NOTE

C H E M I S T R Y

PERIODIC PROPERTIES
ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND DEPENDENT PROPERTIES

What you already know

• Ionisation energy • Screening effect

• Electron gain enthalpy • Factors affecting ionisation energy

• Electron affinity • Factors affecting electron gain enthalpy

• Atomic Radius

What you will learn

• Electronegativity • Applications of electronegativity

• Scales of electronegativity • Difference between electron gain

enthalpy and electronegativity
• Electronegativity trends
• Diagonal relationship
• Valency and oxidation state
• Lanthanide contraction
• Chemical reactivity

MAIN BOARDS
Electronegativity

Electronegativity of an element is the tendency

of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons
more towards itself in a molecule.
The electron cloud is distributed symmetrically
in the case of H2, while there is an asymmetrical
distribution of electron cloud in case of HCl H - CI H-H
(Fig. 1). In HCl, the electron pair is attracted
more towards Chlorine that makes Cl to attain a Fig. 1: Symmetric and asymmetric electron
partial negative charge (represented by 𝛅–) and cloud around H2 and HCl molecule.
H, a partial positive charge (represented by 𝛅+).
The electronegativity of any given element is not constant. It varies depending on the element
to which it is bound. Unlike the ionisation energy and the electron gain enthalpy, which have the
fixed values for an element, the electronegativity values are not constant, they change depending
on the element to which it is bound.

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MAIN BOARDS
Different Scales of Electronegativity

Now, let us discuss the different scales of electronegativity. Though electronegativity is not a
measurable quantity, a number of numerical scales of electronegativity of elements have been
developed, to understand it in a better way. It is similar to the latitudes and longitudes present
on the globe for understanding. However, in reality, these are not the tangible lines. The different
scales of electronegativity are as follows:

Electronegativity scale

Pauling scale Mulliken-Jaffe scale Allred-Rochow scale

Electronegativity Scales

Here, we will study about the Pauling scale and Mulliken-Jaffe scale of electronegativity.

Pauling scale of electronegativity

Let us start our discussion with the Pauling scale of electronegativity. Pauling scale is the most
commonly used scale for electronegativity. American scientist Linus Pauling (1922) arbitrarily
assigned a value of 4.0 to Fluorine, the element considered to have the highest electronegativity.

Element(Group 1) Electronegativity value Element (Group 17) Electronegativity value

Li 1.0 F 4.0

Na 0.9 Cl 3.0

K 0.8 Br 2.8

Rb 0.8 I 2.5

Cs 0.7 At 2.2

Table 1: Electronegativity values of group 1 and group 17 (Pauling scale)

We observe from the table that Fluorine has the highest electronegativity. Also, as we go down
the group, electronegativity of an element decreases.
Alkali metals (Group 1 elements) have low electronegativity, whereas halogens (Group 17 elements)
have a very high electronegativity.
Some of the inert gases have almost zero electronegativity values (He and Ne).
As we can see from the given periodic table (where electronegativity values for the elements are
written according to the Pauling scale) in Fig. 2,
• Down the group, electronegativity decreases.
• Along the period, electronegativity increases.
• Noble gases generally have very low electronegativity values (i.e., tendency to attract the
shared pair of electrons towards itself).

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Lanthanides

Actinides

Fig. 2: Electronegativity values (Pauling Scale)

Pauling developed a method for calculating the relative electronegativities for the most of the
elements.
Method to calculate electronegativity (Pauling Scale)
1
 
1 2
∆ = χ A - χB = 0.208 × Ε A - B - ( Ε A - A × ΕB - B ) 2 
Where  

• EA - B is the bond energy of A – B • E
 B – B is the bond energy of B – B

bond (kcal/mol) bond (kcal/mol)

• EA - A is the bond energy of A – A • 𝜒A is Electronegativity of A
bond (kcal/mol) • 𝜒B is Electronegativity of B

• Fluorine is the element having the highest electronegativity in the periodic table.
• C
 hlorine is the element having the highest electron gain enthalpy in the periodic
table.
• In the periodic table, along the period, electronegativity increases.
• In the periodic table, down the group, electronegativity decreases.

Mulliken scale of electronegativity

According to the Mulliken scale, electronegativity 𝜒(chi) is taken as the arithmetic mean of the
Ionisation Energy (IE) and the Electron Affinity (EA) of an atom (both expressed in eV/atom).

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IE + EA
χM =
2
Higher the ionisation energy and the electron affinity of an atom, higher will be its electronegativity.
This scale fails in the case of noble gases, which have higher IE values and generally lower
electronegativity values.

MAIN BOARDS
General Trends of Electronegativity

Electronegativity and atomic radius

• As we go down the group, the atomic size increases and the electronegativity decreases.
• As we move along the period, the atomic size decreases and the electronegativity increases.

Atomic radius
Electronegativity
Electronegativity
Atomic radius

Lanthanides

Actinides

Fig. 3: Electronegativity and atomic radius trends in the periodic table

Electronegativity and nonmetallic nature

Nonmetallic elements have a strong tendency to gain electrons. Therefore, electronegativity

is directly related to the nonmetallic nature of elements.
• A
 s we move down a group, the metallic character increases, the nonmetallic character
decreases, and the electronegativity decreases. In the periodic table, alkali metals are
strong metals and halogens are strong non-metals.
• A
 s we move along the period, the nonmetallic character increases, the metallic character
decreases, and the electronegativity increases. (Fig. 4)

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Nonmetallic nature
Electronegativity
Nonmetallic nature
Electronegativity

Lanthanides

Actinides

Fig. 4: Electronegativity and nonmetallic character trends in the periodic table

MAIN BOARDS
Applications of Electronegativity

• T
 he acidic and basic properties of metal oxides can be predicted. As the difference in
electronegativity of O and an element increases, the basic strength of oxides of different elements
increases.

The
 oxides of the metals on reaction with water give hydroxides (basic solutions). Therefore,
metallic oxides are basic in nature (for example, oxides of Magnesium and Calcium).

The oxides of the nonmetals on reaction with water give acids (acidic solutions). Therefore,
nonmetallic oxides are acidic in nature (for example, oxides of Sulphur).

• It also helps in predicting the nature of the bond between two atoms, i.e., ionic or covalent. If
the electronegativity difference between the atoms is greater than 1.7 or 1.9 (in some books, the
value is given as 1.9), then the bond is ionic or electrovalent. For example, in the case of NaCl,
Na has low ionisation energy and therefore loses an electron to become Na+, and Cl has high
electron gain enthalpy and thus accepts an electron to become Cl–. Hence, there is presence
of complete positive and negative charges on Na and Cl respectively. So, the bond forms as a
result of the ionic attraction between the cation and the anion (Δ polar covalent bond value is
2.1).
 However,
 in the case of H – Cl, Chlorine being more electronegative, pulls the shared pair of
electrons towards itself, resulting in partial positive and negative charges on H (𝛅+) and Cl (𝛅–)
respectively. The type of bond that exists in H – Cl is a polar covalent bond (Δ value is 0.9).

Wherever the partial positive charges come into picture in the case of covalent bonding, the
concept of polarity also comes, about which we will study in detail in ‘Chemical Bonding’.
 can also predict whether the covalent compound is homoatomic or heteroatomic from the
We
delta values.

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For
 example, in H2 (homoatomic), the delta value is 0, while in HCl (heteroatomic), it has a non
zero value.

• A
 s the difference in electronegativities (ΔEN) between two atoms in a molecule decreases, the
bond length between the atoms increases.
For example, consider HF, HCl, HBr and HI. As we go down the group, the atomic size increases
(here, Iodine has a larger atomic size). Also, on going down the group, electronegativity difference
decreases (we can calculate the electronegativity difference using the values given in Table 1).
Therefore, the bond length increases.

Finding Δ values

Find the electronegativity difference values for the following pairs of molecules.
(a) HCl and NaCl (𝜒H = 2.1, 𝜒Cl = 3.0, 𝜒Na = 0.9)
(b) Oxides of sulphur and magnesium (𝜒S = 2.5, 𝜒O = 3.5, 𝜒Mg = 1.0)

Solution

(a) HCl and NaCl

Step 1: Finding the electronegativity values of each element
𝜒 = 2.1, 𝜒 = 3.0, 𝜒 = 0.9
H Cl Na

Step 2: Finding electronegativity difference value of the molecule

We have Δ = 𝜒A - 𝜒B , where 𝜒A = Electronegativity of A, 𝜒B = Electronegativity of B
Δ HCl = 𝜒Cl - 𝜒H = 3.0 - 2.1 = 0.9
Δ NaCl = 𝜒Cl - 𝜒Na = 3.0 - 0.9 = 2.1
Hence, Δ values of HCl and NaCl are 0.9 and 2.1 respectively.
(b) Oxides of sulphur and magnesium
Step 1: Finding the electronegativity values of each element
𝜒S = 2.5, 𝜒O = 3.5, 𝜒Mg = 1.0

Step 2: Finding electronegativity difference value of the molecule

We have Δ = 𝜒A - 𝜒B , where 𝜒A = Electronegativity of A, 𝜒B = Electronegativity of B
Δ oxide of Sulphur = 𝜒O - 𝜒S = 3.5 - 2.5 = 1.0
Δ oxide of magnesium = 𝜒O - 𝜒Mg = 3.5 - 1.0 = 2.5
Hence, Δ values of the oxides of sulphur and magnesium are 1.0 and 2.5 respectively.

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BOARDS
Differences between Electron Gain Enthalpy and Electronegativity

Electron Gain Enthalpy Electronegativity

The amount of energy released when an The tendency of an atom in a molecule to

electron is added to an isolated neutral attract a shared pair of electrons is known
gaseous atom to form uninegative ion is as electronegativity.
known as electron gain enthalpy.

It is the property of isolated gaseous atoms . It is the property of bonded atoms.

It cannot be measured experimentally.

It can be measured experimentally.
It is a relative number.

Table 2: Comparison of Electron gain enthalpy and Electronegativity

MAIN ADVANCED BOARDS

General Trends at a glance
(the properties studied till now)

Electron gain enthalpy

Ionisation energy

Electron gain enthalpy

Electronegativity

Ionisation energy
Atomic radius

allic
Met tallic
me
Non

Lanthanides

Actinides
Atomic radius
Electronegativity
Fig. 5: General trends in the periodic table
As we can see from Fig. 5,
• Atomic Radius
Down the group, atomic radius increases
Along the period, atomic radius decreases

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• Ionisation energy
Down the group, ionisation energy decreases
Along the period, ionisation energy increases
 long the period (from left to right), nonmetallic character increases (The top right corner
• A
has the elements with high nonmetallic character and the bottom left corner has the elements
with less nonmetallic character [arrow marked in Fig. 5]).
 long the period (from left to right), metallic character decreases (The top right corner has
• A
the elements with less metallic character and the bottom left corner has the elements with
high metallic character [arrow marked in Fig. 5]).
• Electron Gain enthalpy
Down the group, electron gain enthalpy decreases
Along the period, electron gain enthalpy increases
• Electronegativity
Down the group, electronegativity decreases
Along the period, electronegativity increases

Based on the relation between electronic configuration and electronegativity

What is the outermost electronic configuration of the most electronegative element?

(A) ns2 np3 (B) ns2 np4 (C) ns2 np5 (D) ns2 np6

Solution

On moving from left to right across any period, electronegativity increases and the halogens have
the highest electronegativity values. So, from the electronic configurations, it can be seen that option
C has a configuration (ns2 np5) belonging to group 17 and it should be the most electronegative
element.
Hence, option (C) is the correct answer.

Based on electronegativity

Which among the following is the correct order of increasing electronegativities?

(A) C < N < Si < P (B) N < Si < C < P
(C) Si < P < C < N (D) P < Si < N < C

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Solution

Electronegativity increases along a period and decreases down the group. Carbon (C) and Silicon
(Si) are members of the 14th group, whereas Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) are members of the
15th group. Carbon and Silicon are placed before Nitrogen and Phosphorus in their respective
periods. So, taking all the factors into account, the order will be Nitrogen having the highest
electronegativity followed by Carbon then Phosphorus and Silicon.
Hence, the option (C) is the correct answer.

Based on electronegativity

With respect to Chlorine, Hydrogen will be which of the following?

(A) Electropositive (B) Electronegative
(C) Neutral (D) Oxidising agent

Solution

Referring to the electronegativity values of Chlorine (3.0) and Hydrogen (2.1), Hydrogen is
electropositive compared to Chlorine.
Hence, option (A) is the correct answer.

Based on the electropositive character of the elements

Which among the following is the correct order of the electropositive nature of Li, Na, and K?
(A) Li > Na > K (B) Li > K > Na
(C) Na > K > Li (D) K > Na > Li

Solution

The given elements (Lithium [Z = 3], Sodium [Z = 11] and Potassium [Z = 19]) are of the same group.
So, the electropositive character increases down the group due to the decrease in the ionisation
energy. Therefore it follows the order, K > Na > Li
Hence, the option (D) is the correct answer.

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MAIN BOARDS
Periodicity of Valency or Oxidation State

The valency of representative elements is usually equal to the number of electrons in the outermost
shell or (8 - number of electrons in the outermost shell). The term oxidation state is frequently used
for valency. Oxidation state of an element is the total number of electrons that an atom can gain
(getting negatively charged) or lose (getting positively charged) in order to form a chemical bond.

Difference between valency and oxidation state

S. No. Valency Oxidation State

It is the charge that an atom of the

element has or appears to have when
present in the combined state with their
It is the combining capacity of an element atoms.
in terms of the number of hydrogen atoms
Or
1 with which the element may combine.
The total charge acquired by the atom
For example, valency of S in H2S is 2 and
during the formation of a molecule is
that of N in NH3 is 3.
also known as oxidation state.
For example, the oxidation number of N
in HNO3 is +5.

It is purely a number and has no plus or It is always assigned a positive (+) or a

minus signs associated with it. negative (-) sign except when it is zero.
2
For example, the valency of N in NH3 is 3 For example, the oxidation number of N
and that of H is 1. in NH3 is -3 and that of H is +1.

It can be a whole number or a fraction.

3 It is always a whole number. For example, the oxidation number of Fe
in Fe3O4 is 8/3.

4 It is a real concept. It is a hypothetical concept.

Table 3: Comparison of valency and oxidation state

Example 1: Na2O
The O.S. of Na is +1 and the O.S. of O is -2 (As O is more electronegative than Na).
Example 2: OF2
The O.S. of F is -1 and the O.S. of O is +2 (As F is more electronegative than O).

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MAIN BOARDS
General Trends of Valency

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

Number of
valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electrons

Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

Table 4: General trends of valency

Variation along a period

The number of valence electrons from left to right increases from 1 to 8. However, the valency of
an element first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to zero.
Valency = (8 - Number of valence electrons)

Variation within a group

On moving down the group, the number of valence electrons remains the same. Therefore, all the
elements in a group exhibit the same valency.
For example, alkali metal elements have a valency of 1 and an oxidation state of +1.
Some periodic trends observed in the valence of elements (hydrides and oxides) are shown in
Table 5.
Hydrides and oxides of Group 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 elements have the valencies 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2
and 1 respectively, which is that along the period, valency of an element first increases from 1 to 4
and then decreases to zero. Down the group, there is no change in valency. Thus, group valency
is constant, but period valency is not constant.

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16

LiH B2H6 CH4 NH3 H2O

Formula NaH CaH2 AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2S
of hydride KH GeH4 AsH3 H2Se
SnH4 SbH3 H2Te

Li2O MgO B2O3 CO2 N2O3, N2O5

Na2O CaO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6, P4O10 SO3
Formula
K2O SrO Ga2O3 GeO2 As2O3, As2O5 SeO3
of oxide
BaO In2O3 SnO2 Sb2O3, Sb2O5 TeO3
PbO2 Bi2O3

Table 5: Periodic trends in the valency of elements as shown by the formulae of their compounds

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MAIN BOARDS
Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity

After discussing the valency and its general trends, let us now move on to discussion of chemical
reactivity and periodic trends. The effective nuclear charge increases from left to right across
the period causing the atomic and the ionic radii to decrease. This results in the high chemical
reactivity at the two extremes. Chemical reactivity is the least at the centre.

Chemical reactivity with Oxygen

The elements on the two extremes of the period easily combine with Oxygen to form their oxides.

Acidic Basic Amphoteric

oxide oxide oxide

• Acidic oxides are non-metallic oxides that have a high oxidation state generally (+6, +7).
Examples: SO3, Cl2O7
• 
Basic oxides are metallic oxides that have a low oxidation state generally (+1, +2).
Examples: NaO, K2O
• Amphoteric oxides have oxidation state in between, that is, not too high or low (+3, +4).
Examples: Al2O3, ZnO

MAIN BOARDS
Anomalous Behaviour of Second Period Elements

Let us first understand the term anomaly. It refers to something that deviates from what is standard,
normal, or expected. Let us now understand the anomalous term with the help of an analogy. There
are a lot of deviations that happen while fixing a study time of 10 hrs for a day. In this case, deviations
are in the form of distractions due to mobile phones, talking with friends, etc. The anomalies here
are of the following types:

Diagonal d-orbital
relationship Half filled contraction
and fully filled Lathanoid
electronic contraction
configuration

Fig. 6: Factors leading to anomalies in second period elements

We have already discussed the role of half filled and fully filled electronic configurations while
discussing the anomalies present in the ionisation energies. Let us now look at the reasons for
second period elements showing diagonal behaviour.

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Why do second period elements show anomalous behaviour?

• T
 hey are the smallest ones in their respective groups.
• They have the highest charge to radius ratio in their respective groups.
• They have the highest electronegativities in their respective groups.
•  Other elements can expand their valency due to presence of extra orbitals. This is not possible
for the second period elements because of the absence of d orbitals.
•  The maximum covalency of the second period elements is 4.

Covalency is defined as the number of covalent bonds formed by an element. For

example, [BF4] – is having maximum covalency, i.e., 4. Boron is forming 4 bonds with
Fluorine as it is a second group element. Likewise, in [AlF6]3–, covalency is 6. Aluminium
is forming 6 bonds with Fluorine, even though it is a third group element.

Exceptional behaviours of Lithium and Beryllium

Li and Be show exceptional behaviours from the rest of the family members.
Li, unlike other alkali metals, and Be, unlike other alkaline earth metals, form compounds with
pronounced covalent character. This can be explained by a diagonal relationship.

Diagonal Relationship

When the first element in a group resembles the second element of the next higher group, it is
known as a diagonal relationship.

• Li and Be show exceptional behaviours from their respective group members. They have
more similarities with the diagonal elements of the following group.
•  They are more similar to the second element of their following group. This sort of similarity is
known as diagonal relationship in the periodic properties.

The diagonal relationship can be drawn only between the second and third periods.
Moving to higher periods, d-orbitals also come into picture along with change in screening
the effect. Thus, Zeff.

Size

Size
Fig. 7: Elements showing diagonal relationship

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As we move along the period, the size decreases and on moving down the group, the size
increases. As a result, we have a resulting vector and therefore, we have the diagonal relationship
between the elements. These elements have similar polarising power.

Variation of atomic radii in d-block elements

We have already discussed the d-orbital contraction in detail. Here, we will discuss it briefly before
moving on to ‘Lanthanide Contraction’.
•  Among the atomic radii of the transition elements, Group 3 elements show expected increase
down the group.
• However, from Group 4 to Group 12, there is no predominant decrease in the atomic radii for
the 4d and the 5d series elements due to the poor shielding by the d-orbitals.

Covalent radii of transition elements

Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni

Covalent radii (pm) 144 132 122 117 117 117 116 115

Element Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd

Covalent radii (pm) 162 145 134 129 – 124 125 128

Element La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt

Covalent radii (pm) 169 144 134 130 128 126 126 128

Table 6: Covalent radii of transition elements

As we can observe from the table, on moving from left to right in the period, the size remains
almost the same. There is a very slight decrease in size. This is due to the poor shielding effect of
the d-orbitals.

MAIN ADVANCED BOARDS

Variation of Atomic Radii in Lanthanides

Lanthanide contraction

In a lanthanide, the differentiating electron enters into the 4f subshell. Due to the complex structure
of f-orbitals, these are poor shielders of nuclear force of attraction. The outermost electron
experiences more nuclear force of attraction with the size decrease being more than expected.
This is known as lanthanide contraction. The anti-penultimate 4f shell is filled with electrons
in the 14 lanthanide elements between lanthanum and hafnium (5d series). This results in very
poor shielding effect. There is a steady decrease in the atomic radii of the lanthanide elements
from cerium to lutetium. This is known as lanthanide contraction. Also, it cancels out the normal
increase in size on descending a group in case of transition elements.

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Consequences of the lanthanide contraction

• The atomic radii of 4d and 5d series have a similarity. For example, Zr and Hf show similar
atomic radii.
• Also, lanthanides show similar physical and chemical properties.

Based on lanthanide contraction

Why is the lanthanide contraction caused?

(A) The appreciable shielding of the outer electrons by the 4f electrons from the nuclear charge.
(B) The appreciable shielding of the outer electrons by the 5d electrons from the nuclear charge.
(C) The same effective nuclear charge from Ce to Lu.
(D) The imperfect shielding of the outer electrons by the 4f electrons from the nuclear charge.

Solution

Due to the imperfect shielding of the outer electrons by the 4f orbital, it results in lanthanide
contraction.
Hence, the option (D) is the correct answer.

Based on lanthanide contraction

Which of the following pairs of elements have nearly the same atomic radii?
(A) Ti (22) & Zr (40) (B) Zr (40) & Nb (41)
(C) Zr (40) & Hf (72) (D) Zr (40) & Ta (73)

Solution

Due to the lanthanide contraction, there is no significant increase in the size of 4d and 5d series
elements. So, Zr (40) and Hf (72) have almost the same size.
Hence, the option (C) is the correct answer.

Mindful question from the previous session

Find the elements in the periodic table that are named after female scientists.
Marie Curie and Lise Meitner are the female scientists on whose names the elements Curium (Cm)
Z = 96, Meitnerium (Mt) Z = 109 are named.

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Summary sheet

 lectronegativity: Electronegativity of an element is a qualitative measure of the ability of an

• E
atom to attract the shared pair of electrons more towards itself in a chemical compound.
• Pauling scale of electronegativity
1
 
1 2
∆ = χ A - χB = 0.208 × Ε A - B - ( Ε A - A × ΕB - B ) 2 
 
Where
• E
 A - B is the bond energy of A – B • E
 B – B is the bond energy of B – B
bond (kcal/mol) bond (kcal/mol)
• E
 A - A is the bond energy of A – A • 𝜒A is Electronegativity of A
bond (kcal/mol) • 𝜒B is Electronegativity of B
 ulliken Scale of Electronegativity: Electronegativity (chi) is taken as the arithmetic mean of
• M
the Ionisation Energy (IE) and the Electron Affinity (EA) of an atom (both expressed in eV/atom).
• A
 pplications of electronegativity

• The acidic and basic properties of metal oxides can be predicted.

• It also helps in predicting the nature of the bond between two atoms.
• As the difference in electronegativities (ΔEN) between two atoms in a molecule increases,
the bond length between the atoms decreases.
• P eriodicity of valence or oxidation state: Oxidation state of an element is the total number of
electrons that an atom can gain (getting negatively charged) or lose (getting positively charged)
in order to form a chemical bond.

 alency: It is the combining capacity of an element in terms of number of hydrogen atoms

• V
with which the element may combine.

• Variation along a period

T
 he number of valence electrons from left to right increases from 1 to 8. However, the valency
of an element first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to zero.

• V ariation within a group

On moving down the group, the number of valence electrons remains the same. Therefore,
all the elements in a group exhibit the same valency.

• Why do second period elements show anomalous behaviour?

• They are the smallest ones in their respective groups

• They have the highest charge to radius ratio in their respective groups.
• They have the highest electronegativities in their respective groups.
• Other elements can expand their valency due to presence of extra orbitals. This is not
possible for the second period elements.
• The maximum covalency of the second period elements is 4 where the covalency is the
number of covalent bonds formed by an element.

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• D
 iagonal relationship

• L i and Be show exceptional behaviours from their respective group members. They have
more similarities with the diagonal elements of the following group.
• This sort of similarity is known as a diagonal relationship in the periodic properties.

anthanide contraction: The anti-penultimate 4f shell is filled with electrons in the 14

• L
lanthanide elements between Lanthanum and Hafnium (5d series). This results in very poor
shielding effect. There is a steady decrease in the atomic radii of the lanthanide elements from
Cerium to Lutetium. This is known as lanthanide contraction.

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