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MiniReview Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India

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International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 (2012)

MiniReview
Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India

Das, A. J. and *Deka, S. C.

Department of Food Processing Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur,

Assam-784028, India

Abstract: North East India is characterized by a diverse population of people with different ethnic background.
Most of the people of this region are tribal and bear their own methods of fermenting food materials for the
purpose of preservation and taste enhancement and they have been carrying these from time immemorial. All
the fermented products are region specific and have their own unique substrates and preparation methods.
Materials such as soybeans, bamboo shoots and locally available vegetables are commonly fermented by most
of the tribes. The fermented alcoholic beverages prepared in this region are unique from the rest of the world
in several aspects and bears deep attachment with the socio-cultural lives of the people. The starter cultures
used and the utilization of indigenous microbes reflect the expertise of these people in customary microbiology.
Microbes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida sp., Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Bacillus sp. have
been found to be abundant of common occurrence in these products. These products also serve as a source of
economy to many of the rural people, who prepares them at home and market locally. Detailed studies on the
nutritive and medicinal value of these products can provide valuable information would prove beneficial in the
use of these products on a wider scale. Formulation of new techniques to increase their shelf life would help in
the commercialization of these products.

Keywords: Fermented food, beverages, North-East India, tribes, microorganisms

Introduction simple processing facilities. These products often

contain mixed microbial populations because of the
The term fermentation is derived from the Latin lack of sterility and the use of natural fermentation
word fervere meaning “to boil”. It basically describes (Nout and Sarkar, 1999).
the appearance of the action of yeast on extracts In the Indian subcontinent, fermented food and
of fruit or malted grain during the production of beverages, prepared using local food crops and other
alcoholic beverages. It may be defined as any process biological resources have been going on since time
for the production of a product by the mass culture immemorial and is a common practice even today
of microorganism (Stanbury, 1999). Indigenous (Roy et al., 2004). The North-Eastern region of India
people have been using microbes unknowingly for is comprised of the cluster of eight states namely
various purposes (Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Fermentation is one of the oldest and most economic Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur and Sikkim. The region
methods of preserving the quality and safety of can be physiographically categorized into the Eastern
foods. Moreover, fermented foods have further Himalayas, Northeast hills (Patkai-Naga Hills and
benefits of providing bio-nutrients and minerals and Lushai Hills) and the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley
enhancement of flavour and aroma. The process also plains. Approximately 225 tribes out of the 450 tribes
increases digestibility and exert health promoting of India reside in this region (Chatterjee et al., 2006).
benefits (Jeyaram et al., 2009). Fermentation may The people of these states have a very rich reserve
assist in the destruction or detoxification of certain of traditional knowledge owing to their livelihood
undesirable compounds which may be present in in the hilly terrains. This area is inhabited largely by
raw foods. These are compounds such as phytates, tribal people who make up 75% of the population of
polyphenols and tannins (Sharma and Kapoor, 1996). the region (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi,
Fermented foods are encountered worldwide and their 2006). These people possess great knowledge of the
origin is due to their prolonged shelf life, reduced environment and depend on the forests, plants and
volume, shorter cooking times and superior nutritive plant products for food and other purposes (Jaiswal,
value as compared to the non-fermented ingredients. 2010). Learning about edible plants and processing
The traditional way of carrying out fermentation at and conservation of foods for consumption and
the household-scale is still followed using relatively medicinal purposes has been in the large part due to

*Corresponding author.
Email: [email protected] © All Rights Reserved
Fax: +913712-267005/267006
378 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

incremental and cumulative learning among these Fermented vegetables

societies living in close connection with nature (Singh
et al., 2007). A variety of region specific fermented Many different forms of vegetables are fermented
foods and beverages are traditionally produced and and preserved by the tribal people of this region.
consumed, and even locally marketed in North-East Similar products are like sauerkraut (Europe), kimchi
India. Different types of substrates and fermenting (Korea), oncom (Indonesia), tsukemono (Japan), suan
organisms are being employed for the production of cai (China) and atchara (Phillipines) (Lee, 2009).
these ethnic products and the process employed also Some common fermented vegetable products oh this
varies from place to place. A summary of the different region are being described here.
microbes involved in the fermentation of the various
products is given in Table 1.This paper focuses on Gundruk
some of the practices followed by the different groups Gundruk is a fermented vegetable product
of indigenous tribal people of North-East India in the indigenous to the Nepali people of the Himalayan
production of their respective fermented product. region.
Table 1. Microbes associated with the fermentation of different traditional fermented food
products of North-East India
SI No Fermented Product Microbes associated Reference
Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecium, Candida parapsilosis,
1 Kinema Sarkar et al., 1994
Geotrichum candidum
Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. cereus, Staphylococcus
2 Hawaijar Jeyaram et al., 2008a
aureus, S. sciuri, Alkaligenes sp. Providencia rettger
Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecium, Candida parapsilosis, Sohliya et al., 2009; Sarkar et
3 Tungrumbai Saccharomyces bayanus, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, al., 1994
Geotrichum candidum
4 Bekang Bacillus subtilis, other Bacillus sp. Tamang et al., 2009
5 Peruyyan Lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, other Bacillus sp. Tamang et al., 2009
Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. coryniformis, L.
delbrueckii, L lactis, Leuconostoc falllax, , Leuc. mesentroides, Tamang and Tamang, 2009a ;
6 Soibum Enterococcus durans, Streptococcus lactis, Bacillus subtilis, B. Tamang et al., 2008
licheniformis, B. coagulans, Candida sp., Saccharomyces sp.,
Torulopsis sp.
7 Soidon Lactobacillus brevis, Leuconostoc fallax, Leuc. lactis Tamang et al., 2008
Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. pentosaceus, L.
8 Mesu Tamang and Sarkar, 1996
pentosaceus L. brevis, L. plantarum
Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. casei, Tetragenococcus
9 Ekung Tamang and Tamang, 2009a
halophilus
10 Hirring Lactobacillus plantarum, L. lactis Tamang and Tamang, 2009 b
Lactococcus plantarum, L. plantarum, Bacillus subtilis, B.
11 Ngari Thapa et al., 2004
pumilus, Miocrococcus sp., Candida sp.
Lactobacillus fructosus, L. amylophilus, Enterococcus faecium,
Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus
12 Hentak Thapa et al., 2004
faecium, Candida sp.

Lactobacillus coriniformis, L. lactis, L. fructosus, B. cereus, B.

13 Tungtap Thapa et al., 2004
subtilis, Candida sp., Saccharomycopsis sp.
Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Bacillus
14 Gnuchi Thapa et al., 2006
subtilis, Micrococcus sp
Lactobacillus brevis, L. plantarum, L. paracasei, Leuconostoc
15 Gundruk Tamang et al., 2005
fallax, Pediococcus pentosaceus, P. acidilactici
16 Sinki Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. fermentum Tamang and Sarkar, 1993
17 Ziang-sang Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Pediococcus acidilactici Tamang et al., 2005
Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Lactococcus lactis,
18 Goyang Tamang and Tamang, 2007
Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus
19 Khalpi Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Lecuonostoc fallax Tamang, 2009
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora sp, Kloeckera sp,
20 Ipoh Tanti et al., 2010
Pischia sp., Candida sp
Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia anomala, Trichosporon Tamang et al., 2007 ; Jeyaram et
21 Atingba sp., Candida tropicalis, P. guilliermondi, C. parapsilosis, al., 2008
Torulaspora delbrueckii, C. Montana, P. fabianii
Mucor cicinelloides, Rhizopus chinensis, Rhizopus stolonifer var.
lyococcus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. bayanus, Hansenula Tamang and Sarkar, 1995;
anomala, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactobacillus sp., Candida Tsuyoshi et al., 2005; Tiwari et
22 Kodo ko Jaanr glabrata, Saccharomycopsis capsularis, Saccharomycopsis al., 2007; Sekar and Mariappan,
fibuligera, Pichia burtonii Pichia anomala, Cryptococcus 2007
sp., Trichosporon sp., Debaryomyces sp., Kluyveromyces sp.,
Myxozyma sp., Bullera sp., Rhodotorula sp., Tremella sp.
23 Zutho Saccharomyces cerevisiae Teramoto et al., 2002

International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392

 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 379

It is commonly prepared during winter i.e, October out, cut into small pieces and sundried for 3-5 days.
to December, when perishable leafy vegetables This product can be kept for 2 years or more at room
are plenty. These vegetables are mainly leaves of temperature by exposing to sunlight periodically
mustard (Brasicca juncea), rayo-sag (Brasicca rapa), (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993; Tamang and Tamang,
cauliflowers (Brasicca oleracea), radish (Raphanus 2009a).
sativus) and some other locally grown vegetables Sinki has a pH of 4.4, and a protein and fat content
(Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). The microorganism 14.6 g and 2.5 g respectively on dry weight basis.
predominantly occurring in gundruk have been It has a highly acidic flavour, and is used as a base
identified as Lactobacillus brevis, L. plantarum, L. for soup and pickle. It is said to be a good appetizer,
paracasei, Pediococcus pentosaceus, P. acidilactici and is used as a remedy for indigestion (Tamang and
and Leuconostoc fallax (Tamang et al., 2005). Sarkar, 1993).
For its fermentation, fresh leaves of the selected
vegetables are first wilted and shredded using a sickle Ziang-sang/ Ziang-dui
or knife. These are then crushed mildly and pressed This is a fermented leafy vegetable product
into an earthen pot. The container is then made air which is common to both the states of Manipur and
tight and left to ferment naturally at room temperature Nagaland. It is produced dominantly by the Naga
for about 7 to 10 days. After the incubation period women and sold in the local markets (Tamang and
the leaves takes a mild acidic taste which indicates Tamang, 2009a). The microbes associated have been
the completion of fermentation. The gundruk is then identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and
removed and sun dried for 3 to 4 days, which helps Pediococcus acidilactici (Tamang et al., 2005).
in storage. Gundruk is sold in all the local markets of Ziang-sang is prepared during the winter season.
Darjeeling hills and Sikkim by the Nepali women. It is 2 to 3 days old withered leaves of hangam (Brassica
eaten as a soup or pickle. The soup which is prepared sp.) are crushed using traditional wooden mortar
after mixing gundruk with certain ingredients serves and pestle and soaked in warm water. They are then
as a good appetizer (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). squeezed to remove the excess water and put inside
air tight container and allowed to go for semisolid
Sinki fermentation for a period of 7-10 days at ambient
This is a form of fermented radish (Raphanus temperature (20 - 30 0 C). From the fermented product,
sativus L.) tap root and is consumed by the Nepalis in the juice is extracted by squeezing with hands and the
Darjeeling, Sikkim and Nepal. It is prepared during paste is sundried for 4 to 5 days, which can then be
the months of winter when weather is least humid stored for more than a year. This is called ziang-sang.
and there is ample supply of this vegetable (Tamang The liquid part is concentrated by boiling and can be
and Sarkar, 1993; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007).The stored in traditional bamboo containers for more than
microbes associated with its fermentation have been a year. This part is called ziang-dui. Ziang-sang is
identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and consumed as a soup with boiled rice and ziang-dui is
L. fermentum (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993). used as condiment with meals (Jeyaram et al., 2009;
Fresh tap roots of radish are cleaned by washing, Tamang and Tamang, 2009a).
wilted by sun-drying for 1-2 days until they become
soft. They are then shredded, dipped in lukewarm Goyang
water, squeezed and placed tightly into an earthen jar The Sherpa tribe belonging to the state of Sikkim
with the help of a heavy wooden pestle. The jar is and hills of Darjeeling prepare this fermented
sealed with an earthen lid and is covered with radish product from leaves of the wild plant magane-
leaves. It is then kept in a warm and dry place for 15- saag (Cardamine macrophylla Willd.) (Tamang
30 days (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993). Alternatively, a and Tamang, 2009a). Samples have been found to
pit of about 1 metre depth and diameter is dug in a contain the species Lactobacillus plantarum, L.
dry place. This is cleaned, and dried by lighting a fire. brevis, Lactococcus lactis, Enterococcus faecium
The ashes are removed and the sides are plastered and Pediococcus pentosaceus (Tamang and Tamang,
with mud while still hot. It is then covered on all sides 2007).
with dried leaves of bamboo, banana or radish. The During the rainy season the leaves of the plant
shredded roots are pressed tightly into this pit, then magane-saag are found in plenty. They are collected,
covered with dried leaves and weighed with heavy washed, chopped into pieces and squeezed to remove
stones or wooden planks. The top is then plastered the excess water. The leaves are tightly pressed
with mud or cow dung and left to ferment for a period into a bamboo basket lined with 2-3 layers of fig
of 30-40 days. After this the fermented mass is taken (Ficus carica) leaves. The top of the basket is also

International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392

380 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

covered with fig leaves and is left to ferment at room Soibum/ Soidon
temperature (15–250C) for a period of 1 month. After These are fermented bamboo shoot products
this the goyang may be transferred to an air tight and are indigenous foods of the state of Manipur.
container where it can be stored for a period of 2-3 They are consumed as an indispensible part
months. The product may also be made into balls of the Manipuri diet and are familiar with the
and sundried which increases its shelf life. Locally, social customs of the people. Soibum is produced
goyang is boiled with beef or yak meat and noodles exclusively from succulent bamboo shoots of the
and made into a thick soup like dish called thupka species Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. sikkimensis,
(Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). D. giganteus, Melocana bambusoide, Bambusa
tulda and B. balcona. The process of fermentation
Khalpi is carried out from the months of June to September
Khalpi is a cucumber product of the state of when bamboo shoots sprout. The sites known for the
Sikkim and Darjeeling hills. It is generally prepared production of soibum in Manipur are located mostly
for home consumption by the Nepali Brahmins in the hills and are subjected to the availability
belonging to the Bahun and Chettri castes. Microbes and abundance of the raw material (Jeyaram et al.,
associated with its fermentation have been identified 2009; Bhatt et al., 2003). The organisms found
as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and Lecuonostoc to be associated with the fermentation of soibum
fallax. For preparation of khalpi, mature and ripened have been identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L.
cucumbers are cut into definite sizes and sundried brevis, L. coryniformis, L. delbrueckii, , L. lactis,
for 2 days. They are then put into bamboo vessels Leuconostoc falllax, L. mesentroides, Enterococcus
called dhungroo and sealed. Fermentation is allowed durans, Streptococcus lactis, Bacillus subtilis, B.
to take place for 4 to 7 days at room temperature. The licheniformis, B. coagulans, and the yeasts Candida
product can be stored for about a week in an air tight sp., Saccharomyces sp., Torulopsis sp.(Tamang and
container. It is taken as a pickle after mixing with Tamang, 2009a ; Tamang et al., 2008).
mustard oil, chillies and salt (Tamang and Tamang, Two types of fermentation procedures are
2009a). followed for soibum preparation, namely noney/
kwatha type and andro type. In both the methods,
Anishi the outer inedible and hard casings of succulent
Native to the state of Nagaland, this product is bamboo sprouts are peeled off and the soft portions
prepared mainly by the Ao tribe. For its preparation are chopped and pressed tightly into wooden or
leaves of edible yam (Colocasia sp.) are used. The earthen pots and left to ferment for 6-12 months.
fresh mature green leaves are collected and washed The noney/ kwatha type is the more preferred one
properly. They are then piled one upon another and which is batch type fermentation that results more
finally wrapped with a banana leaf. They are then acidic product with more acidic taste and is carried
left for about 6 to 7 days till the leaves turn yellow. out in traditionally designed bamboo chamber which
The yellow leaves are then mixed with salt, chilli is covered with leaves of wild plants or polythene
and ginger and grounded into a paste. This paste is sheet. Slices of succulent and soft bamboo shoots are
then made into cakes and kept over the fireplace in packed tightly into this bamboo chamber. After being
the kitchen. After 2 to 3 days of drying they become filled to the full of its capacity the upper opening of
ready for consumption. It is used as a condiment the basket is sealed with polythene sheet and weights
and is usually cooked with dry meat, especially pork laid upon it to make the sealing intact. The bottom of
(Mao and Odyuo, 2007). this basket is perforated in order to allow seepage of
the acidic juices produced during fermentation. The
Fermented Bamboo shoot setup is left in this manner for 6-12 months for proper
solid stage fermentation to take place. The product
This is another fermented product which is after completion of fermentation can be stored for
extensively used in the states of North-East India and more than a year. Andro type of fermentation is
bears resemblance to jiang-sun (Chen et al., 2010) practiced only in Andro village of Manipur. In this
and kardi in Orissa, India. It is mainly used as a process fed batch type of fermentation is carried out
taste enhancer and flavour provider. Many varieties in bulky roasted earthen pots. A portion of the pot is
of bamboo are used separately by the different tribes first filled with bamboo shoot slices and fermentation
using their own traditional techniques. is allowed to occur. After the mash volume gets
reduced due to fermentation, additional slices of
bamboo shoot are added and pressure is applied from

International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392

 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 381

above to compact the mass. This process is continued either into bamboo cylinders or glass bottles. Lactic
until the pot is filled to the top and then it is kept acid bacteria have been found to be present in the
for a period of 6-12 months. Here the juices are not fermented product (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a).
allowed to drain out (Jeyaram et al., 2008a). The The bamboo cylinders used for fermentation are
product is whitish in colour with faint aroma and sour made by cutting one side open and the other side closed
taste. The prepared soibum is commonly sold in local with the node. They are filled with the sliced shoots
vegetable markets exclusively by Maitei women. It to the full capacity and the open side is closed with
is generally consumed with steamed rice as a side dried leaves and sealed by tying the rim with thread or
dish. It is also cooked with Colocasia sp corms, green grass. Care is taken to prevent the accidental seepage
peas, pumpkins, potatoes, etc in different recipes like of water into the cylinder which makes the product
chutney. Some people also fry it with fishes (Jeyaram black and unfit for consumption. These cylinders are
et al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). then immersed in streams for a period of 1-2 months
When the apical meristems of succulent bamboo for fermentation to take place. The water in which
shoots are fermented, the product is known as the cylinders are kept should be cold; otherwise it
soidon. The species used are Teinostachyum wightii, is thought proper fermentation does not take place.
Bambusa tulda Roxb., Dendrocalamus giganteus This process is preferred more by the farmers and the
Munro, Melocana bambusoide Trin. (Jeyaram et rural people. This product can be stored up to 1 to
al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Species of 2 months. In case when glass bottles are used, the
Lactobacillus brevis, Leuconostoc fallax and L. lactis sliced bamboo shoots are filled inside the bottle and
have been found to be associated with its fermentation water is added till all the shoots are submerged. The
(Tamang et al., 2008). bottle is then capped and kept at room temperature
For preparing soidon, the tips of mature bamboo or near the fire place for fermentation. The shoots
shoots are collected and the succulent tender in the bottle can be kept up to 1 year. This process
meristems are taken out by removing the outer is preferred more by the urban people. The protein
castings and the lower portions. The tips are then cut content of the fermented product has been found to
transversely into pieces and submerged in water in an be 8.5 gm% which is more than unfermented bamboo
earthen pot. Milky fermented sour liquid (soijim) of shoots. It is consumed as a curry by mixing with
previous batch is added in 1:1 dilution to this mixture meat or fish (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi,
as a starter culture. Leaves of the locally available 2006; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a).
plant named heibung (Garcinia pedunculata) may
be added to the fermentation mixture as an acidifier Mesu
and also to enhance the flavour. Rice washed water Mesu is a fermented bamboo shoot product
called chenghi may sometimes be added in 1:10 indigenous to the people of Himalayan regions of
dilution to improve the colour. The pot is covered and Darjeeling hills and Sikkim. It is prepared only during
fermentation is allowed to take place for a period of the months of June to September when Bamboo shoots
3-7 days. After this period the soidon is ready to be sprout. The species of bamboo used are the locally
consumed. It can be kept for a period of up to one year available choya bans (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii
if stored in plastic containers at room temperature Nees and Arnott), bhalu bans (D. sikkimensis
(Jeyaram et al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Gamble) and karati bans (Bambusa tulda Roxb). Its
Soidon is consumed as a as well as pickle. The liquid chief producers are the Limboo women belonging
part of it may also be used as a condiment to supply to Nepali community (Tamang and Sarkar, 1996;
the sour taste in curry (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Tamang and Tamang, 2009a; Sekar and Mariappan,
2007). Microbial analysis of young bamboo
Lung-seij shoots demonstrated the presence of Lactobacillus
This ethnic fermented bamboo shoot product plantarum, L. brevis and L. pentosaceus. It was found
belongs to the state of Meghalaya and is produced that L. pentosaceus was the initiator of fermentation,
mainly by the Khasi women. It is prepared from followed by L. brevis and finally dominated by L.
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii species of bamboo plantarum (Tamang and Sarkar, 1996).
available locally in Meghalaya. To prepare lung-seij, In order to carry out the fermentation of mesu,
tender bamboo shoots of about 0.5 meters in length young edible shoots of the bamboo plant are defoliated,
are selected and cut from the bamboo grooves. The chopped finely and pressed tightly into green hollow
bracts and sheaths are removed and then they are bamboo stem. The opening of this bamboo is covered
washed thoroughly with water, cleaned and the shoots tightly with leaves of bamboo or other wild plants.
are sliced into small pieces. These are then pressed This is then left to ferment at room temperature (20-

International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392

382 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

water is then poured upon the mixture and the brew cleaned leaves of the locally available plant khaw-
that drips at the end is collected. The first draw is iang (Amomum aromaticum Roxb.) are sun dried
called tokti which is the strongest and the subsequent and grounded into powder in a wooden mortar pestle
blackish brew is called ennog (Tiwari and Mahanta, called as thlong-surai. 1-2 kgs of a local variety of rice
2007). called kho-so is soaked and then grounded to powder
Atingba in a thlong-surai. These two powders are then mixed
The people of the state of Manipur prepare this in a cone shaped basket caked khire and spring water
alcoholic beverage called atingba from glutinous rice. is added to make a sticky paste. Small round cakes of
The starter culture used for the preparation of atingba about 4-5 cm in diameter and about 1 cm in thickness
is called hamei. The recipes for their preparation are are made of the paste. These are kept in a round
being kept secret and passed on from generation to basket called malieng and covered by banana leaves.
generation (Jeyaram et al., 2008b). The malieng is hanged on a rectangular frame made
To prepare hamei raw rice is crushed with powder of bamboo called la-er and exposed to sunlight or
of barks of the plant yangli (Albizia myriophylla) held above the fire place. After drying the cakes gets
(0.25 kg per kg of rice) along with water to form a hardened and they are known as thiat and used as the
dough like mass. To this is added powdered hamei yeast inoculum. For brewing kiad, 4-5 kgs of kho-so
of previous batch and mixed well. This is then made is mixed with spring water and cooked in a metallic
into flat cakes of approximately 2-7 cm in diameter vessel with continuous stirring. The cooked rice is
and 0.6-1.5 cm thickness. They are then kept over then spread on a malieng for cooling and drying. Then
rice husks in the floor or bamboo baskets for 2 to to this 2-3 cakes if finely crushed thiat are mixed. The
3 days at room temperature. After fermentation mixture is then put in a cone shaped basket called
the cakes swells, produces alcoholic flavour and shang. The whole basket is covered with a cloth
yellowish coloration. They can be dried and stored and left for 2-3 days. The fermented mash known as
for up to a year (Tamang et al., 2007; Jeyaram et al., jyndem is distilled in a set of apparatus called shet-
2008b; Jeyaram et al., 2009). The lactic acid bacteria kiad which is made by piling different sized vessels
isolated from samples of hamei have been identified one above another. The distillate is known as kiad
as Lactobacillus plantarum and Pediococcus (Jaiswal, 2010; Samati and Begum, 2007).
pentosaceus (Tamang and Nikkuni, 1998). The fungal Kiad production serves as a source of income
agents associated with fermentation have been found to the local people and its minimum consumption is
to be Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia anomala, considered to be good for health and acts as a remedy
P. guilliermondi, P. fabianii, Candida tropicalis, C. for various ailments (Samati and Begum, 2007).
parapsilosis, C. montana Torulaspora delbrueckii
and Trichosporon sp. (Jeyaram et al., 2008b).
Sujen
For the production of atingba, glutinous rice is
Sujen is a form of rice beer which is popular
first cooked, cooled and mixed with crushed hamei (5
among the Deori tribe of Assam. It is also considered
cakes for 10 kgs). The mixture is the fermented in solid
to be pure and used as a holy water by the Deori
state in mud pots covered with ‘hangla’ (Alocasia
priests during various festivals and ceremonies. Sujen
sp.) leaves for 3-4 days during summer and 6-7 days
is prepared in two stages, first is the preparation of the
in winter. This is followed by 2-3 days of submerged
natural starter called mod pitha and then the brewing
fermentation in earthen pots. The beverage which is
of sujen (Deori et al., 2007).
obtained after filtration of the fermented product is
For preparation of mod pitha a variety of plant
called atingba (Jeyaram et al., 2009).
species (about 32 in number) are used. Some of these are
Artocarpus heterophyllus, Cinnamomum bejolghota,
Kiad Costus speciosus, Desmodium pulchellum, Coffea
Kiad is popular local liquor prepared by the bengalenses, Cyperus sp., Equisetum sp., Lygodium
Jaintia tribe (also known as Pnar or Synteng) of flexuosum and Melastoma malabathricum. A handful
the Jaintia hills of the state of Meghalaya. It plays of each of the plant’s cleaned leaves, fronds, barks,
an important role in Jaintia socio-cultural life and roots and bulbs are put in a round bamboo mesh
accompanies every religious festival and ceremony. called saloni and sun-dried for a day. Then 3 to 5 kgs
The preparation of kiad is carried out in two stages; of saol (rice) is soaked in water for about 2 hrs and
first the preparation of natural yeast called thiat and mixed with the dried plant materials in a grounded in
second is the brewing of the liquor kiad (Jaiswal a wooden grinder called dheki along with 2 to 3 mod
2010; Samati and Begum, 2007). pithas. The grounded powder is sieved in a saloni
For preparation of thiat, a handful of washed and and the fine powder obtained is taken in a metallic

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 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 383

250C) for a period of 7-15 days. The completion hamiltonii Nees. et Arn. ex Munro, D. giganteus
of fermentation is indicated by the emission of a Munro, Bambusa balcooa Roxb., B. tulda Roxb and
particular flavour. Fresh mesu has a shelf life of only Phyllostachys assamica Gamble ex Brandis (Tamang
about a week. However mesu is commonly used as a and Tamang, 2009a; Tamang and Tamang, 2009b).
pickle by mixing it with salt, chilli and mustard oil, The microbes associated with its fermentation have
which can be stored for more than a year without been found to be Lactobacillus plantarum, L. lactis,
refrigeration. Mesu is also used for preparing curry L. brevis, L. casei and Tetragenococcus halophilus
by frying and mixing with cooked meat (Tamang and (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a; Tamang and Tamang,
Sarkar, 1996; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). 2009b).
The young and tender shoots of bamboo plant
Bas-tenga are collected and the outer sheaths removed and the
Bas-tenga which means “sour bamboo” is the edible part is chopped into very small pieces. A pit
fermented form of bamboo shoots and produced by is dug in the ground and a bamboo basket is laid on
the Nagas of Nagaland. The fermentation process it and lined with leaves. The basket is filled with
is carried out during the months of May to June chopped shoots, covered with leaves and then sealed.
when the new shoots are formed. The young and Heavy stones are laid upon the basket to drain off
tender bamboo shoots of locally available bamboo the excess water. They are then fermented for 1-3
are collected and the sheaths are removed. They are months. The product can be stored for a year in air
then sliced or pounded to into small pieces. A conical tight containers. It is consumed raw or cooked with
bamboo basket is taken and a hole is made at the meat, fish or vegetables. Sometimes this product is
bottom (tapered end) and a pointed bamboo stick again cut into small pieces and dried in the sun for
which is a little longer than the length of the basket 5-10 days until the colour changes from whitish to
is inserted into the hole passing through the centre. chocolate brown. This can be stored up to 2 years at
The inner wall of this basket is lined with bamboo ambient temperature (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a).
leaves. The sliced bamboo shoots are then put in this
basket which is tied to a post and the upper portion is
Miya mikhri
covered with banana leaves and stones placed above
It is produced by the Dimasa tribe of Assam. For its
them as weights. The bamboo stick helps in the
preparation, the bamboo shoots are collected, cleaned
seepage of the juices/sap, which is twisted and turned
and cut into small pieces. They are then wrapped in
from time to time in order to allow proper drainage
banana leaf and kept inside an earthen pot. This pot
of the juices. The juices are collected at the bottom
is then left at room temperature for 4-5 days at room
in a container. The fermentation of the shoots and the
temperature. After the emission of smell, the shoots
juices takes place separately within a week (Mao and
are shifted to a glass container. This can be stored for
Odyuo, 2007).
about a year. Miya mikhri can be taken as a pickle or
The shoots can be stored in hollow internodes of
even mixed with curry (Chakrabarty et al., 2009).
bamboo with the open end plugged with leaves or
wooden vat and the whole thing covered by banana
Fermented fish
leaves. The juice may also be stored in jar made of
gourd which is used by the Nagas. The fermented
Many tribes of North-East India prepare
shoots may also be dried in the sun which gives
fermented fish, generally from the locally available
a different aroma and longer shelf life. All the
small species of freshwater fish. Other products of
above products are used in the preparation of meat,
this kind are nampha of Thailand, patis of Philippines
fish or other vegetable dishes. The juice also has a
and kaomi and ounago of Japan (Crisan and Sands,
preservative property similar to vinegar and dishes
1975).These products with their exquisite taste and
cooked with it have longer shelf life (Mao and Odyuo,
smell serve as a source of protein in the diets of the
2007).
people. Some of them are mentioned here.
Ekung/ Hirring
This is an ethnic fermented bamboo shoot product Ngari
of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is called as ekung The fermented fish product ngari forms an intrinsic
by the Nyishing tribe and hirring by the Apatani tribe part of the diet of the Manipuri people in Manipur.
of Arunachal Pradesh. It is prepared from mid April to The methods of preservation are traditionally used
early September when young bamboo shoots sprout. with cultural identity and these household arts are
The species of bamboo used are Dendrocalamus handed down through generations. The fish species

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384 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

used for its preparation is Puntius sophore and they the state of Manipur. It comes in the form of paste
are used in the sun dried form called as phoubu (Jeyaram et al., 2009). The microorganisms associated
(Jeyaram et al., 2009). Lactic acid bacteria are the with hentak have been identified as Lactobacillus
chief fermenting organism found in samples of ngari. fructosus, L. amylophilus, Enterococcus faecium,
The species identified are Lactococcus plantarum Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus,
and Lactobacillus plantarum. Bacillus subtilis, B. Enterococcus faecium along with fungus of Candida
pumilus and Miocrococcus sp. have also been isolated sp (Thapa et al., 2004).
from ngari. The fungal isolates have been identified For the preparing of hentak, fishes of the species
as that of Candida sp. (Thapa et al., 2004). Esomus danricus are first dried in the sun. They
The preparation of ngari is mostly confined are then crushed to powder in a mortar-pestle. On
to small-households in the villages. The fishes the other hand, petioles of the aroid plant (Alocasia
are incurred directly from the local fish ponds or macrorhiza) are cut into small pieces, washed with
imported from the Brahmaputra valley. Moreover, water and exposed in the sunlight for about an hour.
it is practised more frequently in the fishing seasons Now equal weights of both the fish powder and the
i.e. October to January when Puntius fish are easily plant material are mixed and crushed together in
available. The fishes as a whole are washed and intact order to make a paste. These are then made into small
ones are selected. They are then dried in the sunlight balls and transferred into earthen pots. These pots
for 3-4 days. When the fishes become semi-dried, are left at room temperature for fermentation to take
they are rubbed with some amount of essential oils place. The process takes about two weeks after which
like mustard oil or fish oil and little amount of salt is the product becomes ready to be eaten. These balls
added to help absorb the oils into the fish body. The become hardened on being stored for a few months,
dried fishes are then used for fermentation directly which can then be propounded to paste with a little
or stored in gunny bags for further use. When water and stored as balls for reserved food (Jeyaram
stored fishes are used for fermentation, they are first et al., 2009).
washed with water in a porous bamboo basket and Hentak is consumed as a curry as well as a
the water is allowed to drain for one night. The fishes supplement with boiled rice. Sometimes it is given
are then placed in gunny bags and pressed in order to women in the final stages of their pregnancy
to remove the excess water and break the head and (confinement) or patients recovering from sickness
bones. The fishes are then put in earthen pots called or injury (Sarojnalini and Singh, 1988).
chaphus previously maintained by smearing mustard
oil. For new pots 8-10 times oil coating are required Tungtap
at an interval of 7-8 days whereas in old pots only This is indigenous to the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya.
one coating is required. The oil coating may be to It is made at the household and village level and is
create an anaerobic condition inside the pot. After sold throughout the district mostly at the weekly
packing the fish tightly in the pots, they are sealed markets (Sekar and Mariappan, 2007; Agrahar-
with polyethene sheet, fish scales, oil smear, mud Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). The microbes
and cow dung slurry. The mouths of the chaphus found in tungtap have been identified as Lactobacillus
are filled with cover paste and finally overlaid with coriniformis, L. lactis, L. fructosus, Bacillus cereus,
cover leaf. The pots are then kept in the dark at room B. subtilis, Candida sp., and Saccharomycopsis sp.
temperature for about 4-6 months. At this time the (Thapa et al., 2004).
fermented fished becomes ready for consumption Fishes of the species Puntius sophore are used
and are also locally known as chaphu kaiba. It has for the preparation of tungtap. The fishes are washed,
a characteristic smell and has a shelf life of 12-18 scaled and degutted initially followed by application
months (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Singh et al., 2010). of salt throughout the body, on the inside as well on the
Most strains of LAB isolated from  ngari  had outside. They are then transferred to a clay pot which
a high degree of hydrophobicity, indicating their is subsequently filled with a mixture of salt and fish/
probiotic characters (Thapa et al., 2004). It is used pork fat. The pot is then covered with banana leaf and
for preparing different delicacies like eromba where tied tightly around the rim using a jute cord. The pot
it is added either after frying or steaming. It is also is then stored at room temperature for a period of 6-7
consumed as a side dish with rice (Singh et al., months. At the end of incubation period, the cord is
2010). untied and the fish is taken out, the extra salt and fat
is removed with the help of a sharp knife (Agrahar-
Hentak Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006).
It is another fermented fish product prepared in The protein and fat content of tungtap is 40.6%

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 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 385

and 19.6 g% respectively on a dry weight basis. The developed during the fermentation process (Gupta et
process of fermentation enhances the palatability of al., 2007).
the small fishes, basically by softening the bones
and improving the flavour and texture of the meat. Kinema
The final product has a soft spongy texture and is Kinema is a soybean based fermented food. The
commonly used in the form of chutney with green soybean (Glycine max) is locally known as bhatmas
leaves, onions, and chillies (Agrahar-Murungkar and the varieties used are “yellow cultivar” and
and Subbulakshmi, 2006). Tungtap is also taken as a “dark brown cultivar”. It is produced individually or
side-dish in the form of pickle (Sekar and Mariappan, on household level and sold in the local markets. It
2007). is extensively prepared by the Nepalis belonging to
the Limboo and Rai castes of Sikkim. The produce is
Gnuchi sticky in nature and has an ammonical flavour. The
Gnuchi is a smoked and dried fish product skill of production of this delicacy has been protected
commonly eaten by the Lepcha community of Sikkim. as a hereditary right and passed from one generation
The word gnuchi means smoked fish in the Lepcha to another (Tamang et al., 2009). It is produced by
language. It serves as an important source of protein the natural fermentation of bacterial species namely
in the local diet and is prepared using indigenous Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecium. The
knowledge of the rural people. The fished used for fungal species Candida parapsilosis and Geotrichum
its preparation are Schizothorax richardsonii Gray, candidum have also isolated from commercially
Labeo dero Hamilton, Acrossocheilus spp., Channa available kinema (Sarkar et al., 1994).
sp., etc. The microorganisms associated with gnuchi For preparation of kinema, soybeans are soaked
fermentation have been identified as Enterococcus overnight followed by boiling to soften them. The
faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Bacillus subtilis excess water is drained off and the cotyledons are split
and Micrococcus sp. (Thapa et al., 2006). open by grinding lightly in a wooden mortar (okhli)
For its preparation, the fishes are first kept on a and pestle (muslo). This is done to increase the surface
big bamboo tray called sarhang to drain off the water, area for speedy fermentation. Then about 1 % of
degutted and mixed with salt and turmeric powder. firewood ash is added in order to maintain an alkaline
They are then hung one after the other in a bamboo condition. Soybean grits are then placed on a bamboo
stripe above the earthen-oven and smoked for 7–10 basket lined with fresh fern (Glaphylopteriolopsis
days. It is then ready to be consumed. It can be kept erubescens). The basket is then covered with a jute bag
at room temperature for 2-3 months. It is made into and left to ferment naturally at ambient temperature
curry with vegetables and eaten with boiled rice. It (which is about 20–350C in Sikkim). The whole
has a protein content of 21.3 g% on dry weigh basis thing is placed over an earthen oven and left for 1-2
(Thapa et al., 2006). days after which the completion of fermentation is
indicated by the appearance of white viscous mass
Fermented beans upon the soybeans and the release of ammonical
odour. Its shelf life is 2-3 days in summer and 5-7
Fermented foods made from legumes constitute an days in winter (Tamang et al., 2009). The indigenous
important part of the human diet in many developing knowledge of microbiology is correlated by the
countries, including India (Sandhu and Soni, 1989). practice of not cleaning up the mortar and pestle to
Fermented soybean products have been reported to be preserve and supplement the microorganisms for
used extensively in almost all the states of North-East spontaneous fermentation without the use of starter
India and bears resemblance to tou-shi, hamanatto, cultures (Tamang, 2003).
chiang-yu, shi-tche, chiang and tofu of China, tempe Water soluble nitrogen, formal nitrogen to
kedele, kecap and taoco of Indonesia, shoyu and miso total nitrogen and ammonia (upto 200 mg/100 gm)
of Japan (Wang and Fang, 1986; Nout, 1995). The concentration of kinema rises rapidly during
whole grains contain flavinoids, terpenoids and other fermentation as a result of the high proteolytic activity
natural antioxidants like carotene, ascorbic acid and of Bacillus subtilis. This leads to the release of free
tocipherol. An increase in the content of crude protein amino acids followed by de-amination. The final
and a decrease in fat content have been observed in pH of the produce may be as high as 8.6 (Tamang
some traditionally fermented bean product. Also, a and Nikkuni, 1998; Sarkar et al., 1993; Sekar and
significant decrease in crude fibre content has been Mariappan, 2007). It serves as a major source of
observed (Gupta and Nagar, 2010). The high crude protein in the diet of the people of this region. Kinema
protein content may be attributed to the microflora contains about 48% (dry weight basis) of crude protein

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386 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

and the free amino acids accounts to approximately hawaijar, rice and other vegetables. It is also eaten as
26 % of total amino acid content (Sarkar et al., 1997; a paste with chilli and salt and is known as ametpa.
Sarkar et al., 1994). Kinema is eaten as a curry with A fermented fish product called ngari is sometimes
boiled rice. The curry is prepared by frying the kinema added to ametpa to enhance the flavour. Hawaijar is
in vegetable oil followed by mixing with chopped also added while cooking other vegetables (Premarani
onions, tomatoes and turmeric powder. They are then and Chhetry, 2010).
fried for about 2 minutes. Then salt and sliced green
chillies are added and fried for 3-5 minutes. A little Tungrumbai
water is added to make thick gravy, and cooked for The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya prepares
5-7 minutes (Tamang et al., 2009). tungrumbai, which is also a soybean (Glycine max
L.Merril) based fermented food and is very common.
Hawaijar It is sticky in nature and serves as a cheap source
Produced in the state of Manipur, Hawaijar of protein in the diet of the masses. The bacterial
is a sticky fermented soybean product. Its name is species found to be associated with tungrumbai
derived from “hawai” meaning pulses and “jar” fermentation are Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus
which is shortened form of achar, meaning pickle faecium. The fungal strains have been identified as
(Jeyaram et al., 2009; Premarani and Chhetry, 2010). Candida parapsilosis, Saccharomyces bayanus,
It constitutes an important part of the diet of Meitei Saccharomycopsis fibuligera and Geotrichum
people since several last decades. The Brahmin candidum (Sohliya et al., 2009; Sarkar et al., 1994).
community of Manipur is believed to have started Its production is still a traditional art carried out by
the production and consumption of this delicacy. In local Khasis at the household level and various centres
Manipur soybean is known as nung hawai (nung = in the state (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi,
stone, hawai= legumes/ pulses) and two varieties, 2006).
viz. the local variety with small seeds and the bigger, For preparing tungrumbai the soybean seeds are
round seeded variety are used for the preparation on cleaned, washed and soaked in double the quantity of
Hawaijar. The produce is brown in colour and covered water for about 4-6 hours. The outer skins of the beans
with a white slimy substance (Jeyaram et al., 2009). are then removed by rubbing them in between the
The species Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. palms. The soaked beans are then cooked in the same
cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, S. sciuri, Alkaligenes water for about 1 hour till all the water is absorbed.
sp. and Providencia rettger have been found to be The cooked beans which can now be pressed easily
predominantly present in the fermented hawaijar are allowed to cool. They are then placed on a bamboo
(Jeyaram et al., 2008a). basket the inner surface of which is lined with leaves
For its preparation, soybean seeds are soaked of Clinogyne dichotoma locally known as lamet. The
overnight after which they are washed thoroughly whole basket is then covered with lamet leaves or jute
with water and boiled till the seeds become soft. They bags in order to prevent contact with air. They are then
are then washed with hot water and packed tightly in left to ferment either in the ambient temperature (25
a small bamboo basket (lubak) with a lid. The base –400C) or near the fire place in order to provide the
of the basket is layered with the leaves of fig plant necessary temperature for fermentation to take place.
(Ficus hispida) or banana plant (Musa sp.) leaves. The incubation time is usually 3-4 days after which
The basket is then wrapped with a jute cloth and the fermented product is obtained as a brown mass
kept in the sun or near to stove or buried in paddy. with a characteristic odour (Agrahar-Murungkar and
This helps in maintaining the optimal temperature Subbulakshmi, 2006; Sohliya et al., 2009; Tamang et
(> 400C) required for fermentation to take place. The al., 2009). The fermenting organisms i.e. LAB and
fermented product becomes ready for consumption yeast have been found to be supplied by the water
after 3-5 days. The final product is brown in colour, source. Also some of the bacteria have been found to
has a sticky texture and emits ammonia like odour. be present in the raw soybeans and the lamet leaves
The fermented product is then wrapped with banana (Sohliya et al., 2009).
leaves for storage (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Premarani The protein content in tungrumbai has been
and Chhetry, 2010; Tamang et al., 2009). found to be 45.9 g % on a dry weight basis. Whereas,
Hawaijar has a very short shelf-life of 3-4 days. fat, fibre and ash have been found to be 30.2, 12.8
Hence, the product is sometimes dried in the sun for and 5.5 g % respectively (Agrahar-Murungkar and
long-term storage. Hawaijar is known for its unique Subbulakshmi, 2006). Tungrumbai is usually taken
organoleptic properties. A special delicacy of the as a side dish with rice. For preparation of curry,
Manipuris called chagempomba is prepared using tungrumbai is put into a container with water and

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 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 387

boiled till water evaporates and stirred continuously. (Tiwari and Mahanta, 2007). The yeasts associated
It is mixed with fried, ginger, garlic, chilli, grinded are Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora sp,
black sesame and salt (Tamang et al., 2009). Kloeckera sp, Pischia sp. and Candida sp., with
S. cerevisiae being the dominant one (Tanti et al.,
Aakhone/ Bekang / Peruyyan 2010).
These are all fermented soybean products and For preparation of ipoh rice is first dried and
known by different names among different tribes. grinded into fine powder. This is then mixed with
They are prepared from soybean (Glycine max (L.) powder of seeds and barks of the locally available
Merril). Lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and plants Veronia cinerea Less and Clerodendron
other Bacillus species have been found in these viscosum Vent. This mixture is taken into a vessel
samples. For preparation, the beans are first soaked in called Dekchi and made into a paste using water of
water, washed and boiled until they become soft. The previously prepared apong. This paste is poured and
excess water is then drained out. The cooked beans spread on bamboo mats and made into disc shaped
are then wrapped in leaves of either banana (Musa small cakes. They are then carefully dried over the
sp.) or Phrynium pubinerve Blume or Macaranga fireplace or left in a cool place for 3 to 4 days. After
indica Wight or Calliparpa aroria, and kept over drying they can be stored for up to a year (Tiwari and
the fire place in order to provide the optimum Mahanta, 2007).
temperature. The whole process of fermentation takes For preparing apong, rice is first washed and
about a week. They are then ready to be taken. It is boiled in a large aluminium vessel with a wide bottom.
known as aaknone in Nagaland, bekang in Mizoram Care should be taken not to overcook the rice such
and peruyyan among the Apatanis of Arunachal that it becomes soggy. The ipoh is then thoroughly
Pradesh. For long term storage they can be kept mixed with the rice in proper quantity. This is then
above the fireplace by moulding into pastes or in transferred to another vessel with a lid and a little
the form of cakes. Sometimes individual beans are amount of water is added to it. It is then left to ferment
separated, dried in the sun and stored in containers. at room temperature for a period of 3 to 5 days after
The fermented product with its characteristic odour which is emits a strong alcoholic smell. The stock is
can be used in the preparation of chutney along with diluted with water before consumption (Tiwari and
chilli, tomato and salt. It can also be cooked along Mahanta, 2007).
with meat to give flavour and taste to the dish (Mao
and Odyuo, 2007; Tamang et al., 2009). Ennog/ Sai Mod
It is a form of black rice beer which is prepared
Fermented alcoholic beverages and consumed by the tribal people of Arunachal
Pradesh and the Mishings of Assam (Tiwari and
Fermented alcoholic beverages of different forms Mahanta, 2007). Rice is first boiled and spread on
have been reported to be consumed by the tribal a bamboo mat to cool. Simultaneously, paddy husk
people of North-East India since time immemorial. is filled into a large tin sheet or drum and allowed to
These products are similar to shaosingiju and lao- burn slowly and evenly till they become black. The
chao of China, sake of Japan, chongju and takju of burnt husk, while still hot is mixed with the boiled
Korea, brem bali and tape-ketan of Indonesia, tapuy rice and allowed to cool. After cooling, the mixture
of Indonesia, khaomak of Thailand and tapai pulul of is again mixed with crumbled ipoh cakes. They are
Malaysia (Lee, 2009). This practice has its roots in then transferred to a conical bamboo basket lined
many cultural and religious practices of the people of with leaves of ekkam (Phryium capitulum Wild). The
this region and practically has no ill effect upon the whole basket is then covered with leaves and left to
health of the hard working population. Some of them ferment for a period of 3 days when strong alcoholic
are mentioned here. smell is emitted. Now, the mixture is transferred to
another U-shaped bamboo basket called perop lined
Apong with ekkam leaves. The basket is covered with more
Apong is an alcoholic beverage prepared in the leaves and a piece of wood is placed on its top and
state of Arunachal Pradesh and is familiar to almost a stone upon it for proper sealing. Fermentation is
all the tribes of the state. It is also prepared by the allowed to take place for a period of 10 days after
Mishings of Assam. It bears a very important place which the beer becomes ready for filtration. For
in the tradition of the people of this region. The filtration, about 2 kilograms of the mixture is loaded
starter culture used for its preparation is called ipoh into a cylindrical bamboo tube called petok which is
which contains the yeast to carry out the fermentation fitted with a small opening at one end. Boiling hot

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388 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

utensil. To this water id added and a paste is made by L.(2.5 g), leaves of Buddleja asiatica Lour (1.2 g)
mixing. This is again made into small round cakes flowers of Vernonia cinere Less (1.2 g), Gingiber
which are kept on clean and dry paddy straws called officinale (5.0 g), red dry chilli (1.2 g) and previously
kher spread on a round bamboo utensil called kula prepared marcha (10.0 g).The mixture is kneaded into
and again covered with kher. The kula is then kept flat cakes placed on a bamboo mat lined with fresh
on a rectangular frame made of bamboo called dhua- fronds of ferns [Glaphylopteriolopsis erubescens
sang above the fireplace. Upon drying the mod pithas (Wall ex Hook.) Ching] and covered with dry ferns
become hard and they can be stored for 2 to 3 months. and jute bags. This is placed above the kitchen and
For brewing sujen, 4 to 5 kgs of saol is mixed with rice allowed to ferment for 1 to 3 days. These are then sun-
husk called tuh and water and cooked with stirring. dried for 2 to 3 days. The product is called murcha
Cooked saol is poured on a round bamboo utensil and can be stored in a dry place for more than a year
called dola covered with clean banana leaves. 2 to (Tsuyoshi et al., 2005).
3 powdered mod pithas are added to the warm saol For preparing kodo ko jaanr, seeds of finger millet
and mixed thoroughly. The mixture is gathered into a are cleaned, washed and cooked for about 30 min.
round mount and on top of it three jalokias (chillies) Excess water is drained off and cooked millets are
and three pieces of burning koila (charcoal) are kept. spread on a bamboo-mat called mandro for cooling.
Fronds of Pteridium aquilinum called bihlongoni are About 1 to 2% of powdered marcha is sprinkled
spread over the mount and covered with “kolpat” over cooked seeds, mixed thoroughly and packed in
(banana leaves) above which a dola is placed. A a bamboo basket lined with fresh fern (Thelypteris
big earthen pot called koloh is sterilized by washing erubescens), locally called thadre unioon or banana
with ashes and the drying above a smoking fireplace. leaves, then covered with jute clothes, and kept for
The mixture is transferred to this pot and the mouth 2-4 days at room temperature. After this, the mass is
of the pot is sealed with bihlongoni and kolpat and transferred into an earthen pot or into specially made
wrapped tightly with a cloth. This is left to ferment bamboo basked called septu and made air-tight. This
for 3 to 4 days in summer and 7 days in winter. After is then fermented for 3 to 4 days during summer and
fermentation the mass is filtered and sujen is obtained 5 to 7 days in winter at room temperature. About 200-
as the filtrate. This can be stored for a month in winter 500 g of the fermented mass is put into a vessel called
and 2-3 weeks in summer. It can be further diluted toongbaa and lukewarm water is added up to the
according to need (Deori et al., 2007). edge of it. After about 10 to15 minutes, milky white
extract of jaanr is sipped through a narrow bamboo
straw called pipsing having a hole in a side near the
Kodo ko Jaanr
bottom to avoid passing of grits. Water can be added
The tribal people of Sikkim prepare kodo ko
2-3 times after sipping up the extract (Singh and Jain,
jaanr from dry seeds of finger millet (Eleusine
1995; Tamang et al., 1996).
coracana), locally called kodo. It constitutes an
integral part of dietary culture and religious beliefs
among the ethnic people in the Sikkim (Tamang et Xaj - pani
al., 1996; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). A traditionally The Ahoms of Assam prepare a kind of rice
prepared mixed inocula or starter called murcha is beer which they locally call as xaj-pani. It is the
used for its preparation. The microbes associated most important beverage which is used frequently
with murcha and kodo ko jaanr has been identified in religious rites and rituals practised among the
as Mucor cicinelloides, Rhizopus chinensis, R. Ahoms. They also use it during the Bihu festivals as a
stolonifer var. lyococcus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, refreshing drink and also taken after hard labour. For
S. bayanus, Hansenula anomala, Pediococcus preparing xaj pani, the starter culture called vekur
pentosaceus, Lactobacillus sp., Candida glabrata, pitha first needs to be prepared (Saikia et al., 2007).
Saccharomycopsis capsularis, S. fibuligera, Pichia For preparing vekur pitha, leaves of Lygodium
burtonii, P. anomala, Cryptococcus sp., Trichosporon flaxuosum Linn., Leucas aspera Spreng, Cissampelos
sp., Debaryomyces sp., Kluyveromyces sp., Myxozyma Pereira, Scoparia dulsis Linn., Cinamommum
sp., Bullera sp., Rhodotorula sp. and Tremella sp. glanduliferum Meissn. and Piper betle Linn. are
(Tamang and Sarkar,1995; Tsuyoshi et al., 2005; collected and dried in the sunlight for 1-2 days.
Tiwari et al., 2007; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). These are then grounded to powder and mixed with
For preparing murcha, glutinous rice is soaked in powdered rice in a vessel with some amount of water.
water for 6 to 8 hours and pounded on a foot-driven To this powder of previously prepared pitha called
heavy wooden mortar and pestle. To 1 kg of the ghai pitha is added which serves as a source of yeast.
grinded rice, is added roots of Plumbago zeylanica The mixture is then made into disc shaped cakes

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 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 389

and wrapped with banana leaves (Musa paradisiaca for its preparation is known as humao. For preparing
Linn.) and kept in air locked condition above the fire humao, brown rice is soaked in water for 10-12 hours
heart for 4 to 5 days. After getting dried, the cakes are at room temperature. It is then crushed with the barks
known as vekur pitha which serves as the source of of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. The mixture is then made
Saccharomyces cerevisae and can be stored for future into am paste by adding water and flat cakes are made
use. For preparation of rice beer the main variety of out of it. These cakes are sundried and are known as
rice used by the Ahoms is Bora rice belonging to Sali humao (Chakrabarty et al., 2009).
variety. The rice is first cooked and spread on a plain For preparing judima, rice is first cleaned and
plate and is left open for about an hour. The cooled washed. This is then cooked and dewatered. After
and dried rice is then mixed with vekur pitha. This cooling it is mixed properly with humao in appropriate
mixture is then transferred to an earthen pot called quantity. This mixture is then spread on a banana leaf
kalah which is kept at a dark place on a corner of the for overnight and then transferred to an earthen pot
house for a period of 4-5 days in air locked condition. and made partially air tight. Fermentation is allowed
After this period, the concentrated alcoholic juice is to take place at ambient temperature for 3-4 days
collected from the kalah by filtration process. This is during summer and 6-7 days during summer. The
done by placing a vessel of appropriate size on the resultant juices are known as judima (Chakrabarty et
mouth of the pot to act as a lid or by placing rice al., 2009).
straw to prevent the exit of semi solid rice. The
filtrate is known as xaj pani which is highly aromatic, Others
alcoholic and has a sweet taste (Saikia et al., 2007).
Kharoli
Zutho This is a kind of fermented mustard (Brassica
Zutho is rice beer produced from sprouted rice juncea or B. nigra) seeds chutney and is prepared in
grain by the Angami tribe belonging to Nagaland. the state of Assam. The mustard seeds are washed
Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the dominant microflora properly. After proper drying they are grinded and
in the fermentation of zutho (Teramoto et al., 2002; sieved. The powder is then placed over the dorsal
Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). For preparing zutho, side of a banana (Musa sp.) leaf which heated over
un-hulled glutinous rice grains are soaked in water the fire in order to soften it. A little salt is added and
for 3 days, then the water is drained off and the rice the mass is kneaded for about 15 minutes by adding
is allowed to germinate for 3-4 days in summer and 7 kolakhar (indigenous soda water) little at a time. This
days in winter. The sprouted rice grains along with the is made into flattened balls and wrapped with the leaf
hulls are then pounded in a wooden mortar and pestle which is again tied with a string. This parcel is kept in
to produce the grist. Along with polished glutinous a warm place for about 3 days after which the kharoli
rice grains are soaked in water. After drainage of the gets ready. It is a sour favourite among the people of
water, they are pounded in a wooden mortar pestle. Assam and is eaten as chutney with rice (Hughes et
To this rice powder is added boiling water (5 litres to al., 2001).
3 kgs) bit by bit with agitation. This soft rice porridge
is allowed to cool and mixed with one handful of Saphak/ Sathu
the grist in summer and two handfuls in winter. It is a form of fermented pork fat and is called
Fermentation of the mash is allowed to proceed in as saphak and sathu by the Hrangkol the Vaipei
a wooden vessel for 2 to 3 days in summer and 7 tribes respectively, residing in the north Cachar Hills
days in winter. Then a portion of water is added to District of Assam. The fats of pork is first washed and
the fermented mash and strained through a bamboo cut into small pieces. These are half boiled in water
basket. The filtrate is known as jutho. It is off-white for about 15 to 20 minutes. The Hrangkol tribe keep
slurry with alcohol content, pH and acidity of 5.0%, these fats in air tight containers for 10 to 15 days
3.6 and 5.1, respectively (Teramoto et al., 2002). after which they are consumed. The Vaipei tribe carry
The Zeme Naga tribe of North Cachar Hills of out the fermentation process inside containers made
Assam also prepares their local beverage in a similar dried gourd cover called as sathu-um, by capping the
manner and their product is called by the name of mouth of the container air tight. The gourd is kept
dekuijao (Chakrabarty et al., 2009). near the fire place for a period of 4 to 5 days. The
fermented product can be stored for up to a year.
Judima These are consumed as pickle or as complement with
Another type of rice beer prepared by the Dimasa other cuisine (Chakrabarty et al., 2009).
tribe of Assam is judima. The starter culture needed

International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392

390 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C.

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