CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION OF PIXELS

Since most digital hardware devices use dots or pixels, the size of the media (in inches)
and the number of pixels (or dots) are directly related by the 'pixels per inch'. The
following formula gives the number of pixels, horizontally or vertically, given the
physical size of a format and the pixels per inch of the output.

NUMBER OF PIXELS = SIZE IN INCHES * PPI

Pixels per inch (or pixels per centimetre) describes the detail of an image file when the
print size is known. For example, a 100×100 pixel image printed in a 2 inch square has a
resolution of 50 pixels per inch. Used this way, the measurement is meaningful when
printing an image. Inimages by specifying the output device and PPI (pixels per inch).
Thus the output target is often defined upon creating the image.

Fig(1.1) RGB(Red,Green,Blue)

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 CHAPTER 2

OUTPUTTING TO A DIFFERENT DEVICE

When moving images between devices, such as printing an image that was created on a
monitor, it is important to understand the pixel density of both devices. Consider a 24″
HD monitor (20″ wide), that has a known, native resolution of 1920 pixels (horizontal).
Let us assume an artist created a new image at this monitor resolution of 1920 pixels,
possibly intended for the web without regard to printing. Rewriting the formula above
can tell us the pixel density (PPI) of the image on the monitor display:

PPI (Monitor) = Number Of Pixels/ Size In Inches

Now, let us imagine the artist wishes to print a larger banner at 48″ horizontally. We
know the number of pixels in the image, and the size of the output, from which we can
use the same formula again to give the PPI of the printed poster:

PPI(Poster) = Number Of Pixels / Size In Inches

This shows that the output banner will have only 40 pixels per inch. Since a printer
device is capable of printing at 300 PPI, the resolution of the original image is well below
what would be needed to create a decent quality banner, even if it looked good on a
monitor for a website. We would say more directly that a 1920 × 1080 pixel image does
not have enough pixels to be printed in a large format.

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 CHAPTER 3
PRINTING ON PAPER

Printing on paper is accomplished with different technologies. Newspapers and

magazines were traditionally printed using a screen called a halftone screen which would
print dots at a given frequency called the screen frequency in lines per inch (LPI) by
using a purely analog process in which a photographic print is converted into variable
sized dots through interference patterns passing through a screen. Modern inkjet printers
can print microscopic dots at any location, and don't require a screen grid, so they use a
metric called dots per inch (DPI). These are both different from pixel density or pixels
per inch (PPI) because a pixel is a single sample of any color, whereas an inkjet print can
only print a dot of a specific color either on or off. Thus a printer translates the pixels into
a series of dots using a process called dithering. The dot pitch, smallest size of each dot,
is also determined by the type of paper the image is printed on. An absorbent paper
surface, uncoated recycled paper for instance, lets ink droplets spread — so has a larger
dot pitch. Often one wishes to know the image quality in pixels per inch (PPI) that would
be suitable for a given output device. If the choice is too low, then the quality will be
below what the device is capable of -- loss of quality -- and if the choice is too high then
pixels will be stored unnecessarily -- wasted disk space. The ideal pixel density (PPI)
depends on the output format, output device, the intended use and artistic choice. For
inkjet printers measured in dots per inch it is generally good practice to use half or
less than the DPI to determine the PPI. For example, an image intended for a printer
capable of 600 dpi could be created at 300 PPI. When using other technologies such as
AM or FM screen printing, there are often published screening charts that indicate the
ideal PPI for a printing method.

Using the DPI or LPI of a printer remains useful to determine PPI until one reaches larger
formats, such as 36" or higher, as the factor of visual acuity then becomes more important
to consider. If a print can be viewed close up, then one may choose the printer device
limits. However, if a poster, banner or billboard will be viewed from far away then it is
possible to use a much lower PPI.

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 CHAPTER 4

COMPUTER DISPLAYS

The PPI/PPCM of a computer display is related to the size of the display

in inches/centimetres and the total number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical
directions. This measurement is often referred to as dots per inch, though that
measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer.

For example, a 15-inch (38 cm) display whose dimensions work out to 12 inches
(30.48 cm) wide by 9 inches (22.86 cm) high, capable of a maximum 1024×768
(or XGA) pixel resolution, can display around 85 PPI, or 33.46 PPCM, in both the
horizontal and vertical directions. This figure is determined by dividing the width (or
height) of the display area in pixels by the width (or height) of the display area in inches.
It is possible for a display to have different horizontal and vertical PPI measurements
(e.g., a typical 4:3 ratio CRT monitor showing a 1280×1024 mode computer display at
maximum size, which is a 5:4 ratio, not quite the same as 4:3). The apparent PPI of a
monitor depends upon the screen resolution (that is, the number of pixels) and the size of
the screen in use; a monitor in 800×600 mode has a lower PPI than does the same
monitor in a 1024×768 or 1280×960 mode.

The dot pitch of a computer display determines the absolute limit of possible pixel
density. Typical circa-2000 cathode ray tube or LCD computer displays range from 67 to
130 PPI, though desktop monitors have exceeded 200 PPI and contemporary small-screen
mobile devices often exceed 300 PPI, sometimes by a wide margin.

In January 2008, Kopin Corporation announced a 0.44 inch (1.12 cm) SVGA LCD with a

pixel density of 2272 PPI (each pixel only 11.25 μm) In 2011 they followed this up with
a 3760-DPI 0.21-inch diagonal VGA colour display. The manufacturer says they
designed the LCD to be optically magnified, as in high-resolution eyewear devices.

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Holography applications demand even greater pixel density, as higher pixel density
produces a larger image size and wider viewing angle. Spatial light modulators can
reduce pixel pitch to 2.5 μm, giving a pixel density of 10,160 PPI.

Some observations indicate that the unaided human generally can't differentiate detail
beyond 300 PPI. However, this figure depends both on the distance between viewer and
image, and the viewer’s visual acuity. The human eye also responds in a different way to
a bright, evenly lit interactive display from how it does to prints on paper.

High pixel density display technologies would make supersampled antialiasing obsolete,

enable true WYSIWYG graphics and, potentially enable a practical “paperless office”
era.[10] For perspective, such a device at 15 inch (38 cm) screen size would have to
display more than four Full HD screens (or WQUXGA resolution).

Development of a display with ≈900 ppi allows for three pixels with 16-bit color to act as
sub-pixels to form a pixel cluster. These pixel clusters act as regular pixels at ≈300 ppi to
produce a 48-bit color display.

The PPI pixel density specification of a display is also useful for calibrating a monitor
with a printer. Software can use the PPI measurement to display a document at "actual
size" on the screen.

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4.1 CALCULATION OF MONITER PPI

PPI can be calculated from knowing the diagonal size of the screen in inches and the
resolution in pixels (width and height). This can be done in two steps:

1. Calculate diagonal resolution in pixels using the Pythagorean theorem, then the

actual PPI:

Where,

1. ω ω ρ is width resolution in pixels

2. hpis height resolution in pixels

3. dδ  is diagonal size in inches (this is the number advertised as the size of the
display).

For example:

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 1. For 15.6 inch screen with a 5120×2880 resolution you get

Note that these calculations may not be very precise. Frequently, screens advertised as “X
inch screen” can have their real physical dimensions of viewable area differ, for example:

Fig(4.1) no. of pixels in inch.

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4.2 CALCULATING PPI OF CAMERA VIEW SCREENS

Camera manufacturers often quote view screens in 'number of dots'. This is not the same
as the number of pixels, because there are 3 'dots' per pixel – red, green and blue. For
example, the Canon 50D is quoted as having 920,000 dots. This translates as
307,200 pixels (×3 = 921,600 dots). Thus the screen is 640×480 pixels.

This must be taken into account when working out the PPI. 'Dots' and 'pixels' are often
confused in reviews and specs when viewing information about digital cameras
specifically.

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 CHAPTER 5
SCANNERS & CAMERAS

"PPI" or "pixel density" may also describe image scanner resolution. In this context, PPI
is synonymous with samples per inch. In digital photography, pixel density is the number
of pixels divided by the area of the sensor. A typical DSLR, circa 2013, has 1–6.2
MP/cm2; a typical compact has 20–70 MP/cm2.

For example, Sony Alpha SLT-A58 has 20.1 megapixels on an APS-C sensor having
6.2 MP/cm2 since a compact camera like Sony Cyber-shot DSC-HX50V has
20.4 megapixels on an 1/2.3" sensor having 70 MP/cm2. The professional camera has a
lower PPI than a compact camera, because it has larger photodiodes due to having far
larger sensors.

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 CHAPTER 6
SMARTPHONES

Smartphones use small displays, but modern smartphone displays have a larger PPI
rating, such as the Samsung Galaxy S7 with a quad HD display at 577 PPI, Fujitsu F-02G
with a quad HD display at 564 PPI, the LG G6 with quad HD display at 564 PPI or –
XHDPI or Oppo Find 7 with 534 PPI on 5.5" display – XXHDPI (see section
below). Sony's Xperia XZ Premium has a 4K display with a pixel density of 807 PPI, the
highest of any smartphone as of 2017.

Fig(6.1) Smartphone

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 CHAPTER 7
NAMED PIXEL DENSITY

The Google Android developer documentation groups displays by their approximate

pixel densities into the following categories

Fig(7.1) Pixel density

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 CHAPTER 8
IMAGE FILE FORMAT

The following table show how pixel density is supported by popular image file formats.
The cell colors used do not indicate how feature-rich a certain image file format is, but
what density support can be expected of a certain image file format.

Even though image manipulation software can optionally set density for some image file
formats, not many other software uses density information when displaying images. Web
browsers, for example, ignore any density information. As the table shows, support for
density information in image file formats varies enormously and should be used with
great care in a controlled context.

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 CHAPTER 9
SUBPIXELS
Many display and image-acquisition systems are not capable of displaying or sensing the
different color channels at the same site. Therefore, the pixel grid is divided into single-
color regions that contribute to the displayed or sensed color when viewed at a distance.
In some displays, such as LCD, LED, and plasma displays, these single-color regions are
separately addressable elements, which have come to be known as subpixels,
mostly RGB colors. For example, LCDs typically divide each pixel vertically into three
subpixels. When the square pixel is divided into three subpixels, each subpixel is
necessarily rectangular. In display industry terminology, subpixels are often referred to
as pixels, as they are the basic addressable elements in a viewpoint of hardware, and
hence pixel circuits rather than subpixel circuits is used.

Most digital camera image sensors use single-color sensor regions, for example using
the Bayer filter pattern, and in the camera industry these are known as pixels just like in
the display industry, not subpixels.

For systems with subpixels, two different approaches can be taken:

 The subpixels can be ignored, with full-color pixels being treated as the smallest
addressable imaging element
 The subpixels can be included in rendering calculations, which requires more
analysis and processing time, but can produce apparently superior images in some
cases.

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Geometry of color elements of various CRT and LCD displays; phosphor dots in the
color display of CRTs (top row) bear no relation to pixels or subpixels.

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 CHAPTER 10
MEGAPIXELS

A megapixel (MP) is a million pixels; the term is used not only for the number of
pixels in an image but also to express the number of image sensor elements of digital
cameras or the number of display elements of digital displays. For example, a camera that
makes a 2048 × 1536 pixel image (3,145,728 finished image pixels) typically uses a few
extra rows and columns of sensor elements and is commonly said to have "3.2
megapixels" or "3.4 megapixels", depending on whether the number reported is the
"effective" or the "total" pixel count.

Pixel is used to define the resolution of a photo. Photo resolution is calculated by

multiplying the width and height of a sensor in pixel.

Digital cameras use photosensitive electronics, either charge-coupled device (CCD)

or complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, consisting of a
large number of single sensor elements, each of which records a measured intensity level.
In most digital cameras, the sensor array is covered with a patterned color filter mosaic
having red, green, and blue regions in the Bayer filter arrangement so that each sensor
element can record the intensity of a single primary color of light. The camera
interpolates the color information of neighboring sensor elements, through a process
called demosaicing, to create the final image. These sensor elements are often called
"pixels", even though they only record one channel (only red or green or blue) of the final
color image. Thus, two of the three color channels for each sensor must be interpolated
and a so-called N-megapixel camera that produces an N-megapixel image provides only
one-third of the information that an image of the same size could get from a scanner.
Thus, certain color contrasts may look fuzzier than others, depending on the allocation of
the primary colors (green has twice as many elements as red or blue in the Bayer
arrangement).

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Diagram of common sensor resolutions of digital cameras including megapixel values.

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 CHAPTER 11
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

11.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF PIXELS IN IPSLCD DISPLAY

 Better color reproduction.
 Wide viewing angle.
 Better sunlight visibility.
 Longer lifespan.

11.1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF PIXELS IN IPSLCD DISPLAY

 Limited contrast ratio.

 Inefficient power consumption.
 Slow pixel response time.
 Production cost and market price.

11.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF PIXELS IN LED DISPLAY

 Vivid colors.
 Long life.
 Easy installation.
 Small calorific value.
 Energy saving.

11.2.2DISADVANTAGES OF PIXELS IN LED DISPLAY

 Power consumption.
 Expensive.
 Light pollution.

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 CHAPTER 12
APPLICATIONS

 Each pixel is a sample of an original image; more samples typically provide more
accurate representations of the original.
 In color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four
component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and
black.
 In some contexts (such as descriptions of camera sensors), pixel refers to a single
scalar element of a multi-component representation (called a photosite in the
camera sensor context, although sensel is sometimes used).

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 CONCLUSION

LCD screens typically use a staggered grid, where the red, green, and blue components
are sampled at slightly different locations. Subpixel rendering is a technology which
takes advantage of these differences to improve the rendering of text on LCD screens.The
vast majority of color digital cameras use a Bayer filter, resulting in a regular grid of
pixels where the color of each pixel depends on its position on the grid.Warped grids are
used when the underlying geometry is non-planar, such as images of the earth from
space.Theuse of non-uniform grids is an active research area, attempting to bypass the
traditional Nyquist limit.

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 REFERRENCES

 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/dip/concept_of_pixel.html
 www.scientiamobile.com/what-is-pixel-density/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel

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