Thermal properties of matter

Heat-Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and
its surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. The SI unit of heat energy transferred is
expressed in joule (J).
In CGS system, unit of heat is calorie and kilocalorie (kcal).
1 cal = 4.186 J and 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4186 J.
• Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is; specifically, a measure of the
average kinetic energy of the particles in an object.The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K) and
°C is a commonly used unit of temperature.
• A branch of science which deals with the measurement of temperature of a substance is
known as thermometry. A device used to measure the temperature of a body is called
thermometer.
• A thermometer calibrated for a temperature scale is used to measure the value of given
temperature on that scale. For the measurement of temperature, two fixed reference points
are selected. The two convenient fixed reference points are the ice point and the steam point
of water at standard pressure, which are known as freezing point and boiling point of water at
standard pressure.
• The two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius
temperature scale. The ice and steam point have values 32°F and 212°F respectively, on the
Fahrenheit scale and 0°C and 100°C on the Celsius scale. On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180
equal intervals between two reference points, and on the Celsius scale, there are 100.
• If tc and tF are temperature values of a body on Celsius temperature scale and Fahrenheit
temperature scale respectively, then the relationship between Fahrenheit and Celsius
temperature is given by

• An ideal gas obeys the following law. That is PV = gRT, where P,V and T are the pressure,
volume and temperature of the gas respectively, g is the number of moles in an ideal gas and R
= 8.31 J mol-1 K-1 is known as universal gas constant. The equation, PV – gRT is known as ideal
gas equation.
• The absolute minimum temperature for an ideal gas, inferred by extrapolating the straight
line P – T graph is found to be – 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero. Absolute
temperature scale (T) and Celsius scale are related by
t° C = T – 273.15
• Thermal Expansion
The increase of size of a body due to the increase in the temperature is called thermal
expansion. Three types of expansions can take place in solids viz. linear, superficial and volume
expansion,
(i) Linear Expansion: The increase in the length of a solid on heating is called linear expansion.
If the temperature of a rod of original length l is raised by a small amount Δt, its length
increases by Δl. Then the linear expansion is given by
Δl = l ∞ Δt
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion of the given solid. The unit of α is per degree
Celsius (°C-1) in the CGS and per kelvin (K-1) in the SI system.
(ii) Superficial or Area Expansion: The increase in surface area of the solid on heating is called
superficial expansion.
If A0 is the area of a solid at 0°C and A( its area at t°C then A t = A0(l + βt)
where β is known as the coefficient of superficial expansion. Unit of β is °C-1 or K-1.
(iii) Volume Expansion: The increase in volume of the solid on heating is called volume
expansion.
The change in the volume of a solid with a change in temperature Δt is given by Δv = Vγ Δt
where y is the coefficient of volume expansion.
• The relation among coefficients of linear expansion (α), superficial expansion (β) and volume
expansion (γ) is given as

• For a given solid, the three coefficients of expansion α , β, γ are not constant. Their values
depend on the temperature range.
• Liquids have volume expansion only. If we do not take into account the expansion of solid
container, then the expansion of liquid is called apparent expansion. On the other hand, if we
take into account the expansion of solid too, it is referred as the real expansion of liquid. It is
found that γr = γa + γg, where γr= real expansion coefficient of liquid, γa = apparent expansion
coefficient of liquid and γg = volume expansion coefficient of container vessel (glass).
• Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour. It contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C but
expands on heating beyond 4 °C. Thus, specific volume of water is minimum at 4 °C or density
of water is maximum at 4 °C. This property of water has an important environmental effect.
• Thermal Stress
When a rod is held between two fixed supports and its temperature is increased, the fixed
supports do not allow the rod to expand, which results in a stress which is called thermal stress.
Thermal stress in the rod is given by
where Y is the Young’s modulus for the material of the rod, A is the area cross-section of the
rod, a is the coefficient of linear expansion and F is the developed force in the rod.
 NCERT TEXTBOOK QUES. AND ANS.
Question 11. 1. The triple points of neon and carbon dioxide are 24.57 K and 216.55 K
respectively. Express these temperatures on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
Answer: The relation between kelvin scale and Celsius scale is TK – 273.15 =TC => TC=TK– 273.15

Question 11. 2. Two absolute scales A and B have triple points of water defined to be 200 A
and 350 B. What is the relation between T A and TB ?
Answer: As we know, triple point of water on absolute scale = 273.16 K, Size of one degree of
kelvin scale on absolute scale A
Question 11. 3. The-electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies with
temperature according to the approximate law: R = R0 [1 + α (T – T0)].
The resistances is 101.6 Ωat the triple-point of water 273.16 K, and 165.5 Ωat the normal
melting point of lead (600.5 K). What is the temperature when the resistance is 123.4 Ω ?
Answer: Here, R0 = 101.6 Ω; T0 = 273.16 K Case (i) R1= 165.5 Ω; T1 = 600.5 K, Case (ii) R2 = 123.4 ,
T2 = ?
Using the relation R = R0[1 + α (T – T0)]
Case (i) 165.5 = 101.6 [1 + α (600.5 – 273.16)]

Question 11. 4. Answer the following:

(a) The triple-point of water is a standard fixed point in modem thermometry. Why ? What is
wrong in taking the melting point of ice and the boiling point of water as standard fixed
points (as was originally done in the Celsius scale) ?
(b) There were two fixed points in the original Celsius scale as mentioned above which were
assigned the number 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. On the absolute scale, one of the fixed
points is the triple-point of water, which on the Kelvin absolute scale is assigned the
number 273.16 K. What is the other fixed point on this (Kelvin) Scale ?
(c) The absolute temperature (Kelvin scale) T is related to the temperature t c on the Celsius
scale tc = T – 273.15
Why do we have 273.15 in this relation, and not 273.16 ?
(d) What is the temperature of the triple-point of water on an absolute scale whose unit
interval size is equal to that of the Fahrenheit scale ?
Answer: (a) Triple point of water has a unique value i.e., 273.16 K. The melting point and boiling
points of ice and water respectively do not have unique values and change with the change in
pressure.
(b) On Kelvin’s absolute scale, there is only one fixed point, namely, the triple-point of water
and there is no other fixed point.
(c) On Celsius scale 0 °C corresponds to the melting point of ice at normal pressure and the
value of absolute temperature is 273.15 K. The temperature 273.16 K corresponds to the triple
point of water.
(d)The Fahrenheit scale and Absolute scale are related as

Question 11. 5. Two ideal gas thermometers A and B use oxygen and hydrogen respectively.
The following observations are made:

(a) What is the absolute temperature of normal melting point of sulphur as read by
thermometers A and B ?
(b) What do you think is the reason behind the slight difference in answers of thermometers
A and B ? (The thermometers are not faulty). What further procedure is needed in the
experiment to reduce the discrepancy between the two readings ?
Answer:
(b) The value of the melting point of sulphur found from the two thermometers differ slightly
due to the reason that in practice, the gases do not behave strictly as perfect gases i.e., gases
are not perfectly ideal.
To reduce the discrepency, readings should be taken for lower and lower pressures and the plot
between temperature measured versus absolute pressure of the gas at triple point should be
extrapolated to obtain the temperature in the limit pressure tends to zero (if P —> 0), when the
gases approach ideal gas behaviour.

Question 11. 6. A steel tape 1 m long is correctly calibrated for a temperature of 27.0 °C. The
length of a steel rod measured by this tape is found to be 63.0 cm on a hot day when the
temperature is 45.0 °C. What is the actual length of the steel rod on that day ? What is the
length of the same steel rod on a day when the temperature is 27.0 °C ? Coefficient of linear
expansion of steel = 1.20 x 10-1K-1.
Answer: On a day when the temperature is 27 °C, the length of 1 cm division on the steel tape
is exactly 1 cm, because the tape has been calibrated for 27 °C.When the temperature rises to
45 °C (that is, ΔT = 45 – 27 = 18 °C), the increase in the length of 1 cm division is Δl = αlΔT = (1.2
x 10-5C-1) x 1 cm x 18 °C = 0.000216 cm Therefore, the length of 1 cm division on the tape
becomes 1.000216 cm at 45 °C. As the length of the steel rod is read to be 63.0 cm on the steel
tape at 45 °C, the actual length of the rod at 45 °C is 63.0 x 1.000216 cm = 63.0136 cm The
length of the same rod at 27 °C is 63.0 cm, because 1 cm mark on the steel tape is exactly 1 cm
at 27 °C.

Question 11. 7. A large steel wheel is to befitted on to a shaft of the same material. At 27 °C,
the outer diameter of the shaft is 8.70 cm and the diameter of the central hole in the wheel
is, 8.69 cm. The shaft is cooled using ‘dry ice’. At what temperature of the shaft does the
wheel slip on the shaft ? Assume coefficient of linear expansion of the steel to be constant
over the required temperature range αsteel= 1-20 x 10-5K-1.
Answer:

Question 11. 8. A hole is drilled in a copper sheet. The diameter of the hole is 4.24 cm at 27.0
°C. What is the change in the diameter of the hole when the sheet is heated to 227 °C ?
Coefficient of linear expansion of copper = 1.70 x 10-5K-1.
Answer:

Question 11. 9. A brass wire 1.8 m long at 27 °C is held taut with little tension between two
rigid supports. If the wire is cooled to a temperature of – 39 °C, what is the tension developed
in the wire, if its diameter is 2.0 mm ? Co-efficient of linear expansion of brass = 2.0 x 10-5K-1;
Young’s modulus of brass = 0.91 x 1011 Pa
Ans.