Experience in longwall mining at

Coalbrook Collieries
by P. G. HENDERSON*. B.Sc. Eng. (Min.). M.B.A. (Member)
SYNOPSIS
Coalbrook Collieries has produced approximately 2 million tons of coal by retreat longwalling since April 1976.
Strata control. support. stone intrusions. coal conveyance, and the inflow of goaf and water between the face sup-
ports have been the major operational problems experienced to date. The progressive percentage availability of the
total system (moves between panels excluded) for the first three panels mined was 40 per cent. Satisfactory solutions
have been evolved for these problems. and the availability in the present panel (fourth panel) has increased to
approximately 60 per cent. It is envisaged that longwalling will become the most economical method of ensuring
optimum heat values, greater recovery. and reduced geographic expansion. as well as safer roof conditions. at
Coal brook.

SAMEVATTING
Coalbrook Collieries het sedert April 1976 ongeveer 2 miljoen ton steenkool met truwaartse strookafbou gemyn.
Stratabeheer, bestutting. klipindringings. vervoer van steenkool en die invloei van puin en water tussen die front-
stutte was die grootste bedryfsprobleme tot dusver ondervind. Die progressiewe beskikbare produksietyd van die
totale stelsel vir die eerste drie panele (verskuiwings tussen panele uitgesluit) was 40 persent. Bevredigende op-
lossings vir die probleme is gevind en die beskikbaarheid in die huidige paneel (vierde paneel) het tot ongeveer 60
persent gestyg. Die verwagting is dat strookafbou die mees ekonomies mynboumetode sal word om optimum
hittewaardes. groter herwinning en beperkte geografiese uitbreiding asook veiliger daktoestande op Coal brook te
verseker.

Introduction costs of geographic expansion, the relatively high

Coalbrook Collieries, which is situated in the Vaal capital expenditure involved in a longwall installation
Basin coalfield approximately 20 km south-east of requires the consistent attainment of high rates of
Sasolburg, supplies approximately 3,5 million tons of production. The recent performance of the installation
low-grade bituminous coal per annum to Escom's gives rise to optimism that these rates can be achieved.
Taaibos and Highveld power stations. Some 30 per cent
of the output is mined by retreat longwalling, while the Reasons for Introduction of Longwalling
balance is produced by continuous miner and conven-
At Coalbrook Collieries, three coal seams (no. I, no. 2,
tional mechanized bord-and-pillar sections.
and no. 3 seams) are available to meet the quality
The longwall installation has been in operation
specifications in terms of calorific value and content of
since April 1976 and has mined approximately 2,0
volatile matter demanded by Taaibos and Highveld
million tons to date. Three panels have been completed,
power stations.
and production started in the fourth panel during
Bord-and-pillar mining by means of hand-got, con-
August 1979. On average, the longwall face produced
ventional mechanized, and continuous miner methods
approximately 665 t per shift in the first three panels,
has been extensively applied. Owing to the poor mining
with an average availability of 40 per cent excluding
conditions and the depth of the workings, the percent-
longwall moves. Mining difficulties associated with
age extraction of the reserves is extremely low, while the
adverse geological conditions accounted for some 21
mining costs are among the highest in the Transvaal
per cent of these delays, while engineering problems on
and Orange Free State coalfields. Bord-and-pillar
the shearer, armoured-face conveyor, and outbye
mining at 200 m with a safety factor of 1,6 and geo-
conveyor system accounted for approximately 9 per
logical losses of approximately 10 per cent results in an
cent, 10 per cent, and 15 per cent respectively. The
effective extraction percentage in no. I or no. '2 seam of
production from the present panel has improved to
1680 t per shift, with an average availability of approxi- 35 per cent. Where these seams are separated by less
mately 60 per cent, as shown in Table I. than 3 m of parting, only one seam can be extracted by
The best weekly output achieved is 34 880 t, while the bord-and-pillar methods because the parting is lamin-
best daily output over three shifts is 8000 t. Cost com- ated shale and sandstone of inferior nature. The effective
parisons with the other mining methods applied at extraction of the reserves in no. I and no 2 seam is
Coalbrook are being reviewed in the light of improved therefore approximately 18 per cent. It is therefore
possible by longwall mining to increase the percentage
conditions, and modification and experience of the
equipment. However, there are indications that the recovery of coal from something less than 30 per cent
operational costs of longwalling compare favourably. to approximately 70 per cent.
Although the longwalling method results in reduced The roof conditions in no. 2 seam are extremely poor.
There is a regional line of weakness that runs roughly in
the same direction as the main east-west development
*General Mining and Finance Corporation Ltd. Witbank, of the mine. This weakness, together with fracturing due
Transvaal. to differential compaction, breaks the roof up badly,

22 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
 TABLE I
LONGWALL REPORT, COALBROOK COLLIERIES

Panel 4
Week ending
79.09.29 79.10-06 79-10-13 79-10-20 79-10-27 79-11-03
1.0 Production
1.1 Weekly budget 23000 25 000 25000 25000 25 000 28 000
1.2 Weekly actual 23048 27 217 27566 23 106 22 756 32292
1.3 Progressive weekly
average 18519 19605 20490 20 751 20917 21 865
1.4 Total progressive for
panel 130 436 157 653 185 219 208325 230 901 263 193
2.0 Delays *F
-----------
*p F P F P F P F P F P
2.1 Maintenance 12 9,1 II 6,8 10 7,8 10 7,1 9 5,8 12 7,7

2.2 Shearer 3
-----------
1,5 8 3,2 3 0,9 2 0,4 0 0,0 3 1,6
2.3 Face conveyor 6
-----------
3,9 3 1,9 4 2,9 1 8,4 2 4,0 4 1,3
2.4 Stage loader 2
-----------
2,8 0 0,0 0 0,0 2 1,1 0 0,0 1 0,2

2.5 Face supports 0

-----------
0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0
2.6 Section cables 0
-----------
0,0 3 1,3 1 0,4 1 0,3 0 0,0 0 0,0
2.7 Gate conveyor 1
-----------
0,4 3 1,2 1 1,6 5 2,6 2 1,6 3 1,3
2.8 Energy train 0
-----------
0,0 0 0,0 1 0,4 1 0,6 0 0,0 3 1,1
2.9 Pick change 0
-----------
0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0
2.10 Move stage loader 0
-----------
0,0 6 6,3 1 0,4 2 0,6 0 0,0 2 1,4
2.11 Face falls of roof 0
-----------
0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0
2.12 Face slabbing 0
-----------
0,0 3 2,0 3 4,1 6 2,6 4 3,4 3 0,6
2.13 Gate falls of roof 0
-----------
0,0 0 0,0 .0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0
2.14 Inflow of groundwater 0
-----------
0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 1 0,2
2.15 Gas 0
-----------
0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0 0 0,0
2.16 Water supply 3
-----------
2,1 2 0,4 3 0,6 0 0,0 0 0,0 2 0,5
2.17 Power supply 0
-----------
0,0 1 0,4 0 0,0 3 1,6 1 0,2 1 0,4
2.18 Main conveyors 15
-----------
10,0 1 2,3 21 8,6 19 8,5 35 25,5 39 12,6
2.19 Shaft conveyor system 3
-----------
3,4 23 8,4 9 3,1 26 8,0 10 2,6 5 1,3
2.20 Others 0
-----------
0,0 1 0,2 4 1,0 2 0,5 5 1,0 2 0,6
2.21 Total downtime
-----------
33,2 34,6 31,7 42,3 43,9 30,7
3.0 Performance
-----------
3.1 Percentage availability 66,8 65,4 68,3 57,7 56,1 69,3
3.2 Weekly available
production time (hours) 88,3 86,3 90,2 75,8 74,0 91,4
3.3 Progressive available
production time (hours) 517,5 603,8 694,0 769,8 843,8 935,2
3.4 Weekly tons per avail.
able production hour 261,0 315,4 305,6 304,8 305,1 353,3
3.5 Progressive tons per
available hour for panel 252,0 261,1 266,8 270,6 273,6 281,4
F Frequency
**p Percentage

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 23
especially on the northern side of the east-west road- UOOO
0000
ways. In addition, the shales immediately above the no. 0000
0000 c::JCJCJCJCJCJc::JCJCJc:::JCJc::Jc::J
2 seam deteriorate very rapidly when exposed. At least 0000
0000
1 m of coal is therefore left ifl the roof of bord-and- 0000
pillar workings in the no. 2 seam, which obviously 0000
0000 ~
further decreases the percentage recovery, and coal with 1°0[:0
0000
better heat values is often found in this roof coal in the 0000
1
,DODO
no. 2 seam. Excessive pillar scaling often results in 0000
unsafe mining conditions. Although systematic roof- 0000
1
DODO
bolting is applied in the coal pillars, weathering of the 0000
0000
coal and the midseam shale band (in the no. 2 seam) 0000
results in the scaling of large slabs. The longwall method DODO
0000
of mining affords better protection against these sources DODO
DODO
of danger. 0000
0000
Although conventional mechanized and continuous 0000
mining methods are employed at Coalbrook, the opera- DODO
DODO
tion has become rather labour-intensive. The rapid 0000
0000
expansion of the mine as a result of the low percentage 0000
0000
extraction and the adverse roof and pillar scaling 0000
conditions, necessitates the employment of large num- DODO
0000
bers of workmen in the backbye areas. It is estimated 0000
nnnn
that the mine's total labour force could be reduced
Fig. I-Layout of the longwalling
from the present complement of 2300 to 1800 if longwall
mining were applied more extensively. Cost estimates and
roads are driven on either side of the face line by con-
experience thus far indicate that a totallongwall opera-
tinuous miners. The tailgate road is 4 m wide and accom-
tion at Coalbrook will be the most economical mining
modates the energy train, which is railmounted. The
method if the longwall units can produce at least 90 000
maingate road is 5 m wide and carries the stage loader,
tlm consistently. crusher, and 1200 mm panel conveyor. At this stage, the
Another prime reason for the introduction of long-
maingate road and companion, as well as the tailgate
walling at Coalbrook is that it will provide firsthand
road, serve as intake airways. The return air returns
production and cost information for the possible intro-
through the tailgate companions.
duction of longwalling on a much larger scale at Matla
The installation consists of 135 Dowty 450 t four-leg
Coal. The contract awarded by Escom to Trans-Natal
chock shields, 11 Dowty 450 t four-leg shields, an
Coal Corporation and Clydesdale Collieries for the sup-
Eickhoff E.D.W. 600L shearer, and a Halbach and
ply of coal to the new 3600 MW Matla power station
Braun EKF4 armoured-face conveyor and stage loader
recognized the need for the investigation of high-
with Auldsman & Beckshulte crusher. The energy train
extraction methods of mining. The Coal brook installa-
is made up of a mobile compressor and store, cable cart,
tion also provides an excellent 'in-company' training
hydraulic power pack, three transformers, and switchgear

~.
ground for longwall mining personnel.
as illustrated in Fig. 2.

....
An added advantage of longwalling at Coal brook is

~.
the possibility of improving the heat value of the coal
produced. The 1 to 1,5 m of coal left with bord-and-
pillar mining in the roof of the no. 2 seam can be ex-
tracted within the longwall panel. It is expected that
the immediate forward support facility on the face
supports will render adequate support if the shales

~ C""",essor

....
Mobilest..e
above the no. 2 seam are exposed. This method is being
tried at present with promising results. ~"1 co!!
Also, longwalling is probably the only feasible method
of extracting the higher-quality no. 1 seam coal in a
double-seam extraction operation where the parting is
~_.. Sta e loader

t
less than 3m between the no. 2 seam and the no. 1 seam.
Crusher

Method of Longwalling
The longwall operates on the retreat system with a Shearer
a;n ate
face length of 215 m and a shearing height of between dhve.
2,2 and 2,8 m, as shown in Fig. 1.
The faces lie in an east-west direction, this being the
axis along which an apparent li:J.e of weakness exists in
the roof strata throughout the coalfield. Panel lengths
could vary between 800 and 4000 m, depending on lay-
out, and geological and quality considerations. Three
~ Fig. 2-Layout of the installation
11

24 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
 A 34 mm single-strand flight chain powered by two
250 kW motors is in use. The coal is end-discharged onto VVV' VVV'
VVV' Soil i. clay
the stage loader, which feeds it through a crusher set !20m VVV' VVV'
at 20 cm. The automatic tensioning device for the panel -- VVV'
. ..
conveyor is situated at the drive end of the panel ,
," .
.... ..
conveyor.
Conventional bi-directional shearing is applied at . ,
present, while the half-face method was used on the
, '. .' , .
second panel, which had a face length of 120 m.
:!:55m
. , ,
The longwall operates from Monday 6 a.m. to Satur- Sandstone
." "
day 6 p.m. on the basis of 3 shifts per day. Routine , ,
inspection and lubrication services are done on each , , . '
'" .
shift. At this stage, the sub-units of the system (i.e., " '
"
. " " " '"
shearer, armoured.face conveyor, stage loader, etc.) " '
-- . ,
receive a weekly routine maintenance on different days
of the week, while major overhauls are done when the . . . ..
equipment is moved from one panel to the next. Informa-
tion on the performance of the sub-units is being pro-
. .. x
cessed in order to relate maintenance
duced.
to tonnage pro-
Ham ." x x
x
Doter ite
x x
x x
Operational Problems . , . ,r-.,-.,:
, . . ",-..,
1 "- --- -.- --
- --

Horizon Control
The distribution of average calorific values of the :!:25m ~A'. '"n", Sandstone & shale
" ".
no. 1 and no. 2 seams is shown in Fig. 3. , ' r--r- ,~r\
=-- +2m Coal (No. 3 Seam)
,
~V'~ . "".'. /-0.;...
~25m hA. ' '.r;~ . Sandstone & shale
".~,.
r;'\t;" ,
Shale ---
. . 1'";\
~
:!:5m Coal (No. 2 Seam)
._- -Sandstone & shale
~3m........ . 'J~Coal (No 1 Seam)
I
" " Sandstone
1.5- "gm 17 - 20MJ/kg

T
Fig, 4-A typical borehole section

niques to determine the presence of stone intrusions was

, No.2 Seam ('.5 - 8.sm) fairly successful.
0,2- 2,Om - 13MJIkg Difficulties were experienced in controlling the cutting
horizon in the no. 2 seam on the first two panels. Owing
0.6- 3,9m' 16 - 22MJI kg to the weak shale roof immediately above the coal in the
J- no. 2 seam, the primary development is done leaving at
least Im of coal below the shale. This is achieved by
Sandstone I Shale relating the mining horizon to three bright coal bands
or the shale band, which is generally present in the no. 2
Sandstone marker seam. The same horizon is followed in the longwall face
r- using the same indicators. Since some of the higher heat
'.7 - s.3m 20 -2sMJ/kg No.1
Seam values appear to be in the coal that is being left against
the shale roof, an attempt is being made in the present
~
Sandstone
panel to cut as close as possible to the shale roof. Both
ends of the face are slightly curved to align the roof
horizon of the face with the roof in the gate roads,
Fig. 3-Section through no. I and no. 2 seams which, as explained, is at least 1 m below the shale roof.
This method appears to be working well, and may be
the only way to improve the calorific value of the coal
The no. 1 seam, which was longwalled in the previous
produced from the no. 2 seam since bord-and-pillar
panel (no. 3 panel), contained occasional sandstone
mining cannot be applied within 1 to 1,5 m of the shale
intrusions. The stone caused excessive wear and damage
roof.
to the armoured-face conveyor, cutting picks and
surface mills. Horizon control in the no. 1 seam was Face Alignment
achieved by staying clear of the sandstone band in the Fa()e alignment is controlled by observing the position
roof and by limiting the cutting width in order to of cyalume fluorescent tubes suspended from the sup-
minimize cutting of stone rolls on the floor. A limited ports, and through regular face surveys. The initial prob-
application of horizontal drilling and surveying tech- lems experienced in keeping the faces straight were over-

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 25
come mainly by correcting the face line on day shift only
when more senior supervision was available.
Face Support (r: --
Major roof control problems were experienced in the
first panel. The roof supports were initially designed for -;fA --
immediate forward support in a 'one-web-back' method
of working. The load that the cantilevers could support
(i.e. 10 t) proved to be insufficient to carry the immediate -=f-
-
//
J) ¥ --
roof in the face. Several falls of roof between the face
and supports were experienced.
The borehole section displayed in Fig. 4 shows a 40 m
thick competent dolerite sill that is present over most
---
--
/ (7\
-
-)-
~\~
I
'3Om ----

of the area to be longwalled.

On the first face, which was 200 m long, this dolerite
--- )
-fC\\ --
sill collapsed only when the face had retreated approxi-
mately 250 m. After that, the surface elevations taken
7~ ------
Roof
indicated that major breaks occurred fairly consistently
at 50 to 70 m retreat intervals. The weight of the dolerite Coal ..am
in cantilever caused severe pre-formed breaks in the roof
and coal seam ahead of the retreating face. The pressure Fig. 6-A face break
exerted by the dolerite in cantilever together with these
pre-face breaks caused the falls of roof as illustrated in R
Figs. 5 and 6. The situation was aggravated when the
heavy weight conditions coincided with geological Roofbolt

disturbances or slow face advance due to technical How the angle irons and Ihe
R S J's are bolted 10 Ihe lace.
problems.
The immediate problem after such a fall was to remove
the rock and support the void created, as shown in
Coal sUm
Fig. 7. The cavity formed in the roof is basically bridged
with steel girders resin-bolted to the face and supported
on the main canopies. Heavy face dowelling is required
Fig. 7-Support of a face break
to control spalling, and it is advisable to install resin
roofbolts at an angle in the roof contact. Utmost care
must be taken during the first webs after the fall to
control the roof horizon and to bring the supports in
behind the shearer as soon as possible.
It is often necessary to break up large lumps on the
Fig. 8-Section showing the clearing of face break debris
armoured face conveyor by means of blasting. During
comparatively large falls when the armoured face
conveyor was stuck, it became necessary to install a was decided to remove the extensions and advance the
temporary conveyor on the armoured face conveyor supports and armoured face conveyor in the conventional
and even over the shearer, as illustrated in Fig. 8. way. Although this resulted in a higher tip load nearer
Since the cantilever extensions on the supports were the face, it was not possible to support the newly ex-
forced down under these heavy weight conditions, it posed roof over a distance of some 30 m behind the
shearer until the armoured face conveyor had been
fully snaked over. Further falls occurred in this snake
area.
As a short-term solution, the face length of the second
panel was shortened to 120 m where the span of dolerite
was unlikely to fail during the panel life. This arrange-
\ ment enabled the mine to continue longwalling while a
start could be made on increasing the load characteristics
of the chock shields, as described later.
Although the results from the short face panel were
,
rather promising, it was decided to continue with the
Actual facelin.
:,, longer faces because the production potential of long
faces is undoubtedly higher. In addition, the cost of
geographical expansion for a short-face layout will be
significantly higher since 200 m wide bord-and-pillar
panels will have to separate the 120 m longwall panels
to prevent possible uncontrolled failure of the dolerite
Fig. 5-Start of a face break over a large area.

26 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
 Once all the chock shields had been modified, 11
additional four-leg shields were obtained to increase the
Y;~
~....
face length on the third panel to 215 m. Improved roof [B
support was experienced in this panel, although two
falls occurred as a result of excessive slips in the face
and extremely poor face retreat. It was also noticed that
the dolerite sill over this longer face collapsed when the Crusher
face had retreated only 200 m. Subsequent failures also
occurred at shorter intervals, i.e. 40 to 50 m, even though lagend
, H,draullc
the face retreat was very slow. The four-leg shields propsl1mcantrlSJ
0 Timbar props I1m cant"s!
provide tip loads approximately 300 per cent higher than [B 1,2 X 1,2m mat packs
o--;dOOmm X SOmm channel straps
the comparative loads provided by the chock shields. Stag. loader
bolt ad to the roaf and with
h,draulic propsUm cantras)
The shields were installed in the centre section of the = IOOmmX 50mm channel straps.
used as ca";ars
face, and resulted in improved roof conditions and
excellent flushing protection there. However, it appears [B
that their support resistance varies if the rear legs are [B

I
wrongly operated. This occurs because the front and
rear leg" have to be operated independently when a roof
cavity exists between the front legs and the hinge point C .a,or
of the canopy and goaf shield. If all four legs are pres-
surized simultaneously under this condition, the canopy Fig. 9-Additional roof support in maingate
tip tends to drop away from the immediate roof, leaving
the roof between the face and the front legs unsupported. improve roof bolting support and so prevent localized
In order to ensure safe longwalling conditions, the falls of roof.
theory has been put forward by the rock mechanics During retreat of the longwall face, several falls of
personnel of the Chamber of Mines that either of the ground were experienced in the maingate road. Since the
two following procedures must be applied: stage loader is accommodated in this road, it is not
- ensure that the dolerite breaks in a controlled possible to achieve the same support density with tim-
manner, or bers as in the tailgate, where the timbers are placed
- ensure that the dolerite does not break. at 1 m centres. At present the maingate road is supported
Investigations carried out by the rock mechanics as illustrated in Fig. 9.
personnel have indicated that, to ensure the above Channels 100 mm by 50 mm by 5,0 m are bolted to
conditions, the following longwall face lengths must be the roof at 1 m centres. A single row of hydraulic props
adhered to: is set under the channels between the stage loader and
- to ensure a controlled dolerite break, the face length the face side of the roadway, while timber props are
should be at least 200 m; used on the opposite side. The hydraulic props are sys-
tematically replaced with bearer sets on the face side.
- to ensure that the dolerite does not break, the face
length should not exceed 120 m with longwall panels In the splits between the maingate and the maingate
being separated by bord-and-pillar panels with an companion, the roof is supported with two mat packs
approximate span of 200 m and pillars of approxi- between the pillar corners.
mately 30 m by 30 m. On the tailgate side, hydraulic props are set between
In connection with the first condition, Coal brook was the energy train and the face side of the roadway with
advised to increase the face length from 200 m (first a double row of timber props at 1 m intervals between
panel) to 215 m (third panel) to ensure earlier initial the energy train and the other side. Timber props are
and subsequent regular failure of the dolerite. also concentrated at 1 m spacing in the splits and
Production potential, cost of geographic expansion, between the energy train and goaf, as shown in Fig. 10.
ease of supervision, and the implications and handling Investigations are being conducted together with
of the inflow of groundwater are being scrutinized at support manufacturers to provide a self-advancing sup-
present so that the optimum layout can be selected. port system to cover the area ahead of the face supports
in the maingate road. It was considered that a significant
Gate Road Support improvement could be made if the face supports were
Systematic roof support in the development roads extended across the gate to the rib side. These supports
consists of 1,8 m by 19 mm (diameter) full column could have extended canopies to cover the armoured
resin roofbolts with headboards installed at 1,5 m face conveyor-stage loader intersection. Not only would
centres. Roof falls occasionally occur in these primary the support density be an improvement over the hand-set
development roads when slips are present, or if the shale supports, but the labour requirement would be signifi-
above no. 2 seam is exposed. Experience has shown cantly reduced. However, because of the particular
that these falls require immediate re-bolting and sup- intersection used at Coalbrook, where the stage loader
port using steel sets and cribbing to improve stability is advanced only every 3 webs, such a support could be
when the longwall retreats through these fall areas. as much as 2,25 m behind the rest of the face, thus
Research and experimentation are continuing in the largely removing any benefit it might have.
bord-and-pillar sections at Coalbrook and elsewhere to To overcome this problem and still extend powered

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 21
 shields restricts the travelling way between the legs and
causes damage to electric cables and hoses. After un-
successful trials with conveyor belting fitted between the
supports, steel plates designed and manufactured
locally were bolted on the sides of the chock shields as
I IQCO described later. These side plates proved to be successful
in keeping approximately 80 per cent of the flushing
back. The four-leg shields in use are fitted with hydraulic-
Logond
ally operated flushing shields, which appear to be very
. Hydraulic props (1 ...tr. cent...)
0- (1motr.centr..> effective in retaining the flushing.
--
Spalling
Excessive spalling of the face in very large slabs
"""" Eno",y train
0 0
presents a major conveying problem on the armoured
0
0 0
0 0
0
face conveyor. These slabs cause blockages on the con-
0 0 0 veyor or at the transfer point onto the stage loader.
Their conveyance is often also restricted by the tunnel
opening underneath the shearer.

!I
Paving breakers are at present in use to break up
large slabs on the armoured face conveyor. A small
crusher attached to the tailgate end of the shearer for
this purpose proved to be ineffective. The performance
Fig. IO-Additional roof support in tailgate of larger crushers for this purpose is being investigated.

r 5.385
Ventilation
:.? The longwall face is ventilated as shown in Fig. 13.
Concentrations of methane in the goaf are drained at the
balloon stopping in the tailgate companion. Intake air
~ is passed over the energy train in the tailgate to keep
the temperature of the transformers down and to prevent
a build-up of methane at the tailgate drive.
Consideration is being given to the adoption of a
bleeder system of ventilation as illustrated in Fig. 14.
(jround l~v~1 ~ This method of ventilation would enable accumulations
of groundwater in the goaf to be pumped from the lower
elevations alongside the goafed area.
Fig. I I-Elevation of a straddle chock
Cutting
Three sets of drums are being used on a rotational
support to the rib side of the main gate, a straddle
basis, i.e. one set on the shearer, a spare set, and one
chock (Figs, 11 and 12) is to be installed. As far as is
set for major overhauling. One set, i.e. three spiral
practicable, its hydraulic components are identical to the
vane drums, has been specially designed to cope with the
run of face supports. It consists of two base pontoons
stone intrusions experienced in the no. 1 seam. Pick
linked together across the stage loader so as not to
performance has varied from approximately 15 t per
interfere with the advance every 3 webs. Two hydraulic
pick in the no. 1 seam to 350 t per pick in the no. 2
legs are resiliently mounted on each of these pontoons
seam. Slug-insert picks were found to be more suitable
and support two canopy beams. The canopy beams have
than the parrot-beak type in the tougher cutting condi-
extended cantilevers that stretch across the armoured
tions in the no. 1 seam. The coal in the no. 1 seam has
face conveyor, and are capable of being set under the
a compressive strength of 47,6 MPa, compared with
channels that support the gate before the hydraulic
prop has to be removed to allow the conveyor to be
advanced. The chock is advanced by a ram mounted
in the left-hand pontoon and attached to the delivery
I
I
~. ~_.~._~_~~8.e .

"
end of the conveyor, thus allowing the chock to be ad-
vanced with the conveyor and not to be affected by the
position of the stage loader, As this means it is pulled
forward on 'the skew', it is stabilized by a guide rail
running on the base of no. 1 chock shield to its left.
Should it be necessary, a second advancing ram can be
installed in the right-hand pontoon and attached to ..~.

hhumuu .~
the stage loader by an adjustable chain. '--~hU ","~.""m
" " "

Flushing
Flushing of the goaf material between the chock Fig. 12-Plan of a straddle chock

28 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
 improved dust-suppression characteristics. Research is
being conducted on an industry-wide basis to minimize
the production of dust and to allay the dust produced
in continuous miner sections. Developments i:1 this
respect could assist in redllcil1g the compara~ively hig\
concentrations of dust experienced on. the longwall facc.
Handling of Water Inflow
The overlying strata consist of layers of Karoo shales
and sandstones intruded by a dolerite sill with an average
thickness of 40 m, as illustrated in Figs. 4 and 15.
Very few primary sources of groundwater are normally
encountered on the horizon at which the coal is being
mined. The permeability of the overlying and underlying
rocks is very low, and there is no leakage of groundwater
into the mine from sources other than isolated cracks.
However, groundwater does occur in the strata
overlying the mine workings. This water is normally
encountered in surface boreholes at depths between
15 and 70 m. The water is contained mainly in cracks in
the sandstone, and high yields can sometimes be ex-
pected from the contact zone between the sandstone
Fig. I3-Layout of the ventilation
and the dolerite sill.
c.L;UU U
When the overlying strata collapse, an inflow of
'00:]0 Uu groundwater is experienced in the longwall. The water
0000 0
0000 ~ 0 mainly accumulates in the goaf, from where it flows into
0000 0
0000
0000
0
0
'"-.....-.
0 the face if the gradient permits. This inflow into the
0000
0000
0
0 ~
~eturn air 0 face causes severe difficulties in the operation of the
0000
0000
0
0
0 longwall. The inflow into the third panel was handled
0000
0000
0 0
0
in the following way: the face profile was cut with the
0000 lowest point near the tailgate but with sufficient dis-
0000 I tance from the tailgate drive to prevent flooding of the
0000
0000
0
0
0 motor. The inflow was pumped from this low point.
0000
0000
0
0
!
lake
air 0 Where the gradient permits, the inflow water was
0000
0000
0
0
0 pumped from the gate roads behind the face line. When
0000
0000
00 a constant rate of shearing was maintained, most of the
0000 m inflow was removed via the armoured face conveyor
0000 0
0000
0000
0
0
0 before it could accumulate at the low point for pumping.
0000
0000
0
0
0 The water presented considerable problems on the out-
0000
0000
0
0
0 bye conveyor system and on the surface crushing and
0000
0000
0
0
0 screening plant. A slot was made in the tail-end section
DODO 0
0000 0
__Qo:i'in~:!!,,_le':...t~I~_____-
0000
nnno
0
n -- ----- ~D----
-- --
Fig. I4-Bleeder system of ventilation --
" " ,
"
Position of water table' , Ground water
Dfj
40,8 MPa in the no. 2 seam. The Hardgrove index for after period of de-watering present in
'\
'\ sandstone
both seams is approximately 60. The difficult cutting '\
\
(! 50 ',. of

conditions experienced when stone intrusions occurred \

\
total strata)
g8J~
in the no. 1 seam make this seam less attractive for Water 50<1
X X X X X X X X 1Z)WaJ X
future longwalling.
X X
"
Daledte;(
X X X tfJ@!XJ X
Dust Control X X X X X X x0g;fi)X
Dust readings indicate a concentration of approxi- X X X X X X X (g) !JJ rKJ X
mately 160 PER at the shearer operator, compared with
[] 0 (J 0
Negligible
C~ng ..,.
100 PER at the continuous miner and 80 PER at the """",nts of
ground
""'ter
conventional coal cutter. The prime source of dust is the N°.3 Coal seam ODCJ
cutting action of the shearer. The first set of drums
purc'lased was fitted with a perforated pipe on the disc OC?DO
scroll. The disadvantage of this system is that the scroll, °2~C?L1
when cutting, is covered with coal, which prevents the N . 1 Coal seam
water from getting to the picks. Drums subsequently
purchased were of the pick-point flushing type with Fig, IS-Section through a dewatering borehole and panel

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 29
of the armoured face conveyor to discharge some of the 215 m. Overload situations occur when the production
water collected by the bottom flight chain into a sump rate approaches 1000 t(h. The present motors will be
in the tailgate road. The fine duff expelled with this replaced by two 350 kW motors with a 30 mm double-
water caused a build-up in the tailgate area. An attempt strand flight chain.
was made to remove this duff with a conventional dam The present panel conveyor is 1200 mm wide. It is
scraper powered by an air hoist. Consideration is now equipped with an automatic loop take~up with storage
being given to the following aspects in order to improve for 150 m of belting, i.e. 75 m of retreat. In the method
the handling of water inflow on the face: currently in use, the armoured face conveyor can be
- the installation of pumping facilities at the lower moved up three webs before the stage loader and con-
elevations of the panel alongside the goafed area veyor tail-end must be retreated. The steering of the
when the bleeder ventilation system is implemented. conveyor tail-end presents a problem, as described later.
- the use of perforated sections in the conveyor system Surges due to the spasmodic production characteristic
and or cyclones to collect the water. of bord-and-pillar mining created trunk conveyor prob-
To limit the inflow of water to the longwall faces, lems. Computer simulation was employed to determine
a dewatering system as shown in Figs. 15 and 16 is envis- the optimum size of a central collecting bunker from
aged. Dewatering boreholes will be drilled from surface which production surges and the flow of coal onto the
through the water-bearing strata into the workings. These trunk system could be regulated. A 1000 t bunker and
holes will be spaced around four or more panels at 1350 mm inbye main conveyor system were completed
intervals to collect the inflow from the water-bearing recently, with encouraging results. The main trunk
strata. The holes will be equipped and connected to an conveyor system out bye of the underground bunker and
underground piping system to allow controlled drainage the incline shaft conveyor were uprated to carry 1400 t(h.
and usage of the water. A 500 000 t open stockpile was constructed at the pit-
Five holes were recently drilled on the eastern side of head to accommodate a strategic stock of one month's
the present panel to intercept groundwater entering from consumption (i.e., 300000 t), with the balance to cater
that side. Unfortunately, none of these holes inter- for the loss of production when the longwall is moved, as
sected cracks in the water-bearing strata. By the drilling well as for seasonal fluctuations in demand.
of inclined holes or deflection techniques an attempt will
Longwall Move
be made to intersect the water-bearing fissures. A limited
The longwall move can basically be described as
inflow of groundwater is being experienced on the pre-
preparation of the face for moving before the end of the
sent panel, but with no detrimental effect on production.
panel, the withdrawal of the equipment, the execution
Transport of Goal of the necessary overhauling and repair of equipment,
Longwalling is a method of mining capable of pro- and the transport and installation of the equipment in
ducing high tonnages, and necessitates a high-capacity the next panel. The supports are drawn off under cover
conveying system to ensure that operations are carried of a wire-mesh and rope protection reinforced by stra-
out on a continuous basis. tegically placed girders and timber supports. All the
The installed power of the armoured face conveyor face equipment is transported by load-haul-dump units
(i.e., two 250kW motors) has proved inadequate since Longwall moves are scheduled to be completed within
the face length was increased from the original 200 to a period of 45 days, including a draw-off preparation of
15 days.
Each move so far has presented its own unique
iOBDODDDDDODDOOOOODDDDDDOOQDDOOODDODDDQD[
O~DDDDDDDDDDdbDDDDDDDDDDDdbDDDDDDDDDDdb[ problems, i.e. the modification of supports during the
ODDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD[
first move, and the repair of basecracks and fitting of
0000000 DD DD DD DDDDDD flushing shields during the second move.
0000000 000000
DDDDDDD DD DD DD OODDDD Poor roof conditions are experienced in the maingate
DDDDDDO DODOOD
DDDDDDD DD DD DD 000000 and on the face during the preparation phase as a result
0000000 000000
Ql;JDDDDD DD DD DD DDDDQjJ of slow face retreat. Difficulties are experienced in
[J[]ooooo Lo"9wall Longwall Longwall Longwall 00000lJ removing the supports under these poor roof conditions.
DDDDDDD panel DD panel DD ponel DD panel 000000
0000000 000000 Potential ventilation problems were eliminated by the
DDDDDDD DD DD DD DDDDDD
0000000 000000 use of pre-developed airways through the barrier pillars
DDDDDDD DD DD DD DDDDDD
0000000 000000 to short-circuit air when required. Investigations are
0000000 DD DD DD DDDDDD
1.0000000 OODODD proceeding to reduce the moving time, especially since
DDDDDOD DD DD DD DDDOOD
DDDODOD 000000 the mine has no duplicate sets of equipment (e.g. a
f
I

0000000 DD DD DD DDDDDD
QOOODoD OODDlliJ complete armoured face conveyor) that could be
dbDDDDD DD DD DD DDDDdb
DDDDDOD OODDDD installed beforehand.
0000000 DD DD DD DDDDDD
0000000 DDDDDD I

DDDDDDD DD DD DD DDDDDD
DODDDOD ODDDDD
0000000 DD DD DDDDDD DD Technical Problems
DDDDDODDDDDDDDDDDODDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD I

000000000000000000000000000000000000000
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Roof Supports
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
DDDODDDDDD 00000000000 0000000000 Relay Bars and Rams. The rams of the supports are
,.. de-wa.oringbar_os
connected by means of relay bars to the armoured
Fig. I6-Proposed dewatering system face conveyor. The tongue attachment pieces of the relay

30 dANUARY1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY

 of the piston rod and the socket, a stick-slip situation

[ :]',
/
~- i- developed when the capsule yielded under pressure. This
caused very high peak pressures and flowrates through
the yield valve, and contributed towards the wearing
'-- \ SIDE ELEVATION
bar of flats on the piston ends, which aggravated the situa-
~-
R:~
'"
tion. This was overcome by the use of a different metal
for the rounded ends of the capsule. The poppets in the
/ yield valves were also redesigned to reduce the rate of
20 mm plate \
flow of the hydraulic fluid through the valve on yield.
"'" .
(
I
\
0
: ::: J
/
Valve Gear. Another problem encountered was a drop
in pilot pressure when too many operations were being
carried out on the face at once, which caused the valves
Oldtyperelay bar PLAN
" ' ~.-/'
to chatter instead of opening cleanly. This in turn
caused damage to the valve seats. This problem has
32 mm plate been overcome by means of restrictors placed in the
hydraulic circuit.
cC: Bases of Chock Shields. The most serious defect of the
: ] supports was the original underdesign of the welding
where the base portions join the heavy plate that sup-
New type rp.lay bar PLAN ports the lemniscate links for the shield. This problem
was aggravated by steps cut in the floor and adverse
Fig. 17-Modifications to relay bar
roof conditions, which occasionally caused the back legs
to become steelbound. The two plates now welded onto
Cover over piston rod Outer cover the bases causes the lines of stress to flow more evenly
\I
from the 50 mm plate into the formed 20 mm plate,
Er
~Old ram -
Cl

SIDE ELEVATIO~J.
~
and thereby relieve the high stress point. This has proved
to be successful (Figs. 19 and 20).
Flushing Protection. The supports are designed so

O".ina, design

:
20 mm
Collar

~ [I
High s!,.ss am - ---
~ mm pla~

New ram - SIDE ELEVATICt-J.

~ -_,_~O!:,m plate

Fig. IS-Modifications

bars were originally underdesigned and broke when the

to ram r-UH--A-- -=Jl
)
SIDE ELEVATION END ELEVATION.
conveyor was pushed forward. The attachment pieces
were redesigned and made strong enough to withstand Fig. 19-Problem area on base of chock shields
the forces applied by the ram (Fig. 17). When this
problem had been resolved, some of the piston rods of
the rams were bent. The ram was redesigned with a
piston rod that is stiff enough to suffice on its own, and
a separate cover that is attached to the support base
was made to protect the piston rod and to guard against
workmen being struck during operation. A 29 mm
20mm plato
collar has been welded round the end of the cylinder to 37mm plate
strengthen this area, which has also failed in the past
(Fig. 18). 1

Capsules. The chock shield supports have an articu-

lated canopy that facilitates good roof contact, the canti- SIDE ELEVATION
SOmm plato

lever being operated by a hydraulic cylinder called a

,
/'
capsule. When the cantilever is taking load, the capsule
is placed under compression. The piston end of the capsule
is rounded and fits into a socket on the cantilever. When
JC::: "1::::::.'.""""::"'::.'.1

PLAN
/~/
the capsule yields, the rounded end of the piston slips
in the socket. Because of the materials used on the end Fig. 20--Modifications to base of chock shields

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 31
r'-;:"'"L';:" These drums and picks were very successful in the no. 2

~' .

-_:~-' u~
\ seam. Cutting in the no. 1 seam was much more difficult,
causing excessive wear to the pick boxes and picks.
Three-start
purchased,
drums with a 30 mm pick spacing were
and these, together with radial-type slug-
insert picks, proved to be most successful in the tough
cutting conditions, especially where stone intrusions
SIDE ELEVATION. occurred. The parrot-beak type picks used in the no. 1
Fig. 21-Side elevation of modified canopy and cantilever seam proved unsuccessful. Pick performance was about
15 t per pick.
Armoured Face Conveyor
that there is a gap of 50 mm between adjacent support
canopies and a gap of 200 mm between the goaf shields. Ramp Plates. The armoured face conveyor is designed
Flushing as described earlier enters the walk way through to take the weight of the shearer on the ramp plates in
these gaps. Plates were bent and fixed to the sides of the front of the conveyor and the tubular trapping behind it.
goaf shield to reduce the gap to 50 mm. The original design ofthe ramp plates was poor, and the
path on which the shearer travelled broke off. The
Cantilever Tip Loads. As explained earlier, the load ramp plates were redesigned with sufficient strength
that the cantilevers could support (i.e., 10 t) was not (Fig. 22).
sufficient. The supports were modified by use of a
Pan Connectors. The other major problem with the
bigger cantilever capsule and a greater leverage to
armoured face conveyor concerns the pan connectors.
increase the cantilever resistance. Also, the cantilevers
These are dogbone-shaped pins that are secured in the
were replaced with new ones that were provided with
pans by clips, which are designed to break before the
extensible cantilever extensions (Fig. 21). The tip load
pins break. These clips and pins were not strong enough
on the extended cantilever was increased to 30 t, and
to withstand the full force of the advancing rams of the
in the retracted position, to 46 t. The cantilever is
supports. Stronger clips are being tested.
extended to support the roof immediately behind the
top shearer drum. After the armoured face conveyor Stage Loader. The head-end of the stage loader is
has been snaked in behind the shearer, the extensions attached to the tail-end of the gate conveyor, which is
are retracted when the supports move up to the con- retracted by an automatic take-up device situated at the
veyor. drive-end of the conveyor. The purpose of this arrange-
ment is to facilitate retreat without stoppages for any
Shearer significant time for removal of sections of conveyor
Crusher. As mentioned earlier, a small crusher was structure and belting. Owing to the mass of the crusher,
attached to the tailgate end of the shearer to break big the stage loader tends to move off line when it is re-
lumps of coal that occur on that side of the shearer so treated where the floor is sloping, and by so doing it
that they can pass under the shearer. Initially problems drags the gate conveyor tail-end off line as well. Proper
were encountered with water getting into the motor, and, alignment is necessary to avoid damage to the edges of
once the motor had been suitably sealed, it was found the conveyor belting.
that the crusher was ineffective.
Bearing Failure on Ranging Arms. The cylindrical Organizational Problems
roller bearings in the ranging arm failed. The manu-
facturer redesigned the planetary gearing in the ranging Longwall Organization
arm so that bigger bearings could be installed to allevi- The longwall operation and the longwall development
ate this problem.
Tilting Mechanism. The shearer is fitted with a tilting
\'"
~
Old d..sign
underframe to negotiate sudden changes in the cutting ~
horizon. The tilting mechanism and underframe had to
be redesigned to prevent failure of the tilting cams.
Sh.arer
~
SIDE ELEVATION END ELEVATION.

Cowls. The mechanism used to swivel the cowls over

when the direction of shearing is changed caused many
delays owing to duff getting into the chain mechanism.
The first set of cowls wore very badly and had to be
rebuilt frequently. Cowls of a heavier section were then
designed and manufactured locally. The cowls are N..w design
swivelled by being pushed against the floor while the
shearer is moving along. Sh.arer path

Cutting Drums and Picks. During the first two panels, SIDE ELEVATION
which were in the no. 2 seam, the shearer was fitted with
H""YY
gus...tts
two-start drums with a pick spacing of 50 mm. The
drums were fitted with radial type slug-insert picks. Fig. 22-Modification to ramp plate

32 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
operation (usually two continuous miner sections) are competitive with those of conventional mechanization
supervised by an underground manager, section engineer, and continuous mining.
mine overseer, and senior foreman. Both the under- In spite of all the teething troubles experienced in the
ground manager and the section engineer report to the first panel and the serious problems experienced with
production manager of the mine. Two foremen, one the supports, the average production for that panel
mechanical and one electrical, exercise day-shift super- was approximately 55000 tlm (moves excluded), with
vision on the longwall only, while a shiftboss is available a best output of 115 000 t over a 30-day period.
on each shift for the longwall only. In addition, super- On the short face (120 m long), the average production
vision is exercised by the miner and shift supervisor. was 72 000 tlm, with a best month of 105000 t. Although
Since the implementation of the method in 1976, it has the theoretical production potential of the short face
been found necessary to increase the fitters and electri- (120 m) is less, and the cost of geographic expansion
cians from 3 each to 6 each. In addition, 7 operators and greater as a result of having to leave 200 m wide bord-
10 assistants are employed on each shift. and-pillar panels between longwall panels, consideration
will be given to the mining of short faces if the long
Training
faces do not come up to expectation.
Training of longwall personnel is regarded as an The cutting difficulties and inflow of groundwater
important function of line management. Training experienced in the no. 1 seam panel unfortunately
manuals were compiled, and the training is carried out clouded the potential of longwalling in this seam. On
by the mining and engineering training officers and average, the longwall produced approximately
supervisors. 50 000 t/m. Investigations are in progress in an attempt
As the need arose to acquire the necessary expertise in to solve these problems to the extent that longwalling
a specific problem area, technical consultants were can later be resumed in the higher-quality no. 1 seam
brought to South Africa. An extensive training pro- coal. Present exploration techniques are being studied
gramme is being conducted to improve engineering in order to accurately establish the extent of stone
expertise in conjunction with the manufacturers. Two intrusions in this seam.
senior foremen, two foremen, and the engineering So that the production and economic viability of
training officer were sent to Germany for an extensive longwalling can be assessed on a long face, the fourth
12-week training programme. The operators on the panel has a face length of 215 m and is mined in the no. 2
shearer, supports, and stage loader acquainted them- seam. The results, given in Table I, are very encouraging.
selves with the operation in a relatively short period Should longwalling in the fourth panel prove successful
and perform well. and future coal requirements by Escom warrant it,
Back-up Service consideration will be given to the acquisition of a
second installation to replace the remaining conventional
Since the original installation, great difficulties have at
mechanized sections. Consideration will also be given
times been encountered in regard to the provision of
to double-seam longwalling to improve the heat value
expertise and spares for the equipment obtained from
of the coal recovered and the percentage recovery.
Germany. Delays in the provision of parts have resulted
In spite of the existing problem areas, the management
in some of the more urgent spares having to be flown in
of Coalbrook Collieries is confident that the longwall
at premium charges. There has been a significant
mining method affords the opportunity to increase the
improvement in back-up service since the recent change
percentage extraction and the heat value of the coal
of agency for this equipment, which has resolved many
produced, to improve productivity, and to produce coal
of the problems that existed previously.
safely at a competitive cost.
Local Manufacture
Acknowledgements
Some progress has been made in this respect in certain
areas, although other areas, e.g. the manufacture of The author expresses his gratitude to the management
crown and pinion gears for the drives and chain of the of the Coal Division of General Mining and Finance
armoured face conveyor, U-bolts, and shearer picks, are Corporation for permission to publish this paper. He
still a cause of concern. thanks the staff of Coalbrook Collieries for their assist-
ance in its preparation, and, on behalf of the Coal
Division of General Mining & Finance Corporation
Future of Longwalling at Coalbrook
Limited, he expresses appreciation to the management
The performance of the longwall at Coalbrook has of Escom for their sustained support in finding a mining
been less than spectacular to date, but it has proved a method to extract the seams in the Vaal Basin safely
safe method capable of coping with the most arduous and economically, as well as optimizing the recovery of
mining conditions. The cost has proved to be more than vnluable coal reserves in South Africa.

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 33
Contribution to preceding paper
by C. J. CLOETE*, Pr. Eng., B.Sc. Eng. (Min.) (Member)

Introduction being obtained elsewhere in the world on a regular

To evaluate the performance of the longwall operation basis.
at Sigma, it must be noted that conditions and equip- Production Performance
ment there differ considerably from those at Coalbrook.
Realizing that much still had to be learnt about the
As far as geological conditions are concerned, it must
system, management provisionally set the production
be noted that longwalling is carried out at Sigma in the
target at 35 400 tons per week or 92 per cent of potential.
no. 3 coal seam, whilst at Coalbrook it is practised in
In the light of subsequent experience this target is
the no. 2 and no. 1 coal seams. The floor of the no. 3
attainable. The average weekly output for panels 1 to
coal seam at Sigma consists of a micaceous shale that
3 was approximately 17 000, 20 000, and 18 000 tons
grades into a fine-grained sandstone. The roof consists of
respectively, that of panel 4 to date being approximately
a mudstone, followed by a thin coal seam known as the
25 000 tons. With the improved equipment in panel
coal marker seam no. 1. This is followed by a fine- to
4, the average weekly production rose by 38 per cent
medium-grained sandstone and the coal marker seam
(against the expected 41 per cent) over that for the
no. 2. The rest of the parting between the no. 3 coal seam
first three panels. The highest weekly output from
and the overlying dolerite sill consists mainly of sand-
the fourth panel has been 44 000 tons per week. During
stone and shale. The sediments above the dolerite sill
the calendar month of June, a world record of 164557
are mainly sandstone. The average thickness of the
tons was obtained from the longwall face, which was
dolerite sill is approximately 40 m, and the top of the
6815 tons more than the Japanese record set up in
sill can be found between outcrop and a depth of 20 m.
January 1979. Table I shows the frequency distribution
The parting distance between the roof of the no. 3 coal
of production levels achieved in the panels worked. In
seam and the bottom of the dolerite varies between
the conventional operation, daily production is much
50 and 80 m. The floor depth of the no. 3 coal seam in
more steady than in longwalling.
the area where longwalling is practised is approximately
115m. Comparison of Longwall and Conventional Mining
The equipment being used at Sigma consists of
Longwalling tends to be an inflexible system owing to
Klockner Becorit two-legged shields with hydraulic
the high degree of interdependence of personnel per-
components, Klockner Becorit twin-chain armoured face
formance, geological conditions, and equipment capa-
conveyor with carrier frame, and KlOckner Becorit
bility. In conventional operations, short-term failure or
stage loader and crusher. The shearer is an AM500 mark
less-than-adequate performance of man or machine, or
II 750 kW double-ended ranging drum type with tilting
somewhat adverse geological conditions, will not neces-
facility and lump breaker.
sarily bring production to a standstill, as is fairly often
Background the case with longwalling.
One longwall unit has been in operation on the no. 3 Furthermore, in conventional mining, the replacement
seam horizon since August 1975. The extraction of the of equipment or the augmentation of labour can often
fourth panel by this method is now nearing completion. help to maintain the required production level under
The width of the panels has been the same, namely adverse conditions. This is not the case with longwalling.
200 m, but the length has varied between 990 and However, longwalling has a production potential of three
1270 m. Where conditions are favourable, longer panels to four times that of an average conventional unit.
will be developed in future. A total of 4i million tons Problems Encountered
has been derived from longwall mining to date, and this
Each of the four longwall panels worked had character-
represents 19 per cent of the total mine production over
istic problems, which had to be overcome by training,
this period.
or by modifications or additions to equipment. In panel
Present Longwall Panel one, inexperience with the system, together with the
The fourth panel was commenced with a more power- falling of large lumps of coal from the face (for which
ful shearer. To cope with the increased production from there was no adequate breaking facility), presented
the shearer and to eliminate known shortcomings in the major problems. Furthermore, it soon became evident
equipment, suitable modifications were made at the that the 400 kW shearer was underpowered; this re-
same time to the panzer face conveyor and crusher mained a problem until the shearer was replaced at the
system. Calculations for the revised system showed that commencement of panel 4.
the possible production potential could consequently be In the second panel, the problems were similar to those
raised by 41 per cent from 27 500 to 38 500 tons per experienced in the no. 1 panel, because a suitable
w('ok. This objective is high and to our knowledge not shearer and crusher were not available. The dolerite sill
started to collapse at greater intervals, and caused roof
control difficulties as a result of the excessive pressure
*Sigma Colliery, Sasol One (Pty) Ltd, Sasolburg, Orange Free
that was exerted on the face at these times. The reasons
State. for this lack of failure of the dolerite sill might be the

34 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
 TABLE I
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTION LEVELS (EXCLUDING MOVES)

Under Over Average weekly

Tonnage per week 10 000 10 000-20 000 20 000-30 000 30000-40000 40000 tonnage per panel

Panel 1 8 63 27 2 0 17 151
Panel 2 9 29 62 0 0 19 598
Panel 3 24 25 47 4 0 17 787
Panel 4 10 12 50 25 3 24 924
Panel 1 to 4 13 33 46 7 1 19494

increase of the parting thickness between the sill and taken into account. The transfer of conventional equip-
the coal seam, and the dome structure of the sill. ment from panel to panel is less time-consuming be-
In the third panel, geological dislocations led to roof cause of its mobility, and can usually be done between
fans and difficulty in following the seam horizon. working shifts or during weekends. However, the time
(Horizon control is important in the avoidance of exces- taken to move from one longwall panel to the next
si ve stress on equipment and of the inclusion of inert depends on items such as distance between panels, and
roof and floor material.) The inflow of ground water also the extent of the major repairs or modifications required
became a problem. This panel experienced even more to equipment. At Sigma the face move is done in two
di.fficulties, which arose from the lack of failure and the phases. A dummy road is cut parallel to the gate ends
well-developed dome of the dolerite sill. This, together and one-third of the face width from the tailgate.
with a slow moving face, caused the tailgate to deterior- The first phase involves the taking out of 33 per cent
ate and also resulted in excessive scaling of the barrier of the armoured face conveyor and shields on the
pillar. This required an abnormal amount of support in tailgate side up to the dummy road. Thereafter, the
the tailgate using RSJs (rolled-steel joists) and wire face advances normally by the cutting of another 30m
netting in addition to trusses and hydraulic props. before the second phase is commenced, whereby the rest
In the fourth panel, experience had to be gained with of the face equipment is extracted. The advantage of
the new and modified equipment in the first place.
Secondly, the initial availability of the shearer was much
lower than expected due to breakdowns arising from TABLE Il TABLE III
deficiencies in design and operation. The availability of the SHEARER DOWNTIME ARMOURED FACE CONVEYOR
DOWNTIME
shearer has improved recently (see Table II). Thirdly, (% of production time)* (% of production time)
the influx of groundwater, together with the adverse seam
gradient, at times resulted in flooding of equipment and Sep. 1978 15 16
Oct. 29 4
hampered production. Lastly, the pans of the armoured Nov. 21 4
face conveyor have been failing more frequently re- Dec. 16 3
cently because of wear (see Table Ill). These pans were Jan 1979 22 3
Feb. 15 9
used in previous panels and have given good service, Mar. 19 14
viz 1,9 to 2,8 million tons compared with suggested Apr. 12 25
May 30t 13
standards of 1 million tons per set. Jun. 6 15
Additional pumping facilities consisting of a com-
pressed-air ring feed with GP pumps helped to ease the Average 19 11
water problem. This problem will not be solved ade- *This percentage includes electric supply cable and haulage chain
quately unless some form of groundwater drainage is failures.
installed before the overlying strata are disturbed by tShearer out of commission for week owing to major part failure.
mining. Such a drainage system is under consideration.

Availability of Equipment TABLE IV

In the fourth panel, the availability of the overall face AVAILABILITY ACHIEVED IN PANEL 4 AND EXPECTED AVAILABILITY
production system to date has been 42 per cent, against a IN PANEL 5 EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PRODUCTION
TIME
desirable and attainable objective of 60 per cent. The
Percentage Percentage
average availability of the better faces overseas is actual expectei
quoted as approximately 40 per cent. Table IV gives a
Time available 42 60
breakdown of the Sigma figures. With the expected Maintenance and extensions 7
percentage availability of 60 per cent, weekly outputs of 5*
Loss for:
40000 tons and higher could be obtained. - shearer 19 12
- armoured face conveyor 11 5
- hydraulic supports 3 3
Face Moves - geological conditions 6 4
- conveyors 6 3
The layout of the longwalling equipment at Sigma is
- pick changing 6 5
shown in Fig. 1. - supervision 2 1
When long-term weekly production targets are set 100 100
for the longwall face, the non-productive time while *This is Ims than expected because certain scheduled maintenance
the equipment is being moved into a new panel must be work is undertaken while other repair work is being done.

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1980 35
 .'1 this method is mainly the reduced pressure exerted on
the face while moving, and less congestion of equipment

JDD DD[.~- underground and in the workshop. The total transfer

period to the new face takes six weeks, of which the
second phase (no production) lasts four weeks. The
longer panel length envisaged in the future will reduce

D D production loss due to tramfers.

Face Productivity
D D The average face productivity in panel 4 (over a
period of 43 weeks) is 65 tons per man shift, with a
maximum of 113 tons per man shift over one week. For
the future, improvements in longwall manpower pro-
ductivity can be expected with improved knowledge of
the system and equipment availability. Improved
equipment availability can be achieved through better
understanding of equipment limitations, the elimination
of weaknesses, and improved operational skills.

Future Problems
The major problems foreseen at present, for which
solutions are being sought, are related to the disturbance
of the overburden through subsidence. These problems
involve, firstly, surface damage and the possible loss to
users of groundwater and, secondly, the flow of water
into the workings, which hampers the operation. These
f ,I"""'"
problems will probably be compounded if the seams
Fig- I-Layout of longwall equipment at Slgma Colliery
below the worked-out longwall panels are removed by
(not to scale) the same method.

Agglomeration
The 3rd International Symposium of Agglomeration, Laboratory tests, plant and process design and auto-
which will be held from 6th to 9th May, 1981, in Niirn- matic control, use of agglomerates.
l;erg, West Germany, will continue the series of inter-
national Symposia on Agglomeration. The first sym- Methods of Agglomeration
posium was held in Philadelphia in 1961, and the Granulating, balling, pelletizing in drums, pang,
second in Atlanta in 1977. mixers, spray fluidized bed, etc., liquid phase agglomera-
It is the object of the 3rd International Symposium tion, instantization, tabletting, briquetting, compaction,
to introduce and discuss the latest works in various extrusion in tabletting machines, roll presses, pellet
areas from fundamentals, through methods of agglo- presses, etc., sintering, heat hardening, and various
meration, up to operating plant practice. Among others, novel methods.
questions of raw materials, and process and mechanical
Agglomeration of Products
engineering will be discussed.
Ores, minerals, ceramics, coal, fertilizers, cement,
The following are the topics to be discussed.
food, pharmaceuticals, chemical products, waste pro-
Aspects of Agglomeration ducts, etc.
Fundamentals - binding mechanism, adhesion forces, Further inform..tion is obtainable from NMA Niirn-
kinetics modelling, reaction mechanism, compaction berger Messe- und Ausstellungsgesellschaft mbH, Messe-
behaviour, role of binders, methods of measuring. zentrum, D-8500 Niirnberg, West Germany.

36 JANUARY 1980 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY