposite direction)
4. If p = q then
p.p = pp cos θ = p2

Or
q.q = qq cos θ = q 2

25
26 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

And i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 since i. j. k are unit vectors

Now, given p = p1 i + p2 j + p3 k and q = q1 i + q2 j + q3 k

Then p.q = (p1 i + p2 j + p3 k ) .(q1 i + q2 j + q3 k)

= p1 q1 + p2 q2 + p3 q3 (Property 4)

But p.q = |p| |q| cos θ = pq cos θ

p.q p1 q1 + p2 q2 + p3 q3
⇒ cos θ = = p p
|p| |q| ( p1 + p2 2 + p3 3 ) ( q 1 2 + q2 2 + q3 3 )
2

Example 2.1.1 Find the dot product of p = 2i − j + 3k and q =

(i + 2j − 3k) and then find the angle between them.

Solution.
p.q = (2i − j + 3k ) .(i + 2j − 3k)
= (2 × 1) + (−1 × 2) + (3 × −3) = 2 − 2 − 9 = −9
Let θ be the angle between them,
p.q
cos θ =
|p| |q|
q √ √
|p| = (2)2 + (−1)2 + (3)2 = 4 + 1 + 9 = 14
q √
|q| = (1)2 + (2)2 + (3)2 = 14
−9 −9
cos θ = √ √ =
14 14 14
 
−9
θ = cos−1 = 1300
14

Example 2.1.2 Determine x such that p = xi + 2j − k and q = i − j + k

are perpendicular
2.1. SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT 27

Solution.

If p⊥q then p · q = 0

(xi + 2j − k) · ( i − j + k) = x − 2 − 1 = 0

⇒x=3

5. For any scalars x and y or where x and y are scalars, then

xp · yq = xy (p · q) = (p · q) xy = p · xyq

6. Where p, q and r, are vectors

p · (q + r) = (p · q) + (p · r) (Scalar dot product is distributive)

Proof

Let three vectors p, q and r be as in fig (8b) such that w.r.t. an origin O,
OR = q + r

Now from the definition of dot product

p · (q + r) = |p| |q + r| cos θ = pq cos θ (∠QOP )

= P (OR) cos θ = P (OR cos θ)

= P (OT ) = P (OS + ST )
28 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

= P (OQ cos ϕ) + P (r cos θ)

= P q cos ϕ + P r cos θ (ST = Qu)
=p·q+p·r
Let us choose the x−axis along p and y−axis such that q lies in the xy− plane

i.e. p = p1 i , q = q1 i + q2 j , r = r1 i + r2 j + r3 k

Then p · (q + r) = p1 q1 + p1 r1

And p · q + p · r = p1 q1 + p1 r1

Hence p · (q + r) = p · q + p · r

7) If depending on whether the angle between p and q (θ) is acute, right angle
or obtuse i.e. cosθ is positive, zero or negative, so also the dot product p · q
will be positive, zero or negative.

8) Let θ be the angle between p and q, then the angle between p and (−q)
or (−p) and q will be π − θ and

p · (−q) = pq cos (π − θ) = (−p) · q

Or
p · (−q) = (−p) · q = −pq cos θ = −(p · q)
And (−p) · (−q) = p · q = pq cos θ

Since vertically opposite angles are equal

9) Where x and y are scalars

(xp) · (yq) = (xp) (yq) cos θ = xy (pq cos θ) = xy(p · q)

Example 2.1.3 Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of p = i + 2j +

4k and q = 2i + 5j − 3k without using the cross product.

Solution
Let r = r1 i + r2 j + r3 k be perpendicular to the plane of p and q, which means
that r⊥p and r⊥q

⇒ r · p = (r1 i + r2 j + r3 k) · (i + 2j + 4k ) = 0
2.2. APPLICATIONS OF DOT PRODUCT 29

= r1 + 2r2 + 4r3 = 0 ⇒ − r1 − 2r2 = 4r3 (1)

r · q = (r1 i + r2 j + r3 k) · (2i + 5j − 3k) = 0

= 2r1 + 5r2 − 3r3 = 0 ⇒ 2r1 + 5r2 = 3r3 (2)

Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously,

r1 = −26r3 and r2 = 11r3

r = r3 (−26i + 11j + K)

A unit vector in the direction of r;

r (26i + 11j + K)
r= =p
|r|
b
(−26)2 + (11)2 + (1)2

1
=√ (−26i + 11j + K)
798

2.2 Applications of Dot product

Dot product finds applications in projection of one vector on another and in
the work done by a force in moving an object from one point to another.
30 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

2.2.1 Vector projection

The projection of a vector q on another vector p fig (9) is

p·q
=
|p|

= q cos θ (where θ is the angle between p and q)

Since p · q = |p|q| cos θ

To express it as a vector, we multiply by a unit vector in the direction of p

  
p·q p (p · q) p
=
|p| |p| p2

Example 2.2.1 What is the projection of the vector p = 2i − 2j + 3k on the

vector
q = 3i − 2j + k

p · q = (2 × 3) + (−2 × −2) + (3 × 1) = 14

The projection of p on q

p·q 14
q √
= = √ : |q| = (3)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2 = 14
|q| 14

Now the projection of q on p is

p·q 14
q √
= = √ : |p| = (2)2 + (−2)2 + (3)2 = 17
|p| 17

2.2.2 Work done

Let F be a force acting at P in the direction PA now, let the point of appli-
cation of the force P move to Q. if ∠AP Q = 0 (Fig. 10), the work done W
by the force F in moving from the point P to Q is given by
2.2. APPLICATIONS OF DOT PRODUCT 31

W = F cos θ (P Q)

= F · PQ

Example 2.2.2 What is the work done by a force F = 7i + 4j − 3k in moving

an object from P(−2, 3, 3) to Q(3, 4, 2)

Solution

With respect to an origin O, the position vector of P OP = −2i + 3j + 3k and

OQ = 3i + 4j + 2k

So the displacement vector

PQ = OQ − OP

= (3i + 4j + 2k) − (−2i + 3j + 3k)

= 5i + j − k

Work done by the force F

= F · PQ = (7i + 4j − 3k) · (5i + j − k)

= 35 + 4 + 3 = 42units
32 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

2.3 Vector Product

A second method of multiplying two vectors p and q, called the vector or cross
product is defined as p × q = pq sin θb
n (‘read’ p cross q )

Where θ is the angle between p and q, n b is a unit vector normal to the plane
of the vectors, and they (p, q, n
b ) form a right-handed system.

We have defined p × q = pq sin θb

n

So their magnitude
|p × q| = pq sin θ
p×q
n
b=
|p × q|

2.3.1 Properties of cross product

1. p × q = −(q × p) [commutative law facts]

2. If θ = 900 i.e. p and q are perpendicular then sin 900 = 1 and

p × q = pq sin 900 n
b = pqb
n

And i × j = (1) (1) sin 900 k (k is a unit vector perpendicular to both i and j)

i×j=k

Similarly j × k = i , i×k=j , j × i = −k

k × j = −i , i × k = −j

Now if p = p1 i + p2 j + p3 k , q 1 i + q2 j + q3 k

= (p1 i + p2 j + p3 k ) .(q1 i + q2 j + q3 k)

= (p2 q3 − q2 p3 ) i − (p1 q3 − q1 p3 ) j + (p1 q2 − q1 p2 ) k

 
 i j k       
  p 2 p3   p1 p3   p p
j +  1 2
 
=  p1 p2 p3  = 
    i−   k
 q1 q2 q3  q 2 q3  q1 q3  q 1 q2 

= (p2 q3 − q2 p3 ) i − (p1 q3 − q1 p3 ) j + (p1 q2 − q1 p2 ) k

2.3. VECTOR PRODUCT 33

1. If p and q are parallel where p and q are not null vectors, then
θ = 0 which implies that sin θ = 0 and p × q = 0

2. If p = q, p × p = 0 and q × q = 0
since p × p = p2 sin 0n̂ = 0 ; ; q × q = q 2 sin 0n̂ = 0 also i × i = 0 =
j×j=k×k

3. Where x is scalar

x (p × q) = (xp) × q = p × (xq)

[Cross product is associative w.r.t scalar multiplication]

4. Where p, q and r, are vectors, then

p × (q + r) = (p × q) + (p × r)

(q + r) × p = (q × p) + (r × p)
[Cross product is distributive over vector addition]

2.3.2 Geometrical Interpretation of Vector Product

Let two vectors p and q represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram (fig.
11) with θ as the angle between them. The area of the parallelogram

A = pq sin θ = |p × q|
34 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

If we associate a unit vector nb with p and q such they form a right handed
system, with nb perpendicular to their plane, then we write the vector equation
of the area of a parallelogram

p × q = pq sin Ob
n

Note: the area of triangle OP Q = 21 (p × q)

Example 2.3.1 Find the area of the triangle ABC with vertices at A (2, 1, 3) , B (3, 2, −1),
C (−1, 1, −2.)

Solution
OA = 2i + j + 3k

OB = 3i + 2j − k

OC = −i + j − 2k

AB = OB − OA = (3 − 2) i + (2 − 1) j + (−1 − 3) k

= i + j − 4k

AC = OC − OA = (−1 − 2) i + (1 − 1) j + (−2 − 3) k

= −3i − 5k
1
Area of 4ABC = 2
|AB × AC| = 12 |(i + j − 4k) × (−3i − 5k)|
 
 i j k 
1  
=  1 1 −4 
2 
−3 0 −5 

      
1  1 − 4   1 − 4   1 1 
=  i −  j + k
2  0 −5  −3 −5   −3 0 
p √
= 1/2|(−5i − 7j + 3k)| = 1/2 (−5)2 + (−7)2 + 32 = 1/2 83sq units

2.4 Applications of cross/vector product

Applications of cross product can be found in the linear velocity V of a point
of a rigid body and in the moment M of a force.
2.4. APPLICATIONS OF CROSS/VECTOR PRODUCT 35

2.4.1 Linear velocity

Considering a rigid body rotating about an axis OA (fig. 12), with O as the
origin. If r is the position vector of a point P on the body, then the radius of
the circle in which P moves is given by r sin θ. Let w be the angular velocity
of p

V = wr sin θ = w × r

Example 2.4.1 Find the linear velocity of a point p on the body with posi-
tion vector relative to the point on the axis of rotation given by 3i + 2j − k, if
the angular velocity of the rotating rigid body is w = 5i − 2j + 3k

Solution: The expression for the linear velocity

V = w × r = (5i − 2j + 3k) × (3i + 2j − k)

 
 i j k       
   −2 3   5 3   5 − 2 
=  5 −2 3  =  i −  j +  k
2 −1  3 −1  3 2 
 3 2 −1 

= -4i + 14j + 16k

√
|V|= 468
36 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

2.4.2 Moment of a Force

The moment of a force measures the tendency of the force F to turn the body
about a point P (say) it is represented by a vector in the direction of the
normal to the plane containing PQ and F. (fig 13 ) let n b be a unit vector in
this direction, then, the moment of a force F acting at a point Q about a point
A is given by

M = |F | .P Q sin θn̂
= PQ × F
ρ
sin θ = ⇒ ρ = P Q sin θ
PQ
|M| = |AB × F| = F (P Q sin θ)
= Fρ
= Magnitude of the moment

Example 2.4.2 Find the moment of a force F = 4i − 2j + 3k applied at the

point Q(5, −1, −1) about P (3, 2, −1)

Solution: With respect to an origin O, we have the position vectors

OP = 3i + 2j − k and OQ = 5i − j − k

PQ = OQ − OP = (5 − 3) i + (−1 − 2) j + (−1 + 1) k = 2i − 3j
2.4. APPLICATIONS OF CROSS/VECTOR PRODUCT 37

Thus, the moment M of F about P of Q

= PQ × F

 
 i j k       
  −3 0   2 0 −3
j +  2
   
=  2 −3 0 =
  −2 i −  k
3  4 3   4 − 2 
 4 −2 3 

= −9i − 6j + 8k

Example 2.4.3 Find the area of the triangle with the vertices at A(2,1,-3),
B(1,-2,3) and C(-2,2,3).

Solution
With respect to an origin O, the

OA = 2i + j − 3k
OB = i − 2j + 3k
OC = −2i + 2j + 3k

AB = OB − OA = −i − 3j + 6k

AC = OC − OA = −4i + j + 6k

 
 i j k 
 
AB × AC =  −1 −3 6
  = −24i − 18j − 13k.

 −4 1 6 

p 1√
∴ Area of ∆ABC = 12 |AB × AC| = 1
2
(−24)2 + (−18)2 + (−13)2 = 1069sq units.
2

Example 2.4.4 Prove the law of sines for plane triangle.

Solution
Consider ∆ABC(fig. 13b) with sides a, b and c
38 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

Then a + b + c = 0 (1)
Multiplying (1) vectorially by a, we obtain

a×a+b×a+c×a=0

⇒ a × b = −(a × c) = c × a
|a × b| = |c × a|
Which gives
ab sin C = ac sin B
c b
⇒ = .
sin C sin B
Similarly, multiplying (1) vectorially by b, gives
a c
=
sin A sin C
a b c
∴ = = .
sin A sin B sin C
Example 2.4.5 Find the unit vectors perpendicular to both a = i − 2j + k
and b = 3i − j + 2k.

Solution
Note; a × b is a vector perpendicular to a and b, so we find a × b
 
 i j k 
 
a × b =  1 −2 1  = (−4 + 1)i − (2 − 3)j + (−1 + 6)k
 3 −1 2 
2.4. APPLICATIONS OF CROSS/VECTOR PRODUCT 39

= −3i + j + 5k.
p √ √
|a × b| = (−3)2 + (1)2 + (5)2 = 9 + 1 + 25 = 35.
The unit vectors perpendicular to both a and b are therefore
(−3i + j + 5k)
± √ .
35
Example 2.4.6 A rigid body is spinning with an angular velocity of 3 radi-
ans per second about an axis parallel to 2i − 3k passing through the point
(1, −3, −1). Find the velocity of the particle at the point (3, −4, 1).

Solution
If O is the origin of reference, with OA as the axis of rotation (fig14)

Unit vector along OA

A 2i − 3k
= = √
|A| 13
∴ the vector representing angular velocity of 3 radian parallel to 2i − 3k is
3
ω = √ (2i − 3k)
13
O0 O = i − 3j − k
O0 P = 3i − 4j + k
OP = r = O0 P − O0 O = 2i − j + 2k.
If P is the point at which the velocity is desired, the required velocity vector
3
ω × r = √ (2i − 3k) × (2i − j + 2k)
13
 
 i j k 
3  3
= √  2 0 −3  = √ (−3i − 10j − 2k).
13  2 −1 2  13
40 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

2.5 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Find the moment of force F = 4i+2j−k about the point A(−1, −1, −1)
applied at the point B(2, 2, 2). Ans −9i + 15j − 6k.

2. A rigid body is rotating at 1.2 radians per second about an axis AB,
where A(1, −2, 1) and B(3, −4, 2). Find the linear velocity of the particle
P at the point (5, −1, −1). Ans 1.2
3
(3i + 7j + 8k)

3. Show that a = 3î − 2ĵ + k̂, b = î − 3ĵ + 5k̂, c = 2î + ĵ − 4k̂ form a
right-handed triangle.

4. Determine p such that a = 2î + mĵ + k̂ and b = 4î − 2ĵ − 2k̂ are
perpendicular.

5. Find the projection of the vector p = î − 2ĵ + k̂ on the vector q =

4î − 4ĵ + 7k̂. Ans.(19/9)

6. Find the unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors

a = 2i − j + k and b = 3i + 4j − k and calculate the sine of the angle
between them.
r
(−3i + 5j − 11k) 155
Ans. √ , sin θ =
155 156

7. The point of application of the force (-2, 4, 2) is displaced from

(3, -5, 1) to (5, 9, 7) in such a way that the force is suddenly halved when
the point of application has moved half the distance. Find the workdone
by the force. Ans. 30 units

8. If a = 2î − 3ĵ − k̂ and b = î + 4ĵ − 2k̂, f ind (a+b) × (a-b) Ans.

20î − 6ĵ − 22k̂

9. Prove that the area of a parallelogram with sides p and q is |a × b|.

10. Find the moment about the point (1, 2, −1) of a force represented by
(3, 0, 1) acting through the point (2, −1, 3). Ans. (-3, 11, 9)

11. Prove that (α − β) × (α + β) = 2α × β

2.5. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 41

Sample Objective Questions

_ _ _ _
1. The projection of the vector 2 i −3 k on the vector 3 i +4 j is
5 −6 6 −6 6
A. B. √ C. √ D. E.
6 13 13 5 5
_ _ _ _ _ _
2. A particle acted on by constant forces 4 i + j −3 k and 3 i + j − k is
_ _ _ _ _ _
displaced from the point i +2 j +3 k to the point 5 i +4 j + k .
The total work done by the forces is, A. 20 units B. 24 units C. 40 units D.
16 units E. 60units
_ _ _
3. The moment about the point i +2 j − k of a force represented by
_ _ _ _ _
3 i + k acting through the point 2 i − j +3 k is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
A. 11 j +9 k +3 i B. − 3 i +11 j +9 k C. − 3 i +11 j −9 k
_ _ _ _ _ _
D. 3 i −11 j +9 k E. 3 i +11 j −9 k
4. A rigid body is spinning with an angular velocity of 5 radians per second
_ _ _ _ _
about an axis parallel to 2 i + j −2 k passing through the point 3 i − j
_
−2 k . The velocity of the particle at the point
_ _
4 i + j is given by
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
A. 10 i −10 j +5 k B. 10 i +10 j +5 k C. 10 i −10 j −5 k
_ _ _ _ _ _
D. − 10 i +10 j −5 k E. − 10 i +10 j +5 k
42 CHAPTER 2. SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS
Chapter 3

Differentiation and Integration

3.1 Differentiation of vector

We are familiar with derivatives of real valued function of one variable. Given
a function

dy
y = f (x) , its derivative dx
we know to be given by

dy d(f (x))
f 0 (x) = =
dx dx

4y f (x + 4x) − f (x)
= lim = lim
4x→0 4x 4x→0 4x
Where 4x and 4y denote small increments in x and y.

43
44 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

3.1.1 Vector function of one variable

Suppose t is a scalar variable and in some interval of t, there corresponds to
each value of t a value of vector V, then V is called a vector function of t and
we write
V = V (t) or V = f (t)
V (t) is a called a single valued function of t if corresponding to each value of
t, there exist only one value of V (t). And V (t) is said to be a continuous
vector function of t at t = a (say),

If limt→a V (t) = V(a)

i.e |V (t) − V(a)| can be made as small as possible by taking t sufficiently close
to a

3.1.2 Rules of vector Differentiation

The rules of differentiation of ordinary (scalar) calculus apply here provided
the order of vectors is a maintained wherever appropriate, like commutative
law of cross product etc.

If U, V, W are vector functions and ∅ is a differentiable scalar function of t,

below are some formulae of vector differentiation extended from the rules of
ordinary calculus.

d dV
1. dt
(∝ V) =∝ dt
(∝ is a constant)
d dU dV
2. dt
(U ± V) = dt
± dt

d d∅
3. dt
(∅V) = dt
V + ∅ dV
dt

d dU dV
4. dt
(U · V) = dt
·V+U· dt

d dU dV
5. dt
(U × V) = dt
×V+U× dt

d
 dU dV
· W + U · V dW
    
6. dt
(U · V · W) = dt
·V·W + U· dt dt

d dU dV dW



7. dt
[U × (V × W)] = dt
× (V × W) + U × dt
×W +U× V× dt
3.2. SPACE CURVES 45

3.2 Space curves

If we consider a space time curve, with the position vector r of the point a
vector function of time t, then r = x (t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k

As time passes, the terminal point of r describes a space curve with parametric
equations
x = f1 (t) , y = f2 (t) and z = f3 (t)
The vector function V(t) can be expressed in the form

V (t) = V1 (t) i + V2 (t) j + V3 (t) k

Where V1 (t) i, V2 (t) j , V3 (t) k are called the components of the vector along
the coordinate axes

We write r (t) = f1 (t) i + f2 (t) j + f3 (t)k

i, j, k are constant vectors so

d(v) dV1 dV2 dV3

= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
And
dr df1 df2 df3
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
d2 V
If we differentiate dV
dt
further, we obtain dt2
and in like manner, we obtain
higher derivatives. It is obvious now that

dr dx dy dz
V (t) = dt
= dt
i + dt
j + dt
k is the velocity, while

d2 r dV d2 x d2 y d2 z
a (t) = dt2
= dt
= dt2
i + dt2
j + dt2
k is the acceleration of the particle.

Example 3.2.1 Given the parametric equations of a particle along a curve

where t is time as

x = 8t2 − 2t , y = 2 sin 2t , z = 2 cos 2t

1. Find its velocity and acceleration at any time t

2. Find the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration at t = 0

46 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

Solution

The position vector is given by

r = x (t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k

= 8t2 − 2t i + 2 sin 2tj + 2cos2tk

The velocity and acceleration at any time t are

dr d d d
8t2 − 2t i + (2 sin 2t) j + (2 cos 2t) k


V= =
dt dt dt dt
= (16t − 2) i + 4 cos 2tj − 4 sin 2tk
dV
a= dt
= 16i − 8 sin 2tj − 8 cos 2tk

ii) At t = 0
V = −2i + 4j and a = 16i − 8k
p √ √
|v| = (−2)2 + (4)2 = 20 = 2 5
q √ √
|a| = (162 ) + (−8)2 = 320 = 8 5

d d d
Example 3.2.2 Find dt
(p · q) , dt
(p × q) and dt
(p · p) .Given p = 3t2 i −
2tj + t3 k
q = 3e−t i + 2 cos tk

Solution

1. d
dt
(p.q) = p. dq
dt
+ dp
dt
.q

dp
= 6ti − 2j + 3t2 k
dt
dq
= −3e−t i − 2 sin t k
dt
d
(p · q) = 3t2 i − 2tj + t3 k · −3e−t i − 2 sin t k



dt
+ 6t i − 2j + 3t2 k .(3e−t i + 2 cos t k)

= −9t2 e−t −2t3 sin t + 18 t e−t + 6t2 cos t

= −9t2 + 18t e−t − 2t3 sin t + 6t2 cos t

3.2. SPACE CURVES 47

Alternatively;

p · q = 3t2 i − 2tj + t3 k · (3e−t i + 2 cos t k)

= 9t2 e−t + 2t3 cos t

d d
(p · q) = (9t2 e−t + 2t3 cos t)
dt dt
= 18te−t − 9t2 e−t + 6t2 cos t − 2t3 sin t
= (18t − 9t2 )e−t + 6t2 cos t − 2t3 sin t
d dq dp
2. dt
(p × q) = p × dt
+ dt
×q
   
 i j k   i j k 
   
=  3t2 − 2t t3  +  6t
  −2 3 t2 

 −3e−t 0 − 2 sin t   3e−t 0 2 cos t 

   2   
 −2t t3  i −  3t −t
  t3   2
 j +  3t −t − 2t

=  k
0 − 2 sin t   −3e − 2 sin t   −3e 0 
     
 −2 3 t2  i −  6t −t
  3 t2  j +  6t −t
  − 2 
+  k
0 2 cos t   3e 2 cos t   3e 0 

= (4 sin t − 0) i − −6t2 sin t + 3t3 e−t j + 0 − 6te−t k

+ (−4 cos t − 0) i − 12t cos t − 9t2 e−t j + 0 + 6e−t k

= (4 sin t − 4 cos t) i + 6t2 sin t − 3t3 e−t − 12t cos t + 9t2 e−t j

+(−6te−t + 6e−t )k
= 4 (t sin t − cos t) i + 6t (t sin t − 2 cos t) − 3t2 e−t (t − 3 ) j

+6e−t (1 − t)k
d dp dp dp
3. dt
(p · p) = p · dt
+ dt
· p = 2p · dt

= 2 3t2 i − 2tj + t3 k · (6t i − 2j + 3t2 k)

= 6t2 i − 4tj + 2t3 k · (6ti − 2j + 3t2 k)

= 36t3 + 8t + 6t5
48 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

Example 3.2.3 Show that the necessary and sufficient condition for the vec-
tor function v(t) to have a constant magnitude is v · dv
dt
= 0.

Solution

Note v(t) · v(t) = |v(t)|2 =constant.

Differentiating w.r.t the scalar t, we have

dv dv
v· + ·v=0
dt dt

dv dv
2v · =0⇒v· =0
dt dt
dv
If v · dt
= 0, then
1 d(v·v)
2 dt
=0

or differentiation of, v · v = constant

⇒ |v|2 = constant.

d(u·v)
Example 3.2.4 Show that dt
= u · dv
dt
+ du
dt
· v if u and v are differentiable
function of the scalar t.

Solution
From the first principle, where ∂t, ∂u, ∂v are small increments in t, u and v

d(u · v) (u + ∂u) · (v + ∂v) − uv

= Lt∂t→0
dt ∂t

u · v + u.∂v + ∂u · v + ∂u · ∂v − uv
= Lt∂t→0
∂t
∂v ∂u ∂u
= Lt∂t→0 u · + ·v+ · ∂v
∂t ∂t ∂t
dv du
=u · + ·v+0
dt dt
∵ ∂v → 0 as ∂t → 0.
3.3. INTEGRATION OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS 49

3.3 Integration of Vector Functions

Integration or anti-differentiation as we know it is the reverse of differentiation.
Let V (t) be a vector function of scalar variable t as in the previous unit and
let there exist a vector u (t) such that

d
V (t) = {u (t)}
dt
We define the indefinite integral of V (t) w.r.t. t as
Z
V (t) dt = u (t) + C

Where C is an arbitrary constant vector independent of t and the definite

integral Z b
V (t) dt = [u (t)]ba = u (b) − u(a)
a

Now, if V (t) = V1 (t) i + V2 (t) j + V3 (t) k

Z Z Z Z
V (t) dt = i V1 (t) dt + j V2 (t) dt + k V3 (t) dt

R2
Example 3.3.1 Show that 1 r· dr
dt
dt = 5
2
given that r(2) = î−2ĵ −3k̂, r(1) =
2î + ĵ + 2k̂

Solution
R2
d d dr dr
dt = 12 [r · r]21


dt
(r2 ) = dt
(r · r) = 2r · dt
⇒ 1
r· dt

1
= [r(2) · r(2) − r(1) · r(1)]
2
1
= [(î − 2ĵ − 3k̂) · (î − 2ĵ − 3k̂) − (2î + ĵ + 2k̂) · (2î + ĵ + 2k̂)]
2
1 5
= [14 − 9] =
2 2
Example 3.3.2 If r × dr = 0 prove that r̂= constant vector

Solution
Let
50 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

r = xi + yj
 + zk ∴ dr = dxi + dyj + dzk
 i j k 

r × dr =  x y z  = 0
 dx dy dz 

i.e

(ydz − zdy) i − (xdz − zdx) j + (xdy − ydx) k = 0

or,

(ydz − zdy) i + (zdx − xdz) j + (xdy − ydx) k = 0

dx dy dz
⇒ = =
x y z
Integrating (i) the first two ratios, we obtain

log x = log y + log c1 ∴ x = yc1

(ii) the last two ratios, gives

log z = log y + log c2 ∴ z = yc2

Substituting in r, r = (yc1 )i + yj + (yc2 )k = y(c1 i + j + c2 k)

Now, r̂=unit vector in the direction of r

r y(c1 i + j + c2 k) c i + j + c2 k
= = p 2 = p1
|r| y c1 + 12 + c22 1 + c21 + c22

r̂ is a constant vector since it is independent of x, y, z.

3.3. INTEGRATION OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS 51

d2 r
Example 3.3.3 The acceleration of a particle is given by dt2
= 4 sin ti +
3 cos 2tj − 7t2 k

Find the velocity (v) and displacement (r) of the particle at any time t if they
are zero at t = 0.

Solution
d2 r dr dr
R R
Remember dt2
dt = dt
=v and dt
dt =r

Thus (4 sin ti + 3 cos 2tj − 7t2 k)dt = v = −4 cos ti + 32 sin 2tj − 37 t3 k + C1

R

Z
3 7 3 7
r = (−4 cos ti + sin 2tj − t3 k)dt = −4 sin ti − cos 2tj − t4 k + C2
2 3 4 12

At t = 0: v = 0 = −4i + C1 ⇒ C1 = 4i
3 7 3 7
v = −4 cos ti + sin 2tj − t3 k + 4i = 4(1 − 4 cos t)i + sin 2tj − t3 k
2 3 2 3
r = 0 ∴ 0 = − 34 j + C2 ⇒ C2 = 34 j
7 4
r = −4 sin ti − 34 (cos 2t − 1)j − 12 tk

Example 3.3.4 Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field
given by
F = 2xi + 5xzj − 6yk along a curve x = 2t, y = t2 + 1, z = 3t2 + t from
t = 0 to 1.

Solution
Let r = xi + yj + zk then, dr = dxi + dyj + dzk

∴ F · dr = (2xi + 5xzj − 6yk).(dxi + dyj + dzk) = 2x2 dx + 5xzdy + 6ydz

∵ x = 2t ⇒ dx = 2
y = t2 + 1 ⇒ dy = 2t
z = 3t2 + t ⇒ dz = 6t + 1
R
Total work done = C F.dr
Z 1
= [2(4t2 ) × 2 + 5(2t)(3t2 + t)(2t) + 6(t2 + 1)(6t + 1)]dt
0
Z 1
= [60t4 + 56t3 + 22t2 + 36t + 6]dt
0
52 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION
1
60t5 56t4 22t3 36t2

= + + + + 6t
5 4 3 2 0
60 56 22 36
= + + + +6
5 4 3 2
1 1
= 12 + 14 + 7 + 18 + 6 = 57
3 3
3.4. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 53

3.4 Miscellaneous Exercises

R
1. Evaluate F.dr where F = 2xi + 3xyj and C is a curve in the xy-plane
C
29
given by y = 2x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 2). Ans.
5
2. Find the velocity and displacement of a particle if its acceleration is
a = 12 cos 2ti − 8 sin 2tj + 16tk provided the velocity and displacement are
zero at t = 0. Ans. v = 6 sin 2ti + 4(cos 2t − 1)j + 8t2 k,
r = (3 − 3 cos 2t)i + (2 sin 2t − 4t)j + 38 t3 k

3. Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by
F = 3xyi − 5zj + 10x k along a curve x = t2 + 1, y = 2t2 , z = t3 from
t = 1 to 2. Ans. 303

4. Show that the necessary and sufficient condition for v(t) to have con-
stant direction is v × dv
dt
= 0.

5. A particle moves along the curve x = t3 + 1, y = t2 , z = 2t + 5 where t is

the time. Find the components √ of its velocity
√ and acceleration at time t=1 in
the direction i + j + 3k. Ans. 11 units, 8/ 11 units

6. A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are

x = e−t , y = 2 cos 3t, z = 2 sin 3t where t is time.
a. Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time t.
b. Find the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration at t = 0.
Ans. a. v = −e−t i − 6 sin 3tj + 6 cos 3tk, a = e−t i − 18 cos 3tj − 18 sin 3tk
b. v = −i + 6k, a = i − 18j

Sample Objectives Questions

1. If the vector function V~ (t) has a constant magnitude, then

dV~ dV~ dV~ dV~

A. = ~0 B. V~ . = 0 C. V~ × = ~0 D. V~ × = 0 E. N one
dt dt dt dt
Use the following to answer the next two Questions:
A particle moves along the curve x = 2t2 + 1, y = t3 /2, z = t + 3. Where t is
the time.
2. The velocity of the particle at time t = 2 is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
A. 4 i +6 j +2 k B. 4 i +6 j + k C. 8 i +6 j + k D. 2 i +3 j +4 k
54 CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

_ _ _
E., i +6 j + k
3. The acceleration of the particle at time t=2 is
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
A. 4 i +6 j B. 4 i +3 j C. 4 i +6 j + k D. 6 i +2 j E. 2 i +6 j
R1h _ _ _i
4. 0 (t3 + 1) i +(t + 3) j −t4 k dt is,

_ _ _
i _ _ _ _ k 3_ 7 _ k 5_ 7 _ 1_
A. + 2 j − k B. 2 i +7 j − C. i + j − D. i + j − k
2 5 2 2 5 4 2 5
3_ _ _
E. i +7 j − k
4
_ _ _ _ _ _ d
5. If ~a = t2 i −t j +2 t k , ~b = 2 t i + j −2 k then (~a · ~b) is
dt
A. 6t2 − 5 B. 6t2 + 5 C. 3t − 5 D. 3t + 5 E. 12t2 − 5
Chapter 4

Straight Line

4.1 Rectangular Coordinates

The plane is divided into four quadrant by two perpendicular lines intersecting
at a point O.The horizontal line X 0 OX is called the x − axis and the vertical
line Y 0 OY is called the y−axis while the two together are called the Coordinate
axes. The point O is the origin.
The distance from the y − axis is called the x-coordinate or abscissa of the
point ,while the distance from the x−axis is called the y-coordinate or ordinate
of the point .The two distances taken together are called the coordinates of the
point and are represented by the symbol (x, y). Abscissas are positive when
measured to the right of the y − axis and negative when measured to the left
. Ordinates on the other hand are positive when measured above the x − axis
and negative if below.

Figure 4.1:

55
56 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

4.1.1 Locating a point

There are two methods for locating a point in a plane. They are Cartesian
coordinates and polar coordinate.

Cartesian Coordinates
The two axes in a plane enable us to locate any point P in a plane by means
of its perpendicular distances. The point P is normally written in an ordered
pair (x, y).

Figure 4.2:

Polar coordinate
While the Cartesian coordinate system uses a pair of lines that intersect at
right angles, the polar coordinate system uses a point referred to as the pole
4.1. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 57

and a ray that emanates from that pole called the polar axis (or initial lines).
As shown in fig 4.3 below,

Figure 4.3:

the point O is the pole and the ray OX is the polar axis. P is a point in
the plane having both r (usually referred to as the radius vector of P which
is the distance between that point and the pole) and θ (usually referred to as
the polar angle which is the angle between the polar axis OX and the line
OP ). Thus, the notation (r, θ) in that order represents the polar coordinate of
point P. The angle θ is considered positive when measured in an anticlockwise
direction.
The consequences of the above definition is that the polar coordinate sys-
tem is not unique, i.e many pairs (r, θ) can represent the same point. For
example,
(i)The pole O = (0, θ) for all θ
(ii)Any point (r, θ) = (r, θ + 2nπ) for all integers n. Say (5, 30◦ ) =
(5, 390◦ ) = (5, 30 + 360n). This is because there is no distinction between
angles that differ by an integral multiple of 2π. Note however that a set de-
termines a unique point. If a radians (180◦ ) is added to second coordinate θ,
the result is equivalent to changing the sign of the first coordinate r.
i.e (r, θ + π) = (−r, θ)
In another words, (−r, θ) is the point whose distance from the pole is r but
lying in the opposite direction to (r, θ).

Relationship between Cartesian Coordinates (x, y) and polar coordi-

nates (r, θ)
Let P has the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, θ).
x
Then cos θ = ⇒ x = r cos θ
y
y
sin θ = ⇒ y = r sin θ
r
58 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

Figure 4.4:

p
Also r2 = x2 + y 2 ⇒ r = x2 + y 2
y y
tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan−1 ( )
x x
These equations enable us to convert from Cartesian to polar coordinates
system and vice-versa.

4.2 The straight line

Each point in the plane is given unique coordinates (x, y) with respect to a
right-handed Cartesian system of axes, OX, OY as shown in figure 4.1. The
axes OX and OY are called the x and the y − axes respectively.
Here x and y represent the distance of the point P (x, y) from the y − axis
and the x − axis respectively.

4.2.1 Distance between two points

Let P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) be two points in the plane. Let R and S be the feet
of the perpendiculars to the x − axis from P and Q and let the perpendicular
from P to QS meet it at T (figure 4.5) Then
Then
P Q2 = P T 2 + T Q2
where
P T = RS = OS − OR = x2 − x1
T Q = SQ − ST = SQ − RP = y2 − y1
4.3. GRADIENT OF A LINE 59

Figure 4.5:

Therefore ,
P Q2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 (4.1)
The above equation given the square of the distance between the two points
P (x1 , y1 ), Q(x2 , y2 ).

4.3 Gradient of a line

From the above figure (fig. 4.5), we define the gradient of the line P Q as
TQ y2 − y1
tan θ = =
PT x2 − x 1
Where θ is the angle the line makes with the positive direction of the x − axis.
In words, it is defined as
the difference in y-coordinates
the difference in x-coordinates
.
Note!
* Any line parallel to the x-axis has a zero gradient.
* Any line parallel to the y-axis has an infinite gradient.

4.4 Mid-Point of a line segment

Let N (x, y) be the mid-point of P and Q ,then from figure 4.6, we have that
4P QT ≡ 4P N T 0
60 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

Figure 4.6:

From which
PT 2
0
=
PT 1
i.e
x2 − x1 2
=
x − x1 1
⇒ x2 − x1 = 2x − 2x1
i.e
x1 + x2
x=
2
similarly,
y1 + y2
y=
2
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
Therefore, N will have coordinates ( , )
2 2

4.4.1 The coordinates of a point which divides a line

segment internally in the ratio p : q.
Let R(x, y) be a point on the line segment P Q as shown in figure 4.7. From
4.4. MID-POINT OF A LINE SEGMENT 61

Figure 4.7:

the similarity of the triangle P SR and RU Q in the figure,

PS SR PR p
= = =
RU UQ RQ q
In other words,
x − x1 y − y1 p
= =
x2 − x y2 − y q
which give
px2 + qx1 py2 + qy1
x= ,y = (4.2)
p+q p+q
as the coordinate of the point R which divides, the line segment P Q internally
in the ratio p : q

4.4.2 The coordinates of a point which divides a line

segment externally in the ratio p : q.
PR p
Let R(x, y) be the point on the line joining P and Q such that = From
RQ q
the similarity of the triangle P SR and QU R in the figure,
PS SR PR p
= = =
QU UR QR q
or,
x − x1 y − y1 p
= =
x − x2 y − y2 q
which give
px2 − qx1 py2 − qy1
x= ,y = (4.3)
p−q p−q
62 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

Figure 4.8:

as the coordinate of the point R which divides, P Q externally in the ratio

p : q Note! The result in equation (4.3) could be obtained from the one in
equation (4.2) by changing the sign of q.

4.5 The area of a triangle with given vertices

Let ABC be a triangle, where A, B, C are the points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and
(x3 , y3 ) respectively.
Area of 4ABC = Area of trapezium AP RC−area of trapezium AP QB−
area of trapezium BQRC.
1 1 1
= (AP + CR)P R − (AP + BQ)P Q − (BQ + CR)QR
2 2 2
1 1 1
= (y1 + y3 )(x3 − x1 ) − (y1 + y2 )(x2 − x1 ) − (y2 + y3 )(x3 − x2 ).
2 2 2
On simplifying we have

1
Area of 4 ABC = (x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x2 y3 − x3 y2 + x3 y1 − x1 y3 ) (4.4)
2
or equivalently,
1
Area of 4 ABC = (x1 (y2 − y3 ) + x2 (y3 − y1 ) + x3 (y1 − y2 )).
2
4.6. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE IN DIFFERENT FORMS 63

Figure 4.9:

The area of the triangle whose vertices are the origin (0, 0) and the points
1
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) is (x1 y2 − x2 y1 ).
2

The condition for three point to be collinear

Three points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) are said to be collinear if the area of
the triangle ABC is zero; i.e. (x1 y2 − x2 y1 + x2 y3 − x3 y2 + x3 y1 − x1 y3 ) = 0

4.6 Equation of a straight line in different forms

An equation of a straight line represents a relationship between the coordinates
x and y of any point on the line. It will be clear from the following that it
is always a linear relationship. That is, the equation of a line can always be
expressed as
ax + by + c = 0 (4.5)
64 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

where a, b, c, are constants and a and b are not both zero .Thus the equation
of a line is fixed by the two ratios of the constants a, b, c. The various forms of
the equation of a line are the result of different pairs of conditions specifying
the given line.

4.6.1 The equation of a straight line parallel to one of

the coordinate axes .

Figure 4.10:

For all position of P on the line AB, P C = OA. Hence

y=a (4.6)

is the required equation .

Similarly ,
For all positions of P on the line AB, CP = OA. Therefore

x=b (4.7)

is the equation of the straight line AB.

4.6.2 Equation of a line with slope m and intercept c on

the y − axis
From the figure, m, the slope of the line AP is given by
PB y−c
m = tan α = =
AB x
4.6. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE IN DIFFERENT FORMS 65

Figure 4.11:

or
y = mx + c (4.8)

Figure 4.12:

Recall that the slope of a line is the tangent of the angle which the line makes
with the positive direction of the x − axis and 0 ≤ α < π . For an acute
π
angle α (i.e 0 ≤ α < ), tan α is positive whereas for an obtuse angle
2
π π π
α (i.e ≤ α ≤ π), tan α is negative. For α = ,the slope tan = ∞.
2 2 2
Similarly the intercept 0 c0 can be positive,negative,or zero.
In particular, y = mx is the equation of a line through the origin (c = 0)
y = 0 is the equation of the x − axis (α = 0, slope = tan α = c) and
66 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

π π
x = 0 is the equation of the y − axis(α = , slope = tan = α).
2 2

4.6.3 Equation of a line with slope m which passes through

a point
.
Since the slope of the line is given to be m,its equation must be y = mx + c
where c is to be determined from the condition that it passes through (x1 , y1 )
which requires, y1 = mx1 + c i.e c = y1 − mx1 . Thus the equation can be
written as

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) (4.9)
Which manifests that the slope is m and that the line passes through (x1 , y1 ).
An alternative geometrical derivation is as follows: From the accompanying

Figure 4.13:

PB y − y1
figure (4.13),the slope of the line P A is m = tan α = = Or y−y1 =
AB x − x1
m(x − x1 ) as before.

4.6.4 Equation of a line through two given points A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 )

y2 − y1
Since the slope of the joining A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ) is , replacing m in
x2 − x1
equation (4.9) by this quantity, we have
y2 − y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 ) (4.10)
x2 − x1
4.6. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE IN DIFFERENT FORMS 67

as the equation of the line joining A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ). It can be verified im-
mediately that these two points, do lie on the line. The equation can also be
expressed as
y2 − y1
y − y2 = (x − x2 ) (4.11)
x2 − x1
The identity of the above two equations can be immediately verified.

4.6.5 The equation of a line in terms of the intercept

with the coordinate axes.

Figure 4.14:

Consider the line AB which makes intercepts a and b with OX and OY

respectively
From the formula for the equation of a line given two points (4.10)

x−a y−0
=
0−a b−0

x−a y
=
−a b
or
bx − ab = −ay
or
bx + ay = ab
68 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

dividing through by ab we have

x y
+ =1 (4.12)
a b

as the required equation.

4.6.6 The equation of a line in terms of length of the

perpendicular from the origin and the angle this
perpendicular makes with x-axis.

Figure 4.15:

Consider figure 4.15: in right angled 4 OAP , OA = r sec α.

In right angled 4 BOP , ∠BOP = 90◦ − α. OB = r sec(90◦ − α) =
pcosecα.
∴ the line AB makes intercepts p sec α and pcosecα with the axes. The equa-
tion required is then
x y
+ =1
r sec α rcosecα
x cos α y sin α
⇒ + =1
r r
or
x cos α + y sin α = r. (4.13)
4.7. THE PARTITION OF THE PLANE BY A LINE 69

4.7 The partition of the plane by a line

It is geometrically obvious that a line will divide the plane into two parts,
one consisting of the points which are on the line and the other points not on
the line. If the line has the equation ax + by + c = 0, the points on the line
are those which satisfy the equation of the line and the points not on the line
satisfy the inequality ax + by + c 6= 0. Again the point not on the line are
divided by the line into two parts consisting of the two sides of the line and
satisfying ax + by + c > 0 and ax + by + c < 0.

Figure 4.16:

Partition of the plane by the line ax + by + c = 0. If we take a > 0, the

right side of the line is represented by ax + by + c > 0 and the left side by
ax + by + c < 0. This result can the verified by taking x large and positive
and y finite (or x large and negative). Note that when a 6= 0 , we can always
rewrite the equation (if needed) with a > 0. If a = 0, then the equation is
y = c = constant. Which is a line parallel to the x- axis and we can represents
its two sides by y > c (the side above the line y = c) and y < c (The side
below the line y = c).

4.8 Parallel and Perpendicular lines

If two lines are parallel, their slopes are equal. Thus any line parallel to ax +
by + c = 0 has an equation ax + by + c0 = 0; the two lines having the same
slope as −a
b
.
Two line which are perpendicular to one another have the product of their
slopes equal to −1. To see it, let us examine the accompanying figure (figure
70 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

4.17. For line 1 the slope m1 is given by m1 = tan α, whereas for line 2, the
π
slope m2 = tan( + α) = − cot α. Therefore m1 m2 = −1.
2

Figure 4.17:

The equation of a line perpendicular to ax+by +c = 0 can therefore be written

−a b
as bx − ay + c0 = 0. The slopes of the two lines, being and respectively
b a
with their product equal to −1 (the coefficient of x and y have been exchanged
and the sign of one of them also changed).

4.9 The intersection of two lines

Two lines in a plane can be
i. identical: when they intersect at an infinite number of points,
ii. intersecting: when they intersect at exactly one point,
iii. non - intersecting: when they are distinct and parallel.
To find the point of intersection, we need to solve the equations of the two
lines simultaneously.
For instance, the point of intersection of the lines l1 and l2 whose equations
are a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is given by
c 1 b2 − c 2 b1 c 1 a2 − c 2 a1
x= ,y = (4.14)
a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 b 2 − a2 b 1
which exists if a1 b2 −a2 b1 6= 0 and then it is unique. The condition is equivalent
−a1 −a2
to ( ) 6= ( ) ,that is, the lines are not parallel.
b1 b2
4.10. THE PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE71

4.10 The perpendicular distance from a point

to a line
We require to find the distance P N of the point P (x1 , y1 ) from the line ax +
by + c = 0 where N is the foot of the perpendicular from the point to the line
.

Figure 4.18:

To calculate P N ,we draw P A parallel to x-axis to meet the given line at

A. Obviously, the slope of the line is tan α and P N = P A sin α. Now P A is
drawn parallel to the x − axis, therefore the point A has the y-coordinate y1
the same as of the point P since it lies on ax + by + c , its x-coordinate is given
−(by1 + c) −(by1 + c) −(ax1 + by1 + c)
by therefore P A = − x1 = .
a a a
a a
Again from tan α = − , sin α = − √ (if α is acute).
b a + b2
2
Then
|ax1 + by1 + c|
PN = √ (4.15)
a2 + b 2
Here we have introduced the modulus sign to indicate the positivity of the
distance. If the modulus sign is not introduced, the distance will be positive
for points on one side and negative for points on the other side of the given
straight line.
Also,
P N = 0 ⇔ ax1 + by1 + c = 0
72 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

⇔ P (x1 , y1 ) lies on the line ax + by + c = 0.

4.11 Examples
Example 4.11.1 Find the equation of a line through (1,0) which is parallel
to the line 2x + 3y = 5.

Solution.
Any line parallel to the line 2x+3y = 5 has an equation of the form 2x+3y = c.
Since it passes through (1 ,0), c = 2 × 1 + 3 × 0 = 2 thus the required equation
2
is 2x + 3y = 2. Alternatively,since the given line has slope = − the equation
3,
2
of the required line is y = − x + c1 where c1 is obtained from the condition
3
2
that it passes through (1,0)or 0 = − × 1 + c1 that is c1 = 23 or the equation
3
2 2
becomes y = − x + which is the same as 2x + 3y = 2 We can also use
3 3
eqn.(1.6) once the slope of the line and a point on it is known. This gives the
2
equation as y − 0 = − (x − 1) which again can be rewritten as 2x + 3y = 2.
3
Example 4.11.2 Find the equation of a line through (1,0) which is perpen-
dicular to the line 2x + 3y = 5

Solution.
2
The line 2x + 3y = 5 has slope − as earlier calculated by expressing it in
3
2 5
the form y = − x + . Any line perpendicular to the line will have a slope
3 3
1 3 3
− = and its equation will be y = x + c which c is obtained from the
2 2 2
−
3
3 −3
condition that it passes through (1,0), that is 0 = × 1 × c. or, c =
2 2
therefore
3 3
y = x − or 3x − 2y = 3
2 2
Alternatively,from the results in section (1.4) any line perpendicular to
the line 2x + 3y = 5 has an equation 3x − 2y = c where c = 3 as it passes
through (1,0).As in example(1.7.1),once the slope of the required line is known
3 3
as ,since it passes through (1,0),its equation will be y − 0 = (x − 1) ,which
2 2
can be recast as 3x − 2y = 3.
4.11. EXAMPLES 73

Example 4.11.3 Find the equation of a line parallel to 2x + y = 4 which

passes through the intersection of the lines 3x + 5y = 8, 2x + 3y = 5.

Solution.
The intersection of the lines 3x + 5y = 8, 2x + 3y = 5 is found to be (1,1) by
solving these equations simultaneously. The required line is to be parallel to
2x + y = 4,so its slope is to be -2 ,the same as of the line 2x + y = 4. Thus
its equation will be y − 1 = −2(x − 1)or2x + y = 3. Alternatively,any line
through the pair of intersection of 3x + 5y = 8, 2x + 3y = 5 has an equation
of the form 3x + 5y − 5 + λ(2x + 3y − 5) = 0, where λ is a real parameter.The
3 + 2λ
slope of this line can be calculated to be − . Equating it to the given
5 + 3λ
3 + 2λ 7
line 2x + y = 4, − = −2orλ = − .The equation of the then will be
5 + 3λ 4
7
3x + 5y − 8 − (2x + 3y − 5) = 0 which is equivalent to 2x + y = 3.
4

Example 4.11.4 Let D be the midpoint of the side BC of a triangle A(x1 , y1 )

, B(x2 , y2 ), C(x3 , y3 ). Find the coordinates of the point G on AD which divides
AD in the ratio 2 : 1. Show that the medians of a triangle are concurrent.

Solution.
x2 + x3 y 2 + y 3
The coordinates of D are ( , ). The coordinates of G which
2 2
x2 + x3 y2 + y3
divides A(x1 , y1 ) and D( , ) internally in the ratio 2:1 are
2 2
x2 + x3 y2 + y3
2× + 1 × x1 2× + 1 × y1
x= 2 ,y = 2
2+1 2+1
i.e
x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3
x= ,y =
3 3
x1 + x2 + x3 y 1 + y 2 + y 3
. On account of the symmetry of the coordinates ( , )
3 3
of G,this point lies on the other medians also. Therefore the median of a
triangle are concurrent.

Example 4.11.5 Find the equation of a line which passes throughA(x1 , y1 )

and is perpendicular to the line joining B(x2 , y2 ), C(x3 , y3 ). Hence show that
the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
74 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

Figure 4.19:

y3 − y2
Solution. The slope of BC is . Thus the slope of AD which is per-
x3 − x2
x3 − x2
pendicular to BC (and is therefore an altitude through A) will be − .
y3 − y2
The equation of AD is thus
x3 − x2
y − y1 = − (x − x1 ) or (y − y1 )(y3 − y2 ) + (x − x1 )(x3 − x2 ) = 0 Using
y3 − y2
symmetry, we can now write the equation of the altitudes through B and C
as (y − y2 )(y1 − y3 ) + (x − x2 )(x1 − x3 ) = 0. Adding the three equations we
get 0 = 0.Thus the third line passes through the intersection of the first two
or the three altitudes are concurrent.

Example 4.11.6 Find the area of the triangle A (2,3) B (-3,1),C (15,3), by
determining the length of the line segment BC and the perpendicular distance
of A from BC.

Solution.
−3 − 1 1 1
The slope of BC is = − The equation of BC is Y −1 = − (X +3)
+5 − (−3) 2 2
Or x + 2y + 1 = 0 (verify that this line passes through B (-3, 1) and C (5, -3)).
2×1+3×2+1 9
The perpendicular distance of A (2,3) from BC is √ =√ .
2
1 +2 2 5
Also p √ √ √
|BC| = (5 − (−3))2 + (−3 − 1)2 = 82 + 42 = 80 = 4 5.
4.12. EXERCISES 75

Figure 4.20:

1 9 √
Therefore area of triangle ABC = × √ × 4 5 = 18.
2 5

4.12 Exercises
1. Write down the gradients of the lines which are inclined to the positive
direction of the x- axis as the angles:
(i)0◦ (ii)30◦ (iii)45◦ (iv)60◦ (v)90◦ (vi) 120◦ (vii) 135◦ (viii)150◦

2. Find the gradient of the line joining (i) (1, 2), (2,3) (ii) (1,2), (-2,3) (iii)
(1,2), (2, -3) (vi) (-1,2), (-2,-3)

3. Given the points. A (2,5) and B(5,8), find

(i) The coordinates of the points C, D which divide AB internally and
externally, in the ratio 2:1,
(ii) The ratio CD:AB.

4. Find the equation of the locus of the point which is equidistant from two
given points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ). Show that it passes through the middle
of the given points. What does it represent geometrically?

5. The points A (0, 4), B(3,-2), C(-3,-5) form the vertices of a triangle. Show
that the triangle is right-angled and hence find its area.

6. In problem (5), find the length of the perpendicular from B to AC and hence
1
verify that the area calculated by multiplying |AC| with the length of
2
the perpendicular is the same as in problem 5.
76 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

7. In problem (5), find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular D from
B to AC and verify that BD is equal to the length of the perpendicular
from B to AC.

8. In each of the following, determine whether the points P and Q are on the
same or opposite sides, of the given line:
(i) P(2,3), Q(4 -1), line 3x + 2y = 7,
(ii) P(1,0), Q (2,5), line 2x − y = 1,
(iii) P(2,-5), Q(3,7), line 2x − y = 5,

9. Find the distance of the point A (4, 1) from the line 3x + 4y = 7. Find
also the coordinates of the point of the point B which is the reflection of
A in the given line. Verify that the middle point of AB lies on the given
line.

10. L is the line y = mX + c and is the line5x − y = 0

(i) Find the value of m if L is perpendicular toL0
(ii) What is the value of C if L is perpendicular to L0 and L passes
through the point A (-2, 3)?
(iii) L and L0 intersect at B. Determine the coordinate of B.
√
(iv) Find a point C on L0 such that BC= 26. How many possible
positions of C are there?

11. Show that the triangle with vertices given by (1,1), (3,2), (2,-1) is isosceles.
If this triangle is ABC with AB = BC, write down the coordinates of
B.
By finding the equations of the straight line, through C and A parallel
to AB and BC respectively, verify that the point D such that ABCD is
a rhombus has the coordinates (4, 0). Show that AC perpendicular to
BD.
Determine the length of the two diagonals of the rhombus ABCD. What
can be concluded about the rhombus?

12. A rhombus ABCD has a side with the equation 3x − y = 8 and a diagonal
with the equation x − 2y = −4.
i. Verify that the point A (3,1) lies on the given side
ii. Examine whether the given diagonal passes through A
4.12. EXERCISES 77

iii. Find the point of intersection B of the given side with the given
diagonal.
iv. Obtain the equation of the other diagonal
v. Show that the centre O of the rhombus has the coordinates (2,3).
vi. Find the coordinates of the remaining two vertices of the rhombus.

13. Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle
A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 )C(x3 , y3 ) and show that they are concurrent

Answer to Exercises
1 √ √ 1
1. (i) 0 (ii) √ (iii) 1 (iv) 3 (v)α (vi)− 3 (vii) -1, (viii)− √
3 3
1
2. (i) 1 (ii) − (iii) -5 (iv) 5
3
3. C(4,7), D(8,11), CD:AB=4:3.

4. 2x(x − x1 ) + 2y(y − y1 ) = x21 + y12 − x22 − y22

The perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two given joints.
45
5.
2
3√
6. 10
2
3 1
7. D (− , − )
2 2
8. (i) Same (ii) opposite (iii) opposite
9 46 47
9. Distance = B ( ,− )
5 25 25
1 13 1 5 3 15 1 5
10. (i) m= − (ii) C = (iii) B ( , ) (iv) C ( , )or(− , ) Two posi-
5 5 2 2 2 2 2 2
tions

√ x − 2y − 4 = 0 and 2 + y = 8
11. B (1,1).The equations of the two lines are
respectively. Each diagonal has length 10 . The rhombus is a square.
78 CHAPTER 4. STRAIGHT LINE

12. (ii) The diagonal does not pass through A. (iii) B (4 ,4) (iv) 2x + y = 7
(v) C(1,5), D.(0,2)

13. The perpendicular bisector of the side BC has the equation

   
y2 + y3 x 3 − x2 x 2 + x3
y− =− x−
2 y3 − y2 2
1 1
Or equivalently y(y3 − y2 ) − (y32 − y22 ) + x(x3 − x2 ) − (x23 − x22 ) = 0
2 2
Chapter 5

The circle

The circle is defined as the locus of a point which is at a given distance (called
the radius) from a fixed point (called the centre). The equation of a circle with
centre C(x1 y1 ) and radius r is obtained by equating the distance PC where
P(x, y) is any point on the circle with the radius r i.e.

Figure 5.1:

P C = r ⇒ P C 2 = r2 ⇒ (x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 = r2 (5.1)

Which can be written in the form

x2 + y 2 − 2xx1 − 2yy1 + (x21 + y12 − r2 ) = 0 We note the following features
of the equation of a circle :
i. It is a quadratic equation in x, y
ii. The coefficients of the terms x2 andy 2 are equal (and non-zero)
iii. The term in xy is absent.
Thus the general equation of a circle is of the form

x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (5.2)

79
80 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE

To obtain the radius and the coordinate of the centre, we re express equation
(5.2) in the form. (x+g)2 +(y +f )2 = g 2 +f 2 −c and compare it with equation
(5.1).Thus the equation x2 + p y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a circle with
centre (-g, -f) and radius r = g 2 + f 2 − c provided that g 2 + f 2 − c ≥ 0. The
equation (5.2) is known as the general equation of a circle. A point P (x1 , y1 )
is outside a circle of centre C(-g,- f) and radius r, if P C 2 > r2 , that is, if

Figure 5.2:

(x1 + g)2 (y1 + f )2 > r2 = g 2 + f 2 − c

The above condition is equivalent to
x21 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2f y1 + c > 0.
Similarly a point (x1 , y1 ) is inside the circle x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
if x21 + g12 + 2gx1 + 2f y1 + c < 0.

5.1 The equation of the tangent to the circle

We wish to find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 +y 2 +2gx+2f y+c =
0 at a point A(x1 , y1 ) on the circle. To find the slope of the tangent we
differentiate the equation of the circle with respect to x to obtain
dy x+g
=−
dx y+f
x1 + g
. Thus, the slope of the tangent at A(x1 , y1 ) will be − which gives the
y1 + f
equation of the tangent as y − y1 = (x − x1 ) or
(x1 + g)(x − x1 ) + (y1 + f )(y − y1 ) = 0 (5.3)
5.1. THE EQUATION OF THE TANGENT TO THE CIRCLE 81

which can be expressed as

xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1 ) + f (y + y1 ) + c = x21 + g12 + 2gx1 + 2f y1 + c = 0

. Thus, the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0

atA(x1 , y1 ) is given by

xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1 ) + f (y + y1 ) + c = 0 (5.4)

It can be immediately verified that A(x1 , y1 ) lies on the tangent. Again the
x1 + g
slope of the tangent is −
y1 + f

Figure 5.3:

x1 + g
Whereas the slope of the radius CA is . Thus the radius and the
y1 + f
tangent throughA(x1 , y1 ) are perpendicular to each other. Remark: In the
above, we have used the methods of calculus to obtain the equation of the
tangent. These methods have very wide applicability. However, for the case
of the circle in particular, we could have obtained the slope of the tangent
atA(x1 , y1 ) from the slope of the radius throughA(x1 , y1 ) since the two are
perpendicular to each other. The equation of the normal through A(x1 , y1 )
x1 + g
can be immediately written down as y − y1 = (x − x1 ) or
y1 + f

(x1 + g)(y − y1 ) = (y1 + f )(x − x1 ) (5.5)

Which evidently passes through the centre (-g, -f).

82 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE

5.2 The point of intersection of a line with a

circle
We solve y = mx + c and x2 + y 2 = a2 to obtain the possible points of
intersection of the line with the circle eliminates y, the x - coordinate of such
point is given by x2 + (mx + c)2 = a2 or

x2 (1 + m2 ) + 2mcx + c2 − a2 = o (5.6)

Which is a quadratic equation in x and can have at most two real solutions.
The discriminant in this problem is 4m2 c2 −4(1+m2 )(c2 −a2 ) = 4[a2 (1+m2 )−
c2 ]. Thus if c2 < a2 (1 + m2 ), there are two (real) points of intersection whereas
for c2 = a2 (1 + m2 ) the line touches the circle (the two points of interaction
coincide).If however c2 > a2 (1 + m2 ) ,the line does not intersect the circle in
any (real) point.
When the line y = mx + c touches the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 which requires

c2 = a2 (1 + m2 ) (5.7)
mc
The x - coordinate of the point of contact is obtained as − and then,
1 + m2
the y - coordinate is fixed by taking y = mx + c that is, the ordinate of the
m2 c c
point of contact is − 2
+c= .
1+m 1 + m2
In summary, the line y = mc + c touches the circlex2 + y 2 = a2 if c2=
mc c
a2 (1 + m2 ) and then the point of contact is given by − , .
1 + m 1 + m2
2

From c2 = a2 (1 + m2 ) it is evident that this point is indeed on the circle

x2 + y 2 = a2 . Given any m, there exist two equal and opposite values of c
given by c2 = a2 (1 + m2 ) such that the line y = mx + c touches the circle
x2 + y 2 = a2 . Again given any value of c such that c2 > a2 ,there exist two
equal and opposite values of m which make the line y = mc + c touch the circle
x2 + y 2 = a2 . These points are illustrated in figs, 5.4 and 5.5.
There are two values of c corresponding to a given slope m to make y =
mx + c touch the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 . Note that c1 = −c2
There are also two values of m corresponding to a given value of the inter-
cept c on the y-axis which make the y = mx + c touch the circle x2 + y 2 = a2
. Note that m1 = −m2 .
In fig 5.4, the two tangents meet the circle in points which are image of each
other about the origin while in fig 5.5, the two points of contact are reflection
of each other about the y − axis.
5.3. TOUCHING CIRCLES 83

Figure 5.4:

Figure 5.5:

5.3 Touching circles

Two circles can touch externally or internally as in figures 5.6 and 5.7.
For the circle to touch externally AB = distance between the centres =
r1 + r2 = sum of the radii. The point of contact then divides AB in the ratio
r1 : r2 internally For the circle to touch internally, AB= r1 − r2 where as in
the fig. 2.7 we have taken r1 > r2. Again the point of contact divides AB
externally in the rate r1 : r2 . The common tangent to the two circles is then
through the point of contact and perpendicular to the line joining the centres.
If two circle have the equations x2 + y 2 + 2g1 x + 2f1 y + c1 = 0
x2 + y 2 + 2g2 x + 2f2 y + c2 = 0
84 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE

Figure 5.6:

Figure 5.7:

Then the equation of the common tangent is obtained by subtraction as

2(g1 − g2 )x + 2(f1 − f2 )y + (c1 − c2 ) = 0 (5.8)

g1 − g2
Which obviously passes through the point of contact and has slope −
f1 − f2
which shows that this line in equation (5.8) is perpendicular to the line joining
f1 − f2
the centres,A(−g1 , −f1 ), B(−g2 , −f2 ) which has the slope
g1 − g2

5.4 Intersection of two circles

Given two circles x2 +y 2 +2g1 x+2f1 y+c1 = 0 and x2 +y 2 +2g2 x+2f2 y+c2 = 0,
the equation x2 + y 2 + 2g1 x + 2f1 y + c1 + k(x2 + y 2 + 2g2 x + 2f2 y + c2 ) = 0
represents a family of circles passing through the points of intersections of the
two circles. Which can be written as

(1 + k)x2 + (1 + k)y 2 + 2(g1 + kg2 )x + 2(f1 + kf2 )y + (c1 + kc2 ) = 0 (5.9)

5.5. ORTHOGONAL CIRCLES 85

It can be seen that this last equation represent a circle since the coefficients
of x2 and y 2 are equal and the xy term is absent. It is also a family of circles
since k varies.

5.5 Orthogonal circles

If the tangents at the point of intersection of two circles are at right angles,
then the two circles are said to be orthogonal. We now state the condition
under which two circles are orthogonal. Two circles x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
and x2 + y 2 + 2g 0 x + 2f 0 y + c0 = 0 are orthogonal if 2gg 0 + 2f f 0 = c + c0 . This
can be shown using the figure below :

Figure 5.8:

A and B are the respective centres of the circles ,with P as the point of
intersection. The circle x2 +y 2 +2gx+2f y+c = 0 has centre (−g, −f ) and that
of x2 +y 2 +2g 0 x+2f 0 y+c0 = 0 has centre (−g 0 , −f 0 ) which
p is denoted by A and B
respectively.The distance between the centres AB 0 2 0 2
p is (−g + g) + (−f + f )
2 2
. AP, the radius of the circle with centre p A is g + f − c.Similarly , BP,the
radius of the circle with centre B is g 02 + f 02 − c. But AP is perpendicular
to BP ,since the tangents at P are perpendicular.
∴ 4ABP is a right angle triangle. Thus AB 2 = AP 2 + P B 2 i.e (−g 0 + g)2 +
(−f 0 + f )2 = g 2 + f 2 − c + g 02 + f 02 − c0 . Simplifying gives

2gg 0 + 2f f 0 = c + c0 (5.10)

This is the condition that the two circles intersect orthogonally.

Another method of showing that two circles are orthogonal is by finding
the radius of each circle and then shows that the square of their sum is equal
to the square of the distance between their centres.
86 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE

5.6 Radical axis of two given circle

The locus of points which move so that the tangents drawn from them to the
two circles x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 and x2 + y 2 + 2g 0 x + 2f 0 y + c0 = 0 are
of equal lengths is given by 2(g − g 0 )x + 2(f − f 0 )y + c − c0 = 0 (The locus of
such point is known as the radical axis of two circles and it is a straight line).
We denote by (x, y) a variable point from which tangents are drawn to the
two circles. Then, the length of the tangent from (x, y) to those circles are
equal. i.e x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = x2 + y 2 + 2g 0 x + 2f 0 y + c0 ⇒
2(g − g 0 )x + 2(f − f 0 )y + c − c0 = 0 (5.11)
This is the equation of the radical axis and since the variable x and y are of
the first degree, the equation is a straight line. In case the two circles intersect,
the radical axis is the common chord of the circles, and the equation of the
common chord is as above.

5.7 Examples
Example 5.7.1 Find the centre and radius of the circle x2 +y 2 +4x+6y −3 =
0. Show that the line 3x − 4y + 14 = 0 is a tangent to the circle and find the
point of contact.

Solution.
The equation x2 + y 2 + 4x + 6y − 3 = 0 can be expressed as (x + 2)2 + (y + 3)2 =
4 + 9 + 3 = 16 = 42
Thus the centre of the circle is the point (-2, -3) and the radius is 4. Let us
3 7
solve the equation 3x − 4y + 14 = 0 or equivalently y = x + simultaneously
4 2
with the equation x2 + y 2 + 4x + 6y − 3 = 0 .
Eliminating 0 y 0 we obtain
3 7 3 7
x2 + ( x + )2 + 4x + 6( x + ) − 3 = 0
4 2 4 2
or
25 2 55 121
x + x+
16 4 4
or  2
5 11
x+ =0
4 2
22
which gives equal roots x = − .
5
5.7. EXAMPLES 87

Since the equation for x has equal roots, the line 3x − 4y + 14 = 0 touches the
22
circle at the point with x-coordinate − and y - coordinate obtained from
5
3 7 3 22 7 1
y = x + = (− ) + = .
4 2 4 5 2 5
 
22 1
The point of contact is thus − , .
7 5
Alternatively: from equation (5.7), the line y = mx + c touches the circle
2 2 2 2
x
 + y = a if c  = a2 (1 + m2 ) and then the point of contact is given by
mc c
− , .
1 + m 1 + m2
2
To use this result, we employ the transformation

X = x + 2, Y = y + 3

Or equivalently, x = X − 2, y = Y − 3 to transform the circle to X 2 + Y 2 =

42 and the line 3x − 4y + 14 = 0 to 3(X − 2) − 4(Y − 3) + 14 = 0 or to
3X − 4Y + 20 = 0 which is the same as
3
Y = X + 5.
4
3
With m = , c = 5, one can immediately see that the condition
4
c2 = a2 (1 + m2 )

is verified. The point of contact has the coordinates

22 1
(− , ).
7 5

Example 5.7.2 Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 + 10x +
6y + 25 = 0 from the origin.

Solution.
Any line which passes through the origin (0,0) has an equation y = mx.
We wish to calculate m such that this line is a tangent to the given circle.
Eliminating y, we have the equation

x2 + m2 x2 + 10x + 6mx + 25 = 0
88 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE

or
x2 (1 + m2 ) + (10 + 6m)x + 25 = 0
for the x- coordinate of the points where the line meets the circle. The two
points will coincide if

(10 + 6m)2 = 4 + 25(1 + m2 )

Or
(5 + 3m)2 = 25(1 + m2 ) or 16m2 = 30m
15
i.e. m = oor
8
The two tangents from the origin to the circle x2 + y 2 + 10x + 6y + 25 = 0
15
have the equations y = 0 and y = .
8
Example 5.7.3 Find the equation of the circle with the line joining the points
(6, 0), (0, 8) as a diameter.

Solution.
First solution: The center is the midpoint (3, -4) of the ends, (6, 0), (0, 8)
of a diameter. The radius is the distance
p between the centre √ (3, -4) and any
point say (6, 0) on the circle r = (6 − 3 ) + (0 − (−4)) = 32 + 42 = 5 ∴
2 2

the equation of the circle is

(x − 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 52
Or x2 + y 2 − 6x + 8y = 0.
Second solution: let the diameter be AB where A, B have coordinates (6,
0), (0, -8) respectively. For any point p(x, y) on the circle P A ⊥ P B. Then
y y+8
(Slope PA) (Slope PB) = -1 But slope PA = , slopeP B = .
x−6 x
y(y + 6)
∴ = −1 or x2 + y 2 − 6x + 8y = o as before.
x(x − 6)

Example 5.7.4 Find the equation of the common chord to the circles x2 +
y 2 + 8x + 12y + 22 = 0 and x2 + y 2 − 6x − 8y − 10 = 0. Hence show that
this common chord is perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the two
circles.

Solution.
We can either use the given formula for the equation of a common chord (which
is the radical axis) or equating to zero, the expression corresponding to the
difference of the two circles, i,e x2 +y 2 +8x+12y+22−(x2 +y 2 −6x−8y−10) = 0
5.8. EXERCISES 89

7
or 14x+20y +32 = 0 i.e 7x+10y +16 = 0 The gradient of the line is − ,since
10
7 16
y = − x + . The centres of the two circles are respectively (-4,-6) and
10 10
4 − (−6) 10
(3,4). Therefore, the gradient of the line joining them is = . Now
3 − (−4) 7
the product of the two gradients (i.e the common chord and the line joining
10 7
the centres of the circles) is (− ) = −1. Therefore, the common chord and
7 10
the line joining the centres are perpendicular.

5.8 Exercises
1. Examine the equation in each of the following to determine whether it
represents a circle or not . For the case, where the equation represent a
circle, find the centre and the radius .For the case, where the equation
does not represented circle, give reason for the conclusion.
9
i. x2 + y 2 + 5x − 3y + = 0
4
2 2
ii. 2x + 2y + 8x + 6y = 0
iii. 2x2 + 3y 2 + 8x + 6y + 7 = 0
iv. x2 + y 2 + 4xy + 3x + 6y + 15 = 0
v. x2 + y 2 + 4x + 6y + 14 = 0

2. In each of the following, a circle and a point is given verify that the point
lies on the circle and obtain the equation of the tangent to the circle at
that point
9 3
i. x2 + y 2 + 5x − 3y + = 0, (0, )
4 2
2 2
ii. 2x + 2y + 2x + 6y = 0, (1, −2)
iii. x2 + y 2 + x + 4y − 2 = 0, (2, −2)

3. In each of the following, a circle and a point is given determine whether

the point is inside or outside the circle. If the point is outside the circle,
find the equation of the two tangents from the point to the circle.
i. x2 + y 2 + 2x + 8y = 0, (4, −1)
ii. x2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y + 8 = 0, (2, 0)
iii. x2 + y 2 − 4x + 5y + 7 = 0, (2, −3)
90 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE

iv. −x2 − y 2 + 5 = 0, (1, 0)

4. Show in each of the following cases, that the given pairs of circles touch
each other . State whether the contact is external or internal.Determine
the point of contact and the equation of the common tangent. Verify
that the point of contact lies on the common tangent.
i. x2 + y 2 + 2x − 4y + 1 = 0, x2 + y2 − 6x − 10y + 25 = 0
ii.x2 + y 2 + 2x − 4y + 1 = 0, 5x2 + 5y 2 + 18x − 14y − 19 = 0

5. Find the equation of a circle which has its centre as (2,-3) and passes
through (5,-7).

6. Find the equation of a circle which has the line segment between A (3,4)
and B(7,1) as a diameter.

7. The line y + 6 = 0 touches the circle x2 + y 2 − 2λ + 6y + 1 = 0. Find the

value of λ such that the circle x2 + y 2 − 2x + 6y + 1 + λ(y + 6) = 0 has
radius 1 and touches the given circle (i) internally, (ii) externally.

8. Find the equation of a circle which passes through (0,4), (-1,3) and (-2,4).

9. Show that the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 +y 2 = a2 at (x1 , y1 ) is

xx1 +yy1 = a2 . Comparing this with the equation y = mx + c, show that
the line y = mx + c is a tangent to the circle x2 +y 2 = a2 if c2 = a2 (l+m2 ).
Find also the point of contact.

10. Show that the point (a cos θ, a sin θ) lies on the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 for
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. (This gives a parametric representation of the circle where
θ is the parameter). Write down the equation of the tangent to the circle
at (a cos θ, a sin θ) and show that the line y = mx + c will be a tangent if
(m2 +1)a2 = c2 . Find the point of contact. This tangent meets the x-axis
and the y- axis at the points B and C . Find the coordinates of B and C.
1 1 4
Show that the locus of the mid-point of BC is the curve 2 + 2 = 2 .
x y a

Answer to Exercises
5 3 5
1. (i) Represents a circle with centre (− , ) and radius = .
2 2 2
3 5
(ii) Represents a circle with centre (−2, − ) and radius= .
2 2
5.8. EXERCISES 91

(iii) It does not represent a circle since the coefficients of x2 and y 2 are
not equal.
(iv) It does not represent a circle since it contains a term in xy .
(v) It does not represent a circle since r2 = 22 + 32 − 14 < 0 which is
impossible.

2. (i)x = 0
(ii)3x − y − 5 = 0
(iii) x = 2 .

3. (i) Outside, equation of the two tangents are x + 4y = 0, 4x − y − 17 = 0

(ii) Outside, equation of the two tangents are 2x+y−4 = 0, 2x+11y−4 =
0
(iii) inside
(iv) inside

4. (i) The centres are A(-1,2), B(3,5) ∴ AB = 5

√ √
Also r1 = 12 + 22 − 1 = 2, r2 = 32 + 52 − 25 = 3
∴ AB = r1 + r2 .
3 16
The contact is external . Point of contact is ( , )
5 5
Common tangent is 4x + 3y − 12 = 0
9 7
(ii) The centres are at A (-1,2) and B (− , ) and radii are r1 = 2, r2 = 3
5 5
.
r
16 9
Also AB = + =1
25 25
∴ Contact is internal
3 16
Point of contact : ( , )
5 5
Common tangent is 4x + 3y − 12 = 0

5. (x − 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 52 ⇒ x2 + y 2 − 4x + 6y − 12 = 0

6. x2 + y 2 − 10x − 5y + 25 = 0

7. (i) λ = 4, (ii) λ = 8.

8. x2 + y 2 + 2x − 8y + 16 = 0
92 CHAPTER 5. THE CIRCLE
 
−mc c
9. point of contact is ,
1 + m 1 + m2
2

10. Equation of the tangent at (a cos θ, a sin θ) is x cos θ + y sin θ = a.

2
The line y= mx + c touches  the circle x + y 2 = a2 if c2 = a2 (1 + m2 )
−mc c a a
and the point of contact is 2
, 2
. B( , 0), C(0, )
1+m 1+m cos θ sin θ
Chapter 6

Basic Definitions

6.1 Introduction
The term ’Conic sections’ is coined from the different sections that are obtain-
able when a cone is dissected along different paths. Trivially, one can observe
a cone as having only a circular base and a slanting height. However, a
critical observation of cone reveals that there exist different shapes in a cone
when it is dissected following different specifications.

6.1.1 Circle
The most trivial section in a cone is the circle. This could be observed without
performing any dissection on the cone. However, if a cone is sliced parallel to
the circular base, the revealed surfaces are same as the circular base except
that the radius of the obtained circles decreases as the dissections increases
towards the apex of the cone. This is illustrated in Figure 6.1.

In this chapter, we will not discuss circle since it has been treated in the
earlier chapter.
The chapter will be dedicated to discussions on parabola, ellipse and hy-
perbola. We shall now discuss how the three geometrical shapes are obtained
from the cone.

6.1.2 Parabola
Another geometrical surface which can be obtained from the different sections
of a cone is called the parabola. This shape is obtained when a cone is sliced

93
94 CHAPTER 6. BASIC DEFINITIONS

Figure 6.1: Dissection line parallel to the base shows circle

parallel to the slanting side. Figure 6.2 shows how the cone is dissected to
obtain a parabola.

Figure 6.2: Dissection line parallel to a slanting side: Parabola

6.1.3 Ellipse
It is interesting to note that another shape is obtainable from the cone and
that is called the ellipse. To obtain an ellipse, the cone is dissected at an
orientation that is neither parallel to the circular base nor the slanting
side. The shape of the ellipse is shown in Figure 6.3.
6.2. BASIC TERMINOLOGIES 95

Figure 6.3: Dissection line neither parallel to the base nor the slanting side:
Ellipse

6.1.4 Hyperbola
When two cones are conjoined by their apexes and a dissection is performed
vertically parallel to the perpendicular height. the geometrical shape
so obtained is called a hyperbola.

Note! A hyperbola has two ’disjointed’ twin-curves that looked like parabola;
but in reality, it is not a parabola. This shape is shown in Figure 6.4.

6.2 Basic terminologies

This section is dedicated to the descriptions of some of the basic terminologies
that are involved in conic sections. The described terminologies play very
important roles in distinguishing each of the conic section from another. In
addition, the mathematical equations of each of the of the conic sections are
built around these important terminologies.
The next paragraph gives a statement that best describes the three basic terms
and their uses in the determination of each of the conic sections.

6.2.1 Conic sections as loci

Conic sections is considered as a locus of points that moves in such a man-
ner that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point (called the focus)to its
96 CHAPTER 6. BASIC DEFINITIONS

Figure 6.4: Dissection line vertically parallel to the perpendicular height: Hy-
perbola

perpendicular distance from a straight line(called the directrix) is constant

(called the eccentricity)

6.2.2 Focus
This is a fixed point around which the locus of points moves in a specified
manner. A parabola has a focus while an ellipse as well as a hyperbola each
has two foci.

6.2.3 Directrix
This is a straight line in the plane from which a perpendicular distance is
measured to the locus and compared to the distance from the focus.
A parabola has one directrix while ellipse and hyperbola have two directrices
each.

6.2.4 Eccentricity
The ratio of the focus-locus distance to the locus-directrix distance is called
the eccentricity (e) of the conic sections. Eccentricity is the discriminating
criteria that distinguish each of the different conic sections.
6.2. BASIC TERMINOLOGIES 97

When e = 1, it means that the focus-locus distance is equal to the locus-

directrix distance and the locus describes a parabola. Also When e < 1, it
means that the focus-locus distance is less than the locus-directrix distance
and the locus describes an ellipse. If however, e > 1, it means that the focus-
locus distance exceeds the locus-directrix distance and the locus describes a
hyperbola.

6.2.5 Axis of the conic sections

The straight line on which the focus or foci of the conic section lies is called
the axis of the conic section. In the case of ellipse, there is another axis other
than the axis of the ellipse. Therefore the axis of the ellipse is called the ma-
jor axis while the other is called the minor axis.

It should be noted that the directrix is always perpendicular to the axis of the
conic section.

6.2.6 Vertex
The point on the locus where the focus-locus distance is minimal is called the
vertex of the conic section. By observation, it is found that the vertex is the
point of intersection of the locus with the axis of the conic section.

With these few definitions, we can proceed to the next chapter to discuss
the details of Parabola.
98 CHAPTER 6. BASIC DEFINITIONS
Chapter 7

Parabola

As defined in the last chapter, a parabola is the locus of points that moves
such that its focus-locus distance is equal to the locus-directrix distance. To
introduce the reader to this concept, we shall illustrate it with special cases in
which the axis of the parabola is parallel to either the x or the y axis.

Figure 7.1: Construction of a parabola

In figure 7.1, the line x = −a is the directrix while the point F (a, 0) is the

99
100 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

focus of the parabola. P (x, y) is the moving point with the distance F P = d1
to the focus and perpendicular distance P Q = d2 to the directrix.

By definition of a parabola,
FP
=1
PQ
=⇒ F P = P Q
or d1 = d2

Hence, p p
(x − a)2 + y 2 = (x + a)2 .
Squaring both sides gives

(x − a)2 + y 2 = (x + a)2

Expanding and collecting like terms, we have

y 2 = 4ax

.
This is the standard equation of a parabola which is symmetrical about the
x axis. The axis of the parabola is the xaxis while the vertex is at the origin
(0, 0).

Other parabolas with vertices at the origin are presented in figure 7.2
 101

Figure 7.2: Different parabolas with vertices at the origin

Lactus Rectum
The line segment LR in figure 7.2 is called the lactus rectum of the parabola.
This is the straight line through the focus and perpendicular to the axis of the
parabola.

To obtain the length of the lactus rectum, substitute x = a into the equa-
102 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

tion y 2 = 4ax and solve for y:

y 2 = 4a(a) = 4a2

=⇒ y = ±2a
Hence,
LR = 2(2a) = 4a
.

To obtain the equation of a parabola whose vertex is at a general point (h, k),
we just have to translate the coordinates to (x, y) −→ (x − h, y − k) and the
equation of parabola becomes

(y − k)2 = 4a(x − h)

In such a situation the position of the focus also shifts to

F (a + h, k)

while the equation of the directrix becomes (x − h) = −a or x = h − a. In

addition, the equation of the axis of the parabola becomes y = k

Example 7.0.1 Find the equation of the parabola whose axis is the x − axis,
vertex is at origin and the position of its focus is at (3, 0). Find also the
equation of its directrix.

Solution.
Since the axis of the parabola is the x − axis and the vertex is at the origin,
the equation is of the form
y 2 = 4ax

Also, the focus is at (3, 0) implies that a = 3. In this situation, the equation
of the parabola becomes
y 2 = 4 × 3x
or
y 2 = 12x
The equation of the directrix is x = −a and that is x = −3 since a = 3.
7.1. GENERAL EQUATION OF A PARABOLA 103

Example 7.0.2 Plot and describe the parabola (x − 3)2 = −8(y + 4).

Solution.
This is the type that opens downward (Since 4b = −8, and b = −2). Also, the
vertex is at (h, k) = (3, −4) and the focus is at (h, k + b) = (3, −6) (see figure
7.3).

Figure 7.3: (x − 3)2 = −8(y + 4)

The axis of the parabola is x = h; that is x = 3 and the equation of the

directrix is y = k − b =⇒ y = −4 + 2 or y = −2
With these points and lines located on the parabola: the vertex, focus, axis,
directrix. It is possible to sketch the parabola as shown in figure 7.3.

7.1 General equation of a parabola

A parabola is generally represented by an equation that is either quadratic in
x and linear in y or quadratic in y and linear in x.
The general equation of a parabola is given as

ax2 + bx + cy + d = 0 (7.1)

or
ay 2 + by + cx + d = 0 (7.2)
104 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

To be able to give a full description of the parabola whose equation is pre-

sented in equation (7.1), the equation is transformed to standard form by
completion of the squares of the quadratic terms to get
b c d
x2 + x = − y −
a a a
or  2  2
2 b b c d b
x + x+ =− y− +
a 2a a a 2a
Hence,
2 2
4ad − b2
 
b c
x+ =− y+
2a a 4ac

Example 7.1.1 Given x2 − 6x − 8y + 1 = 0. Transform the equation to

standard form and give a full description of the parabola.

Solution.
By completing the square in x, we have

x2 − 6x + (−3)2 = 8y − 1 + (−3)2

or
(x − 3)2 = 8y + 8
Hence,
(x − 3)2 = 8(y + 1)
.
This equation describes a parabola with vertex at (3, −1). Also, 4a = 8 =⇒
a = 2 and the parabola opens upward. The focus is 2 units above the vertex
at (3, 1) while the directrix is the line y = −3. The axis of the parabola is the
line x = 3 while the length of the lactus rectum is 4a; which is 4(2) = 8 units.

Note that when y = 0 is substituted into the equation, the parabola crosses
the x-axis at the point that are the roots of the equation x2 − 6x + 1 = 0.
These are approximately 0.2 and 5.8.

7.2 Tangents and normals to a parabola

Consider the parabola
y 2 = 4ax.
7.2. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO A PARABOLA 105

The slope of the parabola at any point P (x1 , y1 ) on the parabola is obtained
by differentiating the equation and setting x, y −→ x1 , y1 . That is;
dy
2y = 4a
dx
or
dy 2a
=
dx y
so that 
dy  2a
=
dx  y1

(x1 ,y1 )

A straight line that touches the parabola at the point P (x1 , y1 ) is called the
tangent to the parabola at that point. This line has the same slope as that
of the parabola. Thus, the equation of the tangent to the parabola is
2a
y − y1 = (x − x1 ) (7.3)
y1
or
yy1 − y12 = 2a(x − x1 )

y1
On the other hand, the slope of the normal at the point P (x1 , y1 ) is − .
2a
Hence, the equation of the normal is given as is
y1
y − y1 = − (x − x1 ) (7.4)
2a
or
2ay − 2ay1 + y1 x − y1 x1 = 0

Example 7.2.1 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola
x2 − 6x − 8y + 1 = 0 at the point (1, − 21 ).

Solution.
Differentiating the equation, we have
dy
2x − 6 − 8 =0
dx
so that
dy 2x − 6
=
dx 8
106 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

and 
dy  1
=−
dx  2

(1,− 21 )
.
The equation of the tangent therefore is
1 1
y+ = − (x − 1)
2 2
or
2y + x = 0

The equation of the normal on the other hand is (the slope of the normal is 2)
1
y+ = 2(x − 1)
2
or
2y − 4x + 5 = 0
.

7.2.1 Condition for a straight line to touch a parabola

Let (y − k)2 = 4a(x − h) be the equation of a parabola that has its vertex at
a general point (h, k) and y = mx + c, a general equation of a straight line.
To obtain the condition that the line becomes a tangent to the given parabola,
we solve the two equations simultaneously. That is,

(y − k)2 = 4a(x − h)

becomes
(mx + c − k)2 = 4a(x − h).
Expanding and rearranging gives

Ax2 + Bx + C = 0 (7.5)

where

A = m2 , B = 2(mc − mk − 2a), C = (c2 + k 2 − 2ck + 4ah).

For tangency, equation (7.5) must have one root. That is,

B 2 − 4AC = 0
7.2. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO A PARABOLA 107

or
(2(mc − mk − 2a))2 = 4m2 c2 + k 2 − 2ck + 4ah

so that
4a2 − 4acm + 4amk − 4ahm2 = 0
divide through by 4a and simplify to get
a
c= − hm + k (7.6)
m

Equation (7.6) is the general condition for which the line y = mx + c is

tangential to the parabola (y − k)2 = 4a(x − h).

If the vertex of the parabola is at the origin, that is, (h, k) = (0, 0) then
the condition becomes
a
c= (7.7)
m

and the equation of the tangent becomes

a
y = mx + (7.8)
m

If a tangent is drawn from a general point (p, q) to the parabola, the point
must satisfy the equation of the tangent as presented in equation(7.8). That
is,
a
q = mp +
m
or
m2 p − qm + a = 0.
Let the roots of the quadratic equation be m1 and m2 .Therefore, the equations
of the tangents are

y − q = m1 (x − p) (7.9)
y − q = m2 (x − p) (7.10)

3 1
Example 7.2.2 Show whether or not the line y = mx + m + is a tangent
4 m
2
to the parabola y = 4x + 3.
108 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

Solution.
Compare the equation of the straight line
3 1
y = mx + m +
4 m
with the general equation
y = mx + c.
It could be seen that
3 1
c= m+ .
4 m
Also, rewriting the equation of the parabola, we have
 
2 3
y =4 x+ .
4
 
3
This shows that the vertex of the parabola is at − , 0 and the focal length
4
a = 1.
Using the condition in equation (7.6), we have
 
1 3
c= − − m+0
m 4
1 3
= + m
m 4
4 + 3m2
=
4m

Hence the given line is a tangent to the parabola.

Example 7.2.3 Find the equation of the tangents from the point P (−1, −2)
to the parabola (y + 2)2 = 12(x − 2).

Solution.
Recall that the condition for a line y = mx + c to be tangential to a parabola
(y − k)2 = 4a(x − h) is
a
c= − hm + k.
m
In this question,
a = 3, (h, k) = (2, −2)
7.3. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A PARABOLA 109

Also, the equation of the tangent becomes

a
y = mx + − hm + k.
m
So that
my = m2 x + a − hm2 + km. (7.11)
Since P (−1, −2) lies on the tangent, it must satisfy equation (7.11). Hence,
upon substitution of the values of a, h, k and P , we have

m(−2) = m2 (−1) + 3 − 2m2 − 2m

or
3m2 − 3 = 0
and
m1,2 = ±1.
a
c1,2 = − hm1,2 + k
m1,2
now become
3 3
c1 = − 2(1) + (−2), c2 = − 2(−1) + (−2)
1 −1
So that
c1 = −1, m1 = 1 c2 = −3, m2 = −1
and the equations of the tangents are

y = x − 1; y = −x − 3

or
y − x + 1 = 0; y+x+3=0

7.3 Parametric representation of a parabola

Consider the equation of the parabola

y 2 = 4ax.

Taking the square root on both sides, we have

√
y = 2 ax.
110 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

Let t be a parameter, and setting

x = at2 ,

we have
y = 2at.
Hence,
x = at2 , y = 2at (7.12)
gives the parametric equation of a parabola. A point on the parabola can be
represented as (at2 , 2at)

Example 7.3.1
a) Verify that the point (at2 , 2at) lies on the parabola y 2 = 4ax for any
value of t.
b) What is the gradient of the parabola at this point?
c) Find the equations of tangent and normal to the parabola at this point.

Solution.
a) x = at2 , y = 2at so that

y 2 = 4ax

becomes
(2at)2 = 4a at2

=⇒ 4a2 t2 = 4a2 t2

Since RHS is equal to LHS, the point lies on the parabola.

b) Differentiating the equation of the parabola, we have

dy
2y = 4a
dx
so that
dy 4a
= .
dx 2y
At the point y = 2at,
dy 1
=
dx t
7.3. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A PARABOLA 111

1
c) The slope of the tangent is Therefore, the equation of the tangent at
t
the point (at2 , 2at) is
1
x − at2


y − 2at =
t
so that
ty − 2at2 = x − at2
or
x − ty + at2 = 0 (7.13)

On the other hand, the slope of the normal is −t so that its equation
is
y − 2at = −t x − at2

or
y − 2at + tx − at3 = 0. (7.14)

Note! Equations (7.13) and (7.14) give the parametric form for the tangent
and normal respectively to a parabola at a general point (at2 , 2at).

7.3.1 Chord
When a straight line cuts a parabola at more than one point, such a line is
called a chord to the parabola.

Of interest in this section is the chord that passes through the focus. This
type of chord is called focal chord. A parabola has many focal chords as
shown in figure (7.4) but the most trivial of all the focal chords is the lactus
rectum.

Generally, a focal chord passes through the parametric point (at2 , 2at) and
the focus (a, 0). Therefore, the slope of the focal chord is obtained as
2at − 0 2t
2
= 2
at − a t −1
so that the equation of the focal chord is given as
2t
y−0= (x − a)
t2 −1
112 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

Figure 7.4: Focal chords

which is simplified as
y t2 − 1 = 2t(x − a)


(7.15)

Example 7.3.2 Tangents at both ends of a focal chord meet at Q, show that
QF is perpendicular to the chord.

Solution.
Equation of tangent P1 Q is

yt1 = x + at21

and the equation of tangent P2 Q is

yt2 = x + at22 .

Solving the two equations simultaneously yield after simplification

y = a (t1 + t2 )

and
x = at1 t2
so that the two tangents intersect at

Q (at1 t2 , a (t1 + t2 )) .

The slope of line QF is

a(t1 + t2 ) − 0
at1 t2 − a
7.3. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A PARABOLA 113

Figure 7.5:

which is simplified to give

t1 + t2
(7.16)
t1 t2 − 1
On the other hand, the slope of the chord P1 P2 is

2at1 − 2at2
at21 − at22

which is simplified as
2
(7.17)
t1 + t2
To show that the line QF is perpendicular to the chord P1 P2 , we compute the
product of their slopes as follows

t1 + t2 2
×
t1 t2 − 1 t1 + t2

2
= (7.18)
t1 t2 − 1
What then is t1 t2 ?
114 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

From figure 7.5, it could be observed that the slope of line P1 F is the same as
that of P2 F , so that
2at1 − 0 2at2 − 0
2
= 2
at1 − 1 at2 − 1
or
t1 t2 = −1

Hence, equation (7.18) becomes

2
= −1.
−1 − 1

Therefore, line QF is perpendicular to chord P1 P2

Example 7.3.3 What is the locus of the mid-points of focal chords.

Solution.

Figure 7.6:

P1 (at21 , 2at1 ) and P2 (at22 , 2at2 ) are at the end of focal chord P1 P2 . The slope
of the line segments P1 F and P2 F are same so that t1 t2 = −1 (example 7.3.1)
Hence
1
t2 = −
t1
7.3. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A PARABOLA 115
 
a 2a
and the position of P2 is at ,− . If in general, we replace t1 by t, we
t21 t1
can obtain the position of the mid-point of the focal chord P1 P2 as
 4
at + a at2 − a

,
2t2 t
So that the parametric equations of the locus of the mid-points of the focal
chords are
a t4 + 1
   2 
t −1
x= , y=a
2 t2 t
or  4   2 
2x t +1 y t −1
= , = .
a t2 a t
y
Squaring both sides of , we get after simplifying
a
y2
 4 
t +1
= −2
a2 t2
or
y2 2x
2
= −2
a a
That is,
y 2 = 2ax − 2a2
or
y 2 = 2a (x − a) .

Hence, the locus of the mid-points of the focal chords of a parabola describes
another parabola whose vertex is at the focus of the main parabola (a, 0) and
whose focal length is half the focal length of the main parabola.
Example 7.3.4 A chord of the parabola y 2 = 4ax subtends a right angle at
the vertex. What is the locus of the mid-points of this chord [see figure 7.7.
Solution.
2at1 2
The slope of P1 V is 2
=
at1 t1
2at2 2
Also, the slope of P2 V is 2
=
at2 t2
Since P1 V and P2 V are perpendicular,
2 2
× = −1
t1 t2
116 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

Figure 7.7:

so that
t1 t2 = −4
or
−4
t2 =
t1
Hence, the positions of P1 and P2 are:
 2  !
−4 −4
at2 , 2at ; P2 a


P1 , 2a
t t

so that the coordinates of the mid-point of the chord is

    
a 2 16 4
Q t + 2 ,a t −
2 t t

Therefore, the parametric equations of the locus of the mid-point are

a t4 + 16
   2 
t −4
x= ; y=a
2 t2 t

Multiplying both sides of x by 2a; we have

a2 4

2ax = 2
t + 16
t
7.4. GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF A PARABOLA 117

and squaring both sides of y; we have,

a2 2
2 a2 4
y2 = =⇒ y 2 = 2


t − 4 t + 16 − 8t
t2 t2
or
y 2 = 2ax − 8a2
which is simplified as
y 2 = 2a (x − 4a) .

7.4 Geometrical properties of a parabola

In this section, we look at some geometrical properties of a parabola with re-
spect to the relationships that exist between points, lines and distances on a
parabola.

Consider the parabola y 2 = 4ax as presented in figure (7.8)

Figure 7.8: Graph of y 2 = 4ax

118 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

Point O is the vertex ; OY is the tangent at the vertex ; F is the focus;KK 0

is the directrix ; P P 0 is a focal chord ; P T and P G are tangent and normal at
the point P respectively and P N is a perpendicular drop from point P .

We shall prove the following properties using figure (7.8)

   
Property i) F P  = P M 

The distance from any point on the parabola to the focus is equal to its per-
pendicular distance to the directrix

Proof
By definition,    
F P  = e P M 

But e = 1, therefore    
F P  = P M 

   
Property ii) OT  = ON 

The distance from the vertex to the foot of the perpendicular drop from any
point P on the parabola is equal to its distance from the point of intersection
of the tangent at P and the axis of the parabola

Proof
For any point P (at2 , 2at), equation of the tangent P T is,

yt = x + at2

But y = 0 at the point T , therefore,

x = −at2 .
 
Hence OT  = at2 .
Also P N ⊥OX so that the abscissa of N is same as that of P ; at2
 
=⇒ ON  = at2

and    
OT  = ON 
7.4. GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF A PARABOLA 119

   
Property iii) T F  = F P 

The distance from the focus to any point P on the parabola is equal to its
distance from the point of intersection of the tangent at P and the axis of the
parabola

Proof
RHS
By definition,    
F P  = P M 

or      
F P  = M Q + QP 

or      
F P  = DO + ON 

or  
F P  = a + at2

LHS
     
T F  = T O + OF 

or
at2 + a
Therefore,    
T F  = F P 

Property iv) P G bisects ∠F P L

Proof

From property iii),    

T F  = F P 

therefore,
4 TFP is isosceles
120 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

or
∠P T F = ∠F P T
but ∠P T F = ∠RP L (corresponding angle are equal) M LT G

∴ ∠F P T = ∠RP L = α(say)

Now P G is normal to P T
π
∠F P G = −α
2
and
π
∠GP L = −α
2
Thus, P G bisects ∠F P L

Note! This result is known as PARABOLIC MIRROR PROPERTY.

(That is, ”all rays of light from a source at the focus will be reflected back in a
direction parallel to the axis of the parabola.”)
     
Property v) F G = T F  = F P 

Proof

From property iii),    

T F  = F P 
But P G is normal at P therefore equation of line P G (normal at P ) is,

y + xt = 2at + at3 .

At G, y = 0 so that the abscissa of point G is obtained as 2a + at2 and

  p
F G = (2a + at2 − a)2

= at2 + a
 
= T F 

Property vi) ∠F V P is a rt angle

Proof
7.5. EXERCISES 121

Line P T is the tangent at P therefore its equation is

yt = x + at2 .

At V , x = 0 so that y = at. That is, the coordinates of V is (0, at)

Gradient of the line V P is
2at − at at 1
2
= 2 = .
at − 0 at t
Also, the gradient of line F V is
at − 0 at
= = −t.
0−a −a
1
Gradient V P × gradient F V = × −t = −1
t
π
∴ ∠F V P =
2

7.5 Exercises
1. Plot the following parabolas: indicate the focus, vertex, the axis, the di-
rectrix and the lactus rectum.

i) y 2 = 10x ii) 3x2 + 12y = 0 iii) 3y 2 + 16x = 0

iv) x = 10(y − 2) v) 3(x − 4) + 12y = 0 vi) 3(y + 2)2 + 16(x − 2) = 0
2 2

2. Determine the equation of the following parabolas when some important

points or lines are given. Provide also the positions of all the missing
points and the equations of the missing lines.

i) focus at (2, 0) and vertex at (0, 0)

ii) vertex at (2, 0) and directrix : x = −1
iii) textitlactus rectum: y = 4 and vertex : (0, 1)
iv) vertex at (2, 0) and directrix : y = −2
v) Lactus rectum:x = 4 and directrix : x = 8

3. Put the following equations in standard form and give a full description
of the parabola: indicating the focus, vertex, the axis, the directrix and
the lactus rectum. Hence sketch the parabola
122 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA

i) y 2 + 10x + 4y + 5 = 0 ii) 3x2 + 6x − 12y = 0

iii) 4x2 + 5x + 8y + 1 = 0 iv) 3y 2 − 2x + 7y − 11 = 0
v) x = y2 − y − 2 vi) y 2 + 6x + 6y + 9 = 0

4. Find the equation of tangent and normal to the given parabola at the
specified point.

1
i) y 2 + 10x + 4y + 5 = 0 at P (− , 0)
2
ii) 3x2 + 6x − 12y = 0 at P (2, 2)
4
iii) 4x2 + 5x + 8y + 1 = 0 at P (1, − )
5
2 1
iv) 3y − 2x + 7y − 11 = 0 at P (1, − )
2

5. Find the missing constant if the given line is a tangent to the parabola

i) y 2 + ax + 4y + 5 = 0, y = 2x − 3
ii) 3x2 + 6x − by = 0, 2x + 3y + 4 = 0
iii) 4x2 + 5x + 8y + 1 = 0 , y = mx + 2
iv) ay 2 − 2x + 7y − 11 = 0 , 2x − 3y + 4

6. Find the equation of the tangents to the parabola from the specified point.

i) y 2 + 4x + 4y + 5 = 0, P (0, −1)
ii) 3x2 + 6x − 12y = 0, P (−1, −3)
iii) 2x2 + 12x + 8y + 2 = 0 , P (0, 3)
iv) y 2 − 2x − 2y − 1 = 0 , P (−3, 0)

7. Use figure 7.8 to prove the following properties of a parabola.

i) ∠P F S is a rt angle
ii) Tangents at the end of a focal chord intersect on the directrix at
right angle.
iii) The point S is the mid-point of M M 0
iv) F M ⊥ F M0
v) Quadrilateral F SM P is cyclic.
vi) Quadrilateral F V SD is cyclic.
7.5. EXERCISES 123

vii) F P bisects
2  M G.
  
viii) F V  = OF  × F P .

8. Find the equation of a parabola that has a vertical axis, crosses the x-axis
at −1 and 4 and has its vertex on the line y = 2. Find also its focus and
the equation of its directrix.

9. Find the equation of a parabola that has a horizontal axis, crosses the y-
axis at 3 and 7 and has its vertex on the line x = −1. Find also its focus
and the equation of its directrix.

10. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves equidistant from the
line x = 4 and the point (1, 5). Find also its vertex, the equation of its
directrix and the length of its lactus rectum.

11. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves equidistant from the line
y = −4 and the point (1, 0). Find also its vertex, the equation of its
directrix and the length of its lactus rectum.

12. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves equidistant from the line
x + y − 2 = 0 and the point (3, 4). Find also its vertex, the equation of
its directrix and the length of its lactus rectum.

13 Find the equation of locus of a point that moves equidistant from the line
3x + 4y + 5 = 0 and the origin. Find also its vertex, the equation of its
directrix and the length of its lactus rectum.
124 CHAPTER 7. PARABOLA
Chapter 8

Ellipse

A locus of points moves in a plane so that the sum of its distance from two
fixed points in the plane is constant. The locus so described is called an el-
lipse. The two fixed points are called the foci of the ellipse. The eccentricity
of an ellipse is less than unity (i.e e < 1).

We shall introduce the concept with an ellipse whose center is at the ori-
gin as shown in figure 8.1.

AA0 = 2a (constant)

BB 0 = 2b (constant)
The curve is symmetrical about the axes so that

OS = OS 0

OA = OA0
OZ = OZ 0
From definition,
SP = eP M.
In particular, when P moves to A we have,

SA = eAZ

and
S 0 A = eAZ 0
or
SA + S 0 A = eAZ + eAZ 0

125
126 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

= e (AZ + AZ 0 )
That is,
AA0 = e(ZZ 0 )
but AA0 = 2a and ZZ 0 = 2OZ.
Since AA0 = eZZ 0 , we have
2a = e(2OZ)
or
a
OZ =
e

Hence the equation of the directrices are

a
x=±
e

Also,
S 0 A − SA = e(AZ 0 − AZ)
. i.e
SS 0 = e(AZ 0 − A0 Z 0 )
= e(AA0
or
2OS = 2ae
So that OS = ae.

Hence the position of the foci are

(±ae, 0)
8.1. EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE 127

Figure 8.1: Ellipse with center at the origin

8.1 Equation of an ellipse

O is the center of the ellipse which is at the origin.
SA = SA0
OZ = OZ 0
KK 0 and QQ0 are directrices to the foci S and S 0 respectively.

By definition,
SP = eP M
or
SP 2 = e2 P M 2
so that  a
(x − ae)2 + y 2 = e2 x −
e
Expanding both sides and rearranging, we have
x2 1 − e2 + y 2 = a2 1 − e2

Divide through by a2 (1 − e2 ) to get

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 a2 (1 − e2 )
128 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

Setting a2 (1 − e2 ) = b2 , the equation of the ellipse becomes

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (8.1)
a2 b

Note! * Since e < 1, we have b < a

∗ If e = 0, then b = a and equation (8.1) becomes that of a circle

Other ellipses with center at the origin are presented in figure 8.2

Figure 8.2: Different ellipses with center at the origin

x2 y 2
The two ellipses are conjugate to each other. In the first ellipse,
+ = 1,
0
a2 0 b 2
the major axis AA is along the x − axis while the minor axis BB is along
the y − axis. In addition,
AA0 = 2a > BB 0

y 2 x2
 
The second ellipse + 2 = 1 on the other hand has its major axis AA0
a2 b
along the y − axis and the minor axis BB 0 along the x − axis
8.1. EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE 129

Example 8.1.1 If the foci of an ellipse are (0, 2), (0, −2) and the point P (3, 2)
lies on the ellipse. Find the equation of the ellipse.

Solution.

Figure 8.3:

Distance between the two foci

SS 0 = 4

i.e.
2ae = 4
or
ae = 2.
But the sum of the distance from the moving point to the two foci is constant.

SP + S 0 P = 2a

or √
3+ 32 + 42 = 2a
so that
2a = 8
130 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

and
a=4
2 1
Thus, e = =
4 2
From the equation of an ellipse
y 2 x2
 
+ 2 =1
a2 b
where
b 2 = a2 1 − e 2


 
1
= 16 1 −
4
 
3
= 16
4
or
b2 = 12

The center of the ellipse is at the origin therefore its equation is

 2
x2

y
+ =1
16 12
.

Equation of an ellipse with center at general point (h, k)

When the center of the ellipse is at point (h, k), the equation of the ellipse
becomes
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2

General equations of an ellipse

An ellipse is generally represented by an equation that is quadratic in both
x and y. The equation becomes that of an ellipse if the coefficient of the
quadratic term in x differs from the coefficient of the quadratic term
in y

The general equation of an ellipse is given as

Ax2 + By 2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0 (8.2)
8.1. EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE 131

To be able to fully describe the ellipse whose equation is presented in

equation 8.2, the equation is transformed to standard form by completion
of the squares of the quadratic terms to get
   
2 C 2 D
A x + x + B y + y = −E
A B
or 2 ! 2 !
C2 D2
 
C D
A x+ − +B y+ − = −E
2A 4A2 2B 4B 2
so that 2 2
C 2 D2
 
C D
A x+ +B y+ = + − E. (8.3)
2A 2B 4A 4B
Setting the RHS to be equal to a constant (say Q), we have

C 2 D2
Q= + −E
4A 4B
and equation (8.3) becomes
C

2 D

2
x + 2A y + 2B
+ =1
a2 b2
Q Q
where a2 = A
and b2 = B

Example 8.1.2 Transform the equation x2 + 4y 2 − 2x + 4y − 2 = 0 to the

standard form (semi-reduced form) and give a full description of the ellipse.

Solution.
By completing the squares, we have
 2 !
2 2 1 2
x − 2x + (−1) + 4 y + y + =2+1+1
2

or  2
2 1
(x − 1) + 4 y + = 4.
2
Dividing through by 4, we have

2
(x − 1)2 y + 12
+ = 1.
4 1
132 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

This equation describes an ellipse with center at 1, − 12 . Also,

a2 = 4 =⇒ a = 2,

b2 = 1 =⇒ b = 1,
√
2 b2 1 3
e = 1 − 2 = 1 − =⇒ e =
a 4 2
so that √
3 √
ae = 2 × = 3
2
and √
a 2 4 4 3
= √ =√ =
e 3 3 3
2
√ √
Therefore,the foci of the ellipse are 1 + 3, − 21 and 1 − 3, − 12

Equation of the directrices are

√
4 3
x=1±
3
while the vertices of the ellipse are at
   
1 1
3, − and −1, −
2 2

8.2 Curve sketching of an ellipse

To sketch an ellipse, It is sufficient to locate all the important points and lines
in the ellipse namely Vertices, foci, major axis, minor axis and equations
of the directrices. When all these are obtained, it is easy to give a rough
sketch of the ellipse.

Example 8.2.1 Make a rough sketch of the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ = 1.
9 25
8.2. CURVE SKETCHING OF AN ELLIPSE 133

Solution.
The center of the ellipse is at the origin. The major axis is taken along the
y − axis while the minor axis is along the x − axis In addition, since a > b,
we have that
a2 = 25 =⇒ a = 25.
Also
b2 = 9 =⇒ b = 3
but
b 2 = a2 1 − e 2

or
b2
2
= 1 − e2
a
so that
b2 9
e2 = 1 − 2
=1−
a 25
and
16
e2 =
25
4
=⇒ e = .
5
Further,
4
ae = ×5=4
5
and
a 5 5 5 25
= 4 = × = .
e 5
1 4 4
Therefore, the foci are (0, 4) and (0, −4) and the equations of the directrices
are:
25
i) y= =⇒ 4y − 25 = 0
4
25
ii) y = − =⇒ 4y + 25 = 0
4
134 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

x2 y 2
 
Figure 8.4: Sketch of the ellipse + =1
9 25

Qu. 1 Prove that the sum of the focal distances is constant (= 2a)

Qu. 2 Obtain the length of the lactus rectum of an ellipse.

Qu. 3 Find the lengths of the major and minor axes of an ellipse whose
foci are at (2, 1) and (6, 1) if the eccentricity is 32 , Find also the equation of
the ellipse.

8.3 Tangents and normals to an ellipse

8.3.1 Tangent
The standard equation of an ellipse whose center is at the origin is given as
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
which can be rearranged as
b 2 x 2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b 2 . (8.4)
Differentiating the equation implicitly wrt x, we have
dy
2b2 x + 2a2 y =0
dx
8.3. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO AN ELLIPSE 135

which is simplified as
dy −b2 x
= 2 . (8.5)
dx ay

Let the point (x1 , y1 ) be on the ellipse, then the slope of the ellipse at
arbitrary point (x1 , y1 ) is given by

dy  −b2 x1
= (8.6)
dx  a2 y 1

(x1 ,y1 )

which happens to be the slope of the tangent at (x1 , y1 )

Therefore, the equation of the tangent to the ellipse at the point (x1 , y1 ) is

−b2 x1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
a2 y 1

which is simplified as

b2 xx1 + a2 yy1 = b2 x21 + a2 y12 (8.7)

Since the point (x1 , y1 ) lies on the ellipse, it satisfies the equation of the ellipse.
Hence, equation (8.4) can be written as

b2 x21 + a2 y12 = a2 b2

so that the equation of tangent (8.7) becomes

b2 xx1 + a2 yy1 = a2 b2

so that
xx1 yy1
+ 2 =1 (8.8)
a2 b
Equation (8.8) is the equation of the tangent to the ellipse when the center
is at the origin. However, if the center of the ellipse is at an arbitrary point
(h, k), the equation of tangent becomes

(x − h)(x1 − h) (y − k)(y1 − k)
+ = 1. (8.9)
a2 b2
136 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

8.3.2 Normal
The slope of the normal at an arbitrary point (x1 , y1 ) is

dx  a2 y 1
−  = 2 (8.10)
dy  b x1
(x1 ,y1 )

Hence, the equation of the normal at the point (x1 , y1 ) is

a2 y 1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
b2 x 1

which is simplified as
b2 (y − y1 ) a2 (x − x1 )
= . (8.11)
y1 x1
When the center of the ellipse is at an arbitrary point (h, k), the equation
of the normal at the point (x1 , y1 ) is

b2 ((y − k) − (y1 − k)) a2 ((x − h) − (x1 − h))

= . (8.12)
(y1 − k) (x1 − h)

Example 8.3.1 Obtain the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse
(x + 3)2 (y − 4)2 √
+ = 1 at the point (−3, 4 + 2).
3 2

Solution.
The center
√ of the ellipse is at the point (−3, 4) and the point on the ellipse is
(−3, 4 + 2) so that
√
x1 = −3, y1 = 4 + 2, h = −3, k = 4, a2 = 3, b2 = 2

Hence the equation of tangent is

(x − h)(x1 − h) (y − k)(y1 − k)
+ =1
a2 b2
or √
(x + 3)(−3 + 3) (y − 4)(4 + 2 − 4)
+ =1
3 2
which is simplified as √
y =4+ 2
8.3. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO AN ELLIPSE 137

The equation of the normal on the other hand is

b2 ((y − k) − (y1 − k)) a2 ((x − h) − (x1 − h))

=
(y1 − k) (x1 − h)
or √

2 (y − 4) − (4 + 2 − 4) 3 ((x + 3) − (−3 + 3))
√
=
4+ 2−4 (−3 + 3)
which is simplified as √
3 2(x + 3) = 0
or
x = −3

8.3.3 Condition that a straight line touches an ellipse

Let y = mx + c be a straight line which should touch the ellipse b2 x2 + a2 y 2 =
a2 b 2
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we have

b2 x2 + a2 (mx + c)2 = a2 b2

or
b2 x2 + a2 m2 x2 + 2a2 cmx + a2 c2 − a2 b2 = 0
or
b2 + a2 m2 x2 + 2a2 cm x + a2 c2 − a2 b2 = 0

This is a quadratic equation in x.

For the line to be a tangent, the quadratic equation must have exactly
one root. Hence
B 2 − 4AC = 0
which becomes

2
2a2 cm − 4 b2 + a2 m2 a2 c2 − a2 b2 = 0

or
4a4 c2 m2 − 4a2 b2 c2 + 4a2 b4 − 4a4 c2 m2 + 4a4 b2 m2 = 0.
Simplifying and dividing through by 4a2 b2 , we have

−c2 + b2 + a2 m2 = 0
138 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

or √
c = ± a2 m2 + b2 (8.13)
Equation (8.13) is the required condition. Thus,
√
y = mx ± a2 m2 + b2

is a tangent to the ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b

Note! that if α = x1 and β = x2 are the roots of the quadratic equation

Ax2 + Bx + C = 0

then
B C
α+β =− , αβ =
A A

But there is only one root thus, x1 =x2 and

B
α + β = 2x1 = −
A
2a2 cm
=− 2
b + a2 m2
or
a2 cm
x1 = − .
b 2 + a2 m 2
The equation of the tangent

y1 = mx1 + c

now become
a2 cm
 
y1 = −m +c
b2 + a2 m2
which is simplified as
b2 c
y1 = .
b2 + a2 m2
From equation (8.13), c2 = a2 m2 + b2 , so that

a2 cm a2 cm a2 m
x1 = − = − = −
b2 + a2 m2 c2 c
8.3. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO AN ELLIPSE 139

and
b2 c b2 c b2
y1 = = = .
b2 + a2 m2 c2 c
Hence,the coordinates of the point of contact of the tangential line y = mx + c
x2 y 2
and the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is
a b
 2
a m b2

− ,
c c
Example 8.3.2 Obtain the equations of the tangents from the point (1, 2) to
x2 y 2
the ellipse + = 1.
9 4
Solution.
Substitute the point into the equation of the ellipse and locate the point relative
to the ellipse.
The point is neither on the ellipse nor inside the ellipse. the point is actu-
ally outside the ellipse (since the LHS > 1)

Equation of the tangent is

√
y = mx ± a2 m2 + b2
Since the tangent must pass through the point (1, 2), the equation of tangent
becomes √
2 = m ± 9m2 + 4
or
(2 − m)2 = 9m2 + 4
so that
1
m = 0, −
2
If m = 0: equation of the tangent is y − 2 = 0 which is simplified as
y=2
1
If m = − : equation of the tangent is y − 2 = − 21 (x − 1) which is simplified
2
as
x + 2y − 5 = 0

Qu. 1 Prove that the locus of the intersection of two perpendicular tan-
gents to an ellipse is a circle: Find the radius of the circle in terms of the
lengths of the major and the minor axes.
140 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

8.4 Parametric representation of an ellipse

Let a standard ellipse be as presented in figure 8.5

Figure 8.5:

With respect to the standard equation of an ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
If we take
x = a cos θ
then,
y2 a2 cos2 θ
= 1 −
b2 a2
or
y = ±b sin θ
Note! that the coordinates at any point on the ellipse is (a cos θ, b sin θ)
and the parametric equations are

x = a cos θ; y = b sin θ (8.14)

8.4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF AN ELLIPSE 141

In addition, It should be noted that when the center of an ellipse is at the

point (h, k), the equation of the ellipse becomes

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2
which is written as
X 2 (Y )2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
where X = x − h and Y = y − k. In this situation, the parametric equation is

X = a cos θ; Y = b sin θ

or
x = h + a cos θ; y = k + b sin θ

Definition: The angle θ which a locus subtends at the center of the ellipse is
called eccentric angle of the point.

8.4.1 Parametric representation of tangents and normal

to an ellipse
To obtain the slope of the ellipse at any point on the curve, we differentiate
dy
to obtain from the parametric equation (8.14) as follows:
dx
dx dy
= −a sin θ, = b cos θ
dθ dθ
so that
dy 1
= b cos θ ×
dx −a sin θ
or
dy b cos θ
=− (8.15)
dx a sin θ

Tangent
The slope of the tangent at any point on the ellipse is same as the slope of
the ellipse at that point. To obtain the equation of the tangent at a general
point (a cos θ, b sin θ), the point-slope equation of straight line is used with the
142 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

slope of the ellipse as presented in equation (8.15). Thus, the equation of the
tangent is
−b cos θ
y − b sin θ = (x − a cos θ)
a sin θ
which is simplified as
x cos θ y sin θ
+ =1 (8.16)
a b

Normal
The slope of the normal at any point on the ellipse is negative-reciprocal
of the slope of the ellipse at that point. Hence the slope of the normal at any
point on the ellipse is
a sin θ
m=
b cos θ
So that the equation of normal at a general point (a cos θ, b sin θ) is obtained
using the point-slope equation of straight line as

a sin θ
y − b sin θ = (x − a cos θ)
b cos θ
or
ax sin θ − by cos θ = a2 − b2 cos θ sin θ

which is simplified as
ax by
− = a2 − b 2 (8.17)
cos θ sin θ

Example 8.4.1 a) Obtain the parametric coordinates of any point on the

ellipse
(x − 2)2 + 4y 2 = 4.

b) Find the equations of tangent and normal to the ellipse x = 4 cos θ; y=

3 sin θ at the point θ = π3

Solution.
a)
(x − 2)2 + 4y 2 = 4
(x − 2)2 y 2
⇒ + =1
4 1
so that a2 = 4, b2 = 1, h = 2 and k = 0.
8.4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF AN ELLIPSE 143

The parametric coordinates is

(h + a cos θ, k + b sin θ)

which is
(2 + 2 cos θ, sin θ)

b)
x = 4 cos θ ⇒ a=4
and
y = 3 sin θ ⇒ b = 3.
Using the equation of tangent (8.16), the equation of tangent becomes

x cos θ y sin θ
+ =1
4 3
But θ = π3 , the equation of tangent becomes

x cos π3 y sin π3
+ =1
4 3
or √
x y 3
+ =1
8 6
Which is simplified as √
3x + 4 3y − 24 = 0
Equation of normal on the other hand is obtained by substituting the
values of a, b and θ into equation (8.17) which yields

4x 3y 2 2
π − π = 4 −3
cos 3 sin 3

and the equation is simplified as

√ √
8 3x − 6y = 7 3

or √
8x − 2 3y − 7 = 0
144 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

8.4.2 Area of an ellipse

Figure 8.6:

The area of the ellipse is defined by the integral

I
A = ydx

which is the same as Z a

2 ydx
−a
or Z a
A=4 ydx
0

Consider an ellipse with center at the origin whose equation is

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
Making y the subject of the equation, we have

bp 2
y= (a − x2 )
a
and the area of the ellipse becomes

b ap 2
Z
4 (a − x2 )dx
a 0
8.4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF AN ELLIPSE 145

Setting x = a cos θ,we have dx = −a sin θdθ and

p √
(a2 − x2 ) = a2 − a2 cos2 θ

√
= a 1 − cos2 θ

= a sin θ.

So that the area of the ellipse becomes

Z 0
4b
A= asinθ(−asinθ)dθ
a π
2

Z 0
= −4ab sin2 θdθ
π
2

 0
θ sin 2θ 
= −4ab −
2 4 π
2

or

A = πab

Qu. 1 Obtain the Cartesian equation of the following ellipse (1 +

3 cos θ, 2 sin θ − 1)
Qu. 2 Find the length of the major and minor axes; eccentricity; posi-
tions of the foci and equation of the directrices of the ellipse: x = 6 cos θ, y =
2 sin θ
146 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

8.4.3 Chords of an ellipse

Figure 8.7: Chords of an ellipse

P (a cos θ, b sin θ) and Q(a cos φ, b sin φ) are points on the ellipse. The straight
line joining points P and Q (chord P Q )has a slope that is equal to

b(sin θ − sin φ)
mP Q = .
a(cos θ − cos φ)

By the use of factor formulae, the slope is written as

b cos θ+φ



2
mP Q = −

.
a sin θ+φ2

Using the slope-point format of equation of straight line, the equation of

chord P Q is
b cos θ+φ



2
y − b sin θ = −

(x − a cos θ)
a sin θ+φ
2
or
        
θ+φ θ+φ θ+φ θ+φ
bx cos +ay sin = ab sin θ sin + cos θ cos
2 2 2 2

so that
       
θ+φ θ+φ θ+φ
bx cos + ay sin = ab cos θ −
2 2 2
8.4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF AN ELLIPSE 147

which is simplified as
     
θ+φ θ+φ θ−φ
bx cos + ay sin = ab cos .
2 2 2

Divide through the equation by ab to get

     
x θ+φ y θ+φ θ−φ
cos + sin = cos . (8.18)
a 2 b 2 2

Equation (8.18) is the general parametric equation of chords of an ellipse

from point P (a cos θ, b sin θ) and Q(a cos φ, b sin φ).

Note! that as Q → P , the angles φ → θ and equation (8.18) becomes

     
x 2θ y 2θ θ−θ
cos + sin = cos .
a 2 b 2 2
or
x y
cos θ + sin θ = 1
a b
which is the same as the equation of tangent (8.16)

Definition: A chord that passes through the center of an ellipse is called a

diameter of the ellipse

Example 8.4.2 P Q is a diameter of an ellipse x2 +4y 2 = 2. If the eccentric

π
angle of P is . What is the eccentric angle of Q?
3
Solution.
Rewriting the equation of the ellipse in semi reduced form, we have

x2 y 2
+ 1 =1
2 2

so that √
√ 2
a = 2, b =
2
and the equation of the chord (3.18) becomes
     
x θ+φ y θ+φ θ−φ
√ cos + √ sin = cos .
2 2 2 2 2
2
148 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

But, the chord is a diameter ; it therefore passes through the center (0, 0) and
the equation is satisfied by x = 0, y = 0.
Substituting x = 0, y = 0 into the equation, we have
 
θ−φ
cos =0
2

or
θ−φ π 3π 5π
= , , , ...
2 2 2 2
or
θ = φ + (π, 3π, 5π, ...)

Therefore the eccentric angle of Q is

π
θ= +π
3

4π
=
3

Qu. 1 Show that the line y − 2x − 3 = 0 is a tangent to the ellipse

x + 2y 2 = 2 and obtain the coordinates of the point of contact.
2

Qu. 2 The line 2x + 3y = k touches the ellipse 4x2 + 9y 2 = 1. Find the

value of k and the coordinates of the point of contact.

8.5 Conjugate diameters

Two diameters are called conjugate diameters if one diameter is parallel to
the tangents at both ends of the second diameter. This is shown in figure 8.8
in which diameter AB is parallel to tangents at C and D. Also, diameter CD
is parallel to tangents at A and B
Note!

• The slope of the diameter AB is the same as the slope of ALL parallel
chords to it and same as the slope of tangents at C and D

• The diameter CD bisects diameter AB as well as ALL chords parallel

to it.
8.5. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS 149

Figure 8.8: Conjugate diameters of an ellipse

8.5.1 Condition that two diameters are conjugate

Let the diameter AB and CD be conjugate and M (x, y) is the mid point of
P Q, a chord parallel to diameter AB.
If the equation of line P Q
y = mx + c
is solved simultaneously with the equation of the ellipse

b 2 x 2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b 2 ,

we have
b2 x2 + a2 (mx + c)2 − a2 b2 = 0
which if simplified gives

(b2 + a2 m2 )x2 + 2a2 cmx + a2 c2 − a2 b2 = 0.

or
Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
where
A = b2 + a2 m2 , B = 2a2 cm, C = a2 c 2 − a2 b 2
This is a quadratic equation with two roots say x1 and x2 so that the coordi-
nates of P and Q are (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) respectively.
But the mid point of P Q is M (Mx , My ) so that
x1 + x2
Mx =
2
150 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

B 2a2 cm
=− =− 2
2A 2(b + a2 m2 )
As the chord P Q moves to become the tangent at C, we invoke the condition
from equation (8.13) that is, c2 = b2 + a2 m2 so that

2a2 cm
Mx = −
2c2
or
a2 m
− .
c
Similarly, the ordinate at M is obtained as follows:

y = mx + c

or
a2 m2
My = mMx + c =c−
c
which is simplified as
b2
My = .
c
Hence the coordinates of the mid points of arbitrary diameter P Q are
 2
a m b2

(Mx , My ) = − ,
c c

Since2 the 2conjugate

 diameter CD passes through the origin O(0, 0) and
am b
M − , , the slope of the diameter CD is
c c

My = 0 b2 −c
m0 = = × 2
Mx − 0 c am
or
b2
m0 = − .
a2 m
Since m is the slope of diameter AB and m0 is the slope of its conjugate
CD the product of their slopes is given as
b2
mm0 = − (8.19)
a2
The condition in equation (8.19) is the condition that two diameters of an
ellipse are conjugate to each other
8.5. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS 151

Example 8.5.1 The ellipse

(x − 1)2 (y − 2)2
+ =1
16 9
has a diameter with slope m1 = 12 . Find the equation of the conjugate diameter
to the given one.

Solution.
Let the slope of the second diameter be m2 . Since the two diameters are
b2
conjugate, we have m1 m2 = − 2 . That is,
a
1 9
m2 = −
2 16
or
9
m2 = −
8
The diameter must pass through the center of the ellipse: (1, 2), its equa-
tion therefore is given as
−9
(y − 2) = (x − 1)
8
which is simplified to give

9x + 8y − 25 = 0

Another condition for conjugacy

Let the slopes of diameters P P 0 and QQ0 be m1 and m2 respectively as shown
in figure 8.9, then
y1 y2
m1 = , m2 = .
x1 x2
The equation of the tangent at P (x1 , y1 ) is
xx1 yy1
+ 2 =1
a2 b
or
x 1 b2 a2 b2
y=− x −
y 1 a2 y 1 a2
152 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

Figure 8.9:

so that the slope of the tangent is

x 1 b2
−
y1 a2

Since diameters P P 0 and QQ0 are conjugate to each other, tangent at P is

parallel to diameter QQ0 so that the slope of the tangent is m2 .
That is
x 1 b2
m2 = − 2
y1 a
or
y2 x 1 b2
=− 2
x2 y1 a
which is simplified to give
x 1 x2 y 1 y 2
+ 2 =0 (8.20)
a2 b

Parametric coordinates of the ends of conjugate diame-

ters
Let AB and P Q be conjugate diameters of an ellipse and let the coordinates
of A be (a cos θ, b sin θ).
8.5. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS 153

Figure 8.10: Parametric coordinates at ends of conjugate diameters of an

ellipse

Thus, the slope of diameter AB is

b sin θ
m1 =
a cos θ
and the equation of line AB is
b sin θ
y= x
a cos θ
so that coordinates of B is

(−a cos θ, −b sin θ)

Let the slope of P Q be m2 . Since diameters AB and P Q are conjugate,

the product of their slopes gives
b2
m1 m2 = −
a2
154 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

so that
b2 1 b cos θ
m2 = − 2
× =− .
a m1 a sin θ
The equation of diameter P Q is

b cos θ
y = m2 x =− x.
a sin θ
Substitute this in the equation of the ellipse

b 2 x 2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b 2

to get
b2 cos2 θ
 
2 2 2
b x +a x 2 = a2 b 2
a2 sin2 θ
which gives
x 2 b2
2 = a2 b 2
sin θ
or
x = ±a sin θ.
Substituting the values of x into the equation of line P Q, we have

b cos θ
y=− (±a sin θ)
a sin θ
= ∓b cos θ
Hence the coordinates of all the end points of conjugate diameters are:

A(a cos θ, b sin θ); B(−a cos θ, −b sin θ); P (−a sin θ, b cos θ); Q(a sin θ, −b cos θ)

Eccentric angles of conjugate diameters

From figure 8.11, it is observed that OP and OQ are conjugate radii of the
ellipse. Therefore the condition in equation (8.20) must be satisfied. That is
x1 x2 y 1 y 2
+ 2 = 0.
a2 b
Substituting the coordinates of P and Q into the equation, we have

a cos θ × a cos φ b sin θ × b sin φ

+
a2 b2
8.5. CONJUGATE DIAMETERS 155

Figure 8.11: Eccentric angles of conjugate diameters of an ellipse

or
cos θ cos φ + sin θ sin φ = 0
which is simplified as
cos(θ − φ) = 0
or
π
θ= +φ
2
Thus, the eccentric angles at the end of conjugate radii differs by a Rt angle.

Equipped with this revelation about the eccentric angles at the ends of
conjugate radii, we can obtain the coordinates at the other ends of the diam-
eters
Let the coordinates of Q be (a cos θ, b sin θ) then, since the eccentric angle
of P must differ by right angle, then the coordinates of P is
 π  π 
a cos + θ , b sin +θ
2 2
But π  π π
cos + θ = cos cos θ − sin sin θ
2 2 2
156 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

= − sin θ
and similarly, π  π π
sin + θ = sin cos θ + cos sin θ
2 2 2
= cos θ
Hence the coordinates of P is (−a sin θ, b cos θ).

In a similar way, the coordinates of the remaining two points Q0 and P 0 are
obtained as
(−a cos θ, −b sin θ) and (a sin θ, −b cos θ)
respectively.

8.6 Geometrical properties of an ellipse

Figure 8.12:

Point O is the center ; T T 0 is the tangent at point P ; S, S 0 are the foci ;P G

is the normal at the point P and P N is a perpendicular drop from point P .
8.6. GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF AN ELLIPSE 157

We shall prove the following properties using figure 8.12

   
Property i) SP  = eP M 

This result is from definition

   
Property ii) SP  + SP 0  = 2a

The sum of the distances from the moving point to the two foci of the el-
lipse is constant

Proof
From the definition,    
SP  = eP M 

at any point P on the ellipse.

Also, using the second focus, we have that
 0 
S P  = e P M 0 
 

From these two results, we have

   0 
SP  + S P  = e P M  + P M 0 
   

= e M M 0 
 

a
e×2
e
= 2a

   
Property iii) OG = e2 ON 

Proof
158 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

P G is the normal to the ellipse at the point P . Hence, the equation of the
normal P G is
ax by
− = a2 − b2 .
cos θ sin θ
At G, y = 0 so that the equation becomes

ax = a2 − b2 cos θ

or
(a2 − b2 )  
x= cos θ.
a
But    
ON  = a cos θ
so that    
e2 ON  = e2 a cos θ
or
a2 − b2 
 

2
 
e ON  = a cos θ 
a2
or  2
a − b2 


= cos θ
a
= OG

   
Property iv) ON  × OT  = a2

Proof
   
ON  = a cos θ

Also point T is on the tangent P T whose equation is

bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab.

At T , y = 0 so that the equation becomes

bx cos θ = ab

or
a
x= .
cos θ
8.6. GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF AN ELLIPSE 159

which implies that

OT  = a 1
 
cos θ
or
ON  × OT  = a cos θ × a  1 
     
 cos θ

= a2

   
Property v) N P  × OT 0 = b2

Proof
The proof of property v is similar to that of property iv
   
N P  = b sin θ (ordinate of P )

Also point T 0 is on the tangent P T whose equation is

bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab.

At T 0 , x = 0 so that the equation becomes

ay sin θ = ab

or
b
y= .
sin θ
which implies that
OT  = b 1
 0
sin θ
or
N P  × OT 0  = b sin θ × b  1 
     
 sin θ

= b2
160 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE

8.7 Exercises
1. Find the coordinates of the foci, the eccentricity the vertices, equation of
the directrices and the length of the lactus rectum; sketch the ellipses

x2 y 2
i) + =1
162 4 2
x y
ii) + =1
16 252
(x − 4) (y + 2)2
iii) + =1
36 2 25 2
(x − 6) (y − 5)
iv) + =1
9 2 25
(x + 1) y2
v) + =1
2
12 42
x (y − 2)
vi) + =1
9 4
2. Determine the equation of the following ellipses when some of its important
points or lines are given. Provide also the positions of all the missing
points and the equations of the missing lines.

i) foci at (0, 6) and (0, −6); Length of major axis = 14

ii) foci at (1, 8) and (5, 8); Length of the major axis = 5
iii) vertices at (0, 6) and (0, −6); foci at (0, 4) and (0, −4)
iv) vertices at (0, 6) and (0, −6); Length of minor axis = 8

3. Find the equation of the following loci

i) P (x, y) such that the sum of its distance from (0, 6) and (0, −6) is always 15
ii) P (x, y) such that the sum of its distance from (0, 0) and (0, 6) always is 7
iii) P (x, y) such that the sum of its distance from (−1, 3) and (7, 3) is always 10
iv) P (x, y) such that the sum of its distance from (2, 4) and (2, −4) is always 8

4. Rewrite the following equations in semi reduced form. Hence give a full
description of the ellipse.

i) x2 + 4y 2 + 4x − 8y + 4 = 0
ii) 16x2 + 9y 2 + 32x − 27y + 4 = 0
iii) 9x2 + 100y 2 − 18x − 300y + 450 = 0
iv) 4x2 + 225y 2 − 4x − 90y + 1 = 0
8.7. EXERCISES 161

5. Find the equation of the ellipse that has center at (1, 1), major axis 10
units and horizontal; minor axis = 3 units. Find also its foci, vertices
and equation of its directrices.

6. Find the equation of the ellipse that has center at (1, 2), major axis 10
units and vertical; minor axis = 5 units. Find also its foci, vertices and
equation of its directrices.

7. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves when the sum of its
distances from (5, 0) and (−5, 0) is always 15. Find also its vertex, the
equation of its directrices and the length of its lactus rectum.

8. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves when the sum of its
distances from (−1, 3) and (7, 3) is always 10. Find also its vertex, the
equation of its directrices and the length of its lactus rectum.

9. Give a full description of the ellipse 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225. Find also the
coordinates of its foci, eccentricity, vertex, the equation of its directrices
and the length of its lactus rectum.
1p
10. Give a full description of the ellipse ± 4 − y 2 . Find also the coordi-
2
nates of its foci, eccentricity, vertex, the equation of its directrices and
the length of its lactus rectum
162 CHAPTER 8. ELLIPSE
Chapter 9

Hyperbola

The eccentricity of a hyperbola is greater than unity (i.e e > 1).

We shall introduce the concept with a hyperbola whose center is at the origin
as shown in figure 9.1.
The curve is symmetrical about the y axis and the center is at C which
is at the origin so that

CS = CS 0 ,

CA = CA0 ,

CZ = CZ 0 ,

SA = S 0 A0 ,

AA0 = 2a (constant),

KK 0 and QQ0 are the directrices to the foci S and S 0 respectively

163
164 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

Figure 9.1: Hyperbola with center at the origin

9.1 Equation of a hyperbola

From definition,
SP = eP M

=⇒ SP 2 = e2 P M 2 .

That is,
(x − ae)2 + y 2 = e2 (x − ae)2

which is simplified as

a2 (e2 − 1) + y 2 = x2 (e2 − 1).

Setting b2 = a2 (e2 − 1), the equation becomes

x2 y 2
− 2 =1 (9.1)
a2 b

Equation (9.1) is the standard equation of a hyperbola with center at the

origin.
9.1. EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA 165

Equation of a hyperbola with center at general point

(h, k)
When the center of the hyperbola is at point (h, k), the equation of the hy-
perbola becomes
(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2

General equations of a hyperbola

A hyperbola is generally represented by an equation that is quadratic in both
x and y.

The equation becomes that of a hyperbola if the coefficient of the quadratic

term in x differs (both in size and sign) from the coefficient of the quadratic
term in y

The general equation of a hyperbola is given as

Ax2 − By 2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0 (9.2)
To be able to fully describe the hyperbola whose equation is presented in
equation (9.2), the equation is transformed to standard form by completion
of the squares of the quadratic terms to get
   
2 C 2 D
A x + x − B y − y = −E
A B
or 2 ! 2 !
C2 D2
 
C D
A x+ − −B y− − = −E
2A 4A2 2B 4B 2
so that 2 2
C2 D2
 
C D
A x+ −B y− = − − E. (9.3)
2A 2B 4A 4B
Setting the RHS to be equal to a constant (say Q), we have
C2 D2
Q= − −E
4A 4B
and equation (9.3) becomes
C

2 D

2
x + 2A y − 2B
− =1
a2 b2
Q Q
where a2 = A
and b2 = B
166 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

Example 9.1.1 Transform the equation x2 − 4y 2 − 2x + 4y − 2 = 0 to the

standard form (semi-reduced form) and give a full description of the hy-
perbola.

Solution.
By completing the squares, we have
 2 !
−1
x2 − 2x + (−1)2 − 4 y 2 − y + =2+1+1
2
or  2
2 1
(x − 1) − 4 y − = 4.
2
Dividing through by 4, we have

2
(x − 1)2 y − 12
− = 1.
4 1

This equation describes a hyperbola with center at 1, 21 . Also,

a2 = 4 =⇒ a = 2,
b2 = 1 =⇒ b = 1,
2
√
b 1 5
e2 = 1 + 2 = 1 + =⇒ e =
a 4 2
so that √
5 √
ae = 2 × = 5
2
and √
a 2 4 4 5
= √ =√ =
e 5 5 5
2
√
√

Therefore,the foci of the hyperbola are 1 + 5, 12 and 1 − 5, 21
Equation of the directrices are
√
4 5
x=1±
5
while the vertices of the ellipse are at
   
1 1
3, and −1,
2 2
9.2. THE ASYMPTOTES 167

9.2 The asymptotes

Consider the equation of a hyperbola

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
which is written as
y2 x2
= −1
b2 a2
or
b2 2
y2 = x − a2


a2

so that
b√ 2
y=± x − a2 .
a
As x −→ ±∞, a2 becomes so negligible that the equation becomes
b
y=± x (9.4)
a
Equations (9.4) are called asymptotic lines to the hyperbola and they
are tangential to the hyperbola at infinity.

Example 9.2.1 Rewrite the equation 3x2 −4y 2 +3x+16y−18 = 0 in standard

form (semi-reduced form). Hence find the value of its eccentricity and the
equations of its asymptotes.

Solution.
By completing the squares, we have
 2 !
1 3
3 x2 + x + − 4 y 2 − 4y + (−2)2 = 18 + − 16


2 4

or  2
1 11
3 x+ − 4 (y − 2)2 = .
2 4
That is
1 2
(y − 2)2


x+ 2
11 − 11 = 1.
12 16
168 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

The eccentricity is obtained from the expression

b 2 + a2
e2 =
a2
11 11
16
+ 12
= 11
12
308
48
= 11 =7
12
so that √
e= 7.
To get the equations of the asymptotes:
r
2 11 11
a = =⇒ a= .
12 12
Similarly, √
2 11 11
b = =⇒ b = .
16 4
Hence the equations of the asymptotes are
b
y=± x
a
√
11
4
= ± √ x
√11
12
or √
3
y=± x.
2
That is, √
2y = ± 3x

9.3 Tangents and normals to a hyperbola

9.3.1 Tangent
The standard equation of a hyperbola whose center is at the origin is given as
x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
9.3. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO A HYPERBOLA 169

which can be rearranged as

b 2 x 2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b 2 . (9.5)

Differentiating the equation implicitly wrt x, we have

dy
2b2 x − 2a2 y =0
dx
which is simplified as
dy b2 x
= 2 . (9.6)
dx ay
If the point (x1 , y1 ) is on the hyperbola, then the slope of the hyperbola at
the point (x1 , y1 ) is given by

dy  b2 x 1
= 2 (9.7)
dx  a y1

(x1 ,y1 )

which happens to be the slope of the tangent at (x1 , y1 )

Therefore, the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola at the point (x1 , y1 )
is
b2 x 1
y − y1 = 2 (x − x1 )
a y1
which is simplified as

b2 xx1 − a2 yy1 = b2 x21 − a2 y12 (9.8)

Since the point (x1 , y1 ) lies on the hyperbola, it satisfies the equation of the
hyperbola. Hence, equation (9.5) can be written as

b2 x21 − a2 y12 = a2 b2

so that the equation of tangent (9.8) becomes

b2 xx1 − a2 yy1 = a2 b2

so that
xx1 yy1
− 2 =1 (9.9)
a2 b
Equation (9.9) is the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola when the
center is at the origin.
170 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

However, if the center of the hyperbola is at an arbitrary point (h, k), the
equation of tangent becomes
(x − h)(x1 − h) (y − k)(y1 − k)
− = 1. (9.10)
a2 b2

9.3.2 Normal
The slope of the normal at an arbitrary point (x1 , y1 ) on the hyperbola is

dx  −a2 y1
−  = 2 (9.11)
dy  b x1
(x1 ,y1 )

Hence, the equation of the normal at the point (x1 , y1 ) is

−a2 y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
b2 x 1
which is simplified as
b2 (y − y1 ) a2 (x − x1 )
+ = 0. (9.12)
y1 x1
When the center of the hyperbola is at an arbitrary point (h, k), the equa-
tion of the normal at the point (x1 , y1 ) is
b2 ((y − k) − (y1 − k)) a2 ((x − h) − (x1 − h))
+ = 0. (9.13)
(y1 − k) (x1 − h)

9.3.3 Condition that a straight line touches a hyperbola

If y = mx + c is a straight line which touches the hyperbola

b 2 x 2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b 2

Solving the two equations simultaneously, we have

b2 x2 − a2 (mx + c)2 = a2 b2
9.3. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO A HYPERBOLA 171

or
b2 x2 − a2 m2 x2 − 2a2 cmx − a2 c2 − a2 b2 = 0
or
b2 − a2 m2 x2 − 2a2 cm x − a2 c2 + a2 b2 = 0

This is a quadratic equation in x.

For the line to touch the hyperbola, the quadratic equation must have exactly
one root. Hence,
B 2 − 4AC = 0
which becomes

2
−2a2 cm + 4 b2 − a2 m2 a2 c2 + a2 b2 = 0

or
4a4 c2 m2 + 4a2 b2 c2 + 4a2 b4 − 4a4 c2 m2 − 4a4 b2 m2 = 0.
Simplifying and dividing through by 4a2 b2 , we have

c2 + b2 − a2 m2 = 0

or √
c = ± a2 m2 − b2 (9.14)
Equation (9.14) is the required condition. Thus,
√
y = mx ± a2 m2 − b2

are tangents to the hyperbola

x2 y 2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b

Note! that if α = x1 and β = x2 are the roots of the quadratic equation

Ax2 + Bx + C = 0

then
B C
α+β =− , αβ =
A A
172 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

But there is only one root thus, x1 =x2 and

B
α + β = 2x1 = −
A

−2a2 cm
=−
b 2 − a2 m 2
or
a2 cm
x1 = .
b2 − a2 m2
The equation of the tangent

y1 = mx1 + c

now become
a2 cm
 
y1 = m +c
b 2 − a2 m 2
which is simplified as
b2 c
y1 = .
b2 − a2 m2
From equation (9.14), c2 = a2 m2 − b2 , so that

a2 cm a2 cm a2 m
x1 = − = − = −
b2 − a2 m2 c2 c

and
b2 c b2 c b2
y1 = − = − = − .
b2 − a2 m2 c2 c
Hence,the coordinates of the point of contact of the tangential line y = mx + c
x2 y 2
and the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
 2
a m b2

− ,−
c c

Example 9.3.1 Obtain the equations of the tangent and normal to the hyper-
(x + 3)2 (y − 4)2 √
bola − = 1 at the point (6, 4 + 4 2).
9 4
9.3. TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO A HYPERBOLA 173

Solution.
The center of the hyperbola
√ is at the point (−3, 4) and the point on the
hyperbola is (6, 4 + 4 2) so that
√
x1 = 6, y1 = 4 + 4 2, h = −3, k = 4, a2 = 9, b2 = 4

Hence the equation of tangent is

(x − h)(x1 − h) (y − k)(y1 − k)
− =1
a2 b2
or √
(x + 3)(6 + 3) (y − 4)(4 + 4 2 − 4)
− =1
9 4
which is simplified as √
(x + 3) − (y − 4) 2 = 1
or √ √
y 2−x−4 2−2=0
The equation of the normal on the other hand is

b2 ((y − k) − (y1 − k)) a2 ((x − h) − (x1 − h))

+ =0
(y1 − k) (x1 − h)
or √

4 (y − 4) − (4 + 4 2 − 4) 9 ((x + 3) − (6 + 3))
√
+ =0
4+4 2−4 (6 + 3)
which is simplified as
√ √
y 2 + 2x − (20 + 4 2) = 0

9.3.4 Geometrical properties of a hyperbola

Property i)
2b2
Length of the lactus rectum of a hyperbola is
a
Proof

Lactus rectum of the hyperbola is LL0 as shown in figure 9.2.

174 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

Figure 9.2: Lactus rectum of a hyperbola

By definition,
SL = eLM
= e(OS − OZ)
or
a
e(ae − )
e
2
= ae − a
= a(e2 − 1).

2 a2 (e2 − 1) b2
But a(e − 1) = =
a a
2
2b
∴ LSL0 = 2SL =
a
2b2
Hence, the length of the lactus rectum of a hyperbola is
a

Property ii)
The difference of the focal distances of a hyperbola is constant. That is,
9.4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A HYPERBOLA 175

S 0 P − SP = 2a

Proof

By definition, from figure 9.1, it is seen that

SP = eP M, S 0 P = eP M 0
so that
S 0 P − SP
becomes
e(P M 0 − P M )
= eM M 0 = eZZ 0
= e × 2CZ
a
=e×2
e
= 2a.

9.4 Parametric representation of a hyperbola

Consider the equation of the hyperbola,
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b
Using the identity,
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ =⇒ sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1

Comparing the equation of hyperbola and the trigonometry identity, we have

that
x
= sec θ =⇒ x = a sec θ
a
and
y
= tan θ =⇒ y = b tan θ.
b
Hence, the parametric equation of a hyperbola is
x = a sec θ
(9.15)
y = b tan θ
while a general point on the hyperbola is given by
(a sec θ, b tan θ).
176 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

9.4.1 Parametric representation of tangents and normal

to a hyperbola
To obtain the slope of the hyperbola at any point on the curve, we differentiate
dy
to obtain from the parametric equation (9.15) as follows:
dx
dx dy
= a sec θ tan θ, = b sec2 θ
dθ dθ
so that
dy 1
= b sec2 θ ×
dx a sec θ tan θ
or
dy b
= (9.16)
dx a sin θ

Tangent
The slope of the tangent at any point on the hyperbola is same as the slope
of the hyperbola at that point. To obtain the equation of the tangent at a
general point (a sec θ, b tan θ), the point-slope equation of straight line is used
with the slope of the hyperbola as presented in equation (9.16). Thus, the
equation of the tangent is
b
y − b tan θ = (x − a sec θ)
a sin θ
which is simplified as
x sec θ y tan θ
− =1 (9.17)
a b

Normal
The slope of the normal at any point on the hyperbola is negative-reciprocal
of the slope of the hyperbola at that point. Hence the slope of the normal at
any point on the hyperbola is
a sin θ
m=−
b
So that the equation of normal at a general point (a sec θ, b tan θ) is obtained
using the point-slope equation of straight line as
a sin θ
y − b tan θ = − (x − a sec θ)
b
9.4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A HYPERBOLA 177

or

ax sin θ + by = a2 + b2 tan θ

which is simplified as
ax by
+ = a2 + b 2 (9.18)
sec θ tan θ
Example 9.4.1
a) Obtain the parametric coordinates of any point on the hyperbola

(x − 2)2 − 4y 2 = 4.

b) Find the equations of tangent and normal to the hyperbola x = 4 sec θ; y=

3 tan θ at the point θ = π3

Solution.

a)
(x − 2)2 − 4y 2 = 4
(x − 2)2 y 2
⇒ − =1
4 1
so that a2 = 4, b2 = 1, h = 2 and k = 0.
The parametric coordinates is

(h + a sec θ, k + b tan θ)

which is
(2 + 2 sec θ, tan θ)

b)
x = 4 sec θ ⇒ a=4
and
y = 3 tan θ ⇒ b = 3.
Using the equation of tangent (9.17), the equation of tangent becomes

x sec θ y tan θ
− =1
4 3
178 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

But θ = π3 , the equation of tangent becomes

x sec π3 y tan π3
− =1
4 3
or
x y
−√ =1
2 3
Which is simplified as √ √
3x − 2y − 2 3 = 0

Equation of normal on the other hand is obtained by substituting the

values of a, b, and θ into equation (9.18) which yields

4x 3y
π + = 42 + 32
sec 3 tan π3

and the equation is simplified as

√
2x + 3y = 25.

Qu. 1 P is an arbitrary point on a variable tangent to the hyperbola

b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b2 and S(ae, 0) is one of its foci. SP is drawn perpendicular
to the tangent. Find the locus of the point P

Hint

• Obtain the parametric equation of tangent to the hyperbola and get its
slope.

• Obtain the slope of line P S and its equation.

• Locate the point of intersection of the line P S and the tangent

• From the parametric coordinates obtained, derive the Cartesian equation

of the desired locus by squaring both the abscissa and the ordinate and
adding them.
9.5. RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 179

9.5 Rectangular hyperbola

This type of hyperbola which is obtained by a 45◦ anti-clockwise rotation
about the origin is also called an equilateral hyperbola. Because of the
name equilateral, it implies that all the sides are equal. That is, a = b so that
the equation of the hyperbola becomes
x2 y 2
− =1
a2 a2
or
x 2 − y 2 = a2 (9.19)

Figure 9.3: Axes rotation by 45◦

Consider the rotation of the axes as shown in figure 9.3 , there are two
axes namely the x − y axes and the X − Y axes.
From the x − y coordinates,

x = ON, y = NP

while
X = OA, Y = AP
on the X − Y axes.
180 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

To obtain the equation of the rectangular hyperbola, it has become neces-

sary to establish relationships between distances on the two axes.

•
X = OA
= OB − AB
= OB − CN
= ON sin θ − P N cos θ.
= x sin θ − y cos θ
But θ = 45◦ so that
x y
X=√ −√
2 2
or √
X 2 = (x − y)

•
Y = AP
= AC + CP
= BN + CP
= ON cos θ + P N sin θ.
= x cos θ + y sin θ
But θ = 45◦ so that
x y
Y =√ +√
2 2
or √
Y 2 = (x + y)

From the equation of rectangular hyperbola (4.19),

x 2 − y 2 = a2

i.e.
(x + y)(x − y) = a2
or  √  √ 
X 2 Y 2 = a2
9.5. RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 181

or
a2
XY = .
2
a2
Taking = c2 , the required equation of rectangular hyperbola is obtained as
2
XY = c2 (9.20)

Equation (9.20) is the equation of a rectangular hyperbola with center at

the origin (0, 0).
If the center is at arbitrary point (h, k), the equation is presented as

(x − h)(y − k) = c2 .

After the anti-clockwise rotation, the asymptotes now assume the position
of the axes and the rectangular hyperbola is as presented in figure 9.4.

9.5.1 Eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola

Recall that for a hyperbola,

b 2 = a2 e 2 − 1 .

However, for a rectangular hyperbola, a = b so that

a2 = a2 e 2 − 1

or
e2 − 1 = 1
√
=⇒ e = 2.
In general, √
it should be noted that the eccentricity of a rectangular hyper-
bola is always 2

Relationship between eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola and

the angle of rotation of the axes
Let α be the angle between the asymptotes and the x − axis of a hyperbola,

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b
and e its eccentricity (see figure 9.5)
182 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

Figure 9.4: Rectangular hyperbola

From the figure, it is observed that

b
tan α = =1
a
=⇒ α = 45◦

But
tan2 α + 1 = sec2 α
or √
sec2 α = 2 =⇒ sec α = 2

Hence,
sec α = e
9.5. RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 183

Figure 9.5:

25
Example 9.5.1 Sketch the curve x + 1 = .
y−3
Solution.
This curve is a rectangular hyperbola with center at (−1, 3)

The equation is rewritten as

(x + 1)(y − 3) = 25 = c2

so that
a2
c2 = = 25
2
or √
a=5 2
√
∴ CA = a = 5 2.
√
Since e = 2 for a rectangular hyperbola,
√ √
CS = ae = 5 2 × 2 = 10

and √
a 5 2
CZ = = √ = 5.
e 2
184 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

Next is to locate the coordinates of all the necessary points. Note! that
the axis of the rectangular hyperbola is the line y = x
With respect to the origin (0, 0), the distance CZ = 5 is same as writing

(x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = 52

or
2x2 = 25 (since y = x)
so that
5
x = ±√
2
However, with respect to the center (−1, 3), the coordinates of Z and Z 0
are  
5 5
Z : √ − 1, √ + 3
2 2
 
0 5 5
Z : − √ − 1, − √ + 3
2 2
√
Similarly, with respect to the origin (0, 0), the distance CA = 5 2 is same
as writing √
(x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = (5 2)2
or
2x2 = 50 (since y = x)
so that
x = ±5
However, with respect to the center (−1, 3), the coordinates of A and A0
are
A : (5 − 1, 5 + 3) = (4, 8)
A0 : (−5 − 1, −5 + 3) = (−6, −2)
To locate the coordinates of the foci, with respect to the origin (0, 0), the
distance CS = 10 is same as writing

(x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = 102

or
2x2 = 100 (since y = x)
so that √
x = ±5 2
9.5. RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA 185

With respect to the center (−1, 3), the coordinates of S and S 0 are
 √ √ 
S : 5 2 − 1, 5 2 + 3
 √ √ 
S 0 : −5 2 − 1, −5 2 + 3
Since the axis of the rectangular hyperbola is parallel to the line y = x, its
slope is 1 and the slope of the directrices is −1, so that the equations are:
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
or     
5 5
y− √ +3 =− x− √ −1
2 2
or √ √ √ √
y 2−3 2−5+x 2−5+ 2=0
√ √ √
=⇒ y 2 + x 2 − 2 2 − 10 = 0
The equation of the second directrix is
    
5 5
y − −√ + 3 = − x − −√ − 1
2 2
or √ √ √ √
y 2−3 2+5+x 2+5+ 2=0
√ √ √
=⇒ y 2 + x 2 − 2 2 + 10 = 0

9.5.2 Parametric notation of rectangular hyperbola

Consider the equation of the rectangular hyperbola,
xy = c2
c
With the parameter t, setting x = ct we have that y = . Hence, the para-
t
metric equation of a rectangular hyperbola is
x = ct
c (9.21)
y=
t
while a general point on the hyperbola is given by
c
(ct, )
t
186 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

9.5.3 Parametric representation of tangents and normal

to a rectangular hyperbola
To obtain the slope of the rectangular hyperbola at any point on the curve,
dy
we differentiate to obtain from the parametric equation (9.21) as follows:
dx
dx dy c
= c, =− 2
dt dt t
so that
dy t2
=c×−
dx c
or
dy 1
=− 2 (9.22)
dx t

Tangent
The slope of the tangent at any point on the rectangular hyperbola is same as
the slope of the rectangular hyperbola at that point. To obtain the equation
c
of the tangent at a general point (ct, ), the point-slope equation of straight
t
line is used with the slope of the hyperbola as presented in equation (9.22).
Thus, the equation of the tangent is
c 1
y− = − 2 (x − ct)
t t
which is simplified as
x + t2 y = 2ct (9.23)

Normal
The slope of the normal at any point on the rectangular hyperbola is negative-
reciprocal of the slope of the tangent at that point. Hence the slope of the
normal at any point on the hyperbola is
m = t2
c
So that the equation of normal at a general point (ct, ) is obtained using the
t
point-slope equation of straight line as
c
y − = t2 (x − ct)
t
which is simplified as
t3 x − yt − ct4 + c = 0 (9.24)
9.6. EXERCISES 187

9.6 Exercises
1. Find the equation of the hyperbola that has vertices at (±6, 0), and foci
at (±8, 0) Find also the length of its lactus rectum and equation of its
directrices.

2. Find the equation of the hyperbola that has vertices at (±2, 0), and foci
at (±3, 0) Find also the equation of its asymptotes and equation of its
directrices.

3. Find the equation of the hyperbola that has vertices at (1, ±5), and foci
at (1, ±6) Find also the length of its lactus rectum, equations of its
asymptotes and that of the directrices.

4. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves when the difference of its
distances from (0, −6) and (0, 6) is always 10. Find also its vertex, the
equation of its directrices and the length of its lactus rectum.

5. Find the equation of locus of a point that moves when the difference of its
distances from (1, −4) and (1, 4) is always 4. Find also its vertex, the
equation of its directrices and the length of its lactus rectum.

6. Convert the equation; 16y 2 − 25x2 = 400 to its semi reduced form and
hence give a full description of the curve.
188 CHAPTER 9. HYPERBOLA

Suggested Readings

1. J. K. Backhouse, et. al., Pure Mathematics 1 and 2, Longman, (1980).

2. G. B. Thomas and R. L. Finney, Calculus and Analytical Geometry,

Addison-Wesley, (1979).

3. J. C. Amazigo, et. al., Introductory University Mathematics 3, Africana

First Publishers, (2005).