[Type text]

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

B.SC ENGINEERING

PRODUCTION OF METHYL TERTIARY BUTYL

ETHER USING SNAMPROGETTI PROCESS

ADVISOR:

MISS SANA ZAHID

GROUP MEMBERS:

FARAH NAEEM 2010-CH-06

ADEEBA KANWAL 2010-CH-10

IQRA JAMIL 2010-CH-14

ALI RAZA 2010-CH-82

AQSA ZULFIQAR 2010-CH-92

MARIA ASHRAF 2010-CH-116

 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLGY LAHORE

This project is submitted to the Department of Chemical Engineering, University

of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, for the fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of Bachelor’s degree in Chemical Engineering.

Approved on: _______________________

Internal Examiner: _______________________

(Miss Sana Zahid)

External Examiner: ________________________

Name: ________________________

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITYOF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY LAHORE

PAKISTAN

1
 DEDICATION

We dedicate this project to all the respected teachers of our department especially to our advisor
Miss Sana Zahid who guided us a lot during whole project.

2
 Acknowledgment
All praises to Almighty Allah, the most beneficent, the most merciful, Who guides us in the
darkness and helps us in difficulties. Without His blessing, one cannot reach one’s destination.

We are thankful to Allah Almighty who has blessed us with the courage, strength and wisdom so
that we have been able to complete this project.

In presenting this project report, we wish to express our profound feeling of gratitude to our
respected supervisor, Miss Sana Zahid, Department Of Chemical Engineering, University of
Engineering & Technology Lahore, without whose guidance and keen interest this work would
not have been produced in the present form.

We further take the opportunity to acknowledge the efforts and to express our deep appreciation
to all the teaching staff of the department of chemical engineering who was every time ready to
give us guidelines in spite of their busy schedule during the whole preparation of this report and
provided us the necessary path for this completion.

Here we must not forget to thank our parents who were always supportive and prayed for us
every moment.

3
 Abstract

The purpose for this MTBE or Methyl tertiary Butyl Ether plant is to produce 3,000,000 metric
tonne/ year. MTBE is the simplest and most cost effective oxygenate to produce, transport and
deliver to customers. The additive works by changing the oxygenate / fuel ratio so that gasoline
burns cleaner, reducing exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, fine particulates and toxic.. The raw materials used are isobutane, methanol, and water
as feedstock. In addition, two types of catalysts are chromia alumina catalyzed
compound in Snamprogetti Unit, while sulphonic ion exchanged resin catalyzed is used in the
MTBE reactor. A good deal of catalyst has been devoted to improve the activity, selectivity, and
the lifetime of the catalysts. In the Design Project, we emphasize in the individual designs for
selected equipments in the plant. The chosen equipment are Catalytic Cracking Reactor,
Multitubular Fixed Bed Reactor, MTBE Distillation Column, Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column
and Heat Exchanger.This project also includes Process Control, Economic Evaluation, HAZOP
study, EIA which are considered as group works.

4
Contents
1 PROCESS BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 13
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 13
1.2 Historical review of MTBE production process ........................................................................... 13
1.2.1 UOP-Oleflex Process ........................................................................................................... 14
1.2.2 Philips Star Process ............................................................................................................. 14
1.2.3 ABB Lummus Catofin Process ............................................................................................. 14
1.2.4 Snamprogetti-Yartsingtez FBD (SP-Isoether) ...................................................................... 15
2 PROCESS SELECTION ........................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Method Consideration ................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 Detailed Process Description ...................................................................................................... 16
2.3 MTBE Unit ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 Distillation Column Unit .............................................................................................................. 17
2.5 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Unit....................................................................................................... 17
3 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE...................................................................................................... 18
3.1 Snamprogetti Unit (Reactor and Regenerator)........................................................................... 18
3.2 SEPARATOR ................................................................................................................................. 21
3.3 MIXING POINT ............................................................................................................................. 22
3.4 MTBE Reactor.............................................................................................................................. 24
3.5 Material Balance across 1st Distillation Column:......................................................................... 26
3.6 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column ................................................................................................. 27
3.7 Distillation Column-II .................................................................................................................. 28
4 DESIGN PROJECT ................................................................................................................................. 30
4.1 Catalytic Cracking Design ............................................................................................................ 30
4.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 30
4.1.2 Estimation of Diameter of Reactor ..................................................................................... 31
4.1.3 Calculation of the Transport disengagement height, TDH ................................................. 32
4.1.4 Minimum Fluidization Velocity ........................................................................................... 32
4.1.5 Calculation For The Value Of Terminal Velocity Ut ............................................................. 32
4.1.6 Solids Loading...................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.7 Calculation of Residence Time ............................................................................................ 34
5
 4.1.8 Calculation For The Pressure Drop...................................................................................... 34
4.1.9 Specification Sheet:............................................................................................................. 35
4.2 DESIGN OF FIXED BED MULTITUBULAR REACTOR ...................................................................... 35
4.2.1 Reaction Taking Place on the Catalyst ................................................................................ 35
4.2.2 Catalyst Properties: ............................................................................................................. 36
4.2.3 Steps for design:.................................................................................................................. 36
4.2.4 Particle solid density: .......................................................................................................... 36
4.2.5 Void Volume of catalyst: ..................................................................................................... 36
4.2.6 Reaction Rate: ..................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.7 Weight of catalyst: .............................................................................................................. 37
4.2.8 Volume of the catalyst bed: ................................................................................................ 37
4.2.9 Pressure drop in the bed:.................................................................................................... 37
4.2.10 Height of the bed: ............................................................................................................... 37
4.2.11 Total cross section area of tubes: ....................................................................................... 37
4.2.12 Tube diameter:.................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.13 Tube area: ........................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.14 Number of tubes: ................................................................................................................ 38
4.2.15 Pitch of the tube: ................................................................................................................ 38
4.2.16 Bundle diameter: ................................................................................................................ 38
4.2.17 Shell Diameter: .................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.18 Shell side heat transfer co efficient: ................................................................................... 38
4.2.19 Tube side co efficient: ......................................................................................................... 40
4.2.20 Overall Heat transfer Co efficient: ...................................................................................... 41
4.2.21 Specification Sheet:............................................................................................................. 41
4.3 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN ............................................................................................ 42
4.3.1 CHOICE BETWEEN PLATE AND PACKED COLUMN .............................................................. 42
4.3.2 Choice of Plate Type............................................................................................................ 43
4.3.3 DESIGNING STEPS OF DISTILLATION COLUMN ................................................................... 44
4.3.4 Design Data ......................................................................................................................... 45
4.3.5 Rmin Using Underwood Method ........................................................................................... 47
4.3.6 Calculating Minimum No. Of Stages ................................................................................... 47
4.3.7 Theoretical Number Of Stages ............................................................................................ 48
4.3.8 Actual Number Of Stages: ................................................................................................... 48
4.3.9 Determination Of The Column Diameter ............................................................................ 48
6
 4.3.10 Vapour Load At Bottom ...................................................................................................... 48
4.3.11 Liquid Load at Bottom ......................................................................................................... 49
4.3.12 Tray Dynamics ..................................................................................................................... 49
4.4 Liquid-liquid extraction unit design ............................................................................................ 52
4.4.1 Choice Of Solvent ................................................................................................................ 52
4.4.2 Calculation of number of stages ......................................................................................... 53
4.4.3 Sizing of the sieve tray ........................................................................................................ 54
4.5 Design of a distillation column:................................................................................................... 59
4.5.1 Calculation of Minimum no. of Plates................................................................................. 59
4.5.2 Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio ................................................................................. 60
4.5.3 Actual Reflux Ratio: ............................................................................................................. 60
4.5.4 Theoretical no. of Plates: .................................................................................................... 60
4.5.5 Actual number of stages: .................................................................................................... 61
4.5.6 Number of plates in rectification and stripping section: .................................................... 61
4.5.7 Diameter of column ............................................................................................................ 61
4.5.8 Weir calculations................................................................................................................. 62
4.5.9 Pressure drop ...................................................................................................................... 63
4.5.10 Height of column................................................................................................................. 64
4.5.11 Specification sheet of distillation column: .......................................................................... 66
4.6 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER: ................................................................................................... 67
4.6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 67
4.6.2 Calculation of Heat Duty ..................................................................................................... 70
4.6.3 Calculation of LMTD ............................................................................................................ 70
4.6.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U).................................................................................. 70
4.6.5 Calculation of heat transfer Area ........................................................................................ 70
4.6.6 Number of Tubes Calculation ............................................................................................. 70
4.6.7 Number of Tubes ................................................................................................................ 71
4.6.8 Bundle and Shell Diameter Calculation............................................................................... 71
4.6.9 Tube Side Coefficient , hi ..................................................................................................... 72
4.6.10 Reynolds And Prandtel Number.......................................................................................... 72
4.6.11 Shell Side Coefficient, hs...................................................................................................... 73
4.6.12 Shell Side Equivalent Diameter for Triangular Pitch Arrangement..................................... 73
4.6.13 Shell Side Coefficient, hs...................................................................................................... 74
4.6.14 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, Uo ................................................................................. 74
7
 4.6.15 Tube Side Pressure Drop ..................................................................................................... 75
4.6.16 Shell Side Pressure Drop ..................................................................................................... 75
4.6.17 Specification Sheet .............................................................................................................. 75
5 HYSYS .................................................................................................................................................. 76
5.1 The Design Based On Hysys Simulation ...................................................................................... 76
5.2 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 79
6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................... 80
6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 80
6.2 Steps of EIA: ................................................................................................................................ 82
6.3 Impacts of project on environment: ........................................................................................... 82
6.3.1 STACK GASES ....................................................................................................................... 82
6.3.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT ................................................................................................ 83
6.3.3 Waste Minimization ............................................................................................................ 86
7 HAZOP STUDY ..................................................................................................................................... 87
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 87
7.2 Steps Conducted In Hazop Study ................................................................................................ 87
7.3 HAZOP METHOD FLOW DIAGRAM .............................................................................................. 88
7.4 HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings ........................................................................................... 89
8 Economic Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 93
8.1 Global Market ............................................................................................................................. 93
8.2 Asia Market ................................................................................................................................. 93
8.3 Worldwide Demand .................................................................................................................... 94
8.4 Market Price ................................................................................................................................ 94
8.4.1 Methanol ............................................................................................................................. 94
8.4.2 Isobutane ............................................................................................................................ 95
8.5 Cost estimation ........................................................................................................................... 95
8.5.1 Direct Cost ........................................................................................................................... 95
8.5.2 Indirect Cost ........................................................................................................................ 96
8.5.3 Total Capital Investment ..................................................................................................... 96
8.5.4 Production Cost................................................................................................................... 96
8.5.5 Manufacturing Cost ............................................................................................................ 97
8.5.6 General Expenses ................................................................................................................ 97
8.5.7 Distribution and Selling Cost ............................................................................................... 97
8.5.8 Research and Development Cost ........................................................................................ 97
8
 8.5.9 Financing (Interest) ............................................................................................................. 98
9 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ................................................................................................... 98
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 98
9.2 OBJECTIVES OF CONTROL ........................................................................................................... 98
10 References .................................................................................................................................... 101

9
 NOMEN CLATURE
Ar - Archimedes number
a - acceleration
B - settling chamber longitudinal cross-sectional area
b - dimension
C - constant
CD - drag coefficient
c - concentration
D - system diameter
d - particle diameter
de - effective fiber diameter
E, - field intensity
F - cross-sectional area
Pr - Fronde number
g - gravitational acceleration
H - height
K - precipitation constant ,
A - Cross sectional area of catalytic reactor
Aor - Area of orifice
Bv d - Diameter of bubble in the bed
dp - Particle diameter
D - Diffusivity
Dt - Diameter of catalytic reactor
e - Thickness
E - Activation energy
FBo - Mass flow of coal to the catalytic reactor
FC - Fixed carbon mass fraction
Hbed - Height of bed
Hh - Height of Catalytic reactor
J - Joint factor

10
k” - Reaction rate constant
k - Reaction rate constant
eq K - Equilibrium constant
L - Height above the bed
n - Total no of orifice
N - No of holes in 1 m2 area
Nor - No of orifice in 1 m2 area
Pi - Design stress
rC , rS - Rate of reaction
R - Ideal gas constant
Ret - Reynolds number
Rp - Radius of particle
t - Total holding time
T - Temperature
Uo - Superficial gas velocity
Umf - Minimum fluidization velocity
Ut - Terminal velocity
VBed - Volume of bed
WBed - Weight of coal in bed
WC - Total mass of carbon
X - Conversion factor
a - Fitting parameter (for this design is 0.21)
b - Fitting parameter (for this design is 0.66)
rg - Gas density
rB - Molar density
rs - Bulk density of catalyst
rp - Particle density
μg - Gas viscosity
t - Time for complete conversion of reactant particle
Dp - Pressure drop
E - total elutriation rate of particles
Ef - frictional force of particles
11
Ei - entrainment rate of panicle size i
Ei∞ - elutriation rate of particle size i
Eo - total entrainment rate at bed surface
E∞ - total elutriation rate of particles
g - gravitational acceleration constant
gc - gravitational conversion constant, m kg/s2 kg -force
Gi - solids flow rate
h - height above dense bed surface
Rep - particle Reynolds Number = r ( ) /m g o ts p U -U d
Ret - dpUrg /m
t - time
Umf - minimum fluidization velocity
Uo - superficial gas velocity
Usi - solid velocity (upward)
Us - single particle terminal velocity of particle size i
W - weight fraction of bed
Ws - weight of solid particles in verlical pipe having length h
Xi - weight fraction of particle size i in bed
Greek Symbols
e - voidage in freeboard
- voidage in freeboard for system having only particle size i
l - solid friciion coefficient
g r- gas density
p r- particle density

12
1 PROCESS BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is produced by reacting isobutene with methanol over a
catalyst bed in the liquid phase under mild temperature and pressure. Isobutene can be obtained
from stream cracker raffinate or by the dehydrogenation of isobutane from refineries. Ether in
general is a compound containing an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon atoms.
In MTBE one carbon atom is that of a methyl group – CH3 and the other is the central atom of a
tertiary butyl group, -C (CH3). At room temperature, MTBE is a volatile, flammable, colorless
liquid with a distinctive odor. It is miscible with water but at high concentrations it will form an
air-vapor explosive mixture above the water, which can ignite by sparks or contact with hot
surfaces.
MTBE has good blending properties and about 95% of its output is used in gasoline as an octane
booster and an oxygenate (providing oxygen for cleaner combustion and reduced carbon
monoxide emissions). It is also used to produce pure isobutene from C4 streams by reversing its
formation reaction. It is a good solvent and also can be used for extraction.
MTBE properties
Molecular weight (g/mole) 88.15
Boiling Temperature ( °C) 54
Specific gravity 0.74
Water solubility (mg/L) 50000
Vapor pressure (mm Hg) 251
Henry's Law 1.5E-3
Latent heat of vaporization (Cal/g) 81.7
Specific heat (Cal/g.°C) 0.51

1.2 Historical review of MTBE production process

The MTBE plants actually consist of six units: Isomerization Unit (including deisobutanizer),
Dehydrogenation Unit, MTBE Unit, Methanol Recovery Unit, Oxygenate Removal Unit and
Olefin Saturation Unit. A common offsite utility system will be incorporated to distribute the
required utilities to each unit. There are four method of producing MTBE implemented under
license as the following:
13
1. UOP-Oleflex Process
2. Phillips STAR Process
3. ABB Lummus Catofin Process
4. Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD (SP-Isoether) Process.
1.2.1 UOP-Oleflex Process
The UOP-Oleflex process uses multiple side-by-side, radial flow, moving-bed reactors connected
in series. Preheated feed and interstage heaters supply the heat of reaction. The reaction is carried
out over platinum supported on alumina, under near isothermal conditions. The catalyst system
employs UOP's Continuous Catalyst Regeneration (CCR) technology. The bed of catalyst slowly
flows concurrently with the reactants and is removed from the last reactor and
regenerated in a separate section. The reconditioned catalyst is then returned to the top of
the first reactor. The typical processes involved are the deisobutenization, the
isomerisation and the dehydrogenation process that has been commercial in Malaysia
1.2.2 Philips Star Process
The second one is the Philips Steam Active Reforming (STAR) Process. The Phillips Steam
Active Reforming (STAR) Process uses a noble metal-promoted zinc aluminate spinel catalyst in
a fixed-bed reactor. The reaction is carried out with steam in tubes that are packed with catalyst
and located in a furnace. The catalyst is a solid, particulate noble metal. Steam is added to the
hydrocarbon feed to provide heat to the endothermic reaction, to suppress coke formation, and to
increase the equilibrium conversion by lowering partial pressures of hydrogen and propane.
1.2.3 ABB Lummus Catofin Process
The ABB Lummus Catofin Process uses a relatively inexpensive and durable
chromium oxide–alumina as catalyst. This catalyst can be easily and rapidly
regenerated under severe conditions without loss in activity. Dehydrogenation is carried out
in the gas phase over fixed beds. Because the catalyst cokes up rapidly, five reactors are typically
used. Two are on stream, while two are being regenerated and one is being purged. The reactors
are cycled between the reaction and the reheat/regeneration modes, and the thermal inertia of the
catalyst controls the cycle time, which is typically less than 10 minutes. The chromium catalyst
is reduced from Cr6+ to Cr3+ during the dehydrogenation cycle. The raw materials used to
produce MTBE by using this method are butanes, hydrogen and as well as recycled isobutene
from the system itself. In this process, there is an isostripper column, which separates the
heavies, and the light ends from which then could produce MTBE.

14
1.2.4 Snamprogetti-Yartsingtez FBD (SP-Isoether)
The Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez SP-Isoether (FBD) Process uses a chromium catalyst in
equipment, which is the fluidized bed that resembles conventional fluidized catalytic cracking
technology used in the oil refinery. The catalyst is recirculated from the reactor to the
regeneration section on a 30–60-min cycle. The process operates under low pressure and has
a low-pressure drop and uniform temperature profile. Snamprogetti has been presenting
and marketing their hydrogenation technology, ISOETHER 100, since 1997. This process is to
be used to convert MTBE units by utilizing Snamprogetti’s MTBE Water Cooled Tubular
Reactor Technology. In this SP-Isoether Process, the products are MTBE and isooctagenas (iso
octane gas). In this SP-Isoether Process the catalyst used in the isoetherification reactor is the
same as those other typical processes, which is Platinum.

2 PROCESS SELECTION
Suitable process, which is gives a lot of profit and less problem is an important in order to
determinant for the success of a plant. This chapter will briefly discuss the best process selected
based on a few criteria. It covers general consideration, detailed consideration for process
selection and conclusion on the process selection.
2.1 Method Consideration
From the processes mentioned earlier, there are many ways to produce MTBE. It is essential to
choose the best method that will be used to produce MTBE. The selection of the method must
consider the safety of the plant, minimum waste or by product generated, efficient an
economical. Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez SP- Isoether FBD process will be chosen as the method to
produce MTBE. More detailed reasons for the selection of this process are: High conversion
(greater than 98 %) with few by-products compared to other process. From the economy
aspect,Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD Process can reduce the cost of setting up the plant as it can
be implied in any of typical MTBE-produced plant, known as “Financial Safety Net”.(When an
MTBE plant faces an oversupplied MTBE market, Isoether makes it possible to switch
production from MTBE to a superior Alkylate.). As for the safety aspects of the plant, as the
Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD is a safe process as it just use the fluidize bed to the process of
producing MTBE. The process operates under low pressure and has a low pressure drop and this
means that the fluidized bed is physically not harmful to anyone. As for the temperature, it
operates under uniform temperature profile. As the temperature is not high, this means that the
process is not as dangerous as other high temperature-operated process. But, precautions should
be taken seriously all the time, as we do not know when an accident could happen even in the
safest place. As for the waste by using the Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD Process, the product of
the process is only MTBE and other effluent and as well as flue gas which are not harmful to the
environment.

15
2.2 Detailed Process Description
The Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez SP-Isoether (FBD) Process uses a chromium catalyst in equipment,
which is the fluidized bed that resembles conventional fluidized catalytic cracking technology
used in the oil refinery with 65% isobutane (i-C4H10) conversion to produce isobutene.
Dehydrogenation reaction that occur in this process:
iC4H10 iC4H8 + H2
The main feature of this process is that the catalyst filled annuli are connected in such a way that
small, discrete amounts of catalyst can be withdrawn from the bottom of a reactor, and sent to the
top of the reactor. Catalyst withdrawn from the bottom of the reactor is sent to a separate
regeneration section for regeneration prior to being sent to the top of the reactor. The catalyst is
recirculated from the reactor to the regeneration section on a 30–60-min cycle. The reactor and
regeneration sections are totally independent of each other. The regeneration section can be
stopped, even for several days, without interrupting the dehydrogenation process in the reactor
section. The vaporized isobutane is fed along with fresh catalyst to the first, called reactor, and
the spent catalyst is separated from the products and sent to the regenerator, where air (O2) is
added to oxidize the carbon. The reactor cracks the isobutane and forms coke on the catalyst.
Then in the regenerator the coke is burned off and the catalyst is sent back into the reactor. The
“magic” of this process is that the reactor-regenerator combination solves both the heat
management and coking problems simultaneously. Burning off the coke is strongly exothermic,
and this reaction in the regenerator supplies the heat (carried with the hot regenerated catalyst
particles) for the endothermic cracking reactions in the reactor.
The process operates under low pressure and has a low-pressure drop and uniform temperature
profile. Products that have been produced from this unit are isobutene. Isobutene available in the
C4 stream from the Snamprogetti-Yarsintez FBD unit will be combining with methanol, which is
sourced from the Sabah Gas Industries methanol plant in Labuan to produce, fuel-grade MTBE
with a high-octane value in the MTBE unit.
2.3 MTBE Unit
The MTBE unit includes two sections such as the main reaction section and the finishing
reaction. In the main reaction section, 98% conversions of isobutene occurs mainly in the main
reactor which are designed to provide the mechanical ands thermal conditions required by the
expanded catalyst bid technology.
Reactions occur in this unit are
1. iC4H8 + CH3OH C5H12O
( isobutene) (methanol) (MTBE)

16
 2. CH3OH + CH3OH (CH3)2O + H2O
(DME)
3. iC4H8 + H2O C4H10O
(TBA)

The reactor is operated in an up-flow direction with an external liquid recycle to remove the heat
of reaction and to control the expansion of the catalyst bed. This selective reaction of methanol
with isobutene is conducted in liquid phase at moderate temperature on an ion exchange resin
type catalyst. The expansion of the catalyst bed in the reactor is ensured by pump around
circulation loop with a cooling water cooler to control the reactor feed temperature to remove the
heat of reaction. Resin traps on top of each reactor to trap resin in case of carryover with the
liquid. In the finishing reactor section, isobutene final conversion is achieved in a catalytic
column where reaction and distillation are performed simultaneously.
2.4 Distillation Column Unit
This column includes a separation column yielding MTBE product at the bottom and (isobutene,
isobutene, normal butane, water and DME) with methanol entrained by azeotropy at the top. The
reaction section bed is contained in the upper part of this column. An excess of methanol is
maintained corresponding to the amount leaving the tower in the azeotrope. The required
methanol is passed through guard beds and filtered prior to being charged to the catalytic column
to achieve final conversion. Bottom MTBE product and the other by-product such as TBA, DME
is sent to rundown tanks under level control after cooling in feed/bottom exchanger and trim
cooler. The overhead of the column is condensed in the air-cooled condenser under pressure
control. One part of the liquid is sent to the column as reflux and the other part to the liquid-
liquid extraction unit after cooling.
2.5 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Unit
In this unit methanol will extract from the isobutene, isobutene, normal butane to produce C4
raffinate from the overhead of the column and at the bottom, methanol and water are produced.
C4 raffinate from this unit we decided to sell to the Korea.

17
3 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
Basis of Material & Energy Balance
 Steady state
 Capacity of MTBE plant
 7920 hours/yr
 3000000 Tones/yr
 Reference temperature
 25⁰C
 Reference pressure
 101.325 Kpa
 Conversion in 1st Reactor 65%
 Overall Conversion of isobutene in 2nd reactor 98%
 Yield of MTBE 0.95
 Conversion of methanol into TBA 98%

3.1 Snamprogetti Unit (Reactor and Regenerator)

The fraction at stream S3 acquired from isobutane instrument grade, MSDS.

Reaction occurred in the reactor,
iC4H10 C4H8 + H2
18
Flowrate in kgmole/hr of iC4H10 in the feed stream of S3 = 5.56x107
Balanced Based upon the stoichoimetric ratio with 65% conversion of iC4H10 to obtain
C4H8. Since, 65% conversion in the reactor,
kgmole/hr of C4H8 obtained = 0.65*5.56x107
=3.58x107 kgmole/hr
35% of iC4H10 unreacted = 1.928x107 kgmole/hr
Based upon stoichiometric ratio
(inert) (unreacted) (inert)
n C4H10 + iC4H10 C4H8 + H2 + iC4H10 + n C4H10
Inputs S3 Output S4
Components Mass Flow kg/yr Mass Flow kg/yr
i-butane 1.3x107 1.1x109
n-butane 3.196x109 1.3x107
H2 - 7.2x107
i-butene - 2.01x109
Total 3.2x109 3.2x109

For energy balance of the reactor

Cp values can be calculated using the formula
CP = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
For this sample of calculations, listed are the values of constants (a, b, c, d ) in the ideal gas
heat capacity equation based on R. K Sinnot, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, Third Edition, Butterworth Heinemann:

Components a B C d ΔĤF
KJ/Kmol KJ/Kmol KJ/Kmol KJ/Kmol KJ/Kmol
C5H12O 2.53 5.14 x 10-1 -2.60 x 10-4 4.30 x 10-8 -292990

19
CH3OH 2.12 x 101 7.09 x 10-2 2.59 x 10-5 -2.85 x 10-8 -201300
H2O 32.243 1.93 x 10-3 1.06 x 10-5 - -3.60 x 10-9 -242000
C4H8 -2.994 3.53 x 10-1 -1.98 x 10-4 4.46 x 10-8 -130
i-C4H8 16.052 2.8043 x 10-1 -1.091 x 10-4 i9.098 x 10-9 i-16900
i-C4H10 -1.39 3.85 x 10-1 -1.85 x 10-4 2.90 x 10-8 --134610
C4H10O -4.86 x 101 7.17 x 10-1 --7.08 x 10-4 2.92 x 10-7 --312630
n-C4H10 9.85 - 3.31 x 10-1 - 1.11 x 10-4 -2.82 x 10-9 -126.23
(CH3)2O 1.70 x 101 1.79 x 10-1 -5.23 x 10-5 -1.92 x 10-9 -184180
H2 2.71 x 101 9.27 x 10-3 -1.38 x 10-5 7.65 x 10-9 0

ΔH in ΔHr ΔH out
Enthalpy KJ/yr 7.83x1013 3.34x1015 1.10x1014

ΔĤR = (ΔĤF C4H8) + (ΔĤF H2) -(ΔĤF i-C4H10)

ΔH in = mCp ΔT
ΔH out = mCp ΔT

Q = ΔHR + (ΔHout) - (ΔHin)

= 3.66x1016 KJ/yr

20
3.2 SEPARATOR

Input Output

Stream S9 S9 S10 S10 S11 S11

Component Molar flow Mass Molar flow Mass Molar flow Mass
(kgmole/Yr) flow (Kgmole/Yr) flow (Kgmole/Yr) flow
(Kg/Yr) (Kg/Yr) (Kg/Yr)
Butene 35819153 2.01×109 - - 35819153 2.01×109

Hydrogen 35819153 71638306 35819153 71638306 - -

i-Butane 19287236 1.12×109 - - 19287236 1.12×109

n-Butane 221310.8 12836026 - - 221310.8 12836026

Total 3.21×109 7168306 3.14×109

Energy balance around separator

Stream 9
Components Hf(KJ/Kmol)∆ To (K) T (K) H (KJ/hr)∆
Butene -1.69×104 298 326.3 166.03

21
 i-Butane 1.35×105 298 326.3 2.17
n-Butane -1.26×105 298 326.3 353.50
Hydrogen 0.00 298 326.3 99.88

Stream 10
Components Hf(KJ/Kmol)∆ To (K) T (K) H (KJ/hr)∆
Hydrogen 0.00 298 326.3 99.8

Stream 11
Components Hf(KJ/Kmol)∆ To (K) T (K) H (KJ/hr)∆
Butene -16910 298 326.3 321.92
i-Butane -134610 298 326.3 188.89
n-Butane -126230 298 326.3 2.18

Q = (∑H)out – (∑H)in
= -208.46 kW
3.3 MIXING POINT

Input Output
Stream S13 S27 S14
Components Molar Flow Mass Molar flow Mass flow Molar flow Mass flow
22
 (Kgmole/yr) flow (Kgmole/yr) (Kg/Yr) (Kgmole/y (Kg/yr)
(Kg/yr) r)
Methanol 1.26×109 80999.34 2591979 39401068 1260834185
Water - - 144249.1 2596484 158237.2 0.072
Total 1.26×109 5188463 1260834185

Energy balance around mixing point

Stream 13
Component Hf(KJ/Kmol)∆ To (K) T (K) H (KJ/hr)∆
Methanol -2.01×102 298 300 11.79

Stream 27
Components Hf(KJ/Kmol)∆ To (K) T (K) H (KJ/hr)∆
Methanol -2.01×105 298 300 0.02
Water -2.42×105 298 300 0.03

Stream 14
Components Hf(KJ/Kmol)∆ To (K) T (K) H (KJ/hr)∆
Methanol -2.01×105 298 300 11.81
Water -2.42×105 298 300 0.03

Q = (∑H)out – (∑H)in
= 0.04 kW

23
3.4 MTBE Reactor
Material Balance
There are three reactions taking place in MTBE reactor:
I. i-C4H8+CH3OH→C5H12O
II. 2CH3OH→C2H6O+H2O
III. i-C4H8+H20→C4H10O
Reaction 1 is main reaction and 2nd and 3rd reactions are side reactions.
 The conversion of i-butene is 98%.
 The yield of MTBE is 0.95
 The conversion of methanol into DME is 98%.

COMPONENT MASS IN (Kg/YEAR) MASS OUT (Kg/YEAR)

i-butene 2.01x1009 40117451
n-butane 12836026 12836026

24
i-butane 1.12x1009 1.12x1009
Methanol 1.26x1009 3438639
Water 2596484 28046397
MTBE 0 2.99x1009
TBA 0 79518520
DME 0 1.21x1008
Total 4.4x1009 4.4x1009

Energy balance
PARAMETER S11 S14 S15
TEMPERATURE 53.3 27 101
(⁰C)
PRESSURE(kPa) 2000 2000 1950

By using the values of cp and formula for calculating heat of reaction:

∆HR=∆Hf for products -∆Hf for reactants
We get:
• ∆HR1= -91999.877 kJ/mol
• ∆HR2= -26000 kJ/mol
• ∆HR3= -68999.877 kJ/mol
Total Q=-2.1x1010 kJ/year

25
3.5 Material Balance across 1st Distillation Column:

Methanol recovery in top= 0.93

Water recovery in Bottom= 0.65
Components Mass in(kg/year) Top mass(kg/year) Bottom mass
(kg/year)
i-butene 4.01x107 4.01x107 0
n-butane 1.28x107 1.28x107 0
i-butane 1.12x109 1.12x109 0
Methanol 3.43x106 3.20x106 2.41x105
MTBE 2.99x109 0 2.99x109
Water 2.8x107 9.82x106 3.24x107
DME 1.21x108 1.21x108 0
TBA 7.95x107 0 7.95x107
Total 4.4x109 1.31x109 3.11x109

26
ENERGY BALANCE:
PARAMETER FEED TOP BOTTOM
TEMPERATURE 64.5 22 121.7
(⁰C)
PRESSURE (kPa) 500 355 570

Enthalpies
Feed= -2.13x1009 kJ/year
Top stream= -1.25x1009 kJ/year
Bottom stream= -2.39x1009 kJ/year

3.6 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column

Stream 6 consists of water only. We are adding water because methanol is soluble in water.

Stream 1 Stream 2 Stream 3 Stream 4

Components
(kg/yr) (kg/yr) (kg/yr) (kg/yr)

CH3OH - 3.20x1006 3.20x1005 2.88x1006

27
 H2O 1.20x1005 9.82x1006 - 1.30x1008

n-C4H10 - 1.28x1007 1.28x1007 -

i-C4H10 - 1.12x1009 1.12x1009 -

i-C4H8 - 4.01x1007 4.01x1007 -

DME - 1.21x1008 1.21x1008 -

Total Flow rate

1.20x1005 1.31x1009 1.29x1009 1.33x1008
(kg/yr)

Temperature(⁰C) 27 22 25 141

Pressure( kPa) 100 355 377 377

-
∆H (kJ/yr) 16
16 -2.890x10 -2.827x10
16
-1.48x1016
1.512x10

3.7 Distillation Column-II

28
Here the top product is the recycled to the mixer, basically we are recovering methanol which is
raw material.

29
 Components Stream 1(kg/yr) Stream 2 (kg/yr) Stream 3 (kg/yr)

CH3OH 2.88x1006 2.59x1006 2.86x1005

H2O 1.30x1008 2.60x1006 1.27x1008

Total flowrate
1.33x1008 5.18x1006 1.27x1008
(kg/yr)

Temperature (⁰C) 141 126 155

Pressure (kPa) 377 246 543

∆H kJ/yr) -2.19x1009 -2.09x1009 -1.84x1009

4 DESIGN PROJECT
4.1 Catalytic Cracking Design
4.1.1 Introduction
A bed of solid particles can be fluidized by a stream of gas through it. The fluidization of solids
in a stream of gas occurs only if the gas velocity achieved a certain value which is called
minimum fluidization velocity Umf. Once the gas velocity achieved this value, the bed expands
and pressure drop across the fluidized bed remains constant once fluidization occurred.
In this commercial fluidized-bed catalytic cracking reactor, catalysts flow up through the
reaction regeneration section in a riser type of flow regime. The over head catalyst captured by
cyclones is returned to the hopper where it is fluidized with air to recapture any entrained
hydrocarbon vapor. The catalyst was then discharged from the hopper,down through a standpipe.
The solids flow through the standpipe was controlled by slide valve located at the base. From
there, the solids went into the riser where they are carried by stream of air to the regenerator
vessel. The regenerator operation in these plants resembled that of the reactor except for the
system’s use of air instead of oil vapor. A portion of the catalyst from the regenerated catalyst
hopper was returned to the regenerator through catalyst fresh feed exchangers. This action
controlled the regenerator temperature and served to preheat the feed. Another bypass line from
30
the hopper to the regenerator was used to control the dense bed level or holdup in the
regenerator. Catalyst from the regenerated catalyst hopper flowed through a standpipe back into
riser where the feed was injected. The commercial cracking catalysts used most widely is silica-
alumina. High content catalysts are characterized by higher equilibrium activity level and surface
area. These catalysts could be offered at a lower price. An advantage of this catalyst grade is that
a lesser amount of adsorbed, unconverted, heavy products on the catalyst were carried over to the
stripper zone and regenerator. As a result, a higher yield of more valuable products and also
smoother operation of the regenerator was achieved.
Basically the design of the fluidized bed system can be divided into several sections:
 Estimation of diameter of reactor
 Calculation of the Transport disengagement height, TDH
 Minimum fluidization Velocity
 Calculation for the value of terminal velocity Ut
 Calculation of solid loading
 Calculation of residence time
 Calculation of bed height
 Calculation for the pressure drop ∆PB
Available data
Dp = diameter of particle = 8010-6 m
ρp = density of particle = 1282 kg/ m3
ρg = density of gas = 1.484 kg/ m3
μ = 1.15x10-5
Flow rate of gas stream = 39353 kg/hr
4.1.2 Estimation of Diameter of Reactor
The fluidized bed diameter depends on the operating gas velocity. A larger diameter is required
for a low gas velocity while for a high gas velocity, a small diameter is required. However the
gas velocity must exceed the terminal velocity (Ut) of the particle transport of solid particles may
occur. The operating velocity should be between minimum fluidization velocity and terminal
falling velocity to maintain fluidization of solids.
𝐷𝑃2 g(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑔 )
𝑈𝑜 =
18μ
Uo = 0.388 m/s
31
The bed diameter will be depending on the area of reactor used:
Cross sectional area, A = Q/ Uo
A = 18.985 m2

4𝐴
diameter of bed = √ 3.29m
𝜋

4.1.3 Calculation of the Transport disengagement height, TDH

According to M. Rhodes (1998), the TDH region is considered as the region where located above
the bed surface to the top of disengagement zone. While the disengagement zone is the region
above the splash zone or region just above the bed surface in which the upward flux and
suspension concentration of fine particles decrease with increasing in height.
There are so many correlations that can be used to find the TDH value. For this
design Amitin et al. (1968) was used.
TDH (F) = 0.85Uo1.2(7.33 -1.2log10Uo) = 8m
4.1.4 Minimum Fluidization Velocity
According to the Martin Rhodes (1999)
𝑈𝑚𝑓𝐷𝑝𝜌 𝜇
𝑔
Re = = (1135 .7 + 0.0408 Ar )0.5 -33.7
𝜇 𝜌𝑑𝑝

Umf = 0.425 m/s

4.1.5 Calculation For The Value Of Terminal Velocity Ut
From the chart of CDRet2 and CD/Ret VS Reynolds number, for value of

32
 4𝜌𝑔 (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑔 )gdp3
𝐶𝐷 Re2 =
3μ2
Ut = 0.20 m/s
4.1.6 Solids Loading
mass flow of solids
Solids loading unreturned =
volume flow of gas
𝑅
= = 0.081kg/s
𝑈𝐴
R is calculated by through iteration,
𝐹𝑚𝑓𝑖
𝑚𝑏𝑖 = (F−R)+𝐾𝐼𝐴

33
 Solids loading return = F-R = 8.915 kg/s
4.1.7 Calculation of Residence Time
The outlet concentration of a plug flow reactor is related to the inlet concentration of the reactant
by the same equation as in a batch reactor with the same residence time.For an equilibrium
reaction between A and B, is first order.
Based on studied of Khabtou, S., Chevreau, T., and Lavalley, J.C., Micropor. Mat. 3,133 (1994),
express the rate per catalyst mass instead of reactor volume.

1 K x
𝐾𝑚𝑎 = − ln [1 − x − ]
ST K + 1 K
The value K = 0.75 and ST = 151.94 g.hr/m3 based on study by Yamamoto, S. Asaoka, et al
(1997).
1
Kτ = (1 − ɛ)ln − ɛx
1−𝑋
𝛕 = 115.99s
Wbed
t=
FBo
Wbed = 9567.91 kg
weight of bed
Volume of the bed =
particle bulk density

= 74.6 m3
Weight of bed
Height of bed =
(1−ɛ)Aρ

= 6.6m
4.1.8 Calculation For The Pressure Drop
The equation that can be used to calculate the pressure drop across the bed is:
r𝑔
𝑊𝑏𝑒𝑑 −𝑊𝑏𝑒𝑑 ( )
r𝑝
∆P =
𝐴

∆P = 49.383 Kpa

34
4.1.9 Specification Sheet:

Components Estimated values

Min. fluidization Velocity 0.00425m/s
Catalyst type Silica-alumina
Catalyst weight 95679.771 kg
Diameter of catalyst bed 3.29 m
( reactor)
Height of reactor 6.6m
Volume of reactor 74.6 m3
Pressure drop 49.38 KPa
Materials of construction Stainless Steel (18Cr/8Ni,
304)

4.2 DESIGN OF FIXED BED MULTITUBULAR REACTOR

Fixed bed reactors are the most important type of the reactor for the synthesis of large scale basic
chemicals and intermediates. In these reactors, the reaction takes place in the form a
heterogeneous catalyst. In addition to the synthesis of valuable chemicals, fixed bed reactors
have been increasingly used in recent years to treat harmful and toxic substances. The most
common arrangement is the multi tubular fixed bed reactor, in which the catalyst is arranged in
the tubes, and the heat carrier circulates externally around the tubes. Fixed bed reactor for
industrial synthesis are generally operated in a stationary mode under constant operating
conditions over prolonged production runs, and design therefore concentrates on achieving an
optimum stationary operation. However, the non-stationary dynamic operation mode is also great
importance for industrial operation control.
4.2.1 Reaction Taking Place on the Catalyst
The processes taking place on the catalyst may formally be subdivided into the following
separate steps:
1. Mass transfer of reactants from the main body of the fluid to the gross exterior surface of the
catalyst particle.
2. Molecular diffusion /Knudsen flow of reactants from the exterior surface of the catalyst
particle into the interior pore structure.
35
3. Chemisorption of at least of the reactants on the catalyst surface.
4. Reaction of the surface
5. Desorption of absorbed species from the surface of the catalyst.
6. Transfer of products from the interior catalyst pores to the gross exterior surface of the catalyst
by ordinary molecular diffusion/Knudsen flow.
7. Mass transfer of products from the exterior surface3 of the particle into the bulk of the fluid.

4.2.2 Catalyst Properties:

Diameter of catalyst= 0.6mm
Bulk density of catalyst=810kg/m3
Voidage=0.32
Surface area=45m2/g

4.2.3 Steps for design:

• Particles solid density
• Void volume of the catalyst
• Reaction rate
• Weight of catalyst
• Volume of catalyst bed
• Pressure drop and height of bed
• Diameter of shell and tubes
• Number of tubes
• Shell and tube side coefficients
• Overall coefficient

4.2.4 Particle solid density:

ρp=ρb/1-Ɛp
ρb=810kg/m3 , Ɛp=0.32
ρp= 1191.2 kg/m3

4.2.5 Void Volume of catalyst:

Vc=Ɛp/ρp
= 0.268 g/cm3

36
4.2.6 Reaction Rate:
Kinetic study shows that in determining the rate of reaction only main reaction will participate
while both side reactions can be neglected.
If forward reaction constant is k1 and reverse reaction constant is k2 then Arrhenius Parameters
are given:
A1=6.5x105
A2=1.36x108
-rB=k1CB-k2CM
173.8moles/m3hr

4.2.7 Weight of catalyst:

W/F=∫dX/r
Here W is the weight of catalyst needed for the required conversion which comes out:
2998 kg

4.2.8 Volume of the catalyst bed:

Vb=W/ρb
= 2998/810
3.70m3

4.2.9 Pressure drop in the bed:

Pressure drop in packed bed is calculated by Ergun equation:

∆𝑃 150𝜇(1 − 𝜀)2 𝑢𝑜 1.75(1 − 𝜀)𝜌𝑢𝑜2

= +
𝐿 𝜀 3 𝑑𝑝2 𝜀 3 𝑑𝑝
This gives the pressure drop per unit length of the bed as:
1060N/m3

4.2.10 Height of the bed:

The optimum value of pressure drop in the packed bed is almost 3 to 10% of its total pressure.
So by iteration, we get
Height of bed=4m

4.2.11 Total cross section area of tubes:

At=Vb/L
=3.7/4
37
 =0.952m2

4.2.12 Tube diameter:

Tube diameter to particle ratio should not be very low
Do = 0.11m , Thickness=0.005m
So,
Di =0.10m

4.2.13 Tube area:

A=∏Di2/4
=0.009m2

4.2.14 Number of tubes:

No. of tubes:
Nt=0.952/0.009
=105 tubes

4.2.15 Pitch of the tube:

Pt=1.25Do
=0.143m

4.2.16 Bundle diameter:

Db=Do(Nt)1/n/k1
n=2.14 and k1=0.319
=1.70m

4.2.17 Shell Diameter:

Shell diameter is taken approximately 5% more than bundle diameter, so;
Ds=1.7+(.05x1.7)
1.79m

4.2.18 Shell side heat transfer co efficient:

Baffle spacing=0.3Ds=0.6m
Area of cross flow=(Pt-Do)*Ds*Bs/Pt
=0.218m2
Re=Gdeq/μ

38
deq is measured by the expression:

pt 1 πd2o
4( (0.86pt ) −
Deq = 2 2 4
πdo
2
Deq = 0.084m
Pr=cpμ/k
Re=GDeq/μ
Re=2505
Pr=12.3
Assuming 35% baffle cut:
Jr=0.13

Shell side coefficient is calculated by:

hs=kjrRePr1/3/de

39
 763.2W/m2C

4.2.19 Tube side co efficient:

Cross sectional area= Πdi2/4
=0.009m2
Total flow area=0.009x105
=0.94m2
mass velocity=G=mass flow rate/flow area
=2.05kg/sm2
Re=1000
Pr=12.3
Jh=0.02

hi=krhRePr0.33/di

40
 378W/m2C
Correction for tube co efficient:
ho=hiDi/Do
343W/m2C

4.2.20 Overall Heat transfer Co efficient:

Overall coefficient= hohs/ho+hs
236.6W/m2C

4.2.21 Specification Sheet:

Identification
Catalyst weight 2998kg
Volume 3.7m3
Height of bed 4m
No. of tubes 105
Pitch 0.143m
Bundle diameter 1.70m
Tube side co efficient 343W/m2C
Shell side co efficient 763W/m2C
Overall co efficient 236.6 W/m2C
Baffle cuts 35%
Baffle spacing 0.6m
%age of pressure drop 4.2%
Tube arrangement Triangular pitch
Inlet temperature 326.3K
Outlet temperature 374K

41
4.3 DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN

In industry it is common practice to separate a liquid mixture by distillating the components,

which have lower boiling points when they are in pure condition from those having higher
boiling points. This process is accomplished by partial vaporization and subsequent
condensation.

4.3.1 CHOICE BETWEEN PLATE AND PACKED COLUMN

Vapour liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or packed column.
These two types of operations are quite different. A selection scheme considering the factors
under four headings.

Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors, corrosive systems, heat
evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.

i) Factors that depend on the fluid flow moment.

ii) Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its internals
i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
iii) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
distillation, turndown, intermittent distillation.
The relative merits of plate over packed column are as follows:
i) Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without flooding.
ii) If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column, because solid
will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it ineffective.
iii) Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid are low as
compared to gases.
iv) For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate column.
v) If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In packed
columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
vi) For non-foaming systems the plate column is preferred.
vii) Design information for plate column are more readily available and more reliable
than that for packed column.
42
 viii) Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in plate
column.
ix) When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
For this particular process, “Benzene, Cumene, Propylene, Propane, DIPB ”, I have selected
plate column because:

i) System is non-foaming.

ii) Temperature is high (90o C).

4.3.2 Choice of Plate Type

There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve trays and the
counter flow trays. I have selected sieve tray because:
i) They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
ii) Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
iii) Peak efficiency is generally high.
iv) Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.

43
4.3.3 DESIGNING STEPS OF DISTILLATION COLUMN

 Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio Rm.

 Calculation of Actual reflux ratio.
 Calculation of theoretical number of stages.
 Calculation of actual number of stages.
 Calculation of diameter of the column.
 Calculation of weeping point.
 Calculation of pressure drop.
 Calculation of thickness of the shell.
 Calculation of the height of the column

44
Component name Feed(mole fraction) Top(mole fraction) Bottom(mole
fraction)

i-butene 0.012 0.027

Methanol 0.0018 0.0386 0.00023

Mtbe 0.5706 0.092 0.938

Water 0.026 0.0211 0.03

DME 0.044 0.102

TBA 0.018 0.0318

n-butane 0.0037 0.00855

i-butane 0.3234 0.745

Total mass(kg/hr) 59625998 25884893 4.41*10^09

4.3.4 Design Data

Item Distillation column

Tray type Sieve tray

No. of trays 12
Pressure 1 atm
Height of column 7.306 m
Diameter of column 0.729m
Tray spacing 0.3048m
Tray thickness 3mm
Flooding 80%
Hole area/Active area 0.10 m2

45
Weir length 0.6806m
Reflux ratio 0.168
Hole size 6 mm

Down comer area 0.05004 m2

Hole area 0.030024 m2

Active area 0.30024 m2

Relative Volatilities () :

Feed temperature = 337 K, Top temperature = 326K, bottom temperature = 380K

Component Top relative Bottom relative Average relative

volatility volatility volatility

i-butane(LK) 7.699 5.084 6.3918

n-butane 5.65499 - 2.8274

i-butene 6.9487 - 3.4743

DME 14.1064 - 7.053

Mtbe(HK) 1 1 1

TBA - 0.1493 0.746123

Methanol 0.67395 0.99561 0.83478

Water 0.1524 0.2883 0.22037

46
4.3.5 Rmin Using Underwood Method

Using underwood equation

α A xfA α B xfB α C xfC

   1 q
αA  θ αB  θ αC  θ

As feed is at its bubble point so q = 1

By trial  = 1.7

Using equation of min. reflux ratio,

α A x dA α x α x
 B dB  C dC  R m  1
αA  θ αB  θ αC  θ

R min = 0.12

Rule Of Thumb:

R = (1.2 ------- 1.5) Rm

R = 1.4 Rmin

R = 0.168

4.3.6 Calculating Minimum No. Of Stages

Using Fenske’s equation


X X
  
log  X d X B

s 
C

Nm  1 
C B

logα BC ave

log 0.9564
0.0138 0.00543
0.9557
Nm 
log(9.333)

= 10

47
4.3.7 Theoretical Number Of Stages

Using Erbar - Maddox graph (fig 11.11 C&R Vol. 6)

N + partial condenser = 29
N = 28

4.3.8 Actual Number Of Stages:

By rule of thumb
tray efficiency=70%
actual no.0f stages = theoretical no.of stages / tray efficiency
= 42 stages

4.3.9 Determination Of The Column Diameter

Top Conditions Bottom Conditions

Ln = 9.868 Kgmol/hr Lm = 86.74 Kgmol/hr

Vn = 5 Kgmol/hr Vm = 50.98 Kgmol/hr

Average mol. wt. =120.1 Kg/Kgmol

Average mol.Wt. = 76.506 Kg/Kgmol
T = 179o C
T = 100o C
Liquid density = L = .715 g/cm3
Liquid density = L = .769 gm/cm3
Vapor density = V = 6.1  10-3 gm/cm3
Vapour density = V = 4.31  10-3 gm/cm3

Because liquid and vapour flow rates are greater at bottom so based upon bottom flow rates.

4.3.10 Vapour Load At Bottom

Vm 50.98
QV  = = 0 .278 m3/Sec
ρ V  3600 .0061  3600

48
4.3.11 Liquid Load at Bottom

Lm 86.74
QL  = = 4  10-3 m3/Sec
ρ L  3600 .715  3600

4.3.12 Tray Dynamics

i) Flow Parameter
0.5 0.5
 L  ρ   86.74  6.1  10 
-3
FLV   m  v  =    = 0.1572
 Vm  ρ L   50.98  .715 

FLV = Liquid Vapour Factor

ii) Capacity Parameter

Assumed tray spacing = 19 inches = 50 cm

From Fig 3.23 (b) of “ Distillation Dynamics & Control”, sieve tray Flooding
capacity,

Csb(20) = 0.105 m/Sec

Surface tension of system =  = 13.96 dynes/Cm

0.2
 
0.2
 13.96 
Corrected Csb = Csb(20)   = .105   = .0877 m/Sec
 20   20 

0.5
 ρ  ρV  .715  .0061 
0.5

Now Uf = C bs  L  = .0877   = 0.945 m/Sec

 ρV   .0061 

iii) Flooding Check

QV QV .278
Un = = = = 0.7575 m/Sec
A n 0.88AT .88  .417

49
 U 
100 = 
.7575 
Now F =  n  100
 Uf   0.945 

= 79.15

iv) Calculation of Entrainment

As FLV = 0.1572 and F = 79%

From Figure 11.29 of coulson 6 , we calculate

 = 0.005

 = Fractional Entrainment factor

since  < 0.1, so now process is satisfactory

v) Column Diameter

Let Flooding = 80%

Un = Uf  F = 0.945  .8 = .756 m/Sec

Un = flooding velocity based upon net area.

Net area An = AT – Ad = 0.88 AT

An QV .278
AT = = = = 0.417 m2
0.88 0.88U n *
0.88  0.756

π 2
AT = D
4

4  AT 4  0.417
D= =
 

D = 0.729 m = 2.39 ft.

50
Now following information are available,

Tower area = AT = 0.417 m2

Net area = An = 0.88 AT = 0.36696 m2

Active area = Aa = 0.76 AT = 0.30024 m2

Down comer area = Ad = 0.12 AT = 0.05004 m2

Hole area = Ah = 0.1 Aa = 0.030024 m2

vi) Tray Pressure Drop

Ht =Hd + ( Hw + How ) + Hr

a. Hw = 38.1 mm
b. Dry Tray Drop

Hd = 51 (Uh/Co)2 (V /L)

Hd = Dry tray drop.

Uh = Hole velocity = Qv/Ah

QV 0.278
Uh = = = 9.254 m/sec
Ah 0.1 0.30024

Tray thickness = 3mm = 0.118 in. [For steel tray]

Hole dia = 6 mm

Ah
= 0.1
Aa

Using Fig. 11.34 of Coulson 6. We find “Co “

Co = Orifice Coefficient = 0.735

51
 2
𝜌𝑣  U h

Hd = 51  
𝜌𝐿 C 
 O

2
0.0061  9.254 
= 51  
0.715  0.735 

= 69.047

4.4 Liquid-liquid extraction unit design

Liquid-liquid extraction has become an important separation technique in modern process

technology. This is has resulted in the rapid development of a great variety of3extractor types, in
the evaluation of which the chemical engineer must primarily depend on manufacturers’
literature.

To the design, only three components that are considered, methanol, water and isobutene this is
because of for most system containing more than four components, the display of equilibrium
data and the computation of stages is very difficult. In such cases, the requirements are best
obtained in the laboratory without detail study of the equalibria.

Beside that for multicomponent separations also, special computer programs for these multistage
operations embodying heat and material balances and sophisticated phase equilibrium relations
are best left to professionals. Most such work is done by service organizations that specialize in
chemical engineering process calculations or by specialize in chemical engineering
organizations. Sieve tray (perforated plate) Column were choose for the extraction of these
components. These multistage, countercurrent columns are very effective, both with respect to
liquid-handling capacity and with respect to extraction efficiency, particularly for system of low
interfacial tension, which do not require mechanical agitation for good dispersion.

4.4.1 Choice Of Solvent

There is usually a wide choice of liquids to be used as solvent for extraction operations. It is
unlikely that any particular liquid will exhibit all the properties considered desirable for
extraction, and some compromise is usually necessary. The following factors need to be
considered when selecting a suitable solvent for a given extraction – affinity for solute, partition
ratio, density, miscibility, safety and cost. Based on the factors that need to be considered water
was choosing as a solvent in this system.
52
Physical properties from the literature

Flowrate at the dispersed phase, QD = 1254.92 ft3/hr

Flowrate at the continuous phase, Qc = 1.785 ft3/hr

Density at the dispersed phase, ρD = 24.10 lb/ ft3

Density at the continuous phase ρC = 41.45 lb/ft3.

The data was evaluated at system temperature and pressure.

4.4.2 Calculation of number of stages

Extraction factor ε= 1

𝑋𝑓−𝑌𝑠/𝑚
Number of theoretical stages = Nf = -1
𝑋𝑟−𝑌𝑠/𝑚

Where,

Xf = 0.0195 Kg CH3OH/Kg Water

Ys= 1.57×10-6

m= 0.002

By putting the values,

Nf = 23 units

In this equation,

Xf= weight solute/weight feed solvent in the feed phase

Ys = weight solute/weight extraction solvent in extract

Xr = weight solute/weight feed solvent in the raffinate phase

m= slope = Mass flow rate of solvent/ Mass flow rate of added solvent

53
The number of mass transfer units is identical to the number of transfer units when extraction
factor is one.

So, Nor = 23 units

By assuming column efficiency E to be 80% the number of real stages are,

N= ( Nr-1)/E

=(23-1)/0.8

N = 27 units

4.4.3 Sizing of the sieve tray

Assume tray spacing h= 2ft

h =4.5Vd2ρC/2gc∆ρ

Where,

Vd = Velocity of down comer

ρC = density

gc = gravitational constant

So, Vd = 12471ft/hr

Now, area of downcomer

AD = QD / VD

By putting the values AD comes out to be 0.1 ft2

Assume velocity through the holes Uh = 2880ft /hr. this large value is selected to avoid the
formation of small droplets which decrease the column efficiency.

So, total holes area = AHT = QD / UH

The value of AHT comes out to be 0.43573ft2

54
Tray area can be found by using the ratio of tray area AT to the holes area AH

Tray area AT = 0.866 (ds)2 and holes area AH = 0.5(π / 4)(D0)2

ds and d0 are usually told by the manufacturer and their values usually range between do = 1/8 to
1/4 and ds varies from 0.75 to 0.85in.

So,

AT = 0.866 (0.75)2 = 0.48 in2

And

AH = π / 8 (0.25)2 = 0.0245 in2

Tray area / hole area = 0.48 / 0.0245

So

tray area AT = 19.88ft2

And the total tray area is = (tray area)(holes area)

AT = 8.67 ft2

Number of holes

AH = holes area = 0.5 ( π / 4)(do)2

Holes area = 0.0245 in2

Total number of holes NH = AHT/ AH

= 0.43573(12)2 / 0.0245

= 2561 units

Column parametes

55
 Number of trays = NT = Nr/ET

= 23/0.8

= 29 trays

Column height = ZT×NT

= 2×29

CT = 58 ft

Column and tray diameter are equal so,

Column diameter = 3.32 ft

Column area = 8.67 ft

Net area = Ac-Ad

= 8.67-0.1

= 8.57 ft2

Active area = Ac – 2Ad

Aactive = 8.47 ft2

Now, height equivalent to theoretical stages (HETS)

HETS = Column height/ Ideal stages

= 58/23

= 2.52

Hor = column height/ Nor = 2.52

Weeping Evaluation
56
Weir height = 50mm

Hole diameter = 5mm

Plate thickness = 5mm

Weir crust can be found on the basis of maximum and minimum flow rates.

Max how = {750 lwmax / ρD(lw)}2/3

= 29.73mm liquid

Min how = {750 lwmin / ρD(lw)}2/3

= 7.17 mm liquid

Where,
Lw = weir length
How = weir crest
Low = liquid flow rate
Pressure drop
h = 51(uh / Co)2 (ρC / ρD)
= 7.88 mm liquid
Residual head hr
hr = (12.5×103) / ρD
= 32.89 mm liquid
Total plate pressure drop = ht
= 97.94 mm liquid
Plate pressure drop
∆pt = 9.81×10-3 htρD
57
 = 365.147 Pa (N/m2)
Provisional Plate Design Specification

Column Diameter 1011Mm

Number of trays 27 Trays

Tray spacing 0.6M

Plate thickness 5mM

Total column height 9M

Plate pressure drop 7.88mm liquid

Plate material SS304

Downcomer area 9.3×10-3 m2

Column area 0.805 m2

Net area 2.647 m2

Active area 0.773 m2

Hole area 1.58×10-5 m2

Number of holes 2560 m2

Weir length 1.22705 units

Weir height 50M

58
4.5 Design of a distillation column:

The design of a distillation column includes different steps which are as follows:
• Calculation of Minimum number of stages.Nmin
• Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio Rm.
• Calculation of Actual Reflux Ratio.
• Calculation of theoretical number of stages.
• Calculation of actual number of stages.
• Calculation of diameter of the column.
• Calculation of pressure drop.
• Calculation of the height of the column.

4.5.1 Calculation of Minimum no. of Plates

The minimum no. of stages Nmin is obtained
from Fenske equation which is,
Nmin = ln[(xAD/xBD)(xBW /xAW)]
ln (αAB) average
59
 Average geometric relative volatility = 2.277
So,
Nmin = 10.76 ~ 11
4.5.2 Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio
Using Underwood equations

α A xDA α B xDB
  Rm 1
αA  θ αB  θ
As feed is entering as saturated liquid so,
q=1
By trial,  = 1.75
Using equation of minimum reflux ratio,

α A xfA α B xfB
  1 q
αA  θ αB  θ
Putting all values we get,
Rm = 1.407
4.5.3 Actual Reflux Ratio:
The rule of thumb is:
R = (1.1 ------- 1.5) R min
So, taking
R = 1.5 R min
R = 2.11
4.5.4 Theoretical no. of Plates:
Using Gilliland relation,

N  N min   R  Rmin 
0.566

 0.751   
N 1 R  1 
  
From which the theoretical no. of stages to be,
N= 20

60
4.5.5 Actual number of stages:
By rule of thumb
tray efficiency = 70%
So,
No. of actual trays = 20/0.70 = 29
4.5.6 Number of plates in rectification and stripping section:
The Kirk bride method is used to determine the ratio of trays above and below the feed point.

 
  .206 log  B  x HK   x LK B  
2
log 
ND
 N B   D
 x LK  x HK D  

From which,
Number of Plates in rectification section = ND = 8
Number of Plates in stripping section = NB = 21
• So, the feed plate is 9th from above

4.5.7 Diameter of column

Using the following equation:

0.5
 L  ρ 
FLV   n  v 
 Vn  ρ L 
FLV = Liquid Vapor Factor = 3.04 E -2
Assumed tray spacing = 18 inch (0.5 m)
Csb = 0.29
Surface tension of Mixture = σ = 19 dynes/Cm
0.5
   l  v 
0.2

Vnf  Csb    
Vnf = 2.23 m/sec  20    v 
Assume 90% of flooding then
Vn=0.9Vnf
So, actual vapor velocity,
Vn = 2 m/sec
Net column area used in separation is

61
 An = mv/Vn
Volumetric flow rate of vapors = mv
mv = (mass vapor flow rate) /(3600)(vapor density)
mv = 6.997 m3/sec
Now, net area An = mv/Vn = 3.13m2
Assume that down comer occupies 15% of cross sectional Area (Ac) of column thus:
Ac = An + Ad
Where, Ad = down comer area
Ac = An + 0.15(Ac)
Ac = An / 0.85
Ac= 3.68 m2
So Diameter of Column Is
Ac =(π/4)D2
D = (4Ac/π)0.5
For the top area comes out to be
D = 2.17 meter

4.5.8 Weir calculations

Net Area (An) = Ac - Ad = 3.128 m2

Down comer area ‘Ad’ = 0.15Ac

= 0.552 m2

From figure

Lw / dc = 0.81

Lw = 2.17*0.81

= 1.76 m

And by rule of thumb

62
weir height ‘ℎ𝑤 ′= 10 mm

Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm

Plate thickness = 5 mm

4.5.9 Pressure drop

Vapor velocity through hole

𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑈0 =
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Putting values

𝑈0 = 22.12 m/s

Using equation

2
Uˆ   V
hd  51 h 
 C o   L

Putting values,
hd = 71.7 mm liquid

Total pressure drop over plate is given by

ht  hd  (hw  how )  hr

Where ℎ𝑤 = 10mm

𝑞 2/3
ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 43.4(𝑙
𝑊
) = 20.3mm

So total ℎ𝑡 = 102 mm

∆ P = 1.6 kPa per plate

Area of 1 Hole = (π/4) Dhole2

63
 = 0.00002 m2

Active area Aa=Ac-2Ad = 2.576 m2

Hole area Ah (take 10% Aa) = 0.1 × 2.576

Area of N Holes = 0.2576 m2

So,

Number of Holes = 10288

4.5.10 Height of column

To calculate height of column, we use:

Z= N. (T.S)

Z= 29 * 20 = 580 in.

Z = 14.72 m

Where T.S = 20 inches

(rule of thumb: tray spacing = 18in ---- 24 in)

Here,

Z = height of the column

N= actual number of trays

T.S= tray spacing

Actual height of column

Rule of thumb

We add 1.2m for condenser at the top and 1.8m for reboiler at bottom

So actual height of column = 17.7 m

64
Selection of trays

Three basic types of cross flow trays used are

 Sieve Plate (Perforated Plate)

 Bubble Cap Plates

 Valve plates (floating cap plates)

Why sieve plates?

We prefer sieve plates because:

 Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays

 Their fundamentals are well established, entailing low risk.
 The trays are low in cost relative to many other types of trays.
 They can easily handle wide variations in flow rates.
 They are lighter in weight.
 Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.

65
4.5.11 Specification sheet of distillation column:

Identification
Item Distillation column
No. required 1
Column type Sieve Tray
Mechanical design parameters
Column diameter 2.2m
2
Area of column 3.68m
Tray spacing 0.5m
Hole diameter 5mm
Weir height 10mm
Tray thickness 5mm
Thermal design parameters
number of actual stages 29

66
Height of column 15m
Reflux ratio 2.11
Pressure drop per tray 7.5 kPa

4.6 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER:

4.6.1 INTRODUCTION

Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most versatile type of heat exchangers. They are used
in process industries, in conventional and nuclear power stations as condensers, in steam
generators in pressurized water reactor power plants, in feed water heaters and in some air
conditioning and refrigeration systems. They are also proposed for many alternative energy
applications including ocean, thermal and geothermal. Shell and tube heat exchangers
provide relatively large ratios of heat transfer area to volume and weight and they can be
easily cleaned. Shell and tube heat exchangers offer great flexibility to meet almost any
service requirement. The reliable design methods and shop facilities are available for their
successful design and construction. Shell and tube heat exchangers can be designed for high
pressures relative to the environment and high pressure differences between the fluid
streams. Shell and tube heat exchangers are built of round tubes mounted in a cylindrical
shell with the tubes parallel to the shell. One fluid flows inside the tubes, while the other
fluid flows across and along the axis of the exchanger. The major components of this
exchanger are tubes (tube bundle), shell, front-end head, baffles and tube sheets.
Shell types-various front and rear head types and shell types have been standardized by
Tubular Exchanger manufacturers Association (TEMA). The E-shell is the most common
due to its cheapness and simplicity. In this shell, the shell fluid enters at one end of the shell
and leaves at the other end that is there is one pass on the shell side. The tubes may have a
single or multiple passes and are supported by transverse baffles. This shell is the most
common for single- phase shell fluid applications. With a single-tube pass, a nominal counter
flow can be obtained. The design of a shell and tube heat exchanger is an iterative process
because heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop depend on many geometric factors,
including shell and tube diameters, tube length, tube layout, baffle type and spacing and the
numbers of tube and shell passes, all of which are initially unknown and are determined as
part of the design process.
In production of MTBE, heat exchanger is very important equipment. Heat exchanger is used
to increase or to decrease the mixture to the desired temperature. In order to make the process
of production of MTBE taking place in the system, it is important to make the system at the
correct environment. The heat exchanger that we used here is the shell and tube exchanger.

67
 Shell and tube heat exchanger is the most common type of heat exchanger used in the
industry. This is because it has many advantages. The advantages are: -
 It provided a large transfer area in a small space.
 Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure operation.
 Used well-established fabrication techniques
 It can be constructed from a wide range of materials
 It can be clean easily.
 Well-established design procedures
 Single phases, condensation or boiling can be accommodated in either the tubes or the
shell, in vertical or horizontal positions.
 Pressure range and pressure drop are virtually unlimited and can be adjusted
independently for the two fluids.
 Thermal stresses can be accommodated inexpensively.
 A great variety of materials of construction can be used and may be different for the
shell and tubes.

The chemical engineering design for the heat exchanger is also known as thermal. The
design requires the calculation of the heat transfer area required. From this value, design
features of the unit such as the tube and shell size, tube counts and layout is determined. In
addition, then pressure loss of the fluids across the unit is also calculated by determined the
pumping capacity required. The calculation of the design is base on the first heat exchanger.
The chemical design is based on Bell's and Kern method. Bell's method accounts for the
major bypass and leakage streams. Kern method was based on experimental work on
commercial exchangers with standard tolerances and will give a reasonably satisfactory
prediction of heat-transfer coefficient for standard design.
Properties of raw material (iso butane and n-butane) and steam for heat exchanger:

Component Raw material (isobutane and Steam

n-butane)

Temperature inlet © t1=117 T1=350

Temperature outlet© t2=250 T2=350

Specific heat j/kgC 2155 2010

Thermal conductivity W/mK 0.07 0.03065

68
Densitykg/m3 485 0.49375

Viscosity kg/ms 1.3E-04 1.55263E-05

Feed flow rate kg/s 10.9314 1.7649

Schematic Diagram

69
4.6.2 Calculation of Heat Duty

Heat duty= Enthalpy of leaving stream - Enthalpy of entering stream

Heat duty = 8310 KW

4.6.3 Calculation of LMTD

LMTD =157.23 C

T1−T2 t2−t1
𝑅= , 𝑆=
t2−t1 T1−t1

R= 0 S = 0.57

4.6.4 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)

Assume Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) As:

From table 12.1 (Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering), we take overall Coefficient

U = 450 W/m2 C

4.6.5 Calculation of heat transfer Area

Q
𝐴= ,
𝑈∆𝑇

A=117.45 m2

4.6.6 Number of Tubes Calculation

From table 12.3 (Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering), we take standard pipe of:

Inside diameter, di = 16 mm

Outside diameter, do = 20 mm
70
Length of pipe is assumed as 16 ft.

Length, L = 4.88 m

Area of the pipe can be calculated using equation below

Area = LπD

Area = (4.88)(3.142)(0.02)

Area = 0.3067 m2

4.6.7 Number of Tubes

Nt=A/a

Nt =383

4.6.8 Bundle and Shell Diameter Calculation

The triangular pitch of 1.25 is chosen as the tube arrangement.

Db=Do(Nt)1/n/k1

From table 12.4 (Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering), for 1.25 triangular pitch,
number of passes = 2, then we can obtain

K1 = 0.249

n1 = 2.207

Db=0.556m

Assume using pull-through floating head type.

From figure 12.10 (Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering), for bundle diameter
0.33, bundle clearance is 93 mm.
Shell diameter,

71
 Ds=0.556+0.093=0.649m

4.6.9 Tube Side Coefficient , hi

T mean = 183.5 C

Tube / Pass = 383/2 = 191.5

Total flow rate area = (cross sectional area)(tube / pass )

Total flow rate area = .0383 sq.meter.

Steam mass velocity, Gt= (steam flow rate)/(total flow rate area)

Gt= 46.08 Kg /sm2

Steam linear velocity, u1= (Gt)/(steam density)

U1 = 93.328 kg /ms

L/di=4.88/0.016=305

4.6.10 Reynolds And Prandtel Number

Re=47486.6

Jh=4.1E-03 (from Coulson and Richardson)

Pr=Cpμ/k

=1.0180

Tube side co efficient can be calculated by:

hi=kjhRePr0.33/di

=320.34 W/mC

72
4.6.11 Shell Side Coefficient, hs

lB= Ds/ 3 = .2163

Tube pitch, pt= 1.25 do = (1.25)(0.02) = 0.025 m

(Pt−do)(Ds)(lB)
Flow area, (As) =
Pt

As = 0.028 m2

𝑊𝑠
Mass velocity=Gs=
𝐴𝑠

Gs = 390.4 kg / m2

Shell side velocity

Gs
Us =
ρ

Us = 0.8049 m/s

4.6.12 Shell Side Equivalent Diameter for Triangular Pitch Arrangement

1.10
𝐷𝑒 = (pt2 - 0.917do2) = 0.0142m
𝑑𝑜

Reynolds number

Re=Gsde/μ

Re = 42642.8

Prandtl Number

Pr=cpμ/k

73
Pr = 4.0023

4.6.13 Shell Side Coefficient, hs

Choose baffle cut of 25%, from figure 12.30 (Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering),can obtained:

Jf = 2.7 * 10 -2

Assumed that the viscosity correction is negligible

hs=kjfRePr1/3/de

hs = 20015.9 W / m2 0c

4.6.14 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, Uo

Material of construction = carbon Steel

Thermal conductivity of the tube wall

Kw = 38 W/mC

Assumed dirt coefficient as

hid = 8500 W/m2C

hod = 8500 W/m2C

U = 426.33 W / m2 oC

do do do
1 1 1 doln( ) 1( ) 1( )
= + + di + di + di
Uo hs hod 2kw hid hi

74
4.6.15 Tube Side Pressure Drop

Reynolds number = Re = 47486.6

Jf = 3.1 * 10 – 3

Neglect the viscosity correction term

∆Pt=Np[8jf(L/di)(μ/μw)-m+2.5] ρiμi2/2

∆Pt=43.281 kPa

4.6.16 Shell Side Pressure Drop

Reynolds number = 42642.8

Jf = 2.7 * 10 – 2

Shell side pressure drop can be calculated using equation below

∆P=8jf(Dd/de)(L/lB)(ρμs/2)(μ/μw)-0.14

∆P=23.473 kPa

4.6.17 Specification Sheet

Unit : Exchanger-100
Fluid allocation SHELL SIDE TUBE SIDE

Fluid name STREAM 1 STREAM 2

Fluid quantity (kg/hr) 6353.64 39353

o
Temperature (In/Out) C 350 350 117 250
Density Vapor/Liquid kg/m³ 0.49375 485
Viscosity, kg/ms 1.55263 x 10-5 1.30005 x 10-4
Feed flowrate, kg/s 1.7649 10.9314
75
 Specific heat, j/kgoC 2010 2155
Thermal conductivity, W/mK 0.0306575 0.07
Molecular wt, Vap 28,23
Pressure Drop (Kpa) 23.247 43.281
Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2C) 20015.9 320.34
Fouling Resist. (min) m² K/W 0 0
Velocity m/s 0.8049

5 HYSYS

5.1 The Design Based On Hysys Simulation

There are two method that was used in calculating the mass balance and energy balance for the
process which is:

i) Manual calculation

ii) Hysys simulation

Hysys program was used to see whether the design could be run or not. Using Hysys the
calculation of the process was calculated automatically when the parameter that needed was
insert. Then if the parameter that was insert is logic so Hysys program can calculated the result
and the equipment can converge. If the data that was inserted was illogical the equipment cannot
converge and the calculation cannot be done.

Here the simulation of heat exchanger has done on ASPEN HYSYS.

For this purpose following steps are followed:

 Enlist the components

76
 Select the fluid package. Here we used Peng Robinson because all the components are
hydrocarbons

77
 Then enter into simulation environment and select the shell and tube heat exchanger from the
object pellet
 Give the operating conditions to the stream for both the shell side and tube side

 Specify the steams and give the pressure drop to the exchanger
78
 Run the simulation
 Results are comparable

5.2 Results

Manual Calculations HYSYS Calculations

Heat Exchanger E 100 E100

Surface are, A (m2) 117.45 125.5

Overall heat transfer 426.33 145.98

Tube side pressure drop,

(kPa) 43.281 45.56

79
 Shell side pressure drop 23.247 45.26

,(k Pa)

Number of tube, Nt 383 383

Duty, Q (Kw) 8310 8390

Results are approximately similar.

6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION

An important procedure for ensuring that the likely effects of new development on the
environment are fully understood and taken into account before the development is allowed to go
ahead”

EIA is required to be a full-disclosure statement. This includes project parameters that will have
a positive environmental effect, negative impact, or no impact whatsoever. Generally, design
engineers will only be involved with a small portion of the EIA preparation, in accordance with
their expertise. However, each individual should be aware of the total scope of work necessary to
prepare the EIA as well as the division of work. This will minimize costly duplication, as well as
provide the opportunity for developing feasible design alternatives. The preparation of an
Environmental Impact Assessment requires determining what environmental standards require
compliance by the project, obtaining baseline data, examining existing data to determine
environmental safety of the project, preparing an effluent and emission summary with possible
alternatives to meet acceptable standards, and finally preparing the environmental statement or
report. Since it may require a full year to obtain baseline data such as air quality, water quality,
80
ambient noise levels, ecological studies, and social surveys, emissions and effluents, studies
should take place concurrently to avoid delay in preparing the EIA. The emissions and effluents
studies must include all “significant” sources of pollution. Omission of data could cause
inconsistencies that could result in further time delays when negotiating with the regulatory
agencies issuing the many required construction permits. It becomes clear that environmental
considerations not only can play a major factor in the choice of selecting a plant site but can also
be quite costly. The American Petroleum Institute has estimated that the preparation of an EIA
for each site considered may range from $50,000 for small projects to $1.5 million for a large
petroleum refinery. On the other hand, a detailed environmental assessment may quickly
eliminate possible sites because of their highly restrictive standards.

Nowadays, environmental issues become very important. Besides this, a good waste treatment
system is also important in order to reduce and minimize environmental pollutants. The chemical
waste in the form of solid, liquid and gases must be treated before being discharged into
sewage, drain and atmospheres. Any chemical plant to be set up in Malaysia must follow the
rules and regulations under the Department of Environment (DOE) Malaysia, which includes the
Environmental Quality Act 1974. Under Environmental Quality Act (Sewage and Industrial
Effluents) Regulation 1979 and Environment Quality Act (Clean Air) 1978.

The plant owner or waste generator must ensure that waste generated disposed appropriately to
prevent environmental pollution. The proper and suitable method should be implemented in
dealing with the waste disposal. As our plant produces MTBE and other byproducts like raffinate
but generally they are not hazardous to the environment and human if safety measures are taken
into consideration. These environmental considerations depend on the location of our plant. The
plant will follow the Standard B of water quality measurement and also need some waste
treatment facilities to minimize the pollution from our plant.

81
6.2 Steps of EIA:

6.3 Impacts of project on environment:

6.3.1 STACK GASES

6.3.1.1 Gas Emission Treatment
Direct flame combustion was used to burn the excess gas. Flare is usually open ended
combustion unit. Therefore, the combustion process will be controlled by flow rate of gases
mixture to prevent incomplete combustion. Another treatment is thermal combustion. It is an
incinerator used in the cases where the concentration of combustible gases is too low to
make direct flame incineration insufficient condition. The temperature of operation depends
upon the type of pollutant in waste gas. Thermal combustion must be carefully designed to
provide safe, efficient operation and to prevent incomplete combustion. Time, temperature, and
oxygen must be carefully monitored. (Howard et. al 1985)

82
Stack gas means the product of combustion process usually occur at machine or generator. It is
usually the fuels used occurred in the complete combustion process, but it produced unwanted
gas such as carbon monoxide, sulphur oxide and other gases. In our MTBE plant, the stack gases
is only Hydrogen and it is stored in a special tank before being sold to interested company at
market price.

6.3.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT

6.3.2.1 Wastewater Characteristics
Wastewater characteristics vary widely from industry to industry. Obviously, the specific
characteristics will affect the treatment techniques chosen for use in meeting discharge
requirements. Because of the large number of pollutant substances, wastewater characteristics
are not usually considered on a substance-by-substance basis. Rather, substances of similar
pollution effects are grouped together into classes of pollutants or characteristics are indicated
below.

Priority Pollutants

Recently, greatest concern has been for this class of substances for the reasons given previously.
These materials are treated on an individual-substance basis for regulatory control. Thus each
industry could receive a discharge permit that lists an acceptable level for each priority pollutant.

Organics

The organic composition of industrial wastes varies widely, primarily due to the different raw
materials used by each specific industry. These organics include proteins, carbohydrates, fats and
oils, petrochemicals, solvents, pharmaceutical, small and large molecules, solids, and liquids.
Another compilation is that a typical industry produces many diverse waste streams. Good
practice is to conduct a material balance throughout an entire production facility. This survey
should include a flow diagram, location and sizes of piping, tanks, and flow volumes, as well as
an analysis of each stream.

An important measure of the waste organic strength is the 5-day biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD). As this test measures the demand for oxygen in the water environment caused by
83
organics released by industry and municipalities, it has been the primary parameter in
determining the strength and effects of a pollutant. This test determines the oxygen demand of a
waste exposed to biological organisms (controlled seed) for an incubation period of five days.
Usually this demand is caused by degradation of organics according to the following simplified
equation, but reduced inorganics in some industries may also cause demand (i.e., Fe2+, S2- and
SO32-).

Organic waste + O2 CO2 +H2O

In general, low-molecular-weight water-soluble organics are biodegraded readily. As organic

complexity increases, solubility and bio-degradability decrease. Soluble organics are
metabolized more easily than insoluble organics. Complex carbohydrates, proteins and fats and
oils must be hydrolyzed to simple sugars, amines, and other organics acids prior to metabolism.
Petrochemicals, pulp and paper, slaughterhouse, brewery, and numerous other industrial wastes
containing complex organics have been satisfactorily treated biologically, but proper testing and
evaluation is necessary.

Inorganics

The inorganics is most industrial wastes are the direct result or inorganic compounds in the
carriage water. Soft-water sources will have lower inorganics than hard-water or saltwater
sources. However, some industrial wastewaters can contain significant quantities of
inorganics which result from chemical additions during plant operation. Many food processing
wastewaters are high in sodium.

While domestic wastewaters have a balance in organics and inorganics, many process
wastewaters from industry are deficient in specific inorganic compounds. Biodegradation of
organic compounds requires adequate nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and trace salts. Ammonium
salts or nitrate salts can provide the nitrogen, while phosphates supply the phosphorus.

pH and Alkalinity

84
Wastewaters should have pH values between 6 and 9 for minimum impact on the environment.
Wastewaters with pH values less than 6 will tend to be corrosive as a result of the excess
hydrogen ions. On the other hand, raising the pH above 9 will cause some of the metal ions to
precipitate as carbonates or as hydroxides at higher pH levels. Alkalinity is important in keeping
Ph values at the right levels. Bicarbonate alkalinity is the primary buffer in wastewaters. It is
important to have adequate alkalinity to neutralize the acid waste components as well as those
formed by partial metabolism or organics. Many neutral organics such as carbohydrates,
aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols are biodegraded through organics acids which must be
neutralized by the available alkalinity. If alkalinity is inadequate, sodium carbonate is a better
form to add than lime. Lime tends to be hard to control accurately and results in high pH levels
and precipitation of the calcium which forms part of the alkalinity. In a few instances, sodium
bicarbonate may be the best source of alkalinity.

Temperature

Most industrial wastes tend to be on the warm side. For the most part, temperature is not a
critical issue below 37⁰C if wastewaters are to receive biological treatment. It is possible to
operate biological wastewater-treatment systems up to 65⁰C with acclimated microbes. Low-
temperature operations in northern climates can result in very low winter temperatures and slow
reaction rates for both biological treatment systems and chemical treatment systems. Increased
viscosity of wastewaters at low temperatures makes solid separation more difficult. Increased
viscosity of wastewaters at low temperatures makes solid separation more difficult. Efforts are
generally made to keep operating temperatures between 10 and 30⁰C if possible.

6.3.2.2 Liquid Waste Treatment

Equalization Treatment

Liquid treatment generally is necessary in any plant. In our plant, we also have liquid treatment
but in general, we only state the general method, as our plant does not produce any significant
liquid waste. In any liquid waste treatment, we need equalization treatment. The equalization
treatment is an initial procedure in liquid waste treatment. The purpose of equalization is to
minimize and control the fluctuation in liquid waste characteristic. Besides it provides the

85
suitable and optimum condition for biological and chemical treatment. It also provides adequate
damping to minimize the chemical consumption. The procedure will occur in the equalization
tank. The size of tank and time of equalization process depend on the liquid waste amount.

The Activated Sludge process will be used for this treatment. It is carried out in Aerobic
condition. The main purpose of activated sludge process is to remove soluble and insoluble
organic matter that converted into flocculants microbial suspension and settable microbial. It
also permits the use of gravitational solid liquid separation technique for the above requirement.
The organic matter where measured in the form of BOD and COD serves as food and energy
source for microbial growth. It converts the pollutant into microbial cell and oxidized end
product such as CO2 and H2O by microbial activities. Therefore, Submersible Aerator as mixing
device will supply the oxygen and nutrient into aeration tank and therefore improves the quality
of the liquid. (Howard et. al, 1985)

6.3.2.3 Solid Waste Treatment

The solid waste treatment will be minimized by regenerating the catalyst. Regeneration
processes depend on the characteristic of catalyst after whole reaction. Licensed contractor will
dispose the solid waste to follow the DOE regulation. By the way, the scheduled maintenance
activities will be implemented. Dewatering system will be used to solidify and extract the
catalyst. Therefore, clarifier and filter press were used in these treatments. Clarifier is used to
clarify any impurities before going through the filters. The size of equipment depends on the
flow rate and holding time of these processes. Maintenance activities will be scheduled based on
the availability of workers and machines. Skilled and experienced workers will do the
maintenance activities, (Bailed, 1995).

6.3.3 Waste Minimization

Waste minimization means the optimization process to minimize the waste come out of the plant.
It will be done by source reduction and recovery of the sources. The source reduction refers to
preventative measured taken to reduce the amount of waste, which produced in this process.
Recovery of the sources is aimed to reuse the excess methanol to produce the MTBE. Waste
production from the plant could be reduced by implementing these procedures:

86
  Raw material modification,
 Product reformulation,
 Process modification,
 Improvement in operating practices.

The most important is by improving the product yield and this means minimization of waste
generation. It will be accomplished through improvement in catalyst efficiency and proper
maintenance activities.

7 HAZOP STUDY
7.1 Introduction
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of systematic
qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and can be applied to a
whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It uses as its database the usual sort of
plant and process information and relies on the judgment of engineering and safety experts in the
areas with which they are most familiar. The end result is, therefore reliable in terms of
engineering and operational expectations, but it is not quantitative and may not consider the
consequences of complex sequences of human errors.
The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:
To identify the areas of the design that may possess a significant hazard potential.
 To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of a hazardous
incident occurring.
 To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
 To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard potential.
 To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the team.
 To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's detailed comments.

7.2 Steps Conducted In Hazop Study

 Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study. The purpose may be the analysis of a
yet to be built plant or a review of the risk of unexisting unit. Given the purpose and the
circumstances of the study, the objectives listed above can he made more specific. The scope
of the study is the boundaries of the physical unit, and also the range of events and variables
87
 considered. For example, at one time HAZOP's were mainly focused on fire and explosion
endpoints, while now the scope usually includes toxic release, offensive odor, and
environmental end-points. The initial establishment of purpose, objectives, and scope is very
important and should be precisely set down so that it will be clear, now and in the future,
what was and was not included in the study. These decisions need to be made by an
appropriate level of responsible management.
 Select the HAZOP study team. The team leader should be skilled in HAZOP and in
interpersonal techniques to facilitate successful group interaction. As many other experts
should be included in the team to cover all aspects of design, operation, process chemistry,
and safety. The team leader should instruct the team in the HAZOP procedure and should
emphasize that the end objective of a HAZOP survey is hazard identification; solutions to
problems are a separate effort.
 Collect data. Theodore16 has listed the following materials that are usually needed.
 Process description.
 Process flow sheets.
 Data on the chemical, physical and toxicological properties of all raw materials,,
intermediates, and products.

Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs).

 Equipment, piping, and instrument specifications.
 Process control logic diagrams.
 Layout drawings.
 Operating procedures.
 Maintenance procedures.
 Emergency response procedures.
 Safety and training manuals.

7.3 HAZOP METHOD FLOW DIAGRAM

A HAZOP study is conducted in the following steps:

88
7.4 HAZOP Guide Words and Meanings
Guide Words Meaning

89
 No Negation of design intent
Less Quantitative decrease
More Quantitative increase
Part of Qualitative decrease
As well as Qualitative Increase
Reverse Logical opposite of the intent
Other than Complete substitution

In simple terms the HAZOP study process involves applying in a systematic way all relevant key
words combination to the plant in question in an effort to uncover potential problems. The results
are recorded in a columnar format under the headings.
In considering the information to be recorded in each of these columns is given below.
DEVIATION
The key words combination being applied (e.g. Flow/No)
CAUSE
Potential cause which would result in the deviation occurring (e.g. "strainer blockage due to
impurities in Dosing tank" might be a cause of Flow/No).
CONSEQUENCES
The consequences which would arise, both from the effect of the deviation (e.g."Loss of dosing
results in complete separation") and, if appropriate from the cause itself (e.g. "cavitations in
pumps, with possible damage if prolonged").
SAFEGUARDS
Any existing protective devices, which either prevent the cause or safeguards against the adverse
consequences, would be recorded in this column. For example you may consider recording
"Local pressure gauge in discharge from pump might indicate problem was arising". Note that
safeguard need not be restricted to hardware......where appropriate; credit can be taken for
procedural aspects such as regular plants inspections(if you are sure that they will actually be
carried out.
ACTION
Where a credible cause results in a negative consequence, it must be decided whether some
action should be taken. It is at this stage that consequences and associated safeguards are

90
considered. If it is deemed that the protective measures are adequate, then no action need to
taken, and words to that effects are recorded in the action column.
Actions fail into two groups:
 Action that remove the, cause
 Actions that mitigate or eliminate the consequences
Where as former is to be preferred, it is not always possible especially when dealing with
equipments malfunction. However, always investigate removing the cause first and only where
necessary mitigate the consequences. Finally always take into account the label of training and
experience especially of personnel who will operate the plant. Actions, which call for elaborate
and sophisticated protective systems, are wasted, as well as being inherently iangerous, if
operators do not and never will, understand how they iimction. It is lot unknown for such devices
to be disabled, either deliberately or in error, because no one knows how to maintain and
calibrate them, having gone through the operations involve in recording a single deviation, these
an now be put into the context of the actual study meeting procedure. From the low diagram
below it can be seen that it is very much an iterative process.
Applying in a structured and systematic way the relevant keyword combinations in order to
identity potential problems.
Hazop Study Of A Shell And Tube Exchanger
In this study, pressure, temperature and level will be used as variables (secondary words)
different guide words (primary words) will be applied to these words.
Guide Word Deviation Cause Consequence Action

No No flow on Shell side outlet Flow through Low flow security

shell side SDV closes compressor will to be installed on
suddenly reduce and tube pump discharge
side temperature which if actuated
with shoot up. will trip feed pump
and can trip the
whole plant
More Tube side SDV on tube High temperature
high side outlet is security must be
temperature. suddenly closed there that will close
tube side SDV's

91
More Tube side Tube ruptures. Tube may over High pressure
high pressure pressurize, but security must be
since shell and installed on tube
tube side are outlet which if
designed at same actuated will close
pressure hence all SDV's.
no significant
effect is there.
Less Low pressure Feed pump trips No significance Not available
on shell side effect as system
remains within
the design limits

More Shell side Exchanger Exchanger shell High pressure

very high outlet discharge side will be over security must be
pressure SDV closes, pressurized. installed on shell
outlet which if
actuated will close
all SDV's

92
8 Economic Analysis

8.1 Global Market

The MTBE market has been in strong continuous growth since 1992. For instance, the 1998
world consumption was approximately 19.5 million tons, about double that of 1992, representing
an annual growth rate of about 12%. Present trends indicate a mild growth in 2000, up to 20
million tons. The Asia-Pacific region accounted for more than half of the global MTBE demand
and was the largest market for MTBE in 2011, with 61.5% of global demand share. A large
portion of MTBE demand in Asia-Pacific region comes from China which held around two third
of regional demand. The global demand for MTBE decreased from 19.3 million tons in 2000 to
12.1 million tons in 2011 at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.2%. The decrease in
global demand for MTBE was largely due to MTBE usage bans in the US and Canada. In the
forecast period 2011–2020, the demand is expected to grow at a CAGR of 5.9%, with the
increasing market dominance of Asia-Pacific region.

8.2 Asia Market

Most Asia countries such as South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, Malaysia,
Singapore, Philippines and Thailand, have already phased lead out of their gasoline pool and are
replacing it with oxygenates such as MTBE. Due to MTBE’s relative ease in blending into
gasoline, easy transportation and storage, as well as relatively cheap and abundant supply,
MTBE is the most widely use oxygenate in Asia. However, the use of MTBE in gasoline
blending is not mandatory for countries like South Korea and Thailand. South Korea, for
93
instance, requires a 1.3% - 2.3% oxygenate content in gasoline during the winter, compared to a
minimum of 0.5% for the summer. In other Asian Countries, MTBE is mainly use as an octane
booster to replace lead.

8.3 Worldwide Demand

World demand of MTBE mod scenario is about 4.1 mil ton per annum consumption in US West
Coast at stake due to the legislation from 1998 to 2010. It has as an impact on 80% of
PETRONAS MTBE exports to the US.
Over the past decade, MTBE demand worldwide has experienced rapid growth, but has now
stabilised. In 1998, world consumption was approximately 19.5 million tonnes, about double that
of 1992, representing an annual growth rate of about 12%. The driving force for this growth was
the US Clean Air Act. Present trends indicate a mild growth in 2000, up to 20 million tons, with
US consumption slightly declining and other parts of the world growing.
In Europe, the demand is today approximately equal to the production capacity, i.e. around 3
million tonnes. In the last few years Europe was a net exporter of MTBE (either as a straight
component or blended into gasoline), but the implementation of stricter gasoline quality
requirements has recently increased the demand for alternative high octane blending
components. The consumption of MTBE is expected to remain fairly stable in Europe over the
next few years
U.S. demand is about 250,000b/d, dominates MTBE consumption. Most MTBE is used to
comply with mandated oxygen content rules for gasoline supplied to either RFG or wintertime
carbon monoxide areas. A small amount may be utilized for octane enhancement. In Europe,
MTBE demand is estimated about 60,000 b/d. MTBE use in Europe is essentially confined to
Octane enhancement, and about 6,000 b/d is exported to the United States. Eastern Europe
currently consumed about 10,000 b/d of MTBE. In Asia, demand for MTBE in this region is
expected to grow at much more rapid rate than elsewhere in the world. The rate will taper off late
in decade from about 12% per year to about 8% by the turn of the century, since the early rapid
growth has been fed by the lead phase down which should be nearly complete by 2000.
Throughout the period, the region will be a net importer of MTBE, mostly obtained from the
Middle East.
8.4 Market Price
8.4.1 Methanol
Price of methanol, as feedstock in Asia is $240 - $280 /ton. While in Europe, the prices is $265 -
$270 / ton free on board (fob) Rotterdam. In U.S. the price of methanol is 76 cts – 77cts/ gal in
fob. Global Methanol demand is expected to increase to 3.5 % per year over the next 5 years,
compared to 1.0% - 1.5% growth in 2002 and 2003. Those lower growth rates are attributable to
the phase-out of Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) as oxygenate in gasoline in California, and
94
slower economic growth in China caused by SARS. Methanol growth in China is forecast at 7%
- 8.5% per year, fueled by formaldehyde and acetic acid demand.
8.4.2 Isobutane

8.5 Cost estimation

Equipment Number of equipment Purchased Cost ($)
Reactor 2 70,000
Distillation Column 2 318642.62
Separator 1 55,000
Liquid-liquid extraction 1 60,000
column
Heat exchangers 10 13140
Pumps 3 7500
Mixer 1 24000
Compressor 2 8950
Total 557232.62

8.5.1 Direct Cost

Purchased equipment cost = E = 557232.62$
95
Installation cost (40%E) = 222893.048$
Instrumentation and control cost (13%E) = 72440.24$
Piping cost (10% E) =55723.262$
Electric cost (10%E) = 55723.262$
Building (including services) (29%E) =161597.45$
Yard improvement (10%E) = 55723.262$
Land cost (6%E) = 33433.9572$
Total Direct Cost = 1214767.1$

8.5.2 Indirect Cost

Engineering and Supervision Cost (32%E) = 178314.43$
Constriction Expenses (30%E) = 167169.786$
Contractor fee (18%E) = 100301.87$
Contingency Cost (30%E) = 167169.786$
Total Indirect Cost = 612955.872$

8.5.3 Total Capital Investment

Fixed Capital Investment = Direct cost + Indirect cost
F.C.I = D.C + I.C
F.C.I = 1214767.1+612955.872
F.C.I = 1827722.972$
Working Capital (18%F.C.I) = 328990.135$
Total Capital Investment = Working Capital Cost + Fixed Capital Investment
T.C.I = W.C + F.C.I
T.C.I = 2156713.107$

8.5.4 Production Cost

Assume that the Fixed Capital Investment depreciate by straight line method for 15 years.
Assuming 5 % Salvage value at the end of plant life.
Depreciation = D = (V-VS)/N
V = F.C.I
V = 1827722.972$
96
VS = 0.05*F.C.I
VS = 91386.14$
N = no. of years = 15
D = (1827722.972–91386.14)/ 15
D = 115755.78$
Production Cost = Total Capital Investment – Depreciation
P.C = 2040957.327$

8.5.5 Manufacturing Cost

Fixed Charges (12%P.C) = 244914.87$
Direct Product Cost (55% P.C) = 1122526.53$
Plant Overhead (10%P.C) = 204095.7327$
Manufacturing Cost = Direct product cost + Fixed Charges + Plant Overhead Cost
Manufacturing Cost =1571537.133 $

8.5.6 General Expenses

General Expenses = Administrative Cost + distribution and selling cost + research and
development cost
Administrative Cost:
It is 2-6% of total production cost
Consider
Administrative cost = 5%of production cost
Administrative cost = 102047.86$

8.5.7 Distribution and Selling Cost

It includes cost for sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
It is 2-20% of total product cost
Consider that distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 306143.599$

8.5.8 Research and Development Cost

It is about 5 % of total product cost
Research and development cost = 102047.86$

97
8.5.9 Financing (Interest)
It is about 0-10% of total Capital Investment
Consider interest is 5% of total capital investment
Interest = $107835.655
Thus;
General Expenses = 618074.974$
Total product cost= Manufacturing cost + General Expenses
=2189612.107$

9 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

9.1 Introduction
All processes are subject to disturbances that tend to change operating conditions, compositions
and physical properties of the streams. In order to minimize those ill effects that could result
from such disturbances, chemical plants are implemented with substantial amounts of
instrumentation and automatic control equipment. In critical cases and in especially large plants,
moreover, the instrumentation is computer monitors for convenient, safety and optimization. A
chemical plant is an arrangement of processing unit. The plant overall objective is to convert the
raw materials into desired product using available sources of energy in the most economical
way. All operating unit should be monitored. Methods of limiting hazard levels by control
features include sensoring control on limits and various aspects of sequential and continuous
monitoring. In control situations, the demand for speed of response may not be realizable with an
overly elaborate mathematical system. Moreover, in practice, not all disturbances are measurable
and the process characteristics are not known exactly.
Accordingly, feed forward control is supplemented in most instances with feedback. In a well-
designed system, typically, 90% of the corrective action is provided by feed forward and 10% by
feedback with the result that the integrated error is reduces by a factor 10%. The main types of
instrument used for chemical process plants are flow controller, temperature controller, pressure
controller and level controller.

9.2 OBJECTIVES OF CONTROL

The most important objectives of the designer when specifying control and instrumentation
schemes are:
1. Safe Plant Operation
 To keep the process variables within known safety operating limits and within allowable
limits.
98
 To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic shut
down system.
 To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent unsafe operating procedures.
2. Production Specification
 To achieve the design product output
 To produce the desired quality of final product
 To keep the product composition within the specified quality
standards.
3. Economics
 To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other objectives.
 The operation of the plant must conform to the market condition, which is availability of raw
materials and demand of the final product.
4. Environmental Regulations
Variable controlled must not exceed the allowable limits set by various federal and state laws.

5. Operational Constraints
 Various type of equipments used in chemical plant have constrains inherent to their
operation. Such constraints should be satisfied throughout the operation of plant.
 Control systems are needed to satisfy all these operational constrains.
 In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieve by combination of
automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.

Control On The Liquid- Liquid Extraction Column

99
Symbols
FC- flow controller
ILC- interfacial level controller
LC-level controller

Parameters at liquid- liquid extraction column

Objective Measureable Disturbances Action Set point
variable
To control flow Flow of liquid in Change of level Control flow by Stream s20 at
at stream S20 column of column adjusting valve 40.32Kg/hr
V19 at the
bottom of the
outlet
To control flow Flow of liquid in Change of flow Control the flow Inlet flow at
at stream S21 the column of the column rate by inlet stream S21
valve V20 to
keep the flow
rate maintained
100
 To control the Level of the Change of level Maintain the Level output at
level of raffinate liquid going out in the column level by the the raffinate
product of of the column valve V21 at section S24
stream S24 stream S24
To control the Density level Change of the The bottom Interfacial level
density change between interfacial level stream is at bottom
intermediate water and between the two removed by the product of
between the methanol phases control valve stream S26
methanol and V22
water

10 References
 Coulson & Richardson’s, Chemical Engineering Volume 6 Third Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann.
 Robert H. Perry and Don W. Green, Perry’s Chemical Engineering’s Handbook, Seventh
Edition, McGraw Hill.
 Wiley (2000). Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, John Willey & sons, Inc.
 Gregory et al, 1985, The design of distributor for gas-fluidized bed, Powder
Technology. (42): 100-145
 Smith, R., Chemical Process Design, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
 King, C. J., Separation Processes, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
 heat exchanger network synthesis, process optimization by energy and resource analysis
by Uday V. Shenoy
 Rules of thumb in engineering practice by prof. Donald.R.Woods
 Chemical Process Engineering by Hary Sila
 Unit operations of Chemical Engineering by Mc cabe Smith
 Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering by H.Scott.Fogler

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