Religion (35 marks essay questions)

1 The extent to which secularization has occurred has been exaggerated. Assess this view.

Secularization is the disassociation or separation from religious or spiritual concerns or in simpler words,
secularization is the decline of religious influence.

According to many sociologists religion holds a significant and prominent value in the beliefs and daily
lives of individuals and the extent to which secularization has occurred has been exaggerated. Anti-
Secularization theorists have offered their own interpretations of the evidence. Martin says it’s
impossible to distinguish between the religious and the secular, because the belief systems combined
under the name of religion are so varied & diverse. According to him, the concept of secularization has
become an intellectual tool that is used to attack religion. Similarly, Stark says that the influence of
religious organizations & beliefs in the past has been overstated and the contribution made by religion
to contemporary societies understated.

Religious influence in modern societies is still strong. E.g. it provides the rationale for moral codes that
form the basis for political life. Religion also takes the lead in arguing for ethical practices to inform
economic life, religion has evolved and changed, rather than declined. Berger says that Western Europe
may have seen declining congregations, but this is not the case in the USA where church attendance is
rising. According to Kelly, Secularization, where it has occurred, is related to particular forms of religious
organizations those that try to accommodate the secular world- rather than religion itself.

Religious practices declined only in the organizations that were image conscious and appealing to the
widest range of people, democratic in their internal affairs, changed to accommodate particular
audiences and were relativistic in terms of their teaching and morality. In contrast, religion growth
occurred in fundamentalist organizations that offered a set of meeting ideas and principles that were
traditional, autocratic, patriarchal and morally absolute. This means that if a religious organization
evolves to become a consumer religion, it may actually lose members. It neither attracts those looking
for something different in their spiritual life, nor does it keep those who are looking for the traditional
features of religion.

A different way of approaching the Secularization debate involves Religious Economy Theory.
Lannaccone & Stark & Finch say that secularization is too limited an explanation for development in PM
societies. Religion should not be seen as a culture institution, evaluated in terms of its success at
propagating particular values in culturally homogeneous societies where established religions have little
or no competition. Rather, religions should be seen as economic organizations. In culturally diverse
societies where spiritual competition is fierce, religion should be studied as businesses. In the past,
major world religions established “monopolies of belief” that not only discourage competition but
actively destroyed it. While this established religions powerful, it also made them lazy; they took their
customers for granted. Although this is not a problem when the secular orders support religious
monopolies, if societies change and established order is challenged, Religious Pluralism develops.
On one level, therefore, Anti- secularization theorists concede (confess) that a form of secularization
occurs among established religions as they lose members, attendance at services declines and their
influence over secular matter declines. However just because established religions secularize, this does
not mean the decline of religion itself. Rather religion evolves in new, dynamic forms, such as NRM’s &
NAM’s that compete for believers with established religions. Their success is measured in terms of the
ability to offer alternative forms of religious beliefs and ways to express those days. The anti-
secularization argument, there, is that the nature and shape of religious organizations has changed.
Rather than evidence of overall decline, this is merely evidence of different forms of belief and practice
that are harder to quantify but which still counts as religious forms.

(2nd side)

However, the extent to which religion’s significance has declined in modern industrial societies cannot
be neglected. Pro Secularization arguments are based on the claim that religion had declined in
significance, at least in many parts of the developed world. There has been a progressive disengagement
(process by which people withdraw from religious involvement, in terms of beliefs and/or practices),
from the past when religion dominated all aspects of political, economic and cultural life, to the present,
where its influence is marginal. Secularization is due to modernization and social change.

According to Crockett & Voas, as societies modernize, the social significance of religion and religious
participation declines because Ideas and org’s that once had a strong hold over people lives are
weakened in large-scale, complex, modern societies. People are exposed to knowledge, such as
scientific explanations or different cultural beliefs, that challenging religious ideas & weaken their
power. So Religious Diversity undermines the plausibility of any single religion, leading to a general
decline in religious influence. Diversity means that religious org’s can no longer present a united
ideological front of the word. Their ability to impose a religious discipline and sanctions, influence social
and economic policies or challenge scientific ideas is seriously weakened.

Evidence of religious decline can be observed in many areas. Beliefs have become more privatized.
Religion is relegated (passed on) to personal beliefs about “God” or the supernatural that have little or
no meaning outside personal crisis, such as in this and ill health; people look to religious beliefs as a last
resort when all else fails. Furthermore, Government is taking on many of the functions previously
undertaken, partly or wholly, by religious org’s. E.g. Education & welfare are now more likely to be
organized by public authorities rather than by the Church. In the 19th century almost all weddings were
religious ceremonies but now it’s believed to be about 1 in 3.

Wilson further says that people’s understanding of the natural and social word has changed. E.g. as a
society we have moved away from magical (spells and charms) or religious (prayer) understanding the
one based on secular, scientific explanations. The things we once explained by reference to religion are
now explained by science, Bruce followed Weber by saying when there are changes in religion, there are
changes in societies and collectively these changes create the condition of secularization. Splits in
established religion & increasing social and cultural diversity exposed people to diverse religious views
hence undermining the dominance of a single religion.
Bruce believed that science wasn’t as imp as some sociologists claim in bringing secularization but
technology was imp e.g. people depended more on medical science than prayers to cure illnesses.
According to Casanova, Religion is separated from other areas of social life so that religion becomes less
important in influencing public life. Religion becomes a private matter rather than a public one.
Similarly, disengagement or withdrawing of the church from wider society is seen as secularization.
Martin sees this view as concerned with decline in the power, wealth, prestige and influence of the
church. In mediaeval Europe, the church and state were very close; today the church is hardly
represented in the government.

Modernization and Industrialization create a plurality of cultural and religious groups. This reminds
individuals that their beliefs are a matter of personal choice and no longer part and parcel of their
membership of society. Strong Religion, which dominates people lives cannot be widespread in a
fragmented way.

In conclusion, to a great extent, religion still holds a prominent and significant value in the society as
people follow religious codes, norms and values in the daily lives but to some extent, due to
modernization, scientific theories, advanced medication and technology secularization has occurred and
religion’s significance has declined in people lives.

2 Women have little power and authority within religion organizations. Assess

Feminist Theories follow Marxist theories in arguing that Religion can be an instrument of Domination
and oppression. However, unlike Marxists, they see Religion as a product of Patriarchy rather than
Capitalism. According to Armstrong In most major religions, women occupy marginal positions. Although
they have made many gains in life, their gains in most religions have been very limited.

Radical perspective is the most prominent feminist perspective which studied the gender inequality in
society and religion. According to Radical feminists, gender Inequality is the central type of inequality in
society and we need a radical revolution to remove it. Oppressors (men) can use religion to control the
oppressed group (women) and religion also serves as a way of compensating women of their second
class status. In Modern Societies, Religion is used as an instrument of Deception and women are made
to believe that they are equal to men despite their evident inequality. Religion portrays women as being
closer to God than men. As mothers, women have key religious role as she produces a soul for God,
women are also taught to be more passive. Religion gives women false belief that their suffering will be
compensated in earth by equality in Heaven, it maintains the status quo (women are unequal) even
though women contribute a lot to religion i.e. by giving religious values to future generations and doing
most of the work in religious org’s.

According to Daly, Religion was oppressive to women and all women are part of a “Planetary sexual
caste system” which is patriarchal and exploitative of women. It is maintained in different ways such as
Sex Role Segregation where Men & women are separated into different roles by society, Derivative
Status where Women get part of their status not from their own position in society but from that of
their husband and Patriarchal Religious Ideology which is Justifying patriarchal institutions which benefit
men at the expense of women. Religion oppresses women by often claiming God as a man and as a
father, subordination of women is God's will and that redemption comes from prayer and not active
involvement. According to Daly, language of Religion needs to be changed. According to Armstrong,
lower status of women is associated with the development of Monotheism- Religions that believe in a
Single God, such as Christianity and Islam, before these religions became dominant, there was
widespread worship of Goddesses.

Liberal Feminists say that existing Religions can be patriarchal and they should be reformed to eradicate
patriarchal elements from them. According to Jean Holm, in many religions, men dominate the powerful
positions of the public sphere, while women do most of the “behind the scene” work in the private
sphere e.g. : In Orthodox Judaism, only men take part in public ceremonies, Women still can’t be priests
in the Roman Catholic Religion, In Hinduism, only men can become Brahmanic Priests. Holm further says
that Women’s second class status is often related to female biology and sexuality. E.g. Islamic women
can’t touch the Quran when menstruating and Hindu women can’t approach family shrines when
pregnant.

Daly says that religions are Male dominated, hierarchal institutions that serve the interests of sexist
society. Religions though provide women shelter and safety in a threatening world but these benefits
come at a price for women in terms of submission to patriarchal control.

(2nd side)

However, progress has also been made by women in religious institutions which cannot be neglected.
Radical feminists are criticized as they generalize religion, seeing it all as patriarchal & ignore that
progress has been made and that aspects of patriarchal ideology within Religion have been successfully
challenged. They haven’t backed their views with sufficient evidence and some of their research has
questionable validity and representativeness. They aren’t sensitive to the ways in which women might
use patriarchal religions to further their own interests.

Holm says that Patriarchal oppression of women within religion isn’t universal. Some aspects of Religion
can provide opportunities for women as well e.g. Islamic women can keep their own family name after
they get married, people can choose which interpretation of Islam or school of law, and they give their
allegiance to. Some religions are relatively egalitarian. E.g. some Christian like Quakerism has never
been oppressive to women. Aspects of some religions are changing because of Campaigns and feminism
and their patriarchal aspects have also been challenged and reformed. Holm sees “signs of hope” in the
religious situation of women. According to Wright, Reform Judaism allows women to become Rabbi’s

Church of England has continued to increase.

Conservative Religions support traditional values and are considered as the most oppressive types of
religion for women. Fundamentalist & Evangelical Religions support traditional morality, imp of
domestic role of women and modesty for women. Some Feminist sociologists question whether these
religions always succeed in oppressing women. Many researchers have found evidence that women find
space within such religions and develop their own independence and ideas and also use aspects of these
religions to further their own interests.
Rinaldo studied Religious piety movements and how women used these movements to their own
interests. They supported the traditional teachings of a Religion and emphasize on following the religion
and being spiritually devoted. Pious practices like prayer and dressing can also be seen as a part of Piety
movement. Women are usually prominent in these movements but they don’t hold many leadership
positions. According to Feminists, Piety movements are oppressive to women but people argue that if
this is the case then why women are such active participants in these movements. Such as many studies
suggest that Muslim women choose to wear the Veil because they reject Westernized models of
Modernity. They define Modernity in different ways e.g. for them modernity can be education, debate,
participation in the public sphere. These studies suggest that Piety movements play a positive role for
women because it allows them to construct their own versions of Modernity. Piety involves active
choices made by women as they try to construct positive identities for themselves.

Mahmood further says, in Egyptian society, there were little opportunities for women to develop their
own distinct identity, piety movements allow women to find a space in which they could develop a
distinct identity of their own. Women feel empowered by the opportunities Piety movements provide
for creating or recreating a sense of community. Though Rinaldo accepts that Piety movements
reproduce Patriarchal relationships to some extent e.g. they may justify male domination within the
household. She accepts that Feminist versions of Piety movements haven’t been successful but there is
some possibility that these movements could lead to equality.

So, to a little extent, improvement has been seen in the position and authority of women in religious
institutions. Different organizations and movements are acknowledging women’s rights which might
lead towards equality but to a major extent, religion is a male dominated and hierarchal institution
where women are oppressed and violated for male interests and benefits.

3 Religion is a form of ideology that serves the interests of a ruling class. Assess this view.

Marxist Approach is based on the idea of Conflict. According to Marxists Role of Religion in Capitalist
societies is of promoting consensus which ultimately benefits the Ruling Class. Role of religion is to
promote consensus through its status as an ideology capable of explaining “everything about
everything”. Religion shapes how people see the world and its role is to represent that world in ways
that reflect and support the existing social order. People create Gods and believe that they have power
over them and can control their behavior; this is a form of alienation. Marx believed that Religion
wouldn’t last forever as according to him religion is present only in those societies where there is
exploitation and alienation, once these things come to an end, so will religion (Communism).

Religion is an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression. It’s a series of
myths that justify and legitimate the domination of the Ruling class; it forms the basis of the Ruling Class
Ideology & False Class Consciousness. Marx famously described Religion as “The Opium of the people”,
it’s like a drug which dulls the pain and creates a dream world rather than bringing true happiness.
Religion dulls the pain of oppression with its promise of eternal life (Christianity) or Reincarnation into a
higher social caste (Hinduism) for those who did their religious duty. Religion was a form of False
Consciousness, by embracing “illusionary religious ideas” people fail to understand the real causes of
their misery and oppression, Capitalisms and its system of Economic exploitation.

For Marx, religions promise a paradise of eternal bliss in life after death, making life bearable by giving
people something to look forward to. In particular, those who suffer poverty with dignity and humility
will be rewarded in the Afterlife. Religion thus makes poverty more bearable. Religion often justifies the
social order and a person’s position within it. In this way social arrangements appear inevitable and
those at the bottom can accept and come to terms with their situation. Role of Religion is to make the
vast majority of people who lived in poverty and misery to accept their situation.

For Marxists, Religion doesn’t simply cushion the effects of oppression; it also acts as a mechanism of
social control keeping people in their place by making unsatisfactory lives bearable, it discourages
people from attempting to change their situation and by offering an illusion of hope in a hopeless
situation, it prevents thoughts of overthrowing the system. There are many examples from history
where Ruling Class has used religion to justify their dominance. The caste System in Traditional India was
justified by Hindu religious beliefs; whilst in Medieval Europe Kings and Queens ruled by Divine Right.

Bruce studied the Conservative Protestants in the USA- the New Christian Right they consistently
support Right Wing Political Candidates. George W. Bush consistently supported Right Wing views e.g.
Low taxes for the rich and was a supporter of the New Christian Right.

(2nd side)

However, some evidence suggests that religion doesn’t always legitimate power and benefits the
interests of the ruling class and that it can sometimes provide an impetus for change. The fact that
religion acts as an ideological force in the way suggested by Marx doesn’t explain its origin and it also
doesn’t explain why religion still exists in places where oppression has come to an end at least
theoretically. Although Communism had some success in suppressing religion in some countries, it didn’t
eradicate it and once communism ended, religious activity increased again.

Religion also performed its role in challenging ruling class authority. The Civil Rights Movement in the
USA, social change was promoted and supported by black religious org’s and leaders such as Martin
Luther King. Engels the Neo Marxist says that Christianity originated as a way of coping with oppressed
groups, it could also become a source of resistance to the oppressor and thus a force for change. Some
Neo Marxists argue that religion isn’t a conservative force. Maduro says that Religion can be
revolutionary; its members of the clergy can develop revolutionary potential when oppressed members
of the population have no other outlet for their grievances.

This has occurred in Latin America where some Catholic Priests have criticized Ruling groups and helped
to organize resistance, their political activism is driven by a concept known as Liberation Theology.

According to functionalists, religion can have positive impacts on society and religious values promote
peace and harmony among people. Traditional Functionalists is an Inclusive Approach which focuses on
how religion creates, promotes and maintains the cultural values which provide the moral basis for
social solidarity. Religion reinforces shared values and moral beliefs which Durkheim called the
Collective conscience that hold society together and which leads to social order, control and social
solidarity. Through acts of collective worship, members of society express, communicate and
understand the moral bonds which unite them. Durkheim says that Religious worship is the worship of
the social group or society. According to Durkheim, social integration is a very important function of
Religion. According to Farley, Religion provides important psychological support in times of personal
crisis. Thompson says that religion offers an explanation of the events for which other frameworks could
not account. Furthermore, Parsons says that norms, values & beliefs guide human action. Religious
beliefs provide guidelines for human action. Religion establishes general principles and moral beliefs
which provide the consensus that Parsons believes is necessary for order and stability in society.

In conclusion, to a major extent, religion has been a prominent institute in preserving capitalist system
and the authority of elite ruling class. Religion assisted the ruling class to maintain its power and
creating false consciousness but to some extent religion has been revolutionary and many religious
movements had big aims for bringing upon a revolution and overthrow the capitalist system also, to
some extent religion promotes harmony through shared norms, beliefs and rituals. It consoles the minds
of people in the time of unexpected or tragic incidents and creates peace and solidarity in society.

4 Asses, main role of religion is to promote social solidarity.

Functionalist perspective focuses on the society needs and the contribution that religion makes to meet
these needs / Functional prerequisites e.g. social solidarity. Society has integration, social solidarity,
values consensus and harmony between all its institutions. Traditional Functionalists is an Inclusive
Approach which focuses on how religion creates, promotes and maintains the cultural values which
provide the moral basis for social solidarity.

Collective Conscience is Durkheim’s Expression of society’s collective will. A set of shared beliefs, values
and meanings that unify a population through an individual sense of “collective personality”. Religion
reinforces shared values and moral beliefs which Durkheim called the Collective conscience that hold
society together and which leads to social order, control and social solidarity. By defining these shared
values as sacred, religion endows them with great power to direct human action. In worshipping society,
people are, in effect recognizing the importance of the social group and their dependence on it, this
strengthens the unity of the group & hence promotes social solidarity.

Through acts of collective worship, members of society express, communicate and understand the
moral bonds which unite them. Worship of Gods is actually the worship of ancestral souls so basically
religious worship involves the worship of souls. Durkheim says that Religious worship is the worship of
the social group or society. According to Durkheim, social integration is a very important function of
Religion, especially in Pre Modern or Tribal societies. The development of social solidarity or “moral
togetherness” is based on particular practical ceremonies and services.

According to Alpert, Religion has 4 major functions Discipline, Cohesion, Vitalization & Euphony.
Discipline is a sense of shared beliefs & values is created by following a set of religious moral rites and
codes; these common values create and connect people to society. Cohesion is where Religious
ceremonies bring people together. Shared norms, values & experiences reinforce social solidarity.
Ceremonies like Marriages and Funerals also involve symbols with shared meanings. Vitalization is when
shared religious beliefs and experiences give life to shared values in ways that allow people to use the
ideas, binding them together. While Euphony (harmony) is when period of pain and crisis in life require
individual or collective efforts to reestablish harmony. Religion’s euphonic function is tension
management.

Parsons says that religious rituals surrounding death help manage this traumatic situation by providing
a structure (the funeral) which permits certain forms of social action, such as public grieving. Moreover,
according to Farley, Religion provides important psychological support in times of personal crisis.
Thompson says that religion offers an explanation of the events for which other frameworks could not
account. In all societies, these life crises are surrounded by religious rituals. E.g. at a funeral ceremony,
the social group unites to support the bereaved. The expression of social solidarity reintegrates society.
Rituals reduce anxiety by providing confidence and a feeling of control.

Furthermore, Parsons says that norms, values & beliefs guide human action. Religious beliefs provide
guidelines for human action E.g. the Ten Commandments provide the basis for many social norms thus
creates social solidarity. Religion establishes general principles and moral beliefs which provide the
consensus that Parsons believes is necessary for order and stability in society. According to Parsons,
another main function of Religion is to allow emotional and intellectual adjustment which in turn
promotes order and stability in society. Religion provides a range of answers to questions about
suffering, evil etc.

(2nd side)

However, functionalists are criticized for generalizing the positive impacts of religion on society and
neglecting the conflict and chaos which occur through religion. Hamilton criticizes Durkheim saying that
he overstates the degree to which religious values influence individual behavior; his theory may only be
applicable to small non literate societies. Modern societies are characterized by diversity. Often religious
beliefs result in conflict. Critics argued that functionalists like Parsons and Durkheim exaggerated the
importance of religious rituals in helping people cope with situations of anxiety and uncertainty. Some
rituals are performed to fulfill important social obligations and to maintain prestige rather than
cementing solidarity.

Religion can also be a prominent institution preserving the capitalist society. According to Marxists Role
of Religion in Capitalist societies is of promoting consensus which ultimately benefits the Ruling Class.
Religion shapes how people see the world and its role is to represent that world in ways that reflect and
support the existing social order. Religion is an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation
and oppression. It’s a series of myths that justify and legitimate the domination of the Ruling class.
Religion is a form of False Consciousness, by embracing “illusionary religious ideas” people fail to
understand the real causes of their misery and oppression, Capitalisms and its system of Economic
exploitation. There are many examples from history where Ruling Class has used religion to justify their
dominance. The caste System in Traditional India was justified by Hindu religious beliefs; whilst in
Medieval Europe Kings and Queens ruled by Divine Right.

Furthermore, Fundamentalist religious movements also suggest that religion does not always maintain
solidarity and stability. Fundamentalists can turn into violent behavior e.g American Christian
fundamentalists have on occasion used violence against abortion clinics. Bruce sees Islam as being more
prone to violent forms of fundamentalism because it places more emphasis on being religious through
one’s actions than through one’s beliefs. According to Juergensmeyer, religion and violence have always
been closely intertwined. Most major religions allow violence and may encourage it in response to
threats to religion.

Furthermore, modern and secular rational beliefs threaten the idea of religious faith and can give rise to
violent global religious movements taking up the challenge to defend the faith. Al Qaeda is an example
of such movements. Osama bin Ladin and Al Qaeda have large religious motives. The world is now
divided among civilizations which are western, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic etc. Religion is very important in
differentiating most of the civilizations; religion is there for a cause of conflict in the world today.

In conclusion, religion to some extent creates stability and solidarity. It promotes harmony through
shared norms, beliefs and rituals. It consoles the minds of people in the time of unexpected or tragic
incidents. But to a great extent, religion has been a major source of war and conflict in society. The panic
and chaos people create in the name of religion cannot be ignored. Religion has been prominent in
preserving the authority of elite ruling class and in wars and conflicts creating disorder in society.

5 Religion is a conservative force that helps to maintain social order. Assess

Social order is the predictability and stabilization created through social rules and regulations. Social
order is very important for the mutual understanding within the society. Without this, social encounters
will be chaotic and demoralizing.

Different sociological perspectives have different claims over how religion maintains social order. The
two major positivist’s macro perspectives are Functionalism and Marxism. Traditional Functionalists is
an Inclusive Approach which focuses on how religion creates, promotes and maintains the cultural
values which provide the moral basis for social order. Religion reinforces shared values and moral beliefs
which Durkheim called the Collective conscience that hold society together and which leads to social
order, control and social solidarity. Through acts of collective worship, members of society express,
communicate and understand the moral bonds which unite them. According to Durkheim, social
integration is a very important function of Religion to maintain social order.

Religion’s euphonic function is tension management. Moreover, according to Farley, Religion provides
important psychological support in times of personal crisis. Thompson says that religion offers an
explanation of the events for which other frameworks could not account. In all societies, these life crises
are surrounded by religious rituals. E.g. at a funeral ceremony, the social group unites to support the
bereaved, rituals reduce anxiety by providing confidence and a feeling of control thus social order is
maintained. Furthermore, Parsons says that norms, values & beliefs guide human action. Religious
beliefs provide guidelines for human action E.g. the Ten Commandments provide the basis for many
social norms thus creates social solidarity. Religion establishes general principles and moral beliefs
which provide the consensus that Parsons believes is necessary for social order. According to Parsons,
another main function of Religion is to allow emotional and intellectual adjustment which in turn
promotes social order.

The conflict approach Marxism says that religion creates social order through preserving capitalist
society and creating false consciousness. Religion shapes how people see the world and its role is to
represent that world in ways that reflect and support the existing social order. People create Gods and
believe that they have power over them and can control their behavior; this is a form of alienation. Marx
believed that Religion wouldn’t last forever as according to him religion is present only in those societies
where there is exploitation and alienation, once these things come to an end, so will religion
(Communism).

It’s a series of myths that justify and legitimate the domination of the Ruling class. Religion is a form of
False Consciousness, by embracing “illusionary religious ideas” people fail to understand the real causes
of their misery and oppression, Capitalisms and its system of Economic exploitation and authority of
ruling class thus social order is maintained. There are many examples from history where Ruling Class
has used religion to justify their dominance and creating social order. The caste System in Traditional
India was justified by Hindu religious beliefs; whilst in Medieval Europe Kings and Queens ruled by
Divine Right.

(2nd side)

However, many sociologists criticize these macro approaches for overstating and generalizing the
impact of religion in creating social order. Functionalists are criticized for generalizing the positive
impacts of religion on society and neglecting the conflict and chaos which occur through religion.
Hamilton criticizes Durkheim saying that he overstates the degree to which religious values influence
individual behavior and maintain social order. Modern societies are characterized by diversity. Often
religious beliefs result in conflict. Critics argued that functionalists like Parsons and Durkheim
exaggerated the importance of religious rituals in helping people cope with situations of anxiety and
uncertainty.

Similarly, Marxism is criticized for generalizing the impact of religion in creating social order. Some
evidence suggests that religion doesn’t always legitimate power and benefits the interests of the ruling
class and that it can sometimes provide an impetus for change. Religion also performed its role in
challenging ruling class authority. The Civil Rights Movement in the USA, social change was promoted
and supported by black religious org’s and leaders such as Martin Luther King. Engels the Neo Marxist
says that Christianity originated as a way of coping with oppressed groups, it could also become a source
of resistance to the oppressor and thus a force for change. Some Neo Marxists argue that religion isn’t a
conservative force. Maduro says that Religion can be revolutionary.

Furthermore, Fundamentalist religious movements also suggest that religion does not always maintain
order and stability. Fundamentalists can turn into violent behavior e.g American Christian
fundamentalists have on occasion used violence against abortion clinics. According to Juergensmeyer,
religion and violence have always been closely intertwined. Most major religions allow violence and may
encourage it in response to threats to religion thus resulting in conflict and chaos instead of order and
stability. The world is now divided among civilizations which are western, Japanese, Hindu, Islamic etc.
Religion is very important in differentiating most of the civilizations; religion is there for a cause of
conflict in the world today.

So, to some extent, religion helps in maintaining order and stability as defined by Functionalism and
Marxism. Religion has been a prominent institute in preserving capitalist system and the authority of
elite ruling class. Religion assisted the ruling class to maintain its power and creating false
consciousness. It also promotes harmony through shared norms, beliefs and rituals. It consoles the
minds of people in the time of unexpected or tragic incidents but to a great extent, religion has been a
major source of war and conflict in society. The panic and chaos people create in the name of religion
cannot be ignored. Religion has been revolutionary and many religious movements had big aims for
bringing upon a revolution which discouraged social order.

6 Religion no longer has any important function in society. Assess

Pro Secularization arguments are based on the claim that religion had declined in significance, at least in
many parts of the developed world. There has been a progressive disengagement (process by which
people withdraw from religious involvement, in terms of beliefs and/or practices), from the past when
religion dominated all aspects of political, economic and cultural life, to the present, where its influence
is marginal. Secularization is due to modernization and social change.

According to Crockett & Voas, as societies modernize, the social significance of religion and religious
participation declines because Ideas and org’s that once had a strong hold over people lives are
weakened in large-scale, complex, modern societies. People are exposed to knowledge, such as
scientific explanations or different cultural beliefs, that challenging religious ideas & weaken their
power. So Religious Diversity undermines the plausibility of any single religion, leading to a general
decline in religious influence. Diversity means that religious org’s can no longer present a united
ideological front of the word. Their ability to impose a religious discipline and sanctions, influence social
and economic policies or challenge scientific ideas is seriously weakened.

Evidence of religious decline can be observed in many areas. Beliefs have become more privatized.
Religion is relegated (passed on) to personal beliefs about “God” or the supernatural that have little or
no meaning outside personal crisis, such as in this and ill health; people look to religious beliefs as a last
resort when all else fails. Furthermore, Government is taking on many of the functions previously
undertaken, partly or wholly, by religious org’s. E.g. Education & welfare are now more likely to be
organized by public authorities rather than by the Church. In the 19th century almost all weddings were
religious ceremonies but now it’s believed to be about 1 in 3.

Wilson further says that people’s understanding of the natural and social word has changed. E.g. as a
society we have moved away from magical (spells and charms) or religious (prayer) understanding the
one based on secular, scientific explanations. The things we once explained by reference to religion are
now explained by science, Bruce followed Weber by saying when there are changes in religion, there are
changes in societies and collectively these changes create the condition of secularization. Splits in
established religion & increasing social and cultural diversity exposed people to diverse religious views
hence undermining the dominance of a single religion.

Bruce believed that science wasn’t as imp as some sociologists claim in bringing secularization but
technology was imp e.g. people depended more on medical science than prayers to cure illnesses.
According to Casanova, Religion is separated from other areas of social life so that religion becomes less
important in influencing public life. Religion becomes a private matter rather than a public one.
Similarly, disengagement or withdrawing of the church from wider society is seen as secularization.
Martin sees this view as concerned with decline in the power, wealth, prestige and influence of the
church. In mediaeval Europe, the church and state were very close; today the church is hardly
represented in the government.

Modernization and Industrialization create a plurality of cultural and religious groups. This reminds
individuals that their beliefs are a matter of personal choice and no longer part and parcel of their
membership of society. Strong Religion, which dominates people lives cannot be widespread in a
fragmented way.

(2nd side)

However, according to many sociologists religion holds a significant and prominent value in the beliefs
and daily lives of individuals and the extent to which secularization has occurred has been exaggerated.
Anti- Secularization theorists have offered their own interpretations of the evidence. Martin says it’s
impossible to distinguish between the religious and the secular, because the belief systems combined
under the name of religion are so varied & diverse. According to him, the concept of secularization has
become an intellectual tool that is used to attack religion. Similarly, Stark says that the influence of
religious organizations & beliefs in the past has been overstated and the contribution made by religion
to contemporary societies understated.

Religious influence in modern societies is still strong. E.g. it provides the rationale for moral codes that
form the basis for political life. Religion also takes the lead in arguing for ethical practices to inform
economic life, religion has evolved and changed, rather than declined. Berger says that Western Europe
may have seen declining congregations, but this is not the case in the USA where church attendance is
rising. According to Kelly, Secularization, where it has occurred, is related to particular forms of religious
organizations those that try to accommodate the secular world- rather than religion itself.

A different way of approaching the Secularization debate involves Religious Economy Theory.
Lannaccone & Stark & Finch say that secularization is too limited an explanation for development in PM
societies. Religion should not be seen as a culture institution, evaluated in terms of its success at
propagating particular values in culturally homogeneous societies where established religions have little
or no competition. Rather, religions should be seen as economic organizations. In culturally diverse
societies where spiritual competition is fierce, religion should be studied as businesses. In the past,
major world religions established “monopolies of belief” that not only discourage competition but
actively destroyed it. While this established religions powerful, it also made them lazy; they took their
customers for granted. Although this is not a problem when the secular orders support religious
monopolies, if societies change and established order is challenged, Religious Pluralism develops.

On one level, therefore, Anti- secularization theorists concede (confess) that a form of secularization
occurs among established religions as they lose members, attendance at services declines and their
influence over secular matter declines. However just because established religions secularize, this does
not mean the decline of religion itself. Rather religion evolves in new, dynamic forms, such as NRM’s &
NAM’s that compete for believers with established religions. Their success is measured in terms of the
ability to offer alternative forms of religious beliefs and ways to express those days. The anti-
secularization argument, there, is that the nature and shape of religious organizations has changed.
Rather than evidence of overall decline, this is merely evidence of different forms of belief and practice
that are harder to quantify but which still counts as religious forms.

In conclusion, to some extent, due to modernization, scientific theories, advanced medication and
technology secularization has occurred and religion’s significance has declined in people lives but to a
great extent, religion still holds a prominent and significant value in the society as people follow
religious codes, norms and values in the daily lives.

7 Assess this view, Women have greater power in religious organizations today.

Feminist Theories follow Marxist theories in arguing that Religion can be an instrument of Domination
and oppression. However, unlike Marxists, they see Religion as a product of Patriarchy rather than
Capitalism. According to Armstrong In most major religions, women occupy marginal positions. However
in modern industrial societies women hold power and freedom in religion.

Holm says that some aspects of Religion can provide opportunities for women e.g. Islamic women can
keep their own family name after they get married, people can choose which interpretation of Islam or
school of law, and they give their allegiance to. Some religions are relatively egalitarian. E.g. some
Christian like Quakerism has never been oppressive to women. Aspects of some religions are changing
because of Campaigns and feminism and their patriarchal aspects have also been challenged and
reformed. Holm sees “signs of hope” in the religious situation of women. According to Wright, Reform
Judaism allows women to become Rabbi’s since 1972. Shih says that there has been progress towards
he Church of England has continued to increase.

Conservative Religions support traditional values and are considered as the most oppressive types of
religion for women. Fundamentalist & Evangelical Religions support traditional morality, imp of
domestic role of women and modesty for women. Some Feminist sociologists question whether these
religions always succeed in oppressing women. Many researchers have found evidence that women find
space within such religions and develop their own independence and ideas and also use aspects of these
religions to further their own interests.

Rinaldo studied Religious piety movements and how women used these movements to their own
interests. They supported the traditional teachings of a Religion and emphasize on following the religion
and being spiritually devoted. Pious practices like prayer and dressing can also be seen as a part of Piety
movement. Women are usually prominent in these movements but they don’t hold many leadership
positions. According to Feminists, Piety movements are oppressive to women but people argue that if
this is the case then why women are such active participants in these movements. Such as many studies
suggest that Muslim women choose to wear the Veil because they reject Westernized models of
Modernity. They define Modernity in different ways e.g. for them modernity can be education, debate,
participation in the public sphere. These studies suggest that Piety movements play a positive role for
women because it allows them to construct their own versions of Modernity. Piety involves active
choices made by women as they try to construct positive identities for themselves.

Mahmood further says, in Egyptian society, there were little opportunities for women to develop their
own distinct identity, piety movements allow women to find a space in which they could develop a
distinct identity of their own. Women feel empowered by the opportunities Piety movements provide
for creating or recreating a sense of community. Though Rinaldo accepts that Piety movements
reproduce Patriarchal relationships to some extent e.g. they may justify male domination within the
household. She accepts that Feminist versions of Piety movements haven’t been successful but there is
some possibility that these movements could lead to equality.

(2nd side)

However, women still hold an inferior and submissive position and are exploited in the patriarchal
system. Radical perspective is the most prominent feminist perspective which studied the gender
inequality in society and religion. According to Radical feminists, gender Inequality is the central type of
inequality in society and we need a radical revolution to remove it. Oppressors (men) can use religion to
control the oppressed group (women) and religion also serves as a way of compensating women of their
second class status. In Modern Societies, Religion is used as an instrument of Deception and women are
made to believe that they are equal to men despite their evident inequality. Religion portrays women as
being closer to God than men. As mothers, women have key religious role as she produces a soul for
God, women are also taught to be more passive. Religion gives women false belief that their suffering
will be compensated in earth by equality in Heaven, it maintains the status quo (women are unequal)
even though women contribute a lot to religion i.e. by giving religious values to future generations and
doing most of the work in religious org’s.

According to Daly, Religion was oppressive to women and all women are part of a “Planetary sexual
caste system” which is patriarchal and exploitative of women. It is maintained in different ways such as
Sex Role Segregation where Men & women are separated into different roles by society, Derivative
Status where Women get part of their status not from their own position in society but from that of
their husband and Patriarchal Religious Ideology which is Justifying patriarchal institutions which benefit
men at the expense of women. Religion oppresses women by often claiming God as a man and as a
father, subordination of women is God's will and that redemption comes from prayer and not active
involvement. According to Daly, language of Religion needs to be changed. According to Armstrong,
lower status of women is associated with the development of Monotheism- Religions that believe in a
Single God, such as Christianity and Islam, before these religions became dominant, there was
widespread worship of Goddesses.

Liberal Feminists say that existing Religions can be patriarchal and they should be reformed to eradicate
patriarchal elements from them. According to Jean Holm, in many religions, men dominate the powerful
positions of the public sphere, while women do most of the “behind the scene” work in the private
sphere e.g. : In Orthodox Judaism, only men take part in public ceremonies, Women still can’t be priests
in the Roman Catholic Religion, In Hinduism, only men can become Brahmanic Priests. Holm further says
that Women’s second class status is often related to female biology and sexuality. E.g. Islamic women
can’t touch the Quran when menstruating and Hindu women can’t approach family shrines when
pregnant.

Daly says that religions are Male dominated, hierarchal institutions that serve the interests of sexist
society. Religions though provide women shelter and safety in a threatening world but these benefits
come at a price for women in terms of submission to patriarchal control.

So, to a little extent, improvement has been seen in the position and authority of women in religious
institutions. Different organizations and movements are acknowledging women’s rights which might
lead towards equality but to a major extent, religion is a male dominated and hierarchal institution
where women are oppressed and violated for male interests and benefits.

8 Growth of fundamentalist religion is a response to uncertainty in PM societies. Assess

Almond et al define fundamentalism as “a pattern of religious militancy by which self-styled true

believers attempt to arrest the illusion of religious identity and create alternatives to secular institutions
& behavior”. Bruce sees fundamentalism as a religion which calls for a return to the fundamentals of the
faith claiming authority for a sacred text as the basis for regulating a society.

The existence of fundamentalism seems to undermine the theory of secularization as it involves the
return to strong religious beliefs. According to Bruce fundamentalism is caused by a group feeling their
traditions are under threat from changes associated with my Modernization and secularization.
Societilization, differentiation and rationalization are all seen as threats by fundamentalists. The path
that fundamentalism seeks is also affected by its relation to politics e.g. American Christian
fundamentalists have on occasion used violence such as against abortion clinics-but violent action is
much more common among Islamic fundamentalist.

Bruce and Shupe see fundamentalism as a response to modernity and uncertainty in modern societies.
Shupe sees fundamentalism as being caused by secularization as an aspect of globalization, in which
religion becomes separated from other spheres (what Bruce calls differentiation). Fundamentalism
desired strong resentment at the increasing marginalization of religion, leading to an attempt de-
differentiate. Armstrong sets her arguments about Islamic Fundamentalism in the contexts of ideas of
uncertainty and Modernization. This suggests that in some countries the failure of modernization has
led to religious revival.
Advocates of Secularization such as Bruce, argue that the development of Modernity has led to
uncertainty and secularization. Fundamentalism is an attempt to reverse it. Role of religion becomes
marginalized in Modernity because science & rationality replace faith in religious beliefs and because
differentiation of institutions relegates religion to a private sphere.

Giddens sees changes in religion as part of the latest stage in development, which he calls High
Modernity, rather than part of postmodernity. The central feature of late modernity is increased
reflexivity- constant monitoring of and reflection on social life in order to improve it. Reflexivity can
produce a questioning of religion, can produce uncertainty but it also undermines individual’s sense of
self. People no longer blindly follow tradition but have to make choices about who they are and what
they want to become. This can lead to a sense of personal meaningless; religion can fill the vacuum left
by the decline of tradition. Furthermore, Fundamentalist interpretation of Islam has become popular
because of the failure of modernization to bring prosperity and certainty to most ordinary Muslims and
the constant interference of western countries in the Islamic world.

Fundamentalism is the response to society in which there is no certainty and tradition has lost its
influence (detraditionalization). In a Globalized world in which competing religions exist side by side,
some people react against the uncertainty, and seek definite answers about how to live their lives, by
adopting a rigid interpretation of their particular religion. Bauman agrees with Giddens that there is
increased reflexivity in the contemporary world which can be problematic for individuals thus it has
resulted in growth of fundamentalism.

(2nd side)

Almond et al identify similar structural factors to Bruce, but think that some major factors (other than
uncertainty) are also important in encouraging the development of fundamentalism. Growth of higher
education undermines traditional beliefs & increase the influence of rationalism which encourages
some Christians to turn to Fundamentalism. Development of communication provided opportunities to
fundamentalists to organize & spread their message e.g. use of media, internet, owning TV stations etc.
Moreover, high levels of recent migration and the displacement of people by war has also opened
people to new religious motives and movements thus fundamentalism has increased.

Western imperialism resulting in an anti-imperialist movement e.g. Iranian opposition to US

involvement in the region is also another reason for fundamentalist’s growth. According to Almond et al
Fundamentalism only thrive when the right combination of structural factors, chance factors and
leadership comes together at a specific place & time. In history frequent times Fundamentalism
occurred for the sake of nationalism and to achieve freedom from alien nations (rather than searching
for peace and certainty). In Hinduism, the Holy book Bhagavad Gita sees killing to maintain social order
as a duty of members of the ksatriya (warrior) caste. The Hindu goddess destruction, Kali, inspire some
Hindus to use violence to oppose British rule before independence in 1947 and contemporary Hindu
nationalism had been used to justify violence in recent times.

Religion has been used to legitimate nationalism in a world in which many groups feel that they need to
protect the nation state or achieve independence in order to protect their religion. Sometimes it’s also
perceived that religion needs protecting on a global scale from the threats posed cultural and economic
globalization. Furthermore, the world is now divided between civilizations which are western,
Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu etc. Religion is very important in differentiating most of the
civilizations. Where these civilizations come into contact, conflict tends still break out e.g. clashes
between Muslims and the West, Muslims and Hindus in the Indian subcontinent, orthodox serbs,
Catholics & Muslims in the former Yugoslavia. This has given a rise to fundamentalism.

So, to some extent, fundamentalism has grown widely due to modernity and secularization in PM
societies. Modern rational thoughts bring uncertainty so people seek answers among religion to find
their spirituality and identity, Fundamentalism grew because of this. But to a great extent, higher
education, advanced communication means and technology has also given a boost to fundamentalism.
Interference of foreign nations and strong ideology of nationalism has also been very prominent for the
growth of fundamentalists movements.