Adjustable Speed Drive

Adjustable speed drive (ASD) is one of the most general terms applied to
equipment used to control the speed of machinery. Adjustable speed drives are
also known as variable speed drives (VSD).

Industrial machinery is often driven by electric motors that have provisions for
speed adjustment. Such motors are simply larger, more powerful versions of
those driving familiar appliances such as food blenders or electric drills. In
industrial terminology, these motors are called adjustable speed drives.
Adjustable speed drives are used in a wide variety of industrial applications. They
are used in the larger industrial versions of the food blenders and power tools
mentioned. Adjustable speed drives are often used with fans to provide
adjustable airflow in large heating and air conditioning systems. The flow of water
and chemicals in industrial processes is often controlled by adjusting the speed
of pumps.

An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and controller that is
used to adjust the motor's operating speed. The combination of a constant-speed
motor and a steplessly adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also
be called an adjustable speed drive.

Contents

1. Reasons for using adjustable speed drives

1.1 Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process

1.2 Example
1.3 Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives

2 Types of adjustable speed drives

2.1 Mechanical adjustable speed drives

2.2 Hydraulic adjustable speed drives
2.3 Continuously variable transmission (CVT)
2.4 Electric adjustable speed drives
2.4.1 DC Drives
2.4.2 Eddy Current Drives
2.4.3 AC Drives

Reasons for using adjustable speed drives

Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using
an adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed
for process control, but energy conservation has emerged as an equally
important objective.
Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process

Consider the process of driving to work. If you drove to work at the highest
possible speed, you would probably cause an accident. If you drove at a single
speed that would be safe for every part of the route, it would take too long to get
to your destination. Adjusting your speed to suit the route minimizes the time to
achieve the objective of the process within the limits of reliable operation.
The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an
adjustable speed drive:
● Smoother operation
● Acceleration control
● Different operating speed for each process recipe
● Compensate for changing process variables
● Allow slow operation for setup purposes
● Adjust the rate of production
● Allow accurate positioning
● Control torque or tension

Example

An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an

alternative fixed speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station
sewage usually flows through sewer pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well
location. From there it is pumped up to a treatment process. When fixed speed
pumps are used, the pumps are set to start when the level of the liquid in the wet
well reaches some high point and stop when the level has been reduced to a low
point. Cycling the pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of electrical
current to start the motors resulting in electromagnetic and thermal stresses in
the motors and power control equipment. The pumps and pipes are subjected to
mechanical and hydraulic stresses. The sewage treatment process is forced to
accommodate surges in the flow of sewage through the process. When
adjustable speed drives are used, the pumps operate continuously at a speed
that increases as the wet well level increases. This matches the outflow to the
average inflow and provides a much smoother operation of the process.
Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives

An adjustable speed drive often uses less

energy than an alternative fixed speed mode
of operation. Fans and pumps are the most
common energy saving applications. When a
fan is driven by a fixed speed motor, the
airflow may sometimes be higher than it
needs to be. Airflow can be regulated by
using a damper to restrict the flow, but it is
more efficient to regulate the airflow by
regulating the speed of the motor.
Saving energy with adjustable speed pump
operation is similar to saving energy with
adjustable speed fan operation. It is more
efficient to regulate the flow of fluid by
regulating the speed of the motor rather than by restricting the flow using a
control valve.

Types of adjustable speed drives

Speed adjustment techniques have been used in transmitting mechanical power

to machinery since the earliest use of powered machinery. Before electric motors
were invented, mechanical speed changers were used to control the mechanical
power provided by water wheels and steam engines. When electric motors came
into use, means of controlling their speed were developed almost immediately.
Today, various types of mechanical drives, hydraulic drives and electric drives
compete with one another in the industrial drives market.

Mechanical adjustable speed drives

There are two types of mechanical drives, variable pitch drives and traction
drives.
Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt drives in which the pitch diameter of one
or both pulleys can be adjusted.

Traction drives transmit power through metal rollers running against mating metal
rollers. The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change
the diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical
designs have been used.
Hydraulic adjustable speed drives
There are three types of hydraulic drives, hydrostatic drives, hydrodynamic drives
and hydro viscous drives.

A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor. Since

positive displacement pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the pump or
motor corresponds to a fixed volume of fluid flow regardless of speed or torque.
Speed is regulated by regulating the fluid flow with a valve or by changing the
displacement of the pump or motor. Many different design variations have been
used.

Hydrodynamic drives use oil to transmit torque between an impeller on the

constant-speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed output shaft. The
torque converter in the automatic transmission of a car is a hydrodynamic drive.
A hydroviscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input
shaft pressed against a similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft.
Torque is transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft through an oil film
between the discs. The transmitted torque is proportional to the pressure exerted
by a hydraulic cylinder that presses the discs together.

Continuously variable transmission (CVT)

Main article: continuously variable transmission

Mechanical and hydraulic adjustable speed drives are usually called
transmissions or continuously variable transmissions when they are used in
vehicles, farm equipment and some other types of equipment.

Electric adjustable speed drives

There are three general categories of electric drives, DC motor drives, eddy
current drives and AC motor drives. Each of these general types can be further
divided into numerous variations. Electric drives generally include both an electric
motor and a speed control unit or system. The term drive is often applied to the
controller without the motor. In the early days of electric drive technology,
electromechanical control systems were used. Later, electronic controllers were
designed using various types of vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic
components became available, new controller designs incorporated the latest
electronic technology.
DC Drives

DC drives are DC motor speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor
is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to field
current, either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed.
Several types of DC motors are described in the electric motor article. The
electric motor article also describes electronic speed controls used with various
types of DC motors.

Eddy Current Drives

An eddy current drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch.
The clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated
by a small air gap. A DC current in a field coil produces a magnetic field that
determines the torque transmitted from the input rotor to the output rotor. The
controller regulates the speed by regulating the clutch current and only allowing
the clutch to transmit enough torque to operate at the desired speed.

Eddy current drives are a type of slip controlled drive. Slip controlled drives are
generally less efficient than other types of drives. The motor develops the torque
required by the load and operates at full speed. The output shaft transmits the
same torque to the load, but turns at a slower speed. Since power is proportional
to torque multiplied by speed, the input power is proportional to motor speed
times operating torque while the output power is output speed times operating
torque. The difference between the motor speed and the output speed is called
the slip speed. Power proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is
dissipated as heat in the clutch. Because of efficiency concerns, slip controlled
drives have lost popularity and have recently been used only in special
situations.

AC Drives

AC drives are AC motor speed control systems.

Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a
motor's slip. This is accomplished by reducing the voltage applied to the motor or
increasing the resistance of the rotor windings. Because they are generally less
efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives have lost popularity and
have recently been used only in special situations. See eddy current drives
above.
Adjustable frequency drives (AFD) control the speed of either an induction motor
or a synchronous motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the
motor. Adjustable frequency drives are also known as variable frequency drives
(VFD).
When changing the frequency of the power supplied to an AC motor, the ratio of
the applied voltage to the applied frequency (V/Hz) is generally maintained at a
constant value between the
minimum and maximum operating
frequencies. Operation at a constant
voltage (reduced V/Hz) above a
given frequency provides reduced
torque capability and constant
power capability above that
frequency. The frequency or speed
at which constant-voltage operation
begins is called the base frequency
or speed. Whether to applied
voltage is regulated directly or
indirectly, the V/Hz tends to follow the general pattern described for the
performance described. The variable frequency drive article provides additional
information on electronic speed controls used with various types of AC motors.

References
● Cowie, Charles J. (2001). Adjustable Frequency Drive Application
Training, Powerpoint presentation. Excerpts donated to Wikipedia by the author.
● Phipps, Clarance A. (1997). Variable Speed Drive Fundamentals, The
Fairmont Press, Inc. ISBN 0-88173-258-3.
● Spitzer, David W. (1990). Variable Speed Drives, Instrument Society of
America. ISBN 1-55617-242-7.
Basic AC Drives

AC drives, inverters, and adjustable frequency drives are all

terms that are used to refer to equipment designed to control
the speed of an AC motor. The term SIMOVERT is used by
Siemens to identify a SIemens MOtor inVERTer (AC drive).
AC drives receive AC power and convert it to an adjustable
frequency, adjustable voltage output for controlling motor
operation. A typical inverter receives 480 VAC, three-phase,
60 Hz input power and in turn provides the proper voltage and
frequency for a given speed to the motor. The three common
inverter types are the variable voltage inverter (VVI), current
source inverter (CSI), and pulse width modulation (PWM).
Another type of AC drive is a cycloconverter. These are
commonly used for very large motors and will not be described
in this course. All AC drives convert AC to DC, and then through
various switching techniques invert the DC into a variable
voltage, variable frequency output.

37
Variable Voltage The variable voltage inverter (VVI) uses an SCR converter
Inverter (VVI) bridge to convert the incoming AC voltage into DC. The SCRs
provide a means of controlling the value of the rectified DC
voltage from 0 to approximately 600 VDC. The L1 choke and
C1 capacitor(s) make up the DC link section and smooth
the converted DC voltage. The inverter section consists of
six switching devices. Various devices can be used such as
thyristors, bipolar transistors, MOSFETS, and IGBTs. The
following schematic shows an inverter that utilizes bipolar
transistors. Control logic (not shown) uses a microprocessor
to switch the transistors on and off providing a variable voltage
and frequency to the motor.

This type of switching is often referred to as six-step because

it takes six 60° steps to complete one 360° cycle. Although the
motor prefers a smooth sine wave, a six-step output can be
satisfactorily used. The main disadvantage is torque pulsation
which occurs each time a switching device, such as a bipolar
transistor, is switched. The pulsations can be noticeable at low
speeds as speed variations in the motor. These speed variations
are sometimes referred to as cogging. The non-sinusoidal
current waveform causes extra heating in the motor requiring a
motor derating.

38
Current Source Inverter The current source inverter (CSI) uses an SCR input to produce
a variable voltage DC link. The inverter section also uses SCRs
for switching the output to the motor. The current source
inverter controls the current in the motor. The motor must be
carefully matched to the drive.

Current spikes, caused by switching, can be seen in the output.

At low speeds current pulses can causes the motor to cog.

39
Pulse Width Modulation Pulse width modulation (PWM) drives, like the Siemens
MICROMASTER and MASTERDRIVE VC, provide a more
sinusoidal current output to control frequency and voltage
supplied to an AC motor. PWM drives are more efficient and
typically provide higher levels of performance. A basic PWM
drive consists of a converter, DC link, control logic, and an
inverter.

Converter and DC Link The converter section consists of a fixed diode bridge rectifier
which converts the three-phase power supply to a DC voltage.
The L1 choke and C1 capacitor(s) smooth the converted DC
voltage. The rectified DC value is approximately 1.35 times the
line-to-line value of the supply voltage. The rectified DC value is
approximately 650 VDC for a 480 VAC supply.

40
Control Logic and Inverter Output voltage and frequency to the motor are controlled by the
control logic and inverter section. The inverter section consists
of six switching devices. Various devices can be used such
as thyristors, bipolar transistors, MOSFETS and IGBTs. The
following schematic shows an inverter that utilizes IGBTs. The
control logic uses a microprocessor to switch the IGBTs on and
off providing a variable voltage and frequency to the motor.

IGBTs IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistor) provide a high

switching speed necessary for PWM inverter operation. IGBTs
are capable of switching on and off several thousand times a
second. An IGBT can turn on in less than 400 nanoseconds
and off in approximately 500 nanoseconds. An IGBT consists
of a gate, collector and an emitter. When a positive voltage
(typically +15 VDC) is applied to the gate the IGBT will turn on.
This is similar to closing a switch. Current will flow between
the collector and emitter. An IGBT is turned off by removing the
positive voltage from the gate. During the off state the IGBT
gate voltage is normally held at a small negative voltage (-15
VDC) to prevent the device from turning on.

41
Using Switching Devices In the following example, one phase of a three-phase output is
to Develop AC Output used to show how an AC voltage can be developed. Switches
replace the IGBTs. A voltage that alternates between positive
and negative is developed by opening and closing switches in
a specific sequence. For example, during steps one and two
A+ and B- are closed. The output voltage between A and B is
positive. During step three A+ and B+ are closed. The difference
of potential from A to B is zero. The output voltage is zero.
During step four A- and B+ are closed. The output voltage from
A to B is negative. The voltage is dependent on the value of the
DC voltage and the frequency is dependent on the speed of the
switching. An AC sine wave has been added to the output (A-B)
to show how AC is simulated.

42
PWM Output There are several PWM modulation techniques. It is beyond
the scope of this book to describe them all in detail. The
following text and illustrations describe a typical pulse width
modulation method. An IGBT (or other type switching device)
can be switched on connecting the motor to the positive value
of DC voltage (650 VDC from the converter). Current flows in
the motor. The IGBT is switched on for a short period of time,
allowing only a small amount of current to build up in the motor
and then switched off. The IGBT is switched on and left on for
progressively longer periods of time, allowing current to build
up to higher levels until current in the motor reaches a peak.
The IGBT is then switched on for progressively shorter periods
of time, decreasing current build up in the motor. The negative
half of the sine wave is generated by switching an IGBT
connected to the negative value of the converted DC voltage.

43
PWM Voltage and Current The more sinusoidal current output produced by the PWM
reduces the torque pulsations, low speed motor cogging, and
motor losses noticeable when using a six-step output.

The voltage and frequency is controlled electronically by

circuitry within the AC drive. The fixed DC voltage (650 VDC)
is modulated or clipped with this method to provide a variable
voltage and frequency. At low output frequencies a low output
voltage is required. The switching devices are turned on for
shorter periods of time. Voltage and current build up in the
motor is low. At high output frequencies a high voltage is
required. The switching devices are turned on for longer periods
of time, allowing voltage and current to build up to higher levels
in the motor.

44
Review 3
1. The volts per hertz ratio of a 460 volt, 60 Hz motor is
____________ .

2. An increase in voltage will cause flux (Φ) to

____________, and torque (T) capability to
____________ .

3. A motor operated within a speed range that allows

a constant volts per hertz ratio is said to be constant
____________ .

a. horsepower b. torque

4. If torque decreases proportional to speed (RPM)

increasing, then ____________ is constant.

5. Siemens uses the term ____________ to identify a

Siemens inverter (AC drive).

6. On a PWM drive with a 480 VAC supply, the

approximate voltage after being converted to DC is
___________ VDC.

7. IGBTs are capable of being switched several

____________ a second.

a. times b. hundred times

c. thousand times d. million times

8. A PWM output is preferred to a six-step output because

____________

a. PWM provides a more sinusoidal output

b. Cogging is more noticeable on a six-step
c. The non-sinusoidal waveform of a
six-step increases motor heat
d. a, b, and c

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 Basic Drive Operation

Controlling a DC Motor A thyristor bridge is a technique commonly used to control the

speed of a DC motor by varying the DC voltage. Examples of
how a DC rectifier bridge operates are given on the next few
pages. Voltage values given in these examples are used for
explanation only. The actual values for a given load, speed, and
motor vary.

It is important to note that the voltage applied to a DC motor

be no greater than the rated nameplate. Armature windings are
commonly wound for 500 VDC. The control logic in the drive
must be adjusted to limit available DC voltage to 0 - 500 VDC.
Likewise, the shunt field must be limited to the motor’s
nameplate value.

44
Basic Operation A DC drive supplies voltage to the motor to operate at a
desired speed. The motor draws current from this power
source in proportion to the torque (load) applied to the motor
shaft.

100% Speed, 0% Load In this example an unloaded motor connected to a DC drive is

being operated at 100% speed. The amount of armature
current (Ia) and unloaded motor needs to operate is negligible.
For the purpose of explanation a value of 0 amps is used.

The DC drive will supply only the voltage required to operate

the motor at 100% speed. We have already learned the amount
of voltage is controlled by the gating angle (COSα) of the
thyristors. In this example 450 VDC is sufficient. The motor
accelerates until CEMF reaches a value of Va - IaRa. Remember
that Va = IaRa + CEMF. In this example IaRa is 0, therefore CEMF
will be approximately 450 VDC.

45
100% Speed, 100% Load A fully loaded motor requires 100% of rated armature current
at 100% speed. Current flowing through the armature circuit
will cause a voltage drop across the armature resistance (Ra).
Full voltage (500 VDC) must be applied to a fully loaded motor
to operate at 100% speed. To accomplish this, thyristors are
gated earlier in the sine wave (36.37°).

The DC drive will supply the voltage required to operate the

motor at 100% speed. The motor accelerates until CEMF
reaches a value of Va - IaRa. Remember that Va = IaRa + CEMF. In
this example armature current (Ia) is 100% and Ra will drop
some amount of voltage. If we assume that current and
resistance is such that Ra drops 50 VDC, CEMF will be
450 VDC.

46
1 Quad, 4 Quad Up to this point we have only looked at a drive in single-
quadrant operation. A single-quadrant DC drive will have six
thyristors.

In the speed-torque chart there are four quadrants of operation

according to direction of rotation and direction of torque. A
four-quadrant DC drive will have twelve thyristors.

Single-Quadrant Operation Single-quadrant drives only operate in quadrant I. Motor torque

(M) is developed in the forward or clockwise (CW) direction to
drive the motor at the desired speed (N). This is similar to
driving a car forward on a flat surface from standstill to a
desired speed. It takes more forward or motoring torque to
accelerate the car from zero to the desired speed. Once the car
is at desired speed your foot can be let off the accelerator a
little. When the car comes to an incline a little more gas,
controlled by the accelerator, maintains speed. To slow or stop
a motor in single-quadrant operation the drive lets the motor
coast.

47
Changing Direction of There are two ways to change the direction a DC motor
a DC Motor rotates.

1. Reverse Armature Polarity

2. Reverse Field Polarity

Reversing in Single- Field contactor reverse kits can be used to provide bidirectional
Quadrant Operation rotation from a single-quadrant drive. To turn the motor in the
forward direction the “F” contacts are closed, applying DC
voltage in one polarity across the shunt field. Simply reversing
the polarity of the field, by opening the “F” contacts and
closing the “R” contacts, will reverse direction of a DC motor.

It is important to note that field reversal will only work when a

quick reversal is not required. The field circuit is inductive and
must be brought to 0 current before opening the contacts.

Stopping a Motor Stopping a motor in single-quadrant operation can be done by

simply removing voltage to the motor and allowing the motor
to coast to a stop. Alternatively, voltage can be reduced
gradually until the motor is at a stop. The amount of time
required to stop a motor depends on the inertia of the motor
and connected load. The more inertia the longer the time.

48
Dynamic Braking Dynamic braking is often used on single quadrant drives as a
means of stopping a motor quickly. Dynamic braking is not
recommended for continuous or repetitive operation. Dynamic
braking kits for use with Siemens SIMOREG® drives are
typically designed to stop a load operating at base speed a
maximum of three consecutive times. After three consecutive
stops a waiting period of 15 minutes is required.

Dynamic braking develops stopping torque by using a contact

(MAUX) to connect a resistor (Rdb) across the armature terminals
after the drive controller turns off power to the motor. The
field remains energized to supply stopping torque. This is
because motor torque (M) depends on armature current (Ia)
and field flux (Φ).

Armature current (Ia) reverses direction as the motor now acts

like a generator. A reversal in armature current (Ia) results in a
reversal of torque applied to the motor. Torque, now applied in
the opposite direction, acts as a brake to the motor. Stored
energy in the rotating motor is applied across the resistor and
converted to heat. The resistor is sized to allow 150% current
flow initially. Armature voltage decreases as the motor slows
down, producing less current through the resistors. The motor
is finally stopped due to frictional torque of the connected load.

49
Four-Quadrant Operation The dynamics of certain loads require four-quadrant operation.
If motor voltage is suddenly reduced, negative torque is
developed in the motor due to the inertia of the connected
load. The motor acts like a generator by converting mechanical
power from the shaft into electrical power which is returned to
the drive. This is similar to driving a car downhill. The car’s
engine will act as a brake. Braking occurs in quadrants II and IV.

Regen In order for a drive to operate in all four quadrants a means

must exist to deal with the electrical energy returned by the
motor. Electrical energy returned by the motor tends to drive
the DC voltage up, resulting in excess voltage that can cause
damage. One method of getting four-quadrant operation from
a DC drive is to add a second bridge connected in reverse of
the main bridge. The main bridge drives the motor. The second
bridge returns excess energy from the motor to the AC line.
This process is commonly referred to as regen. This
configuration is also referred to as a 4-Quad design.

50
Motoring The motor receives power from the incoming line. In this
example the motor is operating at full speed (500 VDC).

100% Speed, -100% Load When the motor is required to stop quickly, the motoring bridge
shuts off and the regen bridge turns on. Due to the initial inertia
of the connected load the motor acts like a generator,
converting mechanical power at the shaft into electrical power
which is returned to the AC line. The IaRa voltage drop (-50 VDC)
is of opposite polarity then when the drive was supplying
motoring power. The control logic is gating thyristors in the
regen bridge at an angle of 130° and the resultant DC voltage
on the bridge is 400 VDC, in the opposite polarity. Because the
regen bridge is of opposite polarity, the voltage applied to the
motor acts like an electrical brake for the connected load.

51
Regen vs. Dynamic Braking Regen and dynamic braking provide the same amount of
braking power to slow a motor from maximum speed in field
weakening to base speed. This is because field strength
increases until the motor reaches base speed. However, from
base speed to stop, regen is capable of slowing a motor at a
faster rate. In addition, regen can develop torque at zero speed
to bring the motor to a complete stop.

Another advantage of regen is that regen braking is not limited

in duty cycle and cool-down periods. Applications that require
frequent braking or have overhauling loads should consider four
quadrant operation with regen braking.

Reversing A four-quadrant drive can easily reverse the direction of rotation

of a DC motor simply by applying armature voltage in the
opposite polarity. This is accomplished by using what was the
regen bridge to motor. The bridge that was used to drive the
motor in the forward direction becomes the regen bridge.

52
Review 5
1. When torque is developed in the forward direction and
the armature is turning in the forward direction, the
motor is operating in quadrant ____________ .

2. When the armature is turning in the forward direction

but torque is developed in the reverse direction, the
motor is operating in quadrant ____________ .

3. The direction of rotation of a DC motor, operated from

a 6-pulse converter, can be reversed by reversing the
polarity of the DC voltage applied to the ____________
field.

4. ____________ ____________ is a method used to stop a

motor quickly by applying a resistor to the armature.

5. Which of the following is an advantage of a 4-quad

converter?

a. Instead of being dissipated in heat, excess energy is

returned to the supply line.
b. From base speed to zero speed a 4-quad converter
will stop a motor faster than a 1-quad converter.
c. A 4-quad converter can reverse motor direction by
simply applying voltage in the opposite polarity
across the armature.
d. all of the above.

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