McGILL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF
MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

MATH 140 2006 09

CALCULUS 1

Information for Students

(Fall Term, 2006/2007)
Pages 1 - 23 of these notes may be considered the
Course Outline for this course.
W. G. Brown
December 1, 2006
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

Contents 1.7.2 Calculators . . . . . . 18

1.7.3 Self-Supervision . . . . 18
1 General Information 1 1.7.4 Escape Routes . . . . 19
1.1 Instructors and Times . . . . 1 1.7.5 Terminology . . . . . 19
1.2 Course Description . . . . . . 2 1.8 High Technology and MATH
1.2.1 Calendar Description of 140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
MATH 141 . . . . . . 2 1.8.1 Keep your e-mail ad-
1.2.2 Calendar Descriptions dresses up to date . . 20
of other beginning cal- 1.8.2 Use of Calculators and
culus courses . . . . . 2 Computer Algebra Sys-
1.2.3 How much of my pre- tems . . . . . . . . . . 21
vious calculus course do 1.8.3 Use of the Internet . . 21
I need to remember? . 3 1.9 Which problems should I work? 21
1.2.4 Late transfer from MATH 1.9.1 There are no public or
150 . . . . . . . . . . . 3 private restricted lists
1.3 Tutorials; Tutors’ Coordinates 3 of textbook problems
1.4 Evaluation of Your Progress . 5 to which you can con-
1.4.1 Your final grade . . . 5 fine your preparation
1.4.2 WeBWorK . . . . . 6 for testing in MATH 140. 21
1.4.3 Written Assignments . 7 1.9.2 Are the type of prob-
1.4.4 Quizzes at the Tutori- lems I find on WeB-
als; Submission of Writ- WorK problems indica-
ten Assignments at the tive of what I need to
Quizzes . . . . . . . . 7 know in this course? . 22
1.4.5 Final Examination . . 9 1.9.3 Problems discussed in
1.4.6 Supplemental Assess- the lectures . . . . . . 22
ments . . . . . . . . . 9 1.9.4 And anyhow, the course
1.4.7 Machine Scoring . . . 10 is not concerned only
1.4.8 Plagiarism . . . . . . . 10 with problem solving. 22
1.4.9 Keep all your graded 1.9.5 Repairing your precal-
materials! . . . . . . . 11 culus foundations. . . 22
1.5 Published Materials . . . . . 11 1.10 Last Weeks of Term (to be
1.5.1 Required Text-Book . 11 updated) . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.2 Optional Reference Books 11
1.5.3 Recommended Video Ma- 2 About Quiz Q0 24
terials . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1 All students must write the
1.5.4 Other Calculus Text- diagnostic quiz. . . . . . . . . 24
books . . . . . . . . . 14 2.2 Late registration and medical
1.5.5 Website . . . . . . . . 15 absences. . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6 Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.3 Type of Quiz. . . . . . . . . . 24
1.7 Preparation and Workload . . 17 2.4 Preparing for the quiz. . . . . 24
1.7.1 Prerequisites. . . . . . 17
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

2.5 What to do if your grade is 11 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q2 62

very low. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 11.1 Instructions to students . . . 62
11.1.1 Monday version . . . . 62
3 W1 , First Written Assignment 25 11.1.2 Wednesday version . . 64
3.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 25 11.1.3 Thursday version . . . 66
3.2 The assignment question . . . 25 11.1.4 Friday version . . . . . 67

4 W2 , Second Written Assignment 26 12 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q3 70

4.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 26 12.1 Instructions to students . . . 70
4.2 The assignment questions . . 26 12.1.1 Monday version . . . . 70
12.1.2 Wednesday version . . 72
5 W3 , Third Written Assignment 29 12.1.3 Thursday version . . . 74
5.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 29 12.1.4 Friday version . . . . . 75
5.2 The assignment questions . . 29
13 Draft Solutions to W4 , Fourth Writ-
6 Draft Solutions to W1 , First Writ- ten Assignment 78
ten Assignment 31 13.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 31 13.2 The assignment question . . . 78
6.2 The assignment question . . . 31
6.3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 32 14 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q4 81
14.1 Instructions to students . . . 81
7 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q1 38 14.2 Monday version . . . . . . . . 81
7.1 Instructions to students . . . 38 14.3 Wednesday version . . . . . . 84
7.2 Monday version . . . . . . . . 38 14.4 Thursday version . . . . . . . 86
7.3 Wednesday version . . . . . . 40 14.5 Friday version . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4 Thursday version . . . . . . . 43
7.5 Friday version . . . . . . . . . 44 A Information Specifically for Stu-
dents in Lecture Section 001 1001
8 W4 , Fourth Written Assignment 47 A.1 Timetable for Lecture Section
8.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 47 001 of MATH 140 2006 09 . . 1001
8.2 The assignment question . . . 47
B Supplementary Notes for Lectures
9 Draft Solutions to W2 , Second in Lecture Section 001 1003
Written Assignment 49
9.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 49 C Information Specifically for Stu-
9.2 The assignment questions . . 49 dents in Lecture Section 002 2001
9.3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 52 C.1 Timetable for Lecture Section
002 of MATH 140 2006 09 . . 2001
10 Draft Solutions to W3 , Third Writ-
ten Assignment 57 D Notes for Lecture Section 002 2003
10.1 Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . 57 D.1 Lecture style in Lecture Sec-
10.2 The assignment questions . . 57 tion 002 . . . . . . . . . . . . 2003
10.3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

D.2 Supplementary Notes for the D.7 Supplementary Notes for the
Lecture of September 6th, 2006 2004 Lecture of September 25th, 2006 2046
D.2.1 §1.1 Four Ways to Rep- D.7.1 §1.6 Inverse Functions
resent a Function. . . 2005 and Logarithms (con-
D.3 Supplementary Notes for the clusion) . . . . . . . . 2046
Lecture of September 11th, 2006 2009 D.7.2 §2.5 Continuity. . . . . 2058
D.3.1 §1.1 Four Ways to Rep- D.8 Supplementary Notes for the
resent a Function (con- Lecture of September 27th, 2006 2059
clusion). . . . . . . . . 2009 D.8.1 §2.4 The Precise Defi-
D.3.2 §1.2 Mathematical Mod- nition of a Limit (not
els: A Catalog of Es- examination material in
sential Functions. . . . 2012 2006-07). . . . . . . . 2059
D.4 Supplementary Notes for the D.8.2 §2.5 Continuity (con-
Lecture of September 13th, 2006 2025 tinued) . . . . . . . . 2062
D.4.1 §1.2 Mathematical Mod- D.8.3 §2.6 Limits at Infinity;
els: A Catalog of Es- Horizontal Asymptotes. 2070
sential Functions (con- D.9 Supplementary Notes for the
clusion). . . . . . . . . 2025 Lecture of October 4th, 2006 2076
D.4.2 Remedying deficiencies D.9.1 §2.6 Limits at Infinity;
in your precalculus back- Horizontal Asymptotes
ground . . . . . . . . . 2030 (continued). . . . . . . 2076
D.5 Supplementary Notes for the D.9.2 §2.7 Tangents, Veloci-
Lecture of September 18th, 2006 2031 ties, and Other Rates
D.5.1 §1.3 New Functions from of Change. . . . . . . 2077
Old Functions. . . . . 2031 D.9.3 §2.8 Derivatives. . . . 2080
D.5.2 §1.4 Graphing Calcu- D.9.4 §2.9 The Derivative as
lators and Computers 2032 a Function . . . . . . 2083
D.5.3 §1.5 Exponential Func- D.9.5 2 Review . . . . . . . 2087
tions . . . . . . . . . . 2033 D.9.6 Appendix A. Numbers,
D.5.4 §1.6 Inverse Functions Inequalities, and Ab-
and Logarithms . . . . 2034 solute Values . . . . . 2090
D.6 Supplementary Notes for the D.9.7 Appendix B. Coordi-
Lecture of September 20th, 2006 2036 nate Geometry and Lines 2091
D.6.1 §1.6 Inverse Functions D.9.8 Appendix C. Graphs of
and Logarithms (con- Second-Degree Equations 2091
tinued) . . . . . . . . 2036 D.9.9 Appendix D. Trigonom-
D.6.2 §2.1 The Tangent and etry . . . . . . . . . . 2091
Velocity Problems. . . 2040 D.10 Supplementary Notes for the
D.6.3 §2.2 The Limit of a Func- Lecture of October 10th, 2006 2092
tion. . . . . . . . . . . 2041 D.10.1 §3.1 Derivatives of Poly-
D.6.4 §2.3 Calculating Lim- nomials and Exponen-
its Using the Limit Laws. 2043 tial Functions . . . . . 2094
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

D.10.2 §3.2 The Product and D.18 Supplementary Notes for the
Quotient Rules . . . . 2099 Lecture of November 6th, 2006 2174
D.11 Supplementary Notes for the D.18.1 §4.2 The Mean Value
Lecture of October 11th, 2006 2104 Theorem . . . . . . . 2174
D.11.1 §3.3 Rates of Change D.19 Supplementary Notes for the
in the Natural and So- Lecture of November 8th, 2006 2183
cial Sciences. . . . . . 2104 D.19.1 §4.3 How Derivatives
D.11.2 §3.4 Derivatives of Trigono- Affect the Shape of a
metric Functions. . . . 2105 Graph . . . . . . . . . 2183
D.12 Supplementary Notes for the D.20 Supplementary Notes for the
Lecture of October 16th, 2006 2111 Lecture of Monday, Novem-
D.12.1 §3.5 The Chain Rule. 2111 ber 13th, 2006 . . . . . . . . . 2190
D.12.2 §3.6 Implicit Differen- D.20.1 §4.4 Indeterminate Forms
tiation. . . . . . . . . 2117 and L’Hospital’s Rule 2190
D.13 Supplementary Notes for the D.21 Supplementary Notes for the
Lecture of October 18th, 2006 2120 Lecture of Wednesday, Novem-
D.13.1 §3.5 The Chain Rule ber 15th, 2006 . . . . . . . . . 2200
(conclusion) . . . . . . 2120 D.21.1 §4.5 Summary of Curve
D.13.2 §3.6 Implicit Differen- Sketching . . . . . . . 2200
tiation (conclusion) . . 2121 D.21.2 §4.6 Graphing with Cal-
D.14 Supplementary Notes for the culus and Calculators 2212
Lecture of October 23rd, 2006 2130 D.22 Supplementary Notes for the
D.14.1 §3.7 Higher Derivatives 2131 Lecture of Monday, Novem-
D.14.2 §3.8 Derivatives of Log- ber 20th, 2006 . . . . . . . . . 2214
arithmic Functions . . 2138 D.22.1 Sketch of Solutions to
D.15 Supplementary Notes for the Problems on the De-
Lecture of October 25th, 2006 2145 cember, 2003 Final Ex-
D.15.1 §3.9 Hyperbolic Func- amination . . . . . . . 2214
tions . . . . . . . . . . 2145 D.22.2 Sketch of Solutions to
D.15.2 §3.10 Related Rates. . 2150 Problems on one of sev-
D.16 Supplementary Notes for the eral versions of the De-
Lecture of October 30th, 2006 2152 cember, 2004 Final Ex-
D.16.1 §3.10 Related Rates (con- amination . . . . . . . 2224
clusion) . . . . . . . . 2152 D.22.3 §4.5 Summary of Curve
D.16.2 §3.11 Linear Approxi- Sketching (conclusion) 2233
mations and Differentials 2157 D.22.4 §4.7 Optimization Prob-
D.16.3 3 Review . . . . . . . 2161 lems . . . . . . . . . . 2236
D.17 Supplementary Notes for the D.22.5 §4.8 Applications to Busi-
Lecture of November 1st, 2006 2166 ness and Economics –
D.17.1 §4.1 Maximum and Min- OMIT . . . . . . . . . 2241
imum Values . . . . . 2166 D.22.6 §4.9 Newton’s Method
– OMIT . . . . . . . . 2241
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

D.23 Supplementary Notes for the E.3.3 Third 2000/2001 Prob-

Lecture of November 22nd, 2006 2242 lem Assignment, with
D.23.1 §4.10 Antiderivatives . 2242 Solutions . . . . . . . 3041
D.24 Supplementary Notes for the E.3.4 Fourth 2000/2001 Prob-
Lecture of November 27th, 2006 2254 lem Assignment, with
D.24.1 Sketch of Solutions to Solutions . . . . . . . 3050
Problems on One Ver- E.3.5 Fifth 2000/2001 Prob-
sion of the December, lem Assignment, with
2005 Final Examination 2254 Solutions . . . . . . . 3056
D.25 Supplementary Notes for the E.3.6 Sixth 2000/2001 Prob-
Lecture of November 29th, 2006 2262 lem Assignment, with
D.25.1 Sketch of Solutions to Solutions . . . . . . . 3061
Problems on One Ver-
sion of the December, F Some Tests and Quizzes from Pre-
2005 Final Examina- vious Years 3065
tion (conclusion) . . . 2262 F.1 Fall 1998 Class Quiz, with So-
lutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3065
E Assignments from Previous Years 3001 F.2 Last Three Tutorial Quizzes
E.1 Fall 1998 Problem Assignments 3001 in 2000/2001 (many versions) 3068
E.2 Fall 1999 Problem Assignments 3001 F.2.1 Fourth 2000/2001 Tu-
E.2.1 First Fall 1999 Prob- torial Quizzes . . . . . 3068
lem Assignment, with F.2.2 Fifth 2000/2001 Tuto-
Solutions . . . . . . . 3001 rial Quizzes . . . . . . 3071
E.2.2 Second Fall 1999 Prob- F.2.3 Sixth 2000/2001 Tuto-
lem Assignment . . . . 3011 rial Quizzes . . . . . . 3074
E.2.3 Third Fall 1999 Prob- F.3 First 2005/2006 Written As-
lem Assignment, with signment W1 , with Sketch of
Solutions . . . . . . . 3012 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 3079
E.2.4 Fourth Fall 1999 Prob- F.3.1 The assignment question 3079
lem Assignment . . . . 3020 F.3.2 Solutions . . . . . . . 3079
E.2.5 Fifth Fall 1999 Prob- F.4 Second 2006/2006 Written As-
lem Assignment . . . . 3021 signment W2 , with Sketch of
E.3 2000/2001 Problem Assignments, Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 3082
with Solutions . . . . . . . . . 3023 F.4.1 The assignment ques-
E.3.1 First 2000/2001 Prob- tions with solutions . 3082
lem Assignment, with F.4.2 Solution to the “Fun
Solutions . . . . . . . 3023 Problem” (Student were
E.3.2 Second 2000/2001 Prob- not asked to submit a
lem Assignment, with solution.): . . . . . . . 3085
Solutions . . . . . . . 3034 F.5 Third 2005/2006 Written As-
signment W3 . . . . . . . . . 3086
F.5.1 Certificate . . . . . . . 3086
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

F.5.2 Instructions . . . . . . 3086 G.14 December 2003 Final Exami-

F.5.3 The assignment ques- nation in MATH 140 2003 09 3111
tions . . . . . . . . . . 3087 G.15 May 2004 Supplemental/Deferred
F.6 Fourth 2005/2006 Written As- Examination in MATH 140 2003
signment W4 . . . . . . . . . 3087 09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3116
F.6.1 Certificate . . . . . . . 3087 G.16 December 2004 Final Exami-
F.6.2 Instructions . . . . . . 3088 nation in MATH 140 2004 09
F.6.3 The assignment ques- (One of several versions) . . . 3120
tions . . . . . . . . . . 3088 G.17 May 2005 Supplemental/Deferred
F.7 Fifth 2005/2006 Written As- Examination in MATH 140 2004
signment W5 . . . . . . . . . 3088 09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3125
F.7.1 Certificate . . . . . . . 3088 G.18 December, 2005, Final Exam-
F.7.2 Instructions . . . . . . 3089 ination in MATH 140 2005 09
F.7.3 The assignment question 3089 (one version) . . . . . . . . . 3129
G.19 May, 2006, Supplemental/Deferred
G Examinations from Previous Years 3090 Examination in MATH 140 2005
G.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3090 09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3133
G.2 December 1996 Final Exami-
nation in 189-122A . . . . . . 3091 H WeBWorK 4001
G.3 December 1997 Final Exami- H.1 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) 4001
nation in 189-140A . . . . . . 3092 H.1.1 Where is WeBWorK? 4001
G.4 December 1998 Final Exami- H.1.2 Do I need a password
nation in 189-140A . . . . . . 3095 to use WeBWorK? . 4001
G.5 May 1999 Supplemental Ex- H.1.3 Do I have to pay an
amination in 189-140A . . . . 3097 additional fee to use WeB-
G.6 December 1999 Final Exami- WorK? . . . . . . . . 4002
nation in 189-140A . . . . . . 3098 H.1.4 When will assignments
G.7 December 1999 Special Final be available on WeB-
Examination in 189-140A . . 3100 WorK? . . . . . . . . 4002
G.8 December 2000 Final exami- H.1.5 Do WeBWorK assign-
nation in 189-140A . . . . . . 3101 ments cover the full range
G.9 May 2001 Supplemental/Deferred of problems that I should
Examination in 189-140A . . 3102 be able to solve in this
G.10 December 2001 Final Exami- course? . . . . . . . . 4002
nation in 189-140A . . . . . . 3103 H.1.6 May I assume that the
G.11 May 2002 Supplemental/Deferred distribution of topics
Examination in 189-140A . . 3105 on quizzes and final ex-
G.12 December 2002 Final Exami- aminations will paral-
nation in MATH 140 2002 09 3107 lel the distribution of
G.13 May 2003 Supplemental/Deferred topics in the WeBWorK
Examination in MATH 140 2002 assignments? . . . . . 4002
09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3109
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

H.1.7 WeBWorK provides J.2.2 Larson, Hostetler, et al. 6002

for different kinds of J.2.3 Edwards and Penney . 6003
“Display Mode”. Which J.2.4 Others, not “Early Tran-
should I use? . . . . . 4003 scendentals” . . . . . . 6003
H.1.8 WeBWorK provides J.3 Other References . . . . . . . 6003
for printing assignments
in “Portable Document
Format” (.pdf), “PostScript” List of Tables
(.ps) forms. Which should
I use? . . . . . . . . . 4003 1 Instructors and Times . . . . 1
H.1.9 What is the relation be- 2 Schedule and Locations of Tu-
tween WeBWorK and torials, as of December 1, 2006
WebCT? . . . . . . . . 4003 (subject to change) . . . . . . 4
H.1.10 Which browser should 3 Tutors’ Coordinates, as of De-
I use for WeBWorK? 4004 cember 1, 2006 . . . . . . . . 5
H.1.11 What do I have to do 4 Summary of Course Require-
on WeBWorK? . . . 4004 ments, as of December 1, 2006;
H.1.12 How can I learn how (all dates are subject to change) 12
to use WeBWorK? . 4005 5 Summary of solutions to W1 ,
H.1.13 Where should I go if MONDAY version . . . . . . 33
I have difficulties with 6 Summary of solutions to W1 ,
WeBWorK ? . . . . 4005 WEDNESDAY version . . . . 34
H.1.14 Can the WeBWorK 7 Summary of solutions to W1 ,
system ever break down THURSDAY version . . . . . 36
or degrade? . . . . . . 4005 8 Summary of solutions to W1 ,
H.1.15 How many attempts may FRIDAY version . . . . . . . 37
I make to solve a par- 9 Values of the Trigonometric
ticular problem on WeB- Functions for simple, non-negative
WorK? . . . . . . . . 4006 submultiples of π. . . . . . . . 2017
H.1.16 Will all WeBWorK as- 10 Differentiation Rules from [1,
signments have the same §3.1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2096
length? the same value? 4006 11 Differentiation Rules from [1,
H.1.17 Is WeBWorK a good §3.2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2100
indicator of examina- 12 Some Antiderivatives . . . . . 2243
tion performance? . . 4006 13 1998 Problem Assignments . 3001

I Contents of the DVD disks for

Larson/Hostetler/Edwards 5001 List of Figures
J References 6001 1 Showing a discontinuity in a
J.1 Stewart Calculus Series . . . 6001 graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
J.2 Other Calculus Textbooks . . 6002 2 Showing a discontinuity in a
J.2.1 R. A. Adams . . . . . 6002 graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09

(x − a)2 − b2
3 Graph of the Function
(x − a)2 + b2
and its horizontal asymptote,
y = 1, when a = 2, b = 5 . . . 80
4 Graph of the Function sin x . 2019
5 Graph of the Function cos x . 2020
6 Graph of the Function tan x . 2021
7 Graph of the Function cot x . 2022
8 Graph of the Function sec x . 2023
9 Graph of the Function csc x . 2024
10 Invertible restriction of the Func-
tion sin x . . . . . . . . . . . 2051
11 Graph of the Inverse Sine Func-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052
12 Reflection (in red) of the re-
striction of sin x in the line
y = x . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2053
13 Graph of the Function
√ √ f (x) =
x2 + x + 1 − x2 − x . . . 2090
x2
14 Graph of the Function 2
x +3
and its horizontal asymptote,
y = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2186
15 Graph of the Function cos2 x−
2 sin x . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2188
16 Graph of the Function
r x ln x . 2189
x
17 Graph of f (x) = and
x−5
its horizontal asymptote . . . 2204
18 Graph of y = ex − 3e−x − 4x 2207
sin x
19 Graph of f (x) = for x >
x
0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2210
20 Portion of the graph of y =
sin x − tan x, showing its ver-
tical asymptotes . . . . . . . 2234
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 1

1 General Information
Distribution Date: This preliminary version as of December 1, 2006
(all information is subject to change)
Pages 1 - 23 of these notes may be considered the Course Outline for this course.

These notes may undergo minor corrections or updates during the term:
the definitive version will be the version accessible at

http://www.math.mcgill.ca/brown/math140a.html

or on WebCT, at

http://www.mcgill.ca/webct or http://webct.mcgill.ca

1.1 Instructors and Times

INSTRUCTOR: Prof. N. Sancho Prof. W. G. Brown

(Course Coordinator)
LECTURE SECTION: 1 2
CRN: 415 418
OFFICE: BURN 1130 BURN 1224
OFFICE HOURS: MW 11:00→12:00 M 15:00→16:00
(subject to change) F 10:00→11:00
or by appointment
TELEPHONE: (514)-398-3823 (514)-398–3836
E-MAIL:1 SANCHO@ BROWN@
MATH.MCGILL.CA MATH.MCGILL.CA
CLASSROOM: ADAMS AUD ADAMS AUD
CLASS HOURS: MWF 8:35–9:25 h. MW 16:35–17:55 h.

Table 1: Instructors and Times

1
Please do not send e-mail messages to your instructors through the WebCT or WeBWorK2 systems;
rather, use the addresses given in Table 1.1.
2
E-mail messages generated by the Feedback command in WeBWorK should be used sparingly,
and confined to specific inquiries about WeBWorK assignments.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 2

1.2 Course Description

1.2.1 Calendar Description of MATH 141
MATH 1403 CALCULUS 1. (3 credits. 3 hours lecture; 1 hour tutorial. Prerequisite:
High School Calculus. Not open to students who have taken MATH 120, MATH 122,
MATH 139 or CEGEP objective 00UN or equivalent. Not open to students who have
taken or are taking MATH 130 or MATH 131, except by permission of the Department
of Mathematics and Statistics. Each Tutorial section is enrolment limited.) Review
of functions and graphs. Limits, continuity, derivative. Differentiation of elementary
functions. Antidifferentiation. Applications.

1.2.2 Calendar Descriptions of other beginning calculus courses

• MATH 139 Calculus (4 credits); Instructor = Professor J. J. Xu. This
course (whose prerequisite is a course in functions) is intended for students who
have never had a course in calculus. Students may apply at the Department of
Mathematics and Statistics before the end of the Course Change Period for au-
thorization to register in this course; they must bring copies of their transcripts4 .
This course covers approximately the same material as MATH 140. MATH 139
uses the same textbook as MATH 140.

• MATH 150 Calculus A (4 credits); Instructor = Dr. Igor Wigman. This

course, together with either of its 4-credit sequels, MATH 151 Calculus B and
MATH 152 Calculus E5 , covers most of the material of courses MATH 140/MATH
139, MATH 141 Calculus 2, and MATH 222 Calculus 3, in only two semesters6 . A
prior or concurrent course in Vector Geometry (e.g. MATH 133) is recommended.7
3
The previous designation for this course was 189-140, and the version given in the fall was labelled
189-140A; an earlier number for a similar course was 189-122.
4
Authorization for registration in MATH 139 2006 09 will be available beginning on Wednesday, 30
August, 2006, and ending on Tuesday, 19 September, 2006. For details, see the following URL:

http://www.math.mcgill.ca/brown/incoming.htm

5
Open only to students in the Faculty of Engineering
6
MATH 152 lacks one topic in MATH 222, as it is deferred to another Engineering Mathematics
course.
7
Note that MATH 150/151 uses a different textbook from MATH 140/141; the textbook is by R. A.
Adams [18], [16], [17], [19], [20], [21].
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3

1.2.3 How much of my previous calculus course do I need to remember?

Since the gaps in students’ knowledge from their high school calculus courses are different
for different students, we will be covering the entire syllabus of a first calculus course,
i.e., the same material that is covered in MATH 139, described above. However, we do
assume a working knowledge of the prerequisites for a first calculus course — including
familiarity with the content of a course on functions, including algebra and trigonometry.

1.2.4 Late transfer from MATH 150

Some students from MATH 150 may be permitted by their Faculty to transfer into
MATH 140 after the end of the Change of Course Period. If you are in this category,
please send an e-mail message to Professor Brown as soon as your transfer has been
approved.8

1.3 Tutorials; Tutors’ Coordinates

1. Every student must be registered in one lecture section and one tutorial section.
Tutorials begin in the week of September 11th, 2006. The last tutorials in tutorial
sections T009 – T020 will be during the week of November 27th, 2006. Table
2 gives times, locations, and the tutor’s name for each of the tutorials; Table 3
gives the tutors’ coordinates. The information in these tables is subject to
change. We try to publicize changes but sometimes we are not informed
in advance.9

2. You are expected to write quizzes and submit written assignments only
in the tutorial section in which you are registered.10 You do not have a
licence to move from one tutorial section to another at will, even if you
find the time, location, or personnel of your tutorials either temporar-
ily or permanently inconvenient; in the latter case the onus is on you
to transfer formally to another tutorial section, to change your other
classes, or to drop MATH 140 2006 09. Please remember that transfers
must be completed by the Course Change (drop/add) deadline (Septem-
ber 19th, 2006), and are subject to the maximum capacities established
for each tutorial section11 .
8
This is to ensure that a WeBWorK account is opened for you in this course, and that your date
of entry to the course is recorded.
9
The current room for your tutorial should always be available by clicking on “Class Schedule” on
MINERVA FOR STUDENTS, http://www.mcgill.ca/minerva-students/.
10
In some time slots there may be several tutorial sections, meeting in different rooms.
11
Your instructors do not have the ability to change the maximum capacities of tutorials.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4

All tutorial sections meet first during the week of September 11th, 2006
# CRN Day Begins Ends Room Tutor
T003 421 Mon 13:35 14:25 BURN 1214 K. Davis
T004 422 Mon 14:35 15:25 BURN 1214 K. Davis
T005 423 Mon 14:35 15:25 BURN 1B39 J. McKeown
T006 424 Mon 15:35 16:25 BURN 1B23 J. McKeown
T007 425 Mon 14:35 15:25 ARTS 145 N. Touikan
T008 426 Mon 15:35 16:25 ARTS 145 N. Touikan
T009 427 Wed 13:35 14:25 BURN 1214 C. Boudreault
T010 428 Wed 14:35 15:25 BURN 1214 C. Boudreault
T011 429 Wed 14:35 15:25 BURN 1B39 S. Nashaat
T012 430 Wed 15:35 16:25 BURN 1214 A. Baker
T013 431 Wed 14:35 15:25 BURN 1B36 A. Baker
T014 432 Wed 13:35 14:25 BURN 1B24 S. Nashaat
T015 433 Thurs 16:05 16:55 ENGMC 12 B. Cordy
T016 434 Thurs 17:05 17:55 ENGMC 12 B. Cordy
T017 435 Wed 15:35 16:25 BURN 1B24 Y. Zhao
T018 436 Wed 16:35 17:25 BURN 1214 Y. Zhao
T019 437 Fri 14:35 15:25 BURN 1B39 S. Miscione
T020 438 Fri 15:35 16:25 BURN 1B23 S. Miscione

Table 2: Schedule and Locations of Tutorials, as of December 1, 2006 (subject to change)

3. The tutorials in MATH 140 are short. About half of the total tutorial time is
devoted to testing, through quizzes every two or three weeks, and subsequent dis-
cussion of the solutions to the quiz and written assignment problems.
The remaining time will be devoted to brief discussion of the solution of specific
kinds of problems. Students must not assume that they will be exposed in lectures
and tutorials to detailed model solutions for every type of Calculus 1 problem. It is
essential that you supplement these classes with serious work on your own, carefully
reading the textbook and solving problems therein. If you encounter difficulties,
take them to the tutors during one of their many office hours: you may attend the
office hours of any tutor in the course, and are not restricted to those of the tutor
of the tutorial in which you are registered.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 5

Tutor E-mail address Office Office Hours

BURN Day Begins Ends Day Begins Ends
Baker, A. [email protected] 1035 Th 14:00 17:00
Boudreault, C. [email protected] 1115 M 14:00 17:00
Cordy, B. [email protected] 1032 T 11:30 14:30
Davis, K. [email protected] 1134 Th 09:30 10:30 Th 13:30 15:30
McKeown, J. [email protected] 1218 W 12:30 15:30
Miscione, S. [email protected] 1036 T 10:30 11:30 Th 10:30 12:30
Nashaat, S. [email protected] 1132 M 11:00 12:30 F 11:00 12:30
Touikan, N. [email protected] 1008 T 15:00 18:00
Zhao, Y. [email protected] 1035 F 14:15 17:15
During her/his office hours, a tutor is available to all students in the course,
not only to the students of her/his tutorial section.

Table 3: Tutors’ Coordinates, as of December 1, 2006

1.4 Evaluation of Your Progress

1.4.1 Your final grade
(See Table 4, p. 12) Your grade in this course will be a letter grade, based on a percentage
grade computed from the following components:

1. Assignments submitted over the Web: WeBWorK homework assignments (cf.

§1.4.2) — counting together for a total of 10% of the final grade. All WeBWorK
assignments must be completed by their posted expiration dates and times. (cf.
§1.4.1). We plan to have 7 Assignments, denoted by A1 , . . . A7 .

2. Materials graded by your Tutor:

• Four Written Assignments — counting together for 4%. The Written Assign-
ments will be denoted by W1 , . . . , W4 .
• Four Quizzes given at the tutorials — counting together for 16% of the final
grade. The Quizzes will be denoted by Q1 , . . . , Q4 . There will also be a
compulsory diagnostic quiz, Q0 . Quizzes Q0 and Q4 will be 45 minutes long;
Q1 , Q2 , Q3 will each be 20 minutes long. Quizzes Q1 — Q4 will each count
for 4% of the 16% allocated to the quizzes; Q4 counts equally with the earlier
quizzes, even though it is longer; the grade on Q0 does not count — but,
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 6

if you do not write Q0 , your other quiz grades will not count.12 Quiz
Q0 will be written at your first tutorial. Be there!

3. The final examination — counting for 70%.

Where a student’s performance on the final examination is superior to her performance

on the tutorial quizzes, 16% of the final examination percentage will replace the quiz
grades in the calculations. It is not planned to permit the examination grade to replace
the grades on WeBWorK assignments or on written assignments.

1.4.2 WeBWorK
The WeBWorK system, developed at the University of Rochester — is designed to
expose you to a large number of drill problems, and where plagiarism is discouraged.
WeBWorK is accessible only over the Web. Details on how to sign on to WeBWorK
are contained in Appendix H to these notes, page 4001.
WeBWorK assignments carry a due date and time; only answers submitted by the
due date and time will count. The WeBWorK assignments will be labelled A1 , . . ., A7 .
Assignments A1 and A2 together review some precalculus concepts.

Numbers of permitted attempts at WeBWorK questions: The assignments

have limits to the numbers of times a student may attempt a problem. However, for each
assignment An there will be a companion “Practice” Assignment Pn (n = 1, 2, . . . , 7)
with an unlimited number of attempts at similar problems, but in which the specific
data will be different. You may prepare yourself on the Practice assignment before
attempting the actual assignment. The practice assignments DO NOT COUNT in your
term mark, even though a grade is recorded.. Practice assignment Pn is usually due 1 week
before assignment An ; but there are exceptions, so please consult the timetable. Another
assignment which will not count will be Practice Assignment P0 , which is intended to
introduce you to the WeBWorK system.

Due dates and times for WeBWorK assignments The due dates for WeBWorK
assignments will be on specified Sundays, about 23 : 30h (with the exception of As-
signment A3 , which will be due late in the evening on the Monday which is Canada’s
Thanksgiving Day); last minute changes in the due dates may be announced either on
WeBWorK, on WebCT, or by an e-mail message13 As mentioned in the WeBWorK
12
It is essential that you write Q0 , since it can indicate areas where you need to do remedial work at
the beginning of the term. (An announcement was posted on WebCT in September that the compulsory
requirement for Q0 was being relaxed.)
13
Be sure that your e-mail addresses are correctly recorded. See 1.8.1, p. 20 of these notes.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 7

FAQ (cf. Appendix §H) if you leave your WeBWorK assignment until the hours close
to the due time on the due date, you should not be surprised if the system is slow to re-
spond. This is not a malfunction, but is simply a reflection of the fact that other students
have also been procrastinating! To benefit from the speed that the system can deliver
under normal conditions, do not delay your WeBWorK until the last possible day! If
a systems failure interferes with the due date of an assignment, arrangements may be
made to change that date, and an e-mail message may be broadcast to all users (to the
e-mail addresses on record), or a note posted in the course announcements on WebCT;
but slowness in the system just before the due time will not normally be considered a
systems failure.14

Precalculus WeBWorK assignments: Assignments A1 and A2 are based on precal-

culus material. These assignments have been scheduled to be due before the last day to
change courses; they can help you decide whether you are ready for MATH 140.

1.4.3 Written Assignments

Written assignments W1 , W2 , W3 , W4 will be posted on WebCT, one or two weeks
before they are due; they may also be included in updated versions of these notes.
These assignments will contain one or more problems for which you will be expected to
write full solutions, modelled on similar types of solutions in worked examples in the
textbook, or solved problems in the Student Solutions Manual. You will be assigned an
individualized version of the problems. You should bring your solutions to the Tutorial
Quiz the following week, and submit them with your quiz paper; they will be graded by
your tutor and returned to you with that graded quiz. Please do not attempt any other
methods for submitting your written assignments, to minimize the risk of loss.

1.4.4 Quizzes at the Tutorials; Submission of Written Assignments at the

Quizzes
1. There will be 5 quizzes, numbered Q0 , Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , Q4 , administered at the tutorials.
These quizzes will be graded, and returned (together with the written assignment
that will be handed in with quiz papers Q1 — Q4 ). The primary purpose of a quiz
is to diagnose possible gaps in your understanding, not to drill on examination
skills.
No provision is being made for students who miss one of Q1 — Q4 . The grading
formula permits the quiz component of the final grade to be replaced by the final
14
Should you find that the system is responding slowly, do not submit your solutions more than once;
you may deplete the number of attempts that have been allowed to you for a problem: this will not be
considered a systems failure.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 8

examination grade, if this is to a student’s advantage.

2. The grade you obtain on quiz Q0 , given at your first tutorial, during the
week of September 11th, 2006, DOES NOT COUNT IN YOUR TERM
MARK. But your other quiz grades will not count unless you write Q0 .
Be there!15

3. The remaining quizzes will be based on current topics in the syllabus of the course,
most16 of which topics will have been discussed in the lectures before the quiz;
the quizzes are not based directly on WeBWorK assignments. To prepare for
a quiz you should be working exercises in the textbook based on the material
currently under discussion at the lectures, and you should have attempted any open
WeBWorK assignments. But, unlike the WeBWorK assignments — where the
emphasis is on correct answers alone — students may be expected to provide full
solutions to some or all problems on quizzes.17

4. Submission of Written Assignments at Quizzes (excluding quiz Q0 ) In-

dividualized written assignments W1 , W2 , W3 , W4 will be published about a week
before they are to be handed in at a tutorial quiz; you should download or copy
each written assignment from the web site, write out your solutions at home, bring
the completed assignment with you to the tutorial, and hand it in with your quiz
paper — no other submission method is acceptable. The assignment must be ready
for submission when you arrive, as you will not be provided time in the tutorial
room to complete it. You will enclose the written assignment in your folded answer
paper.

5. Your tutors will normally bring graded quizzes and graded assignments submitted
with them to the tutorial to be returned to you. University regulations do not
permit us to leave unclaimed materials bearing names and student numbers in
unsupervised locations; you may be able to recover an unclaimed quiz from the
tutor who graded it, during her/his regular office hours.

6. “Raw” versus “Scaled” Quiz Grades. After he receives all quiz data from
T.A.’s, Professor Brown may make small upward adjustments in the grades in
15
See footnote 12.
16
but possibly not all
17
In Math 140 and Math 141 the general rule is that full solutions are expected to all problems, unless
you receive explicit instructions to the contrary: ALWAYS SHOW YOUR WORK! The solutions in the
Student Solution Manual [3] to the textbook can serve as a guide to what should be included in a “full”
solution.
Please do not ask your tutors to provide information about the content of coming quizzes: they will
not have that information in advance.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 9

certain tutorial sections, in order to reduce variations between sections, based on

analysis of the average or median performance.

7. Posting of grades. Grades on Quizzes and Written Assignments will eventually

be uploaded to WebCT, where you will be able to check that your grades have
been properly recorded. Report any error by e-mail to Professor Brown and to
your T.A., within one month of the date it has been posted.

8. Plagiarism. (cf. §1.4.8) When a T.A. discovers evidence of cheating, she/he is

obliged to bring it to the attention of the instructors, who may have to forward the
materials to the Associate Dean of the Student’s Faculty for possible disciplinary
action. Such actions have been taken in the past in this course.

9. Students with Disabilities who wish to write any of their quizzes at the OSD
office need to make prior arrangements with that office approximately 8 days before
any quiz.

1.4.5 Final Examination

A 3-hour-long final examination will be scheduled during the regular examination period
for the fall term (December 7th, 2006 through December 22nd, 2006). You are advised
not to make any travel arrangements that would prevent you from being present on
campus at any time during this period.

1.4.6 Supplemental Assessments

Supplemental Examination. There will be a supplemental examination in this course.
For information about Supplemental Examinations, see

http://www.mcgill.ca/artscisao/departmental/examination/supplemental/.

Note, in particular, that a Supplemental Examination may be written only by a student

who has obtained a grade of F or D as a grade in the course, and that the grade on the
Supplemental Examination counts in your average as though you have taken the course
again — without a term work component! )

There is No Additional Work Option. “Will students with marks of D, F, or J

have the option of doing additional work to upgrade their mark?” No. (“Additional
Work” refers to an option available in certain Arts and Science courses, but not available
in MATH 140 2006 09.)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 10

1.4.7 Machine Scoring

“Will the final examination be machine scored?” The final examination will not be
machine scored.

Answer-only Problems It is possible that some of the problems on your final exam-
ination will request that the answer only be given, and will not carry part marks which
could be based on the work leading up to the answer.

Multiple Choice Questions Do not confuse machine scoring with multiple choice
questions. We may use multiple choice questions in situations where it is expedient; for
example, Diagnostic Quiz Q0 will have multiple choice questions. The grade on this quiz
does not count in your final grade, but you are required to write the quiz. These
multiple choice questions will be graded manually by your TA, not by machine.

1.4.8 Plagiarism
While students are not discouraged from discussing methods for solving WeBWorK
assignment problems with their colleagues, all the work that you submit — whether
through WeBWorK or written assignments, or on tutorial quizzes or the final exami-
nation must be your own. The Senate of the University requires the following message
in all course outlines:

“McGill University values academic integrity. Therefore all students must under-
stand the meaning and consequences of cheating, plagiarism and other academic
offences under the Code of Student Conduct and Disciplinary Procedures. (See
http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity for more information).
“L’université McGill attache une haute importance à l’honnêteté académique. Il
incombe par conséquent à tous les étudiants de comprendre ce que l’on entend
par tricherie, plagiat et autres infractions académiques, ainsi que les conséquences
que peuvent avoir de telles actions, selon le Code de conduite de l’étudiant et des
procédures disciplinaires. (Pour de plus amples renseignements, veuillez consulter
le site http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity).”

It is a violation of University regulations to permit others to solve your

WeBWorK problems, or to extend such assistance to others; you could be
asked to sign a statement attesting to the originality of your work. The
Handbook on Student Rights and Responsibilities18 states in ¶A.I.15(a) that
18
http://upload.mcgill.ca/secretariat/greenbookenglish.pdf
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 11

“No student shall, with intent to deceive, represent the work of another person
as his or her own in any academic writing, essay, thesis, research report,
project or assignment submitted in a course or program of study or represent
as his or her own an entire essay or work of another, whether the material so
represented constitutes a part or the entirety of the work submitted.”
You are also referred to the following URL:
http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/

1.4.9 Keep all your graded materials!

Grades will be posted on WebCT during the term; check periodically to see that your
grades are recorded correctly, and advise Professor Brown and/or your TA if you find a
grade missing or incorrectly recorded. You may need to produce the graded assignment
or quiz, so these should be retained until the end of the term.19

1.5 Published Materials

1.5.1 Required Text-Book
The textbook for the course is J. Stewart, SINGLE VARIABLE CALCULUS: Early
Transcendentals, Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole (2003), ISBN 0-534-39330-6, [1].
This book is the first half of J. Stewart, CALCULUS: Early Transcendentals,
Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole (2003), ISBN 0-534-39321-7, [2]; this edition covers the
material for Calculus 3 (MATH 222) as well, but is not the text-book for that course
at the present time. The textbook will be sold in the McGill Bookstore bundled with
its Student Solutions Manual (see below). The ISBN number for the entire bundle is
0-17-617367620.

1.5.2 Optional Reference Books

Students are urged to make use of the Student Solution Manual:
• D. Anderson, J. A. Cole, D. Drucker, STUDENT SOLUTIONS MANUAL
FOR STEWART’S SINGLE VARIABLE CALCULUS: Early Transcen-
dentals, Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole (2003), ISBN 0-534-39333-0, [3]. This
book is also sold “bundled” with either version of the text book; we expect the
Bookstore to stock the bundle numbered ISBN 0-17-6173676 [4].
19
The justification for quizzes and assignments is mainly as learning experiences: for that reason alone
you should be retaining all materials that could help you prepare for your final examination.
20
The bundle also includes ISBN 0-17-6173676 ACP Calculus Formula Card.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 12

Item # Due Date Details

P0 DOES NOT COUNT: introduces WeBWorK
P1 17 Sept 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A1
P2 17 Sept 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A2
WeBWorK A1 26 Sept 06
Assignments A2 26 Sept 06
(cf. §1.4.2) P3 01 Oct 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A3
10% A3 09 Oct 06
P4 15 Oct 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A4
A4 22 Oct 06
P5 29 Oct 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A5
A5 05 Nov 06
P6 12 Nov 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A6
A6 19 Nov 06
P7 26 Nov 06 DOES NOT COUNT; practice for A7
A7 03 Dec 06 A1 –A7 count equally, but may have different
numbers of problems.
Written W1 with Q1 Download; complete at home; hand in with Q1
Assignments W2 with Q2 Download; complete at home; hand in with Q2
(cf. §1.4.3) W3 with Q3 Download; complete at home; hand in with Q3
4% W4 with Q4 Download; complete at home; hand in with Q4
Quizzes Q0 11–15 Sept 06 The grade on Quiz Q0 does not count, but you
(cf. §1.4.4) Q1 25–29 Sept 06 must write the quiz (for diagnostic purposes)!
16% or 0% Q2 16–20 Oct 06 Quizzes Q1 — Q4 count equally.
Q3 30 Oct-3 Nov
Q4 20–24 Nov 06
Final Exam 07–22 Dec 06 Date of exam to be announced by Faculty
70% or 86%
Supplemental 01–02 May 07 Only for students who do not obtain standing at
Exam the final. Supplemental exams count in your av-
erage like taking the course again; exam counts
for 100%.

Table 4: Summary of Course Requirements, as of December 1, 2006; (all dates are subject
to change)

The publishers of the textbook and Student Solutions Manual also produce

• a “Study Guide”, designed to provide additional help for students who believe
they require it: R. St. Andre, STUDY GUIDE FOR STEWART’S SIN-
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 13

GLE VARIABLE CALCULUS: Early Transcendentals, Fifth Edition,

Brooks/Cole (2003), ISBN 0-534-39331-4, [7]. (The “Study Guide” resembles the
Student Solution Manual in appearance: be sure you know what you are buying.)

• a “Companion” which integrates a review of pre-calculus concepts with the contents

of Math 140, including exercises with solutions: D. Ebersole, D. Schattschneider,
A. Sevilla, K. Somers, A COMPANION TO CALCULUS. Brooks/Cole (1995),
ISBN 0-534-26592-8 [32].

1.5.3 Recommended Video Materials

Use of the following materials is recommended, but is not mandatory21 .

Larson/Hostetler/Edwards DVD Disks A set of video DVD disks produced for

another calculus book, [22] Calculus Instructional DVD Program, for use with (inter
alia) Larson/Hostetler/Edwards, Calculus of a Single Variable: Early Transcendental
Functions, Third Edition [23] is produced by the Houghton Mifflin Company. Copies
have been requested to be placed on reserve in the Schulich Library. In Appendix §I
of these notes there are charts that indicate the contents of these disks that pertain to
MATH 140.

Text-specific videos for Stewart’s Calculus, early transcendentals, 5th edition

The publisher of Stewart’s Calculus has produced a series of videotapes, [8] Video Outline
for Stewart’s Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. These will initially be
available for reserve loan at the Schulich Library. There may not be VCR viewing
equipment freely available in the library; the intention is that interested students borrow
a tape for viewing on their own equipment at home.

Tools for Enriching Calculus This is a CD-ROM included with new copies of Stew-
art’s Calculus. From [10, Introduction]: “Tools for Enriching Calculus (TEC) enhances a
topic that is covered in the textbook by providing both broader and deeper coverage of those
aspects for which technology is particularly useful. The basic format of most modules is a
point-and-click laboratory environment in which you can easily visualize functions and their
derivatives, experiment with suggested examples and exercises, explore your own choices of
examples, and perhaps even test some of your own conjectures. You need to be a well-prepared
and active player to reap the benefits from these approaches.
21
No one will check whether you have used any of these aids; a student can obtain a perfect grade
in the course without ever consulting any of them. No audio-visual or calculator aid can replace the
systematic use of paper and pencil as you work your way through problems. But the intelligent use of
some of these aids may assist your in understanding the subject matter.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 14

“First, you need to read the textbook materials carefully to gain an understanding of the
essential ideas. Next, you need to read the introductory material for each TEC module, which
explains the basic mathematical approaches and describes how to use the module. Each module
has several examples which will familiarize you with its basic features. When you have finished
reviewing this material, and have some paper and pencil in hand, you are ready to get the most
benefit from using the module. You can improve your understanding of the topic by exploring
mathematical questions that you find puzzling, and checking your ideas for solutions using the
module. Try to work through some of the exercises in the module to gauge your understanding
of the topic. Be willing to use pencil and paper to first guess what the answer might be before
seeing an electronic graph...
“Another important TEC feature is the homework22 hints. Hints have been created for
several selected exercises in each section of your textbook to help you understand some key
points in finding solutions for these exercises. Similar to a good instructor or teaching assistant,
these hints ask you questions that will allow you to make progress toward a solution without
giving you the actual answer. You need to actively pursue each hint with pencil and paper and
fill in many of the computations and details. If you can complete the solution after reading
only one or two hints, you can feel proud of your achievements. If you still have questions after
completing all of the hints for a problem, your work should help you to better understand the
solution presented in the Student Solutions Manual.”

Interactive Video Skillbuilder CD for Stewart’s Calculus: Early Transcen-

dentals, 5th Edition [9] This CD-ROM is included with new copies of the textbook.
It contains, after an enlightening “pep-talk” by the author, a discussion of some of the
worked examples in the text-book, followed by a quiz for each section in the book. Some
students may find the animations of the examples helpful, although the examples are all
worked in the book. You might wish to try some of the quiz questions using paper and
pencil, and then check your answers with those given on the CD. It is not recommended
that you attempt to enter your answers digitally, as this is a time-consuming process,
and uses a different input method from your WeBWorK assignments, which serve the
same purpose.

1.5.4 Other Calculus Textbooks

While students may wish to consult other textbooks, or other editions of the recom-
mended textbooks, instructors and teaching assistants in Math 140 will normally refer
only to the prescribed edition of the prescribed textbook for the course. Other books
can be very useful, but the onus is on you to ensure that your book covers the syllabus to
22
Note that homework refers to odd-numbered problems in the exercises in [1], not to problems on
WeBWorK .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 15

at least the required depth; where there are differences of terminology, you are expected
to be familiar with the terminology of the textbook.23
In your previous calculus course(s) you may have learned methods of solving problems
that appear to differ from those you find in the current textbook. Your instructors will
be pleased to discuss any such methods with you personally, to ascertain whether they
are appropriate to the present course. In particular, any methods that depend upon
the use of a calculator, or the plotting of multiple points, or the tabulation of function
values, or the inference of a trend from a graph should be regarded with scepticism.

1.5.5 Website
These notes, and other materials distributed to students in this course, will be accessible
at the following URL:

http://www.math.mcgill.ca/brown/math140a.html

The notes will be in “pdf” (.pdf) form, and can be read using the Adobe Acrobat reader,
which many users have on their computers. This free software may be downloaded from
the following URL:
24
http://www.adobe.com/prodindex/acrobat/readstep.html

The questions on some old examinations will also be available as an appendix to these
notes on the Web.25 It is expected that most computers in campus labs should have the
necessary software to read the posted materials.
Where revisions are made to distributed printed materials — for example these in-
formation sheets — we expect that the last version will be posted on the Web.
The notes and WeBWorK will also be available via a link from the WebCT URL:

http://webct.mcgill.ca

but other features of WebCT26 have not yet been implemented.

23
There should be multiple copies of the textbook on reserve in the Schulich library.
24
At the time of this writing the current version appears to be 7.0.8.
25
There is no reason to expect the distribution of problems on quizzes or in assignments and exami-
nations from previous years be related to the frequencies of any types of problems on the examination
that you will be writing at the end of the term.
26
cf. Appendix H to these notes, p. 4001
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 16

1.6 Syllabus
In the following list section numbers refer to the text-book [1]. The syllabus will include
all of Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, with omissions, as listed below.27
Chapter 0: A Preview of Calculus. This is motivational material, and may not all
be discussed in the lectures. Read it.

Chapter 1: Functions and Models. In §1.1, two of the four ways to define a function
are not useful in general: a table of values can be used to define a function only if
its domain is finite, and the value of the function is prescribed for every point in
the domain; it is normally not acceptable to define a function by a graph, unless
the nature of the graph can be described without any ambiguity. Some parts of
§1.2 may not be discussed in the lectures, but you should read the whole section
— in particular the definitions of various kinds of functions — as this terminology
may be used from time to time. Omit §1.4.

Mathematical Induction (Because time has been needed for review of other
topics, this topic will not be examination material in 2006-07.28) The Principle of
Mathematical Induction [1, p. 81] will be required in proving theorems and solving
problems that involve the positive integers (=“the natural numbers”).

Chapter 2: Limits and Derivatives.

Chapter 3: Differentiation Rules. Omit §3.3; but you are encouraged to read the
parts of §3.3 that pertain to your own fields of interest.

Chapter 4: Applications of Differentiation. In §4.5 you may skip the discussion of

“slant asymptotes” [1, bottom p. 322 – p. 323]. Omit §4.6, §4.8, §4.9.

Exercises that require technology Students are not expected to be able to solve
exercises that require the use of calculators or computers. You may wish to try
such problems, as a challenge, as some of them can be solved with clever use of
paper and pencil.
27
If a textbook section is listed below, you should assume that all material in that section is examina-
tion material even if the instructor has not discussed every topic in his lectures; however, the instructors
may give you information during the term concerning topics that may be considered subsidiary.
Do not assume that a topic is omitted from the syllabus if it has not been tested in a
WeBWorK assignment or a quiz, or if it has not appeared on any of the old examinations
in the course! Some topics to not lend themselves to this type of testing; others may have been
omitted simply because of lack of space, or oversight. By the same token, you need not expect every
topic in the course to be examined on the final examination.
28
Added 26 September 06
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 17

Problems Plus The exercises and other material that appear in [1, Principles of Prob-
lem Solving, pp. 80-85], and in the “Problems Plus” subsections following the later
chapters are to be omitted.
The following appendices in the textbook contain some prerequisite material for this
course:
Appendix A: Intervals, Inequalities, and Absolute Values. (see information for
Chapters 1 and 3 above)
Appendix B: Coordinate Geometry and Lines.
Appendix C: Graphs of Second-Degree Equations. You are expected to be famil-
iar with the material concerning the circle, [1, pp. A16-A17]. The remainder of the
material should be familiar to most students, but will not be assumed.
Appendix D: Trigonometry. You are assumed to be familiar with the material in [1,
pp. A24–A31].
Please do not ask the tutors to provide information as to which topics should be
emphasized. Unless you are informed otherwise by the instructors in the lecture sections
or published notes — printed, or mounted on the Web — you should assume that all
materials listed are included in the syllabus. You are not expected to be able to reproduce
proofs of the theorems in the textbook.

1.7 Preparation and Workload

1.7.1 Prerequisites.
All students must have completed a course in functions — in particular, familiarity
with trigonometric functions is assumed; it is your responsibility as a student to verify
that you have this necessary background to benefit from this course. While a course in
high school calculus is the stated “prerequisite” for this course, stronger students having
only the prerequisite for MATH 139 (viz., “a course in functions”) have normally been
permitted to register at their own risk in MATH 140. Some of the prerequisites are
reviewed in Appendices A, B, C, D of your textbook [1]; solutions to odd-numbered
problems can be found in the Student Solution Manual [3].
Because weakness in pre-calculus topics can contribute to failure of a student in
MATH 140 or MATH 141, students will be tested on prerequisites in both the WeB-
WorK assignments A1 , A2 and quiz Q0 . Students who do not believe they can remedy
deficiencies on their own might wish to consider MATH 11229 . MATH 112 2006 09 is
scheduled at the same time as Section 1 of MATH 140 2006 09.
29
MATH 112 Fundamentals of Mathematics (3) (Fall. Not open to students who have taken CEGEP
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 18

1.7.2 Calculators
The use of calculators is not permitted in either quizzes or the examination in this course.
Students whose previous mathematics courses have been calculator-oriented would be
advised to make particular efforts to avoid the use of a calculator in solving problems
in this course, in order to develop a minimal facility in manual calculation. This means
that you are urged to do all arithmetic by hand. If, for a problem presented to you
in this course, you find that you cannot solve it without using a calculator,
then you are almost certainly solving the problem in an unacceptable way.
Do not assume that, in excluding the use of calculators, your instructors are “Lud-
dites”30 ! We believe that you will master the materials in Calculus 1 and 2 best by relying
on manual calculations. In some more advanced mathematics and statistics courses you
will be encouraged to use calculators and computers.

1.7.3 Self-Supervision
MATH 140 is not a high-school course, and McGill is not a high school. The
monitoring of your progress before the final examination is largely your own responsibil-
ity. While the tutors and instructors are available to help you, they cannot do so unless
and until you identify the need for help. WeBWorK and quizzes are designed to assist
you in doing this.

Time Demands of your Other Courses. Be sure to budget enough time to attend
lectures and tutorials, for private study, and for the solution of many problems. Don’t be
tempted to divert calculus study time to courses which offer instant gratification. While
the significance of the tutorial quizzes in the computation of your grade is minimal, these
are important learning experiences, and can assist you in gauging your progress in the
course. This is not a course that can be crammed for: you must work steadily through
the term if you wish to develop the facilities needed for a strong performance on the final
examination.

Working Problems on Your Own. An effective way to master the calculus is

through working large numbers of problems from the textbook. Your textbook was
selected partly because of the availability of an excellent Student Solutions Manual [3];
this manual has brief but complete solutions to most of the odd-numbered exercises in
course 201-101. Open only to those students who are deficient in a pre-calculus background.) Equations
and inequalities, graphs, relations and functions, exponential and logarithmic functions, trigonometric
functions and their use, mathematical induction, binomial theorem, complex numbers.
30
opposed to technological innovation
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 19

the textbook. The skills you acquire in solving textbook problems could have much more
influence on your final grade than either WeBWorK or the quizzes.

The real uses of WeBWorK and the quizzes. Students often misunderstand the
true significance of WeBWorK assignments and the quizzes. While both contribute
to your grade, they help you estimate the quality of your progress in the course. Take
proper remedial action if you are obtaining low grades on quizzes31 , or if you require
many attempts before being able to solve a problem on WeBWorK. However, while
both WeBWorK and the quizzes have a role to play in learning the calculus, neither
is as important as reading your textbook, working problems yourself, and attending and
listening at lectures and tutorials.

Does a high grade on WeBWorK indicate the likelihood of a high grade on the
final examination? NO! The primary purpose of the WeBWorK assignments is as
an aid to learning; but, as your work is not being done under examination conditions, you
should not use the WeBWorK grades as indicators of your likely examination grade.
The grades on the quizzes are somewhat more useful for that purpose.

1.7.4 Escape Routes

At any time, even after the last date for dropping the course, students who are experi-
encing medical or personal difficulties should not hesitate to consult their advisors or the
Student Affairs office of their faculty. Don’t allow yourself to be overwhelmed by such
problems; the University has resource persons who may be able to help you.

1.7.5 Terminology
Do not be surprised if your instructors and tutors use different terminology from what
you have heard in your previous calculus course, particularly if that course was at a high
school. Sometimes the differences are purely due to different traditions in the professions.

“Negative x”. Your instructors and tutors will often read a formula −x as minus x,
not as negative x. To a mathematician the term negative refers to real numbers which
are not squares, i.e. which are less than 0, and −x can be positive if x itself is negative.
However, mathematicians will sometimes refer to the operation of changing a sign
as the replacement of x by “its negative”; this is not entirely consistent with the usual
practice, but is an “abuse of language” that has crept into the professional jargon.
31
An unwise remedy would be is to miss the quizzes, and thereby avoid an unwelcome message.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 20

Inverse trigonometric functions; f n . A formula like sin−1 x will be read as the

inverse sine of x — never sine to the minus 1 or sine to the negative 1 . However, if we
write sinn x, where n is a positive integer, it will always mean (sin x)n . These conventions
apply to any of the functions sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, csc; they also apply to the hyperbolic
functions, which we will meet in [1, §3.9]: sinh, cosh, tanh, coth.... We will usually not
write exponents on general functions, so a formula like f 2 (x) does not have an obvious
meaning, and we will avoid writing it when f is other than a trigonometric or hyperbolic
function.

Logarithms. If you were taught to interpret log x as being the logarithm to base 10,
you should now forget that convention, at least in your mathematics courses; nowadays
mathematicians rarely use logarithms to base 10.32 Most often, if your instructor speaks
of a logarithm, and writes log x, he will be referring to the base e, i.e. to loge ; that is,
he is referring to the function that calculus books call ln. When a logarithm to some
other base is intended, it will either be denoted by an explicit subscript, as log2 , or some
comment will be made at the beginning of the discussion, such as “all logarithms in this
discussion are to the base 2”.

Your instructors try to think like mathematicians even when lecturing to their classes,
and to use the language and terminology we use when talking to each other.

1.8 High Technology and MATH 140

1.8.1 Keep your e-mail addresses up to date
• From http://www.mcgill.ca/email-policy/: “The UEA (normally a variation of
[email protected]) is an ‘alias’ address that points to an actual
existing mailbox — all e-mail sent to the UEA is simply delivered to this exist-
ing mailbox. By default, all e-mail addressed to students’ UEA is delivered to
their McGill e-mail box. Students can arrange to have their UEA deliver their
e-mail to a mailbox other than their McGill e-mail box (there are online self-
serve tools to facilitate this) — note that it is the student’s responsibility to en-
sure that this alternate mailbox is viable. It is recommended that students use
their McGill e-mail box.” You can enter or change a forwarding e-mail address
by going to http://webmail.mcgill.ca, and logging in to your student mailbox at
po-box.mcgill.ca.
32
Your calculator keyboard may be using this convention, but you won’t be using the calculator in
this course.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 21

• The WeBWorK system permits you to designate any e-mail address; that is also
the address that will be used if you send a FEEDBACK message.

1.8.2 Use of Calculators and Computer Algebra Systems

You are urged to do all calculations manually, and to avoid the use of calculators and
computer algebra systems until you have completed MATH 141. You should not use a
calculator or computer in the solution of WeBWorK problems, as it prevents you from
developing skill for detecting errors in manual calculations — a skill that you will need
for the quizzes and final examination. It is also foolish to use a calculator to produce
data to enter into WeBWorK, since WeBWorK will accept the data that you would
type into your calculator, and will do the calculations internally for you.

1.8.3 Use of the Internet

Students are expected to be able to access materials through the Internet, whenever
required. Here are some of the uses that are expected:
• To access and submit WeBWorK (§1.4.2) assignments

• To access the individualized problems for a student’s Written Assignments

• To access WebCT, where course grades and announcements will be mounted

• To access the web page for the course — also available through WebCT — where
these and other notes will be available in .pdf form; the site also contains notes
and examinations from previous years.

• In Lecture Section 002 the instructor will post notes regularly. Use of these notes
is optional, but they will probably be available only as .pdf files.

1.9 Which problems should I work?

1.9.1 There are no public or private restricted lists of textbook problems to
which you can confine your preparation for testing in MATH 140.
The syllabus is defined in terms of sections of the textbook, and the intention is that you
should be able to solve most of the problems in the designated sections, as well as other
types of questions that could be placed before you. Of course, there are certain questions
in the book that are not appropriate to this course, e.g., a small number of problems
near the ends of the exercise sets, which can be difficult and require some assistance; or
problems requiring the use of computers; or problems that involve concepts that have
been excluded from the course.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 22

1.9.2 Are the type of problems I find on WeBWorK problems indicative of

what I need to know in this course?
Only partially! The WeBWorK problems are simply a sampling, and some important
topics don’t appear at all in the WeBWorK assignments. The course is not defined by
the WeBWorK problems.

1.9.3 Problems discussed in the lectures

The problems cited by your instructors could be appropriate for their use at that time,
or could be a useful introduction to a topic, or could be otherwise worthy of attention.
If your instructor does refer to a problem, it would be wise to consider it, as his past
or subsequent lectures could refer to it. But you should not assume that every such
problem will ultimately end up on a test or examination. We are trying to introduce you
to a beautiful area of mathematics, and we sincerely wish that you will excel on tests
and examinations; but we are not teaching a high school course, and do not encourage
memorization or rote-learning.

1.9.4 And anyhow, the course is not concerned only with problem solving.
We are also trying to convey to you an understanding of basic theorems of the subject.
We want you to learn precisely what the theorems are saying, and how these results
can be applied. At the ends of the textbook chapters there are “Concept Checks” and
True-False Quizzes that can help you evaluate your understanding. These questions are
usually not in a form that lends itself to examinations, but they are excellent questions
to help you evaluate your progress. Some of the questions could be reformulated as
acceptable test questions.

1.9.5 Repairing your precalculus foundations.

Some students may find, through WeBWorK assignments A1 and A2 or Quiz Q0 , that
they need remedial work to rebuild the foundations required for a first calculus course.
If you are in this category, you are urged to expedite that study, so that it has minimal
effect on your progress through MATH 140. One of our goals in MATH 140 is to prepare
you for MATH 141, so that you will not have to face similar deficiencies when you enter
that course.

1.10 Last Weeks of Term (to be updated)

Tutor Office Office Hours 28 Nov - 06 Dec

BURN Weekday Month Date Begins Ends
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 23

(updated to December 1, 2006)

During her/his office hours, a tutor is available to all students in the course,
not only to the students of her/his tutorial section.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 24

2 About Quiz Q0
Distribution Date: Wednesday, September 6th, 2006

2.1 All students must write the diagnostic quiz.

It is essential that all students in MATH 140 2006 09 write the diagnostic quiz, Q0 . While
the grade you obtain on the quiz does not count in your term mark, you are required to
write the quiz, so that you (and your instructors) can assess your level of preparation for
the course, and determine which areas of precalculus you need to strengthen early in the
term. Students who do not write Q0 will receive a grade of 0 on their other
quizzes.

2.2 Late registration and medical absences.

Students who registered in MATH 140 2006 09 after September 10th, 2006, and students
with a valid medical certificate of absence should contact Professor Brown without delay.

2.3 Type of Quiz.

This quiz will be multiple choice. Since the purpose of the quiz is to diagnose weaknesses,
it was decided to make the quiz somewhat challenging: you will have to work quickly, as
you will have only 45 minutes. But, again, the grade you obtain does not count in
your term mark; the grade will, however, be recorded, and will eventually be visible
to you on WebCT. It does not become part of the official McGill record for the course.

2.4 Preparing for the quiz.

Most of the material is discussed briefly in [1, Appendices A, B, D]. However, it is not
easy to cram for a test of this type.

2.5 What to do if your grade is very low.

If you aren’t able to analyze your performance yourself, your TA or your instructor
can help you. If your grade is essentially 0, you should consider whether you require a
precalculus course to prepare you. MATH 112 2006 09 is given only in the fall term,
MWF 08:35–09:25. Rather than seeking to blame your previous educational system, this
is a time to see positive remedies, so that your time at McGill is productive. If you
are planning to remedy deficiencies yourself, you could use, for example, the book [14],
which we have asked to be kept on reserve in the Schulich Library.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 25

3 W1, First Written Assignment

Distribution Date: Mounted on WebCT on Monday, September 4th, 2006
Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week September 26-30, 2006. Please slip the
assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz Q1 . All materials must bear
your name and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

3.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:
I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W1 , A1 and A2

does not violate McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

3.2 The assignment question

You are given formulæ for functions f and g.
1. Determine a formula for each of the functions f ◦ f , f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, simplified as
much as you can.
2. Determine for each of the functions f , g, f ◦ f , f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, its domain. Where
the domain is not all of R, you must explain your work — it’s not enough just to
write down the answers.
TUTORIAL DAY f (x) g(x)
√
MONDAY, 25 Sept., 2006 x2 − 4 x−1
1 1
WEDNESDAY, 27 Sept., 2006 x − 4x x
−x 1
THURSDAY, 28 Sept., 2006 e ln x
FRIDAY, 29 Sept., 2006 sin x1 arcsin x
2

While you are expected to submit solutions for only the problem assigned to your tutorial
day, you should also try the other 3 (but not hand in solutions).
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 26

4 W2, Second Written Assignment

Release Date: Mounted on WebCT on Sunday, September 24th, 2006
Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week October 16-20, 2006. Please slip the
assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz Q2 . All materials must bear
your name and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

4.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W2 , A3 , A4 does not violate

McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

4.2 The assignment questions

1. This first problem concerns a pair of functions that may not be discussed at the lec-
tures, except incidentally. The purpose of the problem is to allow you to investigate
the functions yourself. You are not asked for rigorous proofs in this problem.
This problem involves, in part, sketching some graphs. The functions in question
have discontinuities. Please use the following convention. If f has a discontinuity
at x = a, please enlarge the point (a, f (a)); this convention is particularly useful
where a function is, for example, continuous from the right but not from the left —
in that way the reader can see immediately what type of discontinuity is present.
Another way of showing such discontinuities is through judicious use of square and
round brackets. For example, the graph of

−1 if −4 ≤ x < 0
f (x) =
1 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4

could be sketched as in Figure 1 on page 27. You are expected to solve this problem
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 27

6 6
s [

- -

)
or

Figure 1: Showing a discontinuity in a graph

by using information from your graphs — you are not expected to provide rigorous
justifications for all statements. You do not need to use graph paper — just try
to have your graphs approximately to scale, so that the properties of the functions
can be clearly visible.

Definition 4.1 The floor function ⌊x⌋ is defined as follows: ⌊x⌋ is the largest
integer n such that n ≤ x. (Your textbook [1, Example 10, p. 110] calls this
function the Greatest Integer Function, and denotes it by [[x]].)
The ceiling function ⌈x⌉ is defined to be the smallest integer n such that n ≥ x.
(This function used to be called the Least Integer Function.)

(a) Sketch a graph of each of the functions ⌊x⌋, ⌈x⌉ for −2 < x < 2. (You don’t
need to use graph paper for these problems, but you may if you wish.)
(b) Sketch graphs of the functions f (x) = ⌊2x⌋ + ⌈2x⌉ and g(x) = ⌊2x⌋ − ⌈2x⌉
for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
(c) Describe the following sets:
  

i. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ does not exist =

x→a
  

ii. a  lim− ⌈x⌉ does not exist =

x→a
  

iii. a  lim+ ⌊x⌋ does not exist =

x→a
  

iv. a  lim+ ⌈x⌉ does not exist =

x→a
  

v. a  lim− ⌊2x⌋ = 2a =

x→a
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 28

  

vi. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ = lim− ⌈x⌉ =
x→a x→a
  

vii. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ = lim+ ⌊x⌋ =
x→a x→a

(The “set-builder notation” used here is described in [1, Appendix A, p. A3].)

2. Prove the statement assigned for your tutorial day by using the Principle of Math-
ematical Induction. For this problem you are expected to provide a very careful
proof. (One version of this problem was on the final examination in MATH 140
2005 09.)

Students whose tutorial is on Monday: Let f (x) = x2 ex . Prove carefully by

mathematical induction that
dn f 2

x
(x) = x + 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Wednesday: Let f (x) = x2 e−x . Prove care-
fully by mathematical induction that
dn f n 2

−x
(x) = (−1) x − 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Thursday: Let f (x) = 2xe2x . Prove carefully
by mathematical induction that
dn f
(x) = 2n (2x + n) · e2x
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Friday: Let f (x) = 2xe−2x . Prove carefully by
mathematical induction that
dn f
(x) = (−2)n (2x − n) · e−2x
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 29

5 W3, Third Written Assignment

Release Date: Mounted on WebCT on Tuesday, October 17th, 2006
Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week October 30 - November 03, 2006.
Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz Q3 . All materials
must bear your name and/or student number. No other method of submission is
acceptable.

5.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W3 , A4 does not violate McGill’s
regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

5.2 The assignment questions

1. A function y = y(x) is defined implicitly by the following equation. You are,
showing all your work, to determine the values of y ′(x) and y ′′ (x) at the given
point.
Tutorial Day Defining Equation Evaluate at the Point
Monday x3 + y 4 = 2xy (x, y) = (1, 1)
4 3
Wednesday x + y = 2xy (x, y) = (1, 1)
Thursday x3 − y 4 = 2xy (x, y) = (−1, 1)
Friday −x4 + y 3 = 2xy (x, y) = (1, −1)

2. The six hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of sinh and cosh, which, in turn,
are defined in terms of exponentials. These six functions satisfy identities that
resemble properties of the trigonometric functions. Beginning with each function
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 30

expressed in terms of exponentials, and showing all your work, prove the identity
assigned below to your Tutorial day:

Tutorial Day Identity to be Proved

Monday cosh(x + y) = cosh x · cosh y + sinh x · sinh y
tanh x − tanh y
Wednesday tanh(x − y) =
1 − tanh x · tanh y
Thursday d
dx
tanh x = sech2 x
d
Friday dx
csch x = −csch x · coth x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 31

6 Draft Solutions to W1, First Written Assignment

Distribution Date: Released to students on October 21st, 2006
Draft version, subject to correction
Your completed solution to this assignment was to be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week September 26-30, 2006. You were
asked to “Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz Q1 .
All materials must bear your name and/or student number. No other method of
submission is acceptable.”

6.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:
I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W1 , A1 and A2

does not violate McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

6.2 The assignment question

You are given formulæ for functions f and g.
1. Determine a formula for each of the functions f ◦ f , f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, simplified as
much as you can.
2. Determine for each of the functions f , g, f ◦ f , f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, its domain. Where
the domain is not all of R, you must explain your work — it’s not enough just to
write down the answers.
TUTORIAL DAY f (x) g(x)
√
MONDAY, 25 Sept., 2006 x2 − 4 x−1
1 1
WEDNESDAY, 27 Sept., 2006 x − 4x x
−x 1
THURSDAY, 28 Sept., 2006 e ln x
FRIDAY, 29 Sept., 2006 sin x1 arcsin x
2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 32

While you are expected to submit solutions for only the problem assigned to your tutorial
day, you should also try the other 3 (but not hand in solutions).

6.3 Solutions
Marking Scheme: TOTAL = 20 MARKS

MONDAY: 1. Since f is a polynomial, there are no real numbers where it is unde-

fined. Domain(f ) = R
√
2. Since g(x) = x − 1, it is defined only where the argument of the square root
is non-negative, i.e., where x ≥ 1: this is the Domain(g).
3. f has been shown to be defined for all x. We compose it with itself, finding
that f (f (x)) = (x2 − 4)2 − 4 = x4 − 8x2 + 12. This is also a polynomial, which
is defined for all x, so Domain(f ) = R.
4. We have already shown that the domain of g is the interval [1, ∞). In that
interval
f (g(x)) = |x − 1| − 4 = x − 5 .
This last is the formula for f ◦ g, but it is valid only where x ≥ 1. Even though
the function x − 5 has all of R as its domain, Domain(f ◦ g) = [1, ∞).
5. The domain of f is unrestricted. Hence f (x) − 1√is defined for all x, and is
always equal to x√2 − 5. But we cannot evaluate x2 − 5 unless x2 − 5 ≥ 0,
i.e., unless |x| ≥ 5.
√ √
Domain(g ◦ f ) = (−∞, − 5] ∪ [ 5, ∞)

6. When we compose g with itself, the first application of g will be defined only
on
p√the domain of g, i.e., for x ≥ 1. But the second application of g will give
x − 1 − 1, and will not be defined unless the argument
√ of the last square
root applied is
non-negative. Thus we require that x − 1 ≥ 1, which implies
√ 2
that x − 1 ≥ 12 , i.e., that |x − 1| ≥ 1, which is equivalent to x ≥ 2 or
x ≤ 0. We have already required that x ≥ 1. This condition is inconsistent
with x ≤ 0, and is implied by x ≥ 2; hence

Domain(g ◦ g) = {x|x ≥ 2} = [2, ∞) .

WEDNESDAY: 1. In the development of the real number system we do not assign

a meaning to 01 ; we can’t! No matter what real number r we would want to
choose as the value of 10 , we find that one of our other basic properties of
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 33

function formula domain

2
f √x −4 R
g x−1 [1, ∞)
4 2
f ◦f x − 8x + 12 R
f ◦g √x − 5 [1,
√∞) √
g◦f 2
p√ x − 5 R − (− 5, + 5)
g◦g x−1−1 [2, ∞)

Table 5: Summary of solutions to W1 , MONDAY version

the real number system would be violated if we used r as the value of this
quotient. We resolve this issue by restricting fractions ab to cases where b 6= 0.
Thus Domain(g) = R − {0}.
1
2. The same reasoning tells us that 4x is defined only for x 6= 0; when we
subtract this function from the function x, which is defined everywhere, we
obtain another function defined away from 0; thus Domain(f ) = R − {0}.
3. We wish to compose f with itself. For the first application we require that
x 6= 0. The value of that first application, i.e.,

1 x − 12 x + 12



1 4x2 − 1 (2x − 1)(2x + 1)
x− = = = ·
4x x x 4 x
must not be equal to 0 if it is to be the point where we apply the function f
again. Thus we have to insist that x be different from each of ± 21 , and also
different from 0:
 
1 1
Domain(f ◦ f ) = R − − , 0, + .
2 2
In that domain the function has the following formula:

16x4 − 12x2 + 1
 
1 1
(f ◦ f )(x) = x − − 1

= .
4x 4 x − 4x 4x(4x2 − 1)

4. To follow g by f we first require that x 6= 0, in order to apply g. The value

of g(x) is never 0, so there is no restriction for the application of f . Thus the
domain of f ◦ g is R − {0}, and the formula is

1 1 4 − x2
(f ◦ g)(x) = − = .
x 4 · x1 4x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 34

5. To follow f by g, we need to arrange first that f be defined: that needs x 6= 0.

Then we need to arrange that the value of f be non-zero, in order that it lie
2
in the domain of g. The value of f (x) in general is 4x x−1 = (2x−1)(2x+1)
x
, so it
1
will be non-zero if and only if x is different from ± 2 . Thus
 
1 1
Domain(g ◦ f ) = R − − , 0, + .
2 2
A simplified formula for the function is given by
1 4x
(g ◦ f )(x) = 1 = 2
.
x − 4x 4x − 1
Note that, even though this rational function is defined when x = 0, the
1
formula does not apply to g ◦ f at that point, since 4x is not defined there.
6. To apply g twice in succession we obtain
1
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = 1 = x.
x
1
However, the equation does not apply when x = 0, since x
is not defined
there. The domain of the composition g ◦ g is R − {0}.

function formula domain

1
f x − 4x R − {0}
1
g x
R − {0}
16x4 −12x2 +1
R − − 12 , 0, + 12

f ◦f 4x(4x2 −1)
4−x2
f ◦g 4x  −1 {0} 1
R
4x
g◦f 4x2 −1
R − − 2 , 0, + 2
g◦g x R − {0}

Table 6: Summary of solutions to W1 , WEDNESDAY version

THURSDAY: 1. The exponential is defined for all exponents. Whatever value we

choose for x, −x is in the domain of the exponential, so the domain of f is R.
2. The logarithm is defined only for positive numbers. So we cannot venture
outside of (0, ∞). For x in the interval (0, 1) the logarithm is negative; at
x = 1 it is equal to 0; and for x > 1 it is positive. Since we will be taking the
reciprocal, ln1x , we have to exclude the point 1. Thus

Domain(f ) = (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) .

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 35

3. Since the domain of f is the whole line, we can apply the function a second
time indiscriminately, and we have

Domain(f ◦ f ) = R .

4. To follow g by f we first must arrange that g be applicable. That requires

that x be in the union (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). It matters not what the value of g is
at x, since f is defined everywhere. Hence

Domain(f ◦ f ) = (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) .

The formula does not admit simplification,

1
(f ◦ g)(x) = e− ln x .

5. f and g are mutual inverses: If we follow one by the other we obtain the
identity function, i.e., x. The logarithm of f (x) is, therefore −x. Thus far
there is no restriction on x. However, in calculating g, we wish to take a
reciprocal: for this we require that the logarithm be different from 0: −x 6= 0
if and only if x 6= 0. Thus

Domain(g ◦ f ) = R − {0} .
1
The formula for the composition function is simply −x
or − x1 .
6. We wish to compose g with itself. In the first application we have to require
that x be contained in the union (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). The value of this function
must be restricted: it must be in the domain of the natural logarithm function,
and it must be such that the natural logarithm there is non-zero. To be in the
domain of the function ln we require that ln1x be positive, equivalently that
ln x be positive, equivalently that x > 1. And, we have to exclude that point
x = e, since g(e) = 1, and a second application of g would not be possible,
since ln 1 = 0 and 01 is undefined. Thus

Domain(g ◦ g) = (1, e) ∪ (e, ∞) .

The formula for the function does not admit much simplification:
1 1
(g ◦ g)(x) = 1

=− .
ln ln x
ln ln x

FRIDAY: 1. x1 is defined for all x 6= 0. Then the sine is defined everywhere, so the
domain of f is R − {0}.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 36

function formula domain

−x
f e R
1
g ln x
(0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
−e−x
f ◦f e R
− ln1x
f ◦g e (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
g◦f − x1 R − {0}
1
g◦g − ln ln x (1, e) ∪ (e, ∞)

Table 7: Summary of solutions to W1 , THURSDAY version

2. The arcsine function is defined only on the interval [−1, 1]. That is the domain
of g.
3. To compose f with itself the first application requires only that x 6= 0. For
a second application we require only that sin x1 6= 0, which is equivalent to
1
x
6= nπ where n is any integer. Hence we have
 
1 1 1
Domain(f ◦ f ) = R − 0, ± , ± , ± , . . . .
π 2π 3π

4. To follow g by f we first must restrict x to be in the domain of g, i.e.,

[−1 ≤ x ≤ 1]. Then we must also restrict x so that the value g(x) 6= 0, i.e.,
that arcsin x 6= 2(0), which is equivalent to excluding the point x = 0. Hence

Domain(f ◦ g) = [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1] .

The formula is simply

 
2
(f ◦ g)(x) = sin .
arcsin x

and does not admit significant simplifications.

5. The values of the sine function are always in the interval [−1, 1], and the
arcsine is defined at all such points. To follow f by g we must, however, first
restrict x to be non-zero, in order that f be applicable. Hence

Domain(g ◦ f ) = R − {0} .
arcsin(sin 1
)
The formula (g ◦ f )(x) = 2
x
does admit simplifications. For example,
when |x| > π2 , (g ◦ f )(x) = 1
2x
.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 37

function formula domain

1
f sin x R − {0}
arcsin x
g 2
sin sin x1
R − {0} − ± nπ

 1
f ◦f |n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
2
f ◦g sin arcsin x
[−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1]
arcsin(sin x1 )
g◦f 2
R − {0}
arcsin( arcsin
2
x
)
g◦g 2
[−1, 1]

Table 8: Summary of solutions to W1 , FRIDAY version

 π π
6. The arcsine function takes its values in the interval − 2 , 2 ; hence g takes
its values in the interval − π4 , π4 , which is entirely contained in the interval
 

[−1, 1]. This means that a second application of the arcsine function is always
possible. Hence the domain of g ◦ g is still [−1, 1].
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 38

7 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q1

Distribution Date: Released to students 21 October, 2006
Draft, subject to correction.

The following sketches of solutions will be given for one specific set of data for each of
the versions of the quiz.

7.1 Instructions to students

1. Show all your work. Marks are not given for answers alone.

2. You must enclose this question sheet in your folded answer sheet.

3. Time = 20 minutes

4. No calculators are permitted.

7.2 Monday version

1. By using appropriate algebraic operations, compute the following limit or show
that it does not exist:

x−4
lim √
x→4 5 − x + 21

Don’t use L’Hospital’s rule or epsilon-delta methods!

Solution:

(a) As x√ → 4 the numerator has limit 0, and the limit of the denominator,
5 − x + 21, is also 0; so the Quotient Law may not be used.
(b) Rationalize the denominator and simplify the ratio:
√
x−4 (x − 4)(5 + x + 21)
√ = √ √
5 − x + 21 (5 − x + 21)(5 + x + 21)
√
(x − 4)(5 + x + 21)
=
25 − (x + 21)
√
(x − 4)(5 + x + 21)
=
√4 − x
= −(5 + x + 21)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 39

(c) Now the Limit Laws may be used:

√ q
lim (−5 − x + 21) = lim (−5) − lim (x + 21)
x→4 x→4 x→4
√
= −5 − 25 = −10

If a student used L’Hospital’s Rule, she should have received a grade of 0, as it was
explicitly forbidden to use that method, and we often make a similar restriction on
examination questions.

2. Find a formula for the inverse of the function

1 + 6ex
f (x) =
2 + 7ex
What is the range (image) of the inverse function?
Solution:

(a) Name the “dependent” variable y:

1 + 6ex
y=
2 + 7ex

(b) Solve for ex in terms of y:

1 − 2y
ex =
7y − 6
(c) Using the logarithm, solve further for x in terms of y:
1 − 2y
x = ln
7y − 6

(d) Describe the inverse function:

1 − 2y
f −1 (y) = ln
7y − 6
The usual convention would be to rename the independent variable of the
inverse function as x, but this step is not needed if the preceding step was
carried out using another name (y) for the independent variable:
1 − 2x
f −1 (x) = ln
7x − 6
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 40

(e) The student is to give the image of the inverse function. The instruction (1)
is clear: Marks are not given for answers alone.
This problem could be solved directly or indirectly. To solve it indirectly,
recall that the image of f −1 is the domain of f . The value of f (x) is defined
as a fraction, defined everywhere except where the denominator is 0, i.e.,
everywhere except where 2 + 7ex = 0; equivalently, except where ex = − 72 .
But an exponential cannot be negative, so the denominator is non-zero for all
values of x, and the domain of f is R.
To find the image directly is harder; I would not expect students in MATH
140 to be able to articulate a convincing argument of this type. The ratio
1−2x
7x−6
is undefined when x = 67 ; it is positive only where 12 < x < 76 ; as we
wish to take
a logarithm, the function is defined only for x in−1this interval.
1 +
As x → 2 , the fraction approaches 0 from the right, and f (x) → −∞.

−
As x → 67 , the fraction approaches ∞ and f −1 (x) → +∞. The function is
continuous, and thus (by the Intermediate Value Theorem) takes on all real
values; that is, the image of f −1 is R.

7.3 Wednesday version

1. By using appropriate algebraic operations, compute the following limit or show
that it does not exist:
 
1 1
lim − 2
t→0 5t 7t + 5t

Don’t use L’Hospital’s rule or epsilon-delta methods!

Solution:

(a) Algebraic manipulations before evaluating the limit:

1 1 1 1
− 2 = −
5t 7t + 5t 5t (7t + 5)t
 
1 1 1
= − ·
5 7t + 5 t
7t 1
= ·
5(7t + 5) t
7t
=
5(7t + 5)t
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 41

(b) Divide numerator and denominator by factor t, which is not zero, as we are
computing the limit as t → 0:
7t 7
=
5(7t + 5)t 5(7t + 5)

for t near, but not equal to 0.

(c) Apply the limit laws — I don’t expect students to give their reasons as pre-
cisely as the following:

7
 lim 7
t→0
lim =
t→0 5(7t + 5) lim 5(7t + 5)
t→0
7
=
25
TA’s were instructed not to give any marks if either

• the student uses L’Hospital’s Rule; or

• the student computes a difference like ∞ − ∞.

2. Find a formula for the inverse of the function

7 − 2 ln x
f (x) = .
6 + 1 ln x
What is the range (image) of the inverse function?
Solution:

(a) Name the dependent variable y:

7 − 2 ln x
y=
6 + 1 ln x

(b) Solve for ln x in terms of y:

7 − 6y
ln x = .
y+2

(c) Using exponential, solve for x in terms of y:

7 − 6y
x=e y+2 .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 42

(d) Describe the inverse function precisely:

7 − 6y
f −1 (y) = e y + 2 .

The usual convention would be to rename the independent variable of the

inverse function as x, but this step is not needed if the preceding step was
carried out using another name (y) for the independent variable:
7 − 6x
f −1
(x) = e x + 2 .

(e) The student is to give the image of the inverse function. The instruction (1)
is clear: Marks are not given for answers alone!
This problem could be solved directly or indirectly. To solve it indirectly, recall
that the image of f −1 is the domain of f . The value of f (x) is a fraction,
defined everywhere except where the denominator is 0, i.e., everywhere except
where 6 + 1 ln x = 0; equivalently, where ln x = − 61 , i.e., where x = e−6 . The
point e−6 must be deleted from the maximum domain of the function ln, i.e.,
from the interval (0, +∞). Thus the domain of f is

0, e−6 ∪ e−6 , +∞ ,

and this must be the image, or range of the inverse function.

To find the image directly is harder. If a student attempts this approach, use
good judgement in assigning marks. One approach would observe that
7−6x
lim − e x+2 = 0
x→−2
7−6x
lim e x+2 = e−6
x→−∞
7−6x
lim + e x+2 = +∞
x→−2
7−6x
lim e x+2 = e−6 .
x→+∞

The Intermediate Value Theorem, applied to the interval (−∞, −2) yields
function values in the interval (−∞, e−6 ); applied to the interval (−2, +∞)
it yields function values in the interval (e−6 , +∞). It’s unrealistic to expect
Calculus 1 students to argue in this way.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 43

7.4 Thursday version

1. By using appropriate algebraic operations, compute the following limit or show
that it does not exist:
1
−1
lim 2 x 4
x→4 x + 3x − 28

Don’t use L’Hospital’s rule or epsilon-delta methods!

Solution:
(a) Algebraic manipulations before evaluating the limit:
1
x
− 14 4−x
4x
=
x2 + 3x − 28 x2 + 3x − 28
4−x
x
=
4(x + 7)(x − 4)
(4 − x)
=
4x(x + 7)(x − 4)

(b) Divide numerator and denominator by the factor x − 4, which cannot be 0 as

we are computing the limit x → 4:
(4 − x) −1
=
4x(x + 7)(x − 4) 4x(x + 7)
for x near, but not equal to 4.
(c) Now apply the Limit Laws:
1
− 14
 
x −1
lim = lim
x→4 x2 + 3x − 28 x→4 4x(x + 7)

lim (−1)
x→4
=
lim (4x(x + 7))
x→4
−1 1
= =−
4 · 4(4 + 7) 176

2. Find a formula for the inverse of the function

f (x) = x2 + 8x + 25

defined for all x ≥ 0. What is the domain of the inverse function?

Solution:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 44

(a) Name the dependent variable:

y = x2 + 8x + 25 .

(b) Solve for x in terms of y, keeping in mind that x has been restricted to lie in
the interval x ≥ 0. Students may use the “quadratic formula”, although I
prefer to “complete the square”:

y = x2 + 8x + 25 = (x + 4)2 + 9
p
⇔ x+4=± y−9
p
⇔ x = −4 ± y − 9.

But the lower choice

√ of sign would make x < 0, which has been excluded.
Thus x = −4 + y − 9.
(c) Even with the resolution of the double sign there is still√restriction on y that
is required to ensure that x ≥ 0. While the expression y − 9 is meaningful
for y ≥ 9, we need to ensure that it is no less than 4; this requires that
y ≥ 25. (This observation could have been made earlier, by examining the
sum x2 + 8x + 25 when x ≥ 0.)
(d) Give a clear formula for the inverse function:
p
f −1 (y) = −4 + y − 9 (y ≥ 25)

or √
f −1 (x) = −4 + x−9 (x ≥ 25) .
(e) The domain of √ the inverse function is not the interval [9, +∞), even though
that is where x − 9 is meaningful! The function is defined only on the image
of f , which excluded the points in [9, 25). Thus the domain of f −1 is [25, ∞).

7.5 Friday version

1. By using appropriate algebraic operations, compute the following limit or show
that it does not exist:

x2 − 36
lim √ √
x→6 6− x

Don’t use L’Hospital’s rule or epsilon-delta methods!

Solution:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 45

(a) Algebraic manipulations before evaluating the limit:

x2 − 36 (x − 6)(x + 6)
√ √ = √ √
6− x 6− x
√ √ √ √
( x + 6)( x − 6)(x + 6)
= √ √
6− x
We could also √have proceeded
√ by factorizing the numerator as a difference of
4th powers of x and 6.
√ √
(b) Division of numerator and denominator by the factor x − 6, which is non-
zero, since we are evaluating the limit as x → 6, but need not permit x = 6:
√ √ √ √ √ √
( x + 6)( x − 6)(x + 6) ( x + 6)(x + 6) √ √
√ √ = = −( x + 6)(x + 6) ,
6− x −1
for x near but not equal to 6.
(c) Now apply the Limit Laws:
 √ √  √ √
lim −( x + 6)(x + 6) = − lim ( x + 6) · lim (x + 6)
x→6 x→6 x→6
√ √
= −2 6 · (6 + 6) = −24 6 .

2. Find a formula for the inverse of the function

f (x) = x2 − 10x + 21
defined for all x ≤ 0. What is the domain of the inverse function?
Solution:
(a) Name the dependent variable:
y = x2 − 10x + 21 .

(b) Solve for x in terms of y, keeping in mind that x has been restricted to lie in
the interval x ≤ 0. Students may use the “quadratic formula”, although I
prefer to “complete the square”:
y = x2 − 10x + 21 = (x − 5)2 − 4
p
⇔ x−5 =± y+4
p
⇔ x = 5 ± y + 4.
But the upper√choice of sign would make x > 0, which has been excluded.
Thus x = 5 − y + 4.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 46

(c) Even with the resolution of the double sign, there is still further restriction
√
on y that is required to ensure that x ≤ 0. While the expression y + 4 is
meaningful for y ≥ −4, we need to ensure that it is no less than 5; this requires
that y ≥ 21. (This observation could have been made earlier, by examining
the sum x2 − 10x + 21 when x ≤ 0.)
(d) Give a clear formula for the inverse function:
p
f −1 (y) = 5 − y + 4 (y ≥ 21)

or √
f −1 (x) = 5 − x+4 (x ≥ 21) .
(e) The domain of√the inverse function is not the interval [−4, +∞), even though
that is where x + 4 is meaningful! The function is defined only on the image
of f , which excluded the points in [−4, 21). Thus the domain of f −1 is [21, ∞).
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 47

8 W4, Fourth Written Assignment

Distribution Date: Mounted on WebCT on Monday, October 30th, 2006
Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week November 20-24, 2006. Please slip the
assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz Q4 . All materials must bear
your name and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

8.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W4 , A5 and A6

does not violate McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

8.2 The assignment question

(x − a)2 − b2
Consider the function f (x) = on the interval a − 2b ≤ x ≤ a + b, where a
(x − a)2 + b2
and b are constants determined from your student number, as follows:

Starting from the left, list the non-zero digits in your student num-
ber. Ignore the first of these. The second is a; the third is b.

(It could happen that a = b.) Showing all your work, modelled on the solution in the
textbook of Example 8, page 284,

1. Find the global (absolute) maximum and minimum values of the function

(x − a)2 − b2
f (x) =
(x − a)2 + b2

using the “Closed Interval Method” on the interval a − 2b ≤ x ≤ a + b.

2. Apply the First Derivative Test to any critical points in the interval.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 48

3. Apply the Second Derivative Test to any critical points in the interval.

4. Explain how you know that f does not have a global maximum on the interval
−∞ < x < +∞.

5. Sketch the graph of f , showing the extrema you have found.

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 49

9 Draft Solutions to W2, Second Written Assign-

ment
Release Date: Published on WebCT on November 11th, 2006.
Students’ completed solutions to this assignment were to be submitted, with a copy of
this question sheet at Tutorials during the week October 16-20, 2006. Students were
asked to “Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz Q2 .
All materials must bear your name and/or student number. No other method of
submission is acceptable.”

9.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:
I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W2 , A3 , A4 does not violate

McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

9.2 The assignment questions

1. This first problem concerns a pair of functions that may not be discussed at the lec-
tures, except incidentally. The purpose of the problem is to allow you to investigate
the functions yourself. You are not asked for rigorous proofs in this problem.
This problem involves, in part, sketching some graphs. The functions in question
have discontinuities. Please use the following convention. If f has a discontinuity
at x = a, please enlarge the point (a, f (a)); this convention is particularly useful
where a function is, for example, continuous from the right but not from the left —
in that way the reader can see immediately what type of discontinuity is present.
Another way of showing such discontinuities is through judicious use of square and
round brackets. For example, the graph of

−1 if −4 ≤ x < 0
f (x) =
1 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 50

could be sketched as in Figure 2 on page 50. You are expected to solve this problem

6 6
s [

- -

)
or

Figure 2: Showing a discontinuity in a graph

by using information from your graphs — you are not expected to provide rigorous
justifications for all statements. You do not need to use graph paper — just try
to have your graphs approximately to scale, so that the properties of the functions
can be clearly visible.

Definition 9.1 The floor function ⌊x⌋ is defined as follows: ⌊x⌋ is the largest
integer n such that n ≤ x. (Your textbook [1, Example 10, p. 110] calls this
function the Greatest Integer Function, and denotes it by [[x]].)
The ceiling function ⌈x⌉ is defined to be the smallest integer n such that n ≥ x.
(This function used to be called the Least Integer Function.)

(a) Sketch a graph of each of the functions ⌊x⌋, ⌈x⌉ for −2 < x < 2. (You don’t
need to use graph paper for these problems, but you may if you wish.)
(b) Sketch graphs of the functions f (x) = ⌊2x⌋ + ⌈2x⌉ and g(x) = ⌊2x⌋ − ⌈2x⌉
for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
(c) Describe the following sets:
  

i. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ does not exist =
x→a
  

ii. a  lim− ⌈x⌉ does not exist =
x→a
  

iii. a  lim+ ⌊x⌋ does not exist =
x→a
  

iv. a  lim+ ⌈x⌉ does not exist =
x→a
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 51

  

v. a  lim− ⌊2x⌋ = 2a =
x→a
  

vi. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ = lim− ⌈x⌉ =
x→a x→a
  

vii. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ = lim+ ⌊x⌋ =
x→a x→a

(The “set-builder notation” used here is described in [1, Appendix A, p. A3].)

2. Prove the statement assigned for your tutorial day by using the Principle of Math-
ematical Induction. For this problem you are expected to provide a very careful
proof. (One version of this problem was on the final examination in MATH 140
2005 09.)

Students whose tutorial is on Monday: Let f (x) = x2 ex . Prove carefully by

mathematical induction that
dn f 2

x
(x) = x + 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Wednesday: Let f (x) = x2 e−x . Prove care-
fully by mathematical induction that
dn f n 2

−x
(x) = (−1) x − 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Thursday: Let f (x) = 2xe2x . Prove carefully
by mathematical induction that
dn f
(x) = 2n (2x + n) · e2x
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Friday: Let f (x) = 2xe−2x . Prove carefully by
mathematical induction that
dn f
(x) = (−2)n (2x − n) · e−2x
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 52

9.3 Solutions
1. (a) The graph of ⌊x⌋ consists of horizontal line segments of length 1, each includ-
ing its left end-point but not its right; on the x-axis the graph includes the
interval [0, 1), and the next portion of the graph to the right is 1 unit higher,
etc.
The graph of ⌈x⌉ also consists of horizontal line segments of length 1, this
time each including its right end-point but not its right; on the x-axis the
graph includes the interval (−1, 0], and the next portion of the graph to the
right is 1 unit higher, etc.
(b) The graph of ⌊x⌋ + ⌈x⌉ consists of open line segments of length 1 lacking both
end points, together with points at even heights — the value of the function
at an integer n is 2n; the pattern is centred around the origin, which is a point
of the graph. The given function was, however ⌊2x⌋ + ⌈2x⌉: the effect is to
compress the previous graph horizontally — the line segments have length 12 .
The function ⌊2x⌋ − ⌈2x⌉ is mostly constant: its value is −1 at every point
which is not half an integer; at the half-integers the function value is 0.
(c) To solve this problem, observe from the graphs or otherwise that

lim ⌊x⌋ = ⌊a⌋ (1)

x→a+

⌊a⌋ if a is not an integer
lim− ⌊x⌋ = (2)
x→a ⌊a⌋ − 1 if a is an integer
lim ⌈x⌉ = ⌈a⌉ (3)
x→a−

⌈a⌉ if a is not an integer
lim ⌈x⌉ = (4)
x→a+ ⌈a⌉ + 1 if a is an integer
  

i. a  lim− ⌊x⌋ does not exist is empty. The floor function is constant
x→a
“near” any point x; for points which are not integers, the constant value
is the same on both sides, and the limit of the function is the function
value. At integers the constant value on the left side is 1 unit less than
the constant value on the right. This means that the limit from either
side exists, since, in a one sided “neighbourhood” of the point on one side
the function behaves “locally” like a constant. Thus the answers to this
question and, by analogous reasoning, the next 3 are all the same: the
set of points where the one-sided limits do not exist is empty!
 

ii. a  lim− ⌈x⌉ does not exist is empty.

x→a
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 53

  

iii. a  lim+ ⌊x⌋ does not exist is empty.
x→a
  

iv. a  lim+ ⌈x⌉ does not exist is empty.
x→a
  

v. a  lim− ⌊2x⌋ = 2a = By (2) the defining condition for this set is
x→a

⌊2a⌋ = 2a when 2a is not an integer; and

⌊2a⌋ − 1 = 2a when 2a is an integer.
When 2a is not an integer, ⌊2a⌋ < 2a; when 2a is an integer, ⌊2a⌋ = 2a.
Thus equality cannot hold at any time!
  

vi. The defining condition for a  lim− ⌊x⌋ = lim− ⌈x⌉ is

x→a x→a

⌊a⌋ = ⌈a⌉ if a is not an integer; and

⌊a⌋ − 1 = ⌈a⌉ if a is an integer,
conditions that can never hold, since, in the first case

⌊a⌋ < a < ⌈a⌉

and, in the second case,

⌊a⌋ − 1 = a − 1 < a = ⌈a⌉ .

vii. The condition lim− ⌊x⌋ = lim+ ⌊x⌋ is satisfied precisely when a is not an
x→a x→a
integer.

2. The second problem involved the Principle of Mathematical Induction. While this
topic was discussed in detail in MATH 140 2005 09, we did not have time for
a thorough treatment in the lectures this year. Nevertheless, we believe it is an
appropriate topic for a written assignment: the students had to read up about
the principle from their textbook, look up worked examples, and then answer the
question as posted. Because the topic has not seen significant discussion in the
lectures, I would like the grading to be generous; students have been assured that
this topic will not be on the final examination this year.

Students whose tutorial is on Monday: f (x) = x2 ex . Let Sn denote the state-

ment
dn f
(x) = x2 + 2nx + (n − 1)n · ex ,


n
(5)
dx
for positive integers n.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 54

“Anchor” of Induction, or “Base Step”: Applying the Product Rule of

Differentiation, we obtain
df
(x) = (2x)ex + (x2 )ex
dx
= x2 + 2(1)x + (0)(1) ex

which proves S1 .
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that Sn is true.
Induction Step: Then

dn+1 d dn f
 
f (x) = (x)
dxn+1 dx dxn
d  2
x + 2nx + (n − 1)n ex


=
dx
by the Induction Hypothesis
= (2x + 2n) ex + x2 + 2nx + (n − 1)n ex

by the Product Rule

= x2 + (2n + 2)x + ((n − 1)n + 2n) ex

= x2 + 2(n + 1)x + n(n + 1) ex

proving Sn+1 .
Conclusion: Hence, by Mathematical Induction, Sn is true for all positive
integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Wednesday: f (x) = x2 e−x . Let Sn denote the
statement
dn f 2

−x
(x) = x − 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e , (6)
dxn
for positive integers n.
“Anchor” of Induction, or “Base Step”: Applying the Product Rule of
Differentiation, we obtain
df
(x) = (2x)e−x − (x2 )e−x
dx
= −x2 + 2(1)x + (0)(1) e−x

= (−1)1 x2 − 2(1)x + (0)(1) e−x

which proves S1 .
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that Sn is true.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 55

Induction Step: Then

dn+1 d dn f
 
f (x) = (x)
dxn+1 dx dxn
d 
(−1)n x2 − 2nx + (n − 1)n e−x


=
dx
by the Induction Hypothesis
= (−1)n (2x − 2n) e−x − (−1)n x2 − 2nx + (n − 1)n e−x

by the Product Rule

= (−1)n+1 x2 − (2n + 2)x + ((n − 1)n + 2n) e−x

= (−1)n+1 x2 − 2(n + 1)x + n(n + 1) e−x

proving Sn+1 .
Conclusion: Hence, by Mathematical Induction, Sn is true for all positive
integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Thursday: f (x) = 2xe2x . Let Sn denote the
statement
dn f
(x) = 2n (2x + n) · e2x , (7)
dxn
for positive integers n.
“Anchor” of Induction, or “Base Step”: Applying the Product Rule of
Differentiation, we obtain
df
(x) = 2e2x + 2(2x)e2x
dx
= 21 (2x + 1)e2x
which proves S1 .
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that Sn is true.
Induction Step: Then
dn+1 d dn f
 
f (x) = (x)
dxn+1 dx dxn
d  n
2 (2x + n)e2x

=
dx
by the Induction Hypothesis
= 2 (2) e2x + 2n (2x + n) · 2 · e2x
n

by the Product Rule

= 2 (4x + (2n + 2)) e2x
n

= 2n+1 (2x + (n + 1)) e2x

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 56

proving Sn+1 .
Conclusion: Hence, by Mathematical Induction, Sn is true for all positive
integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Friday: f (x) = 2xe−2x . Let Sn denote the
statement
dn f
n
(x) = 2n (2x − n) · e−2x , (8)
dx
for positive integers n.
“Anchor” of Induction, or “Base Step”: Applying the Product Rule of
Differentiation, we obtain
df
(x) = 2e−2x − 2(2x)e−2x
dx
= 21 (−2x + 1)e−2x = (−2)1 (2x − 1)e−2x

which proves S1 .
Induction Hypothesis: Assume that Sn is true.
Induction Step: Then

dn+1 d dn f
 
f (x) = (x)
dxn+1 dx dxn
d 
(−2)n (2x − n)e−2x

=
dx
by the Induction Hypothesis
= (−2)n (2) e−2x + (−2)n (2x − n) · (−2) · e−2x
by the Product Rule
= (−2)n (−4x + (2n + 2)) e−2x
= (−2)n+1 (2x − (n + 1)) e−2x

proving Sn+1 .
Conclusion: Hence, by Mathematical Induction, Sn is true for all positive
integers n.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 57

10 Draft Solutions to W3, Third Written Assign-

ment
Release Date: November 11th, 2006; subject to correction.
Your completed solution to this assignment was to be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week October 30 - November 03, 2006. You
were asked to “Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz
Q3 . All materials must bear your name and/or student number. No other method of
submission is acceptable.”

10.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W3 , A4 does not violate McGill’s
regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

10.2 The assignment questions

1. A function y = y(x) is defined implicitly by the following equation. You are,
showing all your work, to determine the values of y ′(x) and y ′′ (x) at the given
point.
Tutorial Day Defining Equation Evaluate at the Point
Monday x3 + y 4 = 2xy (x, y) = (1, 1)
Wednesday x4 + y 3 = 2xy (x, y) = (1, 1)
Thursday x3 − y 4 = 2xy (x, y) = (−1, 1)
4 3
Friday −x + y = 2xy (x, y) = (1, −1)

2. The six hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of sinh and cosh, which, in turn,
are defined in terms of exponentials. These six functions satisfy identities that
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 58

resemble properties of the trigonometric functions. Beginning with each function

expressed in terms of exponentials, and showing all your work, prove the identity
assigned below to your Tutorial day:

Tutorial Day Identity to be Proved

Monday cosh(x + y) = cosh x · cosh y + sinh x · sinh y
tanh x − tanh y
Wednesday tanh(x − y) =
1 − tanh x · tanh y
Thursday d
dx
tanh x = sech2 x
d
Friday dx
csch x = −csch x · coth x

10.3 Solutions
1. Students whose tutorial is on Monday: Differentiating the defining equation
“implicitly” with respect to x, we obtain

3x2 + 4y 3 · y ′ = 2(y + x · y ′) , (9)

which we evaluate at (x, y) = (1, 1), to obtain y ′ (1) = − 21 . We differentiate

equation (9) implicitly with respect to x to obtain

6x + 12y 2 · (y ′ )2 + 4y 3 · y ′′ = 2(y ′ + y ′ + xy ′′ ) (10)

and substitute the values (x, y, y ′) = 1, 1, − 12 , obtaining that y ′′ (1) = −4.

(We could have solved equation (9) for

3x2 − 2y
y′ = ,
2x − 4y 3
and then differentiated with respect to x to obtain

(6x2 − 24xy 3 + 4y) + (−16y 3 + 36x2 y 2 − 4x)y ′

y ′′(x) = .
(2x − 4y 3 )2

Then we could again have substituted (x, y, y ′) = 1, 1, − 12 . That, however,

would not have made the calculations any easier.)

Students whose tutorial is on Wednesday: Differentiating the defining equa-
tion “implicitly” with respect to x, we obtain

4x3 + 3y 2 · y ′ = 2(y + x · y ′) , (11)

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 59

which we evaluate at (x, y) = (1, 1), to obtain y ′ (1) = −2. We differentiate

equation (11) implicitly with respect to x to obtain
12x2 + 6y 2 · (y ′ )2 + 3y 2 · y ′′ = 2(y ′ + y ′ + xy ′′ ) (12)
and substitute the values (x, y, y ′) = (1, 1, −2), obtaining that y ′′(1) = −44.
(We could have solved equation (11) for y ′ and then differentiated with respect
to x; that, however, would not have made the calculations any easier.)
Students whose tutorial is on Thursday: Differentiating the defining equation
“implicitly” with respect to x, we obtain
3x2 − 4y 3 · y ′ = 2(y + x · y ′) , (13)
1
which we evaluate at (x, y) = (−1, 1), to obtain y ′(1) = 2
. We differentiate
equation (13) implicitly with respect to x to obtain
6x − 12y 2 · (y ′ )2 − 4y 3 · y ′′ = 2(y ′ + y ′ + xy ′′ ) (14)
and substitute the values (x, y, y ′) = 1, 1, 12 , obtaining that y ′′(1) = − 11


2
.
′
(We could have solved equation (13) for y and then differentiated with respect
to x; that, however, would not have made the calculations any easier.
Students whose tutorial is on Friday: Differentiating the defining equation “im-
plicitly” with respect to x, we obtain
−4x3 + 3y 2 · y ′ = 2(y + x · y ′ ) , (15)
which we evaluate at (x, y) = (1, −1), to obtain y ′(1) = 2. We differentiate
equation (15) implicitly with respect to x to obtain
−12x2 + 6y · (y ′ )2 + 3y 2 · y ′′ = 2(y ′ + y ′ + xy ′′ ) (16)
and substitute the values (x, y, y ′) = (1, 1, 2), obtaining that y ′′ (1) = 44. (We
could have solved equation (15) for y ′ and then differentiated with respect to
x; that, however, would not have made the calculations any easier.
2. Students whose tutorial is on Monday: I believe it will be easier to start this
proof on the right side of the identity, which is the more complicated.
cosh x · cosh y + sinh x · sinh y
ex + e−x ey + e−y ex − e−x ey − e−y
= · + ·
2 2 2 2
(ex + e−x ) (ey + e−y ) + (ex − e−x ) (ey − e−y )
=
4
x+y x−y −x+y
(e +e +e + e−x−y ) + (ex+y − ex−y − e−x+y + e−x−y )
=
4
2ex+y + 2e−(x+y)
= = cosh(x + y) . 
4
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 60

Students whose tutorial is on Wednesday: In this example as well, I believe

it will be easier to start this proof on the right side of the identity, which is
the more complicated.
tanh x − tanh y
1 − tanh x · tanh y
sinh x sinh y
−
cosh x cosh y
=
sinh x sinh y
1− ·
cosh x cosh y
sinh x · cosh y − cosh x · sinh y
=
cosh x · cosh y − sinh x · sinh y
ex − e−x ey + e−y ex + e−x ey − e−y
· − ·
= 2 2 2 2
ex + e−x ey + e−y ex − e−x ey − e−y
· − ·
2 2 2 2
(ex+y + ex−y − e−x+y − e−x−y ) − (ex+y − ex−y + e−x+y − e−x−y )
=
(ex+y + ex−y + e−x+y + e−x−y ) − (ex+y − ex−y − e−x+y + e−x−y )
2ex−y − 2e−x+y
=
2ex−y + 2e−x+y
ex−y − e−(x−y)
=
ex−y + e−(x−y)
ex−y − e−(x−y)
2 sinh(x − y)
= x−y −(x−y)
= = tanh(x − y)
e +e cosh(x − y)
2
Students whose tutorial is on Thursday:
 x
e − e−x

d ex − e−x
   
d d sinh x d  2
tanh x = = =

dx dx cosh x dx ex + e−x dx ex + e−x

2
(ex + e−x )(ex + e−x ) − (ex − e−x )(ex − e−x )
=
(ex + e−x )2
(e2x + 2 + e−2x ) − (e2x − 2 + e−2x ) 4
= =
(ex + e−x )2 (ex + e−x )2
 2  2
2 1
= x −x
= = (sech x)2 = sech2 x
e +e cosh x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 61

Students whose tutorial is on Friday:

 
d d 1
csch x =
dx dx sinh x
 
d 2
=
dx ex − e−x
ex + e−x
= −2 x
(e − e−x )2
ex + e−x
= −  x 2 −x 2
e −e
2
   
1 cosh x
= − · = −csch x · coth x 
sinh x sinh x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 62

11 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q2

Distribution Date: November 11th, 2006
(subject to correction)

The following draft sketches of solutions will be given for one specific set of data for each
of the versions of the quiz.

11.1 Instructions to students

1. Show all your work. Marks are not given for answers alone.

2. You must enclose this question sheet in your folded answer sheet.

3. Time = 20 minutes

4. No calculators are permitted.

11.1.1 Monday version

1. By using appropriate algebraic manipulations, compute the following limit or show
that it does not exist:
√ √ 
lim 2 2
x + 9x − x + 4x
x→−∞

Don’t use L’Hospital’s rule or epsilon-delta methods!

Solution:

(a) If a student attempts to evaluate the limit of the difference by using the
Difference Law, you should give ZERO for the entire problem. The difference
must be transformed BEFORE applying any of the Limit Laws!
(b) Multiply and divide by a function which will rationalize the given function
(at the expense of introducing a complicated denominator):
√ √  √x2 + 9x + √x2 + 4x

x2 + 9x − x2 + 4x · √ √

x2 + 9x + x2 + 4x

(c) Simplify the numerator:

√ √  √ √ 
x2 + 9x − x2 + 4x · x2 + 9x + x2 + 4x = (x2 +9x)−(x2 +4x) = 5x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 63

(d) The function has now been transformed from a difference of the form ∞ − ∞,
∞
which we can’t evaluate, to a ratio of the form ∞ , which we also can’t evaluate.
But we can divide numerator and denominator by a factor which will then
permit us to use the Quotient Law. To do this we need a factor like x in the
denominator. This is obtained using the property of exponents that
√ √ √
AB = A · B

where A and B are non-negative. In this case we have

s 
√

2 2
9
x + 9x = x 1+
x
s 
√

2 2
4
x + 4x = x 1+
x
√
(e) Using the fact that x2 = |x| we have
√ √  x 5
x2 + 9x − x2 + 4x = ·q q
|x| 1+ 9
+ 1+ 4
x x

(f) Now, as x → −∞, the first factor → −1, and the second → 52 ; so the limit is
− 52 .

You should not give full marks if the student’s solution doesn’t make it clear how
she is using the fact that the limit is taken as x → −∞; that is, if the argument
written down could apply equally well to the limit at +∞, then something is
missing in the solution, and full marks have definitely not been earned!

2. Use the limit definition of the derivative to compute the derivative of

1
f (x) =
(x + 8)2

at x = −7. Don’t use any of the differentiation rules of Chapter 3 of Stewart!

Solution:

(a) Give the definition of the derivative as a limit (several alternatives are possi-
ble):
f (−7 + h) − f (−7)
f ′ (−7) = lim
h→0 h
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 64

(b) Express that general limit in the particular case of the given function
1 1
′ (−7+h)2
− (−7)2
f (−7) = lim
h→0 h

(c) Simplify the fraction algebraically:

1 1
(−7+h)2
− (−7)2 (−7)2 − (−7 + h)2
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h(−7)2 (−7 + h)2

(d) Simplify the numerator by expanding the squares:

(−7)2 − (−7 + h)2 14h − h2

lim = lim
h→0 h(−7)2 (−7 + h)2 h→0 h(−7)2 (−7 + h)2

(e) Divide numerator and denominator by h:

14 − h
lim
h→0 (−7)2 (−7 + h)2

(f) Now the Quotient Law may be used:

14 − h 14 − 0 14 2
lim 2 2
= 2 2
= 2 = .
h→0 (−7) (−7 + h) (−7) (−7 + 0) 49 343
Don’t take off marks if students can’t compute the numerical powers without
a calculator.

11.1.2 Wednesday version

1. Show that the equation
3x = 2x + 3
has at least one solution between x = −2 and x = 0. Justify all your steps!
Solution:

(a) The first step in a problem like this is to identify a function to which to apply
the Intermediate Value Theorem. One such function — not the only one —
is f (x) = 3x − (2x − 3).
(b) A next step is to identify the closed interval on which to apply the theorem.
Here the data have been given, the student must simply show that she has
extracted this information from the problem: the interval is [−2, 0].
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 65

(c) The student must at least OBSERVE that the function is continuous on the
given closed interval. That is, a word like continuous or continuity should
appear explicitly in the solution.
(d) The function must be evaluated at the end-points of the given interval, and
it must be shown that the two values are on opposite sides of 0:
1 10
f (−2) = − (−4 + 3) = >0
9 9
1
f (0) = − (0 + 3) = −2 < 0
1

(e) Conclude by applying the Intermediate Value Theorem that the function as-
sumes the value 0 somewhere in the interval.

2. Let
2x2 + 2x + 1
f (x) = .
4ex
Compute f ′ (x) and find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at
x = 0. You may use all the differentiation rules you know, but you are expected
to show all steps of your solution.
Solution:

(a) There could be different ways in which the differentiation rules can be imple-
mented; only one is given here. Steps must be shown in the solution — do
not give full marks if only the answer is given!

(4x + 2) · (4ex ) − (2x2 + 2x + 1) · (4ex )

f ′ (x) =
(4ex )2
−2x2 + 2x + 1
= .
4ex

(b) Hence f ′ (0) = 14 .

(c) When x = 0, f (x) = 41 .
(d) An equation for the tangent line at the point (x, y) = 0, 41 on the graph of

f is
1 1
y − = (x − 0)
4 4
or x − 4y = −1.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 66

11.1.3 Thursday version

1. Let
9


 if x < −3


 x
f (x) = ab if x = −3 .




−6 + b + ln(x + 4) if x > −3


Showing all your work, determine what values must be chosen for a and b in order
to make this function continuous at x = −3?
Solution:

(a) Find the limit from the left at x = −3. This entails identifying which line of
9
the definition is to be used. Here lim − f (x) = −3 = −3.
x→−3

(b) Find the limit from the right at x = −3. This entails identifying which line
of the definition is to be used. Here lim + f (x) = −6 + b + ln(−3 + 4) =
x→−3
−6 + b + 0 = b − 6.
(c) Continuity requires that the limit exists; that is equivalent to the existence of
the 2 one-sided limits, and the equality of these 2 one-sided limits:

−3 = b − 6

so b = 3.
(d) Continuity requires that the limit be equal to the function value. Use the
preceding facts to observe the value of the 2-sided limit to be −3.
(e) Finally, the limit must be equal to the function value:
1
−3 = ab ⇒ −3 = 6a ⇒ a = − .
2
2. Let
−4 + 9ex
f (x) = .
−3 + 7ex
Compute f ′ (x) and determine the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f
at x = 0.
Solution:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 67

(a) Applying the Differentiation Rules, we obtain

(9ex ) · (−3 + 7ex ) − (−4 + 9ex ) (7ex )

f ′ (x) =
(−3 + 7ex )2
ex
= .
(−3 + 7ex )2
1
(b) When x = 0, f ′ (0) = 42
.
−4 + 9 5
(c) When x = 0, f (x) = = .
−3 + 7 2
(d) Hence an equation for the line through the point x = 0 and having the correct
slope is
5 1
y − = (x − 0) .
2 16
Or, equivalently, x − 16y = −40.

11.1.4 Friday version

1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to compute the derivative of
√
f (x) = 3x + 4 .

Don’t use any of the differentiation rules of Chapter 3 of Stewart!

Solution:

(a) Give the definition of the derivative as a limit (several alternatives are possi-
ble):
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(b) Express that general limit in the particular case of the given function
p √
3(x + h) + 4 − 3x + 4
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h

(c) Simplify the fraction algebraically:

p √ p √
3(x + h) + 4 − 3x + 4 3x + (3h + 4) − 3x + 4
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 68

(d) Rationalize the numerator by multiplying the fraction by

p √
3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4
p √
3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4

(e) Simplify the numerator

p √ ! p √ !
3x + (3h + 4) − 3x + 4 3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4
lim p √
h→0 h 3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4
(3x + 3h + 4) − (3x + 4)
= lim p √
h→0 h( 3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4)
3h
= lim p √
h→0 h( 3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4)

(f) Divide numerator and denominator by h:

3
lim p √
h→0 3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4

(g) Now the Quotient Law may be used (or continuity may be invoked):
3 3 3
lim p √ =p √ = √
h→0 3x + (3h + 4) + 3x + 4 3x + 4) + 3x + 4 2 3x + 4

2. Let f be a differentiable function defined for all real numbers. Assume it is known
that f (0) = 9. Compute the derivative of the function

xf (x) − 8
g(x) =
ex
at x = 0.
Solution:

(a)

′ (5xf (x) − 8)′ · ex − (5xf (x) − 8) · (ex )

g (x) =
(ex )2
by the Quotient Rule
(5xf (x))′ · ex − (5xf (x) − 8) · (ex )
=
(ex )2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 69

by the Sum Rule

(5f (x) + 5xf ′ (x)) · ex − (5xf (x) − 8) · (ex )
=
(ex )2
by the Product Rule
5(f (x) + xf ′ (x) − xf (x)) + 8
=
ex

(b)
5f (0) + 8
g ′(0) = = 5 · 9 + 8 = 53.
1
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 70

12 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q3

Distribution Date: November 11th, 2006; (subject to correction)

The following draft sketches of solutions will be given for one specific set of data for
each of the versions of the quiz; in some problems the variations of the versions involve
different functions, so please be careful.

12.1 Instructions to students

1. Show all your work. Marks are not given for answers alone.

2. You must enclose this question sheet in your folded answer sheet.
3. Time = 20 minutes
4. No calculators are permitted.

12.1.1 Monday version

1. In answering each of the following problems, show all your work, and simplify your
answer as much as possible.
(a) Find f ′ (x), when f (x) = arcsin(4x − 1).
sin 5x
(b) Evaluate lim without using L’Hospital’s Rule.
x→0 sin 2x

Solution:
(a) i.
1 d
f ′ (x) = p · (4x − 1)
1 − (4x − 1)2 dx
ii. Evaluating the 2nd factor:
1
f ′ (x) = p ·4
1 − (4x − 1)2
iii. Simplifying the first factor:
1 2
f ′ (x) = √ ·4= .
8x − 16x2 2x − 4x2

(b) Remember, if the student’s proof is essentially using L’Hospital’s Rule, then
she should not receive any marks.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 71

i. Transform so that numerator and denominator involve limits of sin x/x:

sin 5x
sin 5x 5x
= 5x ·
sin 2x sin 2x 2x
2x
ii.
sin 5x
 
sin 5x 5x 
lim = lim  5x · 

x→0 sin 2x x→0 sin 2x 2x
2x
sin 5x
lim 5x
x→0 5x
= · lim
sin 2x x→0 2x
lim
x→0 2x
sin 5x
lim 5
= 5x→0 5x · lim
sin 2x x→0 2
lim
2x→0 2x

iii.
sin 5x 1 5 5
lim = · =
x→0 sin 2x 1 2 2
2. Suppose that
4x2 + 9y 2 = 36 . (17)

(a) Find y ′ only by implicit differentiation. Your solution will involve both x and
y.
(b) Assuming y > 0, solve the given equation explicitly for y, and differentiate
the solution with respect to x to obtain an explicit formula for y ′ .
(c) Substitute the solution you found for y in part (b) into your derivative y ′
found in part (a), and show that the result is the same as the value you found
for y ′ in (b).

Solution:

(a) Differentiate equation (17) implicitly with respect to x:

dx dy
4 · 2x · + 9 · 2y =0
dx dx
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 72

which can be solved to yield

dy 4x
=− .
dx 9y

(b) If y > 0,
2√
y= 9 − x2 . (18)
3
Differentiating the explicit formula for f in (18) yields
dy 2 1 1 2x 1
= · ·√ · (−2x) = − · √ .
dx 3 2 9 − x2 3 9 − x2

(c)
4x 4x
− = − 2√

9y 9 3 9 − x2
2 1
= − ·√
3 9 − x2
which is the value that we determined in part (b) by explicit differentiation.

12.1.2 Wednesday version

1. In answering each of the following problems, show all your work, and simplify your
answer as much as possible.
√

(a) Find f ′ (x), when f (x) = arctan x2 + 1 − x .
sin 7x2
(b) Evaluate lim without using L’Hospital’s Rule.
x→0 sin 3x2

Solution:

(a) i.
1 d √ 2 
f ′ (x) = √
2 · x +1−x
1+ x2 + 1 − x dx
ii.  
′ 1 1 2x
f (x) = √
2 · ·√ −1
1+ x2 + 1 − x 2 x2 + 1
iii. Final simplification:
1 1
f ′ (x) = − · 2
2 x +1
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 73

(b) Remember, if the student’s proof is essentially using L’Hospital’s Rule, then
she should not receive any marks.
i. Transform so that numerator and denominator involve limits of functions
of the form sin x/x:
sin 7x2
2
sin 7x 7x2 7x2
= ·
sin 3x2 sin 3x2 3x2
3x2
ii.
sin 7x2
 
sin 7x2  7x2 7x2 
lim = lim ·
x→0 sin 3x2 sin 3x2 3x2
 
x→0

3x2
sin 7x2
lim 2 7x2
= x→0 7x 2 · lim 2
sin 3x x→0 3x
lim
x→0 3x2
sin 7x2
lim 2 7
= 7x →0 7x 2 · lim
2

sin 3x x→0 3
lim
3x →0 3x2
2

iii.
sin 7x2 1 7 7
lim 2
= · =
x→0 sin 3x 1 3 3
2. Suppose that
2
x2 + 64y 2 = x2 + 2y 2 − 24x .
Determine an equation — simplified as much as possible — for the tangent to this
curve at the point with coordinates (0, 4).
Solution:

(a) Differentiate the given equation implicitly with respect to x:

2x + 64 · 2y · y ′ = 2 x2 + 2y 2 − 24x · (2x + 4yy ′ − 24)

(b) Substitute (x, y) = (0, 4) in the equation for y ′ to determine the value of that
derivative when x = 4:

0 + 512y ′ = 2(32)(16y ′ − 24) ⇒ y ′ = 3 .

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 74

Alternatively, one could determine a general formula for y ′ for any point on
the curve, and then make the substitution.
(c) Give the equation with of the line through (4, 3) with the given slope:

y − 4 = 3(x − 0) or y = 3x + 4 .

12.1.3 Thursday version

1. In answering each of the following problems, show all your work, and simplify your
answer as much as possible.
√
(a) Find f ′ (x), when f (x) = x arcsin x + −x2 + 1.
Solution:
i.
1 d√ 2
f ′ (x) = 1 · arcsin x + x · √ + −x + 1
−x2 + 1 dx
ii.
1 1 1
f ′ (x) = 1 · arcsin x + x · √ + ·√ · (−2x)
−x2 + 1 2 −x2 + 1
iii. Final simplification:
1 1
f ′ (x) = 1 · arcsin x + x · √ −x· √ = arcsin x .
−x2 + 1 −x2 + 1
sin(cos 2x)
(b) Evaluate lim without using L’Hospital’s Rule.
x→0sec 2x
Solution: For this problem l’Hospital’s Rule could not apply, since the limit of
the denominator exists, and is not zero. You certainly should not give more
than 0 if a student appeals to l’Hospital’s Rule here!
i. The limit of the denominator is sec 0 = 1, by the continuity of the secant
function.
ii. The limit of the numerator is

lim sin(cos 2x) = sin(lim cos 2x)

x→0 x→0
since the sine function is continuous at lim cos 2x
x→0
= sin 1.

sin(cos 2x) lim sin(cos 2x) sin 1

iii. By the Quotient Law, lim = x→0 = = sin 1.
x→0 sec 2x lim sec 2x 1
x→0
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 75

2. Suppose that
3(x2 + y 2 )2 = 25 x2 − y 2 .

Determine an equation — simplified as much as possible — for the tangent to this

curve at the point with coordinates (2, 1).
Solution:
(a) Differentiate the given equation implicitly with respect to x:

3 · 2 · (x2 + y 2) · (2x + 2yy ′) = 25 (2x − 2yy ′)

(b) Solve for

x 25 − 6x(x2 + y 2 )
y′ = · .
y 6(x2 + y 2 ) + 25
and evaluate at (x, y) = (2, 1):
2
y′ = − .
11
Alternatively, substitute (x, y) = (2, 1) before solving for the value of the
derivative at the point.
(c) Give the equation with of the line through (2, 1) with the given slope:
 
2
y−1= − (x − 2) or 2x + 11y = 15 .
11

12.1.4 Friday version

1. In each of the following problems, show all your work, and simplify your answer as
much as possible.
√

(a) Find f ′ (x), when f (x) = −x2 + 1 arccos x.
t3
(b) Evaluate lim without using L’Hospital’s Rule.
t→0 tan3 (8t)

Solution:
(a) i.
1 1 √ d
f ′ (x) = √ · (−2x) · arccos x + −x2 + 1 · arccos x
2 −x + 1
2 dx
ii.
1 1 √ −1
f ′ (x) = √ · (−2x) · arccos x + −x2 + 1 · √
2 −x2 + 1 1 − x2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 76

iii. Simplification:
1 1 √ −1
f ′ (x) = √ · (−2x)) · arccos x + −x2 + 1 · √
2 −x + 12 1 − x2
x arccos x
= −√ −1
1 − x2

(b) Remember, if the student’s proof is essentially using L’Hospital’s Rule, then
she should not receive any marks.
i. Transform so that numerator and denominator involve limits of functions
of the form sint t or tant t :

t3 1 1 cos3 8t 1
3
= ·
3 3 = 3 · 3
tan 8t 8 8
 
tan 8t sin 8t
8t 8t

ii. Now prepare to use the Quotient Law for Limits:

t3 cos3 8t 1
lim 3 = lim 3 · 3
t→0 tan 8t 8

t→0 sin 8t
8t
lim cos3 8t 1
t→0
= 3 · 3
8

sin 8t
lim
t→0 8t
lim cos3 8t 1
=  t→0 3 · 3
sin 8t 8
lim
t→0 8t
 3
lim cos 8t 1
=  8t→0 3 · 3
sin 8t 8
lim
8t→0 8t

iii. Complete the computations and simplify:

13 1 1
= 3· 3 =
1 8 512
2. Suppose that
y 2(y 2 − 16) = x2 (x2 − 5) .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 77

Determine an equation — simplified as much as possible — for the tangent to this

curve at the point with coordinates (0, 4).
Solution:

(a) Prior to implicit differentiation, prepare by replacing the products of polyno-

mials by sums of constant multiples of powers:

y 4 − 16y 2 = x4 − 5x2 .

(b) Differentiate implicitly with respect to x:

4y 3y ′ − 16yy ′ = 4x3 − 10x .

(c) Determine a general formula for the derivative:

x 2x2 − 5
y′ = ·
y 2(y 2 − 2)

(d) Evaluate y ′ at the given point:

y ′ (0) = 0 .

(e) Give the equation of the line with that slope through the given point: y = 4.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 78

13 Draft Solutions to W4, Fourth Written Assign-

ment
Distribution Date: Monday, November 27th, 2006
Completed solutions to this assignment were due to be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at Tutorials during the week November 20-24, 2006. Students were
instructed to “Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper to Quiz
Q4 . All materials must bear your name and/or student number. No other method of
submission is acceptable.”

13.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:
I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W4 , A5 and A6

does not violate McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

13.2 The assignment question

(x − a)2 − b2
Consider the function f (x) = on the interval a − 2b ≤ x ≤ a + b, where a
(x − a)2 + b2
and b are constants determined from your student number, as follows:
Starting from the left, list the non-zero digits in your student num-
ber. Ignore the first of these. The second is a; the third is b.
(It could happen that a = b.) Showing all your work, modelled on the solution in the
textbook of Example 8, page 284,
1. Find the global (absolute) maximum and minimum values of the function
(x − a)2 − b2
f (x) =
(x − a)2 + b2
using the “Closed Interval Method” on the interval a − 2b ≤ x ≤ a + b.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 79

2. Apply the First Derivative Test to any critical points in the interval.
3. Apply the Second Derivative Test to any critical points in the interval.
4. Explain how you know that f does not have a global maximum on the interval
−∞ < x < +∞.
5. Sketch the graph of f , showing the extrema you have found.
Solution:
1.
(x − a)2 − b2 2b2
f (x) = = 1 −
(x − a)2 + b2 (x − a)2 + b2
4(x − a)b2
⇒ f ′ (x) =
((x − a)2 + b2 )2
2
√
√

4b b − 3(x − a) b + 3(x − a)
⇒ f ′′ (x) =
((x − a)2 + b2 )3
Since f ′ is defined for all x, we can set f ′ (x) equal to 0 to find all critical points:
the only solution is x = a; f (a) = −1.
The values of f at the end-points of the given interval are 35 and 0. The global
maximum is attained at x = a − 2b, with the value 53 ; the global minimum is at
x = a, with the value −1.
2. For x < a, f ′ (x) < 0, while, for x > a, f ′ (x) > 0. (Usually we should only
be looking “within a small neighbourhood” of x = a, but, for this function, the
derivative has the same sign throughout the ray to the left of x = a, and the same
sign throughout the ray to the right of x = a.) Thus f ′ changes from negative to
positive at the critical point, and the point must be a local (relative) minimum.
−4b2 (−b)(b) 4
3. f ′′ (a) = = > 0, implying that the critical point is a local (relative)
(b2 )3 b2
minimum.
2b 2
4. As x → ±∞, f (x) → 1. But, for all x, 1 − f (x) = (x−a) 2 +b2 > 0. What could the

global maximum be? If you claimed the maximum occurred at some point x = x0 ;
then, by taking x > x0 , I would have a point where f (x) > f (x0 ), and x0 couldn’t
be a maximum point. And you can’t claim the maximum value is 1, since the value
1 is never attained. There is no maximum!
5. see Figure 3 on page 80
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 80

0.5

0
-20 -10 0 10 20
x

-0.5

-1

(x − a)2 − b2
Figure 3: Graph of the Function and its horizontal asymptote, y = 1, when
(x − a)2 + b2
a = 2, b = 5
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 81

14 Draft Solutions to Quiz Q4

Distribution Date: Mounted on WebCT on December 01, 2006
Draft, subject to correction.
The following sketches of solutions will be given for one specific set of data for each of
the versions of the quiz.

14.1 Instructions to students

1. Show all your work. Marks are not given for answers alone.
2. You must enclose this question sheet in your folded answer sheet.
3. Time = 45 minutes.
4. No calculators are permitted.

14.2 Monday version

1. [10 MARKS] Find a function
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c (19)
where a, b and c are constants to be determined, if f has all of the following
properties:
(a) f (1) = 0
(b) f ′ (3) = −13
(c) f ′′ (−7) = −4
You must show a FULL solution—a formula for the function alone could be worth
zero marks.
Solution:
(a) Imposition of the first boundary condition yields
0 = f (1) = a + b + c . (20)
(b) Differentiation of equation (19) yields
f ′ (x) = 2ax + b . (21)
Imposition of the second boundary condition yields
−13 = f ′ (3) = 2a(3) + b . (22)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 82

(c) Differentiation of equation (21) yields

f ′′ (x) = 2a . (23)

Imposition of the third boundary condition yields

−4 = f ′′ (−7) = 2a , (24)

implying that a = −2.

(d) Back substitution of this value in equation (22) yields

−13 = 2(−2)(3) + b ,

implying that b = −1. Back substitution of the values of a and b in equation

(20) yields
0 = (−2) + (−1) + c ,
which we may solve to obtain c = 3. The function we seek is now completely
determined:
f (x) = −2x2 − 1x + 3 .

2. [10 MARKS] Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of the function
y = x4x .
Solution:

(a) First apply logarithms to both sides of the given defining equation:

ln y = 4x ln x .

(b) Next differentiate implicitly with respect to x:

y′ 1
= 4 ln x + 4(x) = 4 ln x + 4 ,
y x
implying that
y ′ = 4y · (ln x + 1) .
(c) Now restore the known explicit formula for y(x):

y ′ = 4x4x · (ln x + 1) .

3. [10 MARKS] If sinh x = −1, find the value of ex and then the value of cosh x.
Solution:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 83

x −x
(a) In terms of exponentials, the given equation yields e −e
2
= −1 which implies
2x x
that e − 1 = −2e , which may be viewed as a quadratic equation,

(ex )2 + 2ex − 1 = 0 ,
√
implying that ex = −1 ± 2. But, of the two values given, one must be
discarded, as an exponential cannot be negative. Thus we have shown that
√
ex = 2 − 1 .

(b) We may now determine the value of the hyperbolic cosine:

1
ex +
cosh x = ex
√ 2
2−1+ √1
2−1
=
2
√ √
2−1+ √1 · √2+1
2−1 2+1
=
2√
√ 2+1
2−1+ 1
=
√ 2
= 2.

(The instructions clearly stated that it was necessary to find ex first. Otherwise one
could have applied the identity cosh2 x−sinh2 x = 1 to determine that cosh x = ±2;
then one could have observed that the hyperbolic cosine, being a positive multiple
of the sum of exponentials, must be positive, etc.)

4. [10 MARKS] Find the global (absolute) extrema of the function

ln(4x)
y=
x

on the closed interval [1, 8]. You must show all of your work—correct numerical
answers alone may not earn any marks.
Solution:

(a) To find the critical points, differentiate

1 − ln(4x)
y ′ (x) = .
x2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 84

(b) Observe that there are no points in the given interval where the function fails
to be differentiable.
(c) Determine the critical points by setting the derivative equal to 0: ln 4x = 1 ⇒
x = 4e < 1, which is not in the interval. Thus there are NO critical points!
(d) Compare the values of the function at the end points:
y(1) = ln 4 = 2 ln 2
ln 32 5
y(8) = = ln 2
8 8
so the global maximum is at 1, and the maximum value is ln 4; the global
minimum is at 8, and the minimum value is 58 ln 2.

14.3 Wednesday version

1. [10 MARKS] Find a function
f (x) = a cos x + b sin x + c (25)
where a, b and c are constants to be determined, if f has all of the following
properties:
(a) f (0) = −1
√
(b) f ′ (− π4 ) = −2 2
(c) f ′′ (π) = 1
You must show a FULL solution—a formula for the function alone could be worth
zero marks.
Solution:
(a) Imposition of the first boundary condition yields
−1 = f (0) = a + b(0) + c = a + c . (26)
(b) Differentiation of equation (25) yields
f ′ (x) = −a sin x + b cos x . (27)
Imposition of the second boundary condition yields
√ ′
 π −1 1
−2 2 = f − = −a · √ + b · √ , (28)
4 2 2
implying that
a + b = −4 . (29)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 85

(c) Differentiation of equation (27) yields

f ′′ (x) = −a cos x − b sin x . (30)

Imposition of the third boundary condition yields

1 = f ′′ (π) = −a(−1) + b(0) , (31)

implying that a = 1.
(d) Back substitution of this value in equation (29) yields

1 + b = −4 ,

implying that b = −5. Back substitution of the values of a and b in equation

(26) yields
−1 = 1 + c ,
which we may solve to obtain c = 4. The function we seek is now completely
determined:
f (x) = 1 cos x − 5 sin x + 4 .

2. [10 MARKS] Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of the function
y = x2/x .
Solution:

(a) First apply logarithms to both sides of the given defining equation:
2
ln y = · ln x .
x

(b) Next differentiate implicitly with respect to x:

1
y′ x
· x − (ln x) · 1
=2· ,
y x2
implying that
1 − ln x
y ′ = 2y · .
x2
(c) Now restore the known explicit formula for y(x):

2 1 − ln x
y ′ = 2x x · .
x2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 86

3. [10 MARKS] If tanh x = 53 , find the value of ex and then the value of cosh x.
Solution:
(a) Write the given equation in terms of exponentials:
ex − e−x 3
x −x
= .
e +e 5
(b) Solve for ex : 2e2x = 8 ⇒ ex = ±2 ⇒ ex = +2 since exponentials cannot be
negative.
(c) Now express cosh x in terms of exponentials, and, through that, determine
the value of cosh x.
1
ex + e−x 2+ 2 5
cosh x = = = .
2 2 4
√
4. [10 MARKS] Use a linear approximation to estimate the number 99.9. You
must show all your work, giving the precise values assigned to any variables or
increments.
Solution:
√
(a) Select function, e.g., f (x) = x. Also select the reference point, and, thereby
the increment: a = 100, ∆x = −0.1. Thus f (a) = 10.
1
(b) Determine the derivative of f , and evaluate at a: f ′ (x) = √
2 x
. At a = 100,
1
f ′ (a) = 2√1100 = 20 .
(c) Complete the approximation:
f (a + ∆x) ≈ f (x) + f ′ (a) · ∆x
1
= 10 + · (−0.1)
20
= 10 − 0.025 = 9.975 .

14.4 Thursday version

1. [10 MARKS] The volume of a right circular cone is V = 13 πr 2 h, where r is the
radius of the base and h is the height. Assume that the height of such a cone
remains constant at 6 centimeters, while its volume is expanding at a constant
rate of 4 cubic centimeters per second. Find the rate of change of the radius when
the radius is 2 centimeters. Simplify your answer as much as is possible without a
calculator.
dV
Solution: V = π3 hr 2 ⇒ dV
dt
= π3 h · 2r · dr
dt
⇒ dr
dt
= 2
dt
πrh
= 2
4
π(2)(6)
= 1
3π
.
3 3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 87

2. [10 MARKS] Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of the function
y = x9 cos x .
Solution:

(a) First apply logarithms to both sides of the given defining equation:

ln y = 9 cos x · ln x .

(b) Next differentiate implicitly with respect to x:

y′
= 9(− sin x) · ln x + 9 cos x · 1x ,
y
implying that
y ′ = 9y · ((− sin x) · ln x + 9 cos x · 1x) .
(c) Now restore the known explicit formula for y(x):

y ′ = 9x9 cos x · ((− sin x) · ln x + 9 cos xx) .

3. [10 MARKS] Find the global (absolute) extrema of the function

√
y = x 2 − x2

on the closed interval [−1, 1]. You must show all of your work—correct numerical
answers alone may not earn any marks.
Solution:

(a) Find the derivative of the function:

√ 1 1 2(1 − x)(1 + x)
y′ = 2 − x2 + x · √ = √
2 2−x 2 2 − x2

(b) Determine the critical points of the function on the given interval: f ′ (x) =
0 ⇒ x = ±1; there are no critical points of the type where the derivative does
not exist. And the only critical points are at the end-points of the interval.
Our definition of critical point does not include end-points; but it doesn’t
matter, because end-points must be checked separately in any case.
(c) Under the Closed Interval Method we need check only the end-points. Since
y(−1) = −1 and y(+1) = +1, the global maximum — of value +1 — occurs
at x = +1; while the global minimum — of value −1 — occurs at x = −1.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 88

4. [10 MARKS] Use a linear approximation to estimate the number ln(1.05). You
must show all your work, giving the precise values assigned to any variables or
increments.
Solution:

(a) Select function, e.g., f (x) = ln x. Also select the reference point, and, thereby
the increment: a = 1, ∆x = +0.05. Thus f (a) = 0.
1
(b) Determine the derivative of f , and evaluate at a: f ′ (x) = x
. At a = 1,
f ′ (a) = 11 = 1.
(c) Complete the approximation:

f (a + ∆x) ≈ f (x) + f ′ (a) · ∆x

1
= 0 + · (0.05)
1
= 0.05 .

14.5 Friday version

1. [10 MARKS] The volume of a right circular cone is V = 13 πr 2 h, where r is the
radius of the base and h is the height. Assume that the volume of such a cone
remains constant at 4 cubic centimeters, while its radius is increasing at a constant
rate of 2 centimeters per second. Find the rate of change of the height when the
radius is 3 centimeters. Simplify your answer as much as is possible without a
calculator.
π 3V 12 1 dh
Solution: V = 3
· r2h ⇒ h = π
· 1r 2 = π
· r2
. Hence dt
= − 24
π
· 1r 3 · dr
dt
8
= − 9π .

2. [10 MARKS] Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of the function
y = (ln x)6/x .
Solution:

(a) First apply logarithms to both sides of the given defining equation:

ln ln x
ln y = 6 .
x

(b) Next differentiate implicitly with respect to x:

 1
y′ · x − ln ln x · 1

x ln x
=6 ,
y x2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 89

implying that
1
− ln ln x
 
′ ln x
y = 6y .
x2
(c) Now restore the known explicit formula for y(x):
 1
− ln ln x

6
′ ln x
y = 6(ln x) x .
x2

3. [10 MARKS] Use a linear approximation to estimate the number (0.99)6 . You
must show all your work, giving the precise values assigned to any variables or
increments.
Solution:

(a) Select function, e.g., f (x) = x6 . Also select the reference point, and, thereby
the increment: a = 1, ∆x = −0.01. Thus f (a) = 1.
(b) Determine the derivative of f , and evaluate at a: f ′ (x) = 6x5 . At a = 1,
f ′ (a) = 11 = 1.
(c) Complete the approximation:

f (a + ∆x) ≈ f (x) + f ′ (a) · ∆x

1
= 0 + · (0.05)
1
= 0.05 .

4. [10 MARKS] Show that the polynomial 5x4 − 9x − 4 has exactly 2 real roots.
Carefully justify all your steps and name the theorems you’re using!
Solution:
Information for Students in Lecture Section 1 of MATH 140 2006 09 1001

A Information Specifically for Students in Lecture

Section 001
A.1 Timetable for Lecture Section 001 of MATH 140 2006 09
Distribution Date: Wednesday, September 21st, 2006
This revision as of December 1, 2006. (All information is subject to change.)

This Week
MONDAY WEDNESDAY FRIDAY (Until Sun. 23:59)
SEPTEMBER
04 LABOUR DAY 06 §1.1, App. D 08 §1.1, App. D
All Tutorial Sections meet first during the week of September 11, 2006.
Quiz Q0 , at your first tutorial, diagnoses some precalculus deficiencies, and is compulsory!
11 §1.2 (parts) 13 §1.3 15 §1.5 Q0 , P1 , P2
Course changes must be completed by Tuesday, September 19, 2006
18 §1.6 (briefly), 20 §2.2, §2.3 22 §2.4, §2.5 A1 , A2
Math. Induction,
§2.1
Deadline for withdrawal from course with fee refund = September 24, 2006
25 §2.6, §2.7 27 §2.8, §2.9 29 §3.1 Q1 , W1 , P3
OCTOBER
02 §3.2 04 §3.3 06 §3.4 (A3 due 09 Oct.
23:30h)
Next week only Monday Lectures and tutorials T003–T008 move to Tuesday, October 10th, 2006.
10 (Tuesday) X 11 §3.5 13 §3.5, §3.6 P4 , A3 (Mon.
23:30h)
16 §3.6 18 §3.7 20 §3.8 Q2 , W2 , A4
Deadline for withdrawal (with W) from course = Oct. 22, 2006
23 §3.9 25 §3.10 27 §3.11 P5
30 §4.1 Q3 , W3 , A5
Notation:
An = WeBWorK Assignment An due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
Pn = WeBWorK Practice Assignment Pn due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
(The Practice Assignments do not count in your grade.)
R = Read Only
Qn , W n = Hand in Wn at Quiz Qn in the tutorials this week; (there is no W0 ).
X = reserved for eXpansion or review
Section numbers refer to the text-book.

UPDATED TO December 1, 2006

Information for Students in Lecture Section 1 of MATH 140 2006 09 1002

This Week
MONDAY WEDNESDAY FRIDAY (Until Sun. 23:59)
NOVEMBER
01 §4.1 03 §4.2 Q3 , W3 , A5
06 §4.3 08 §4.4 10 §4.4, §4.5 P6
13 §4.5 — omit 15 §4.5 — omit 17 §4.7 A6
“slant asymp- “slant asymp-
totes” totes”
20 §4.7 22 §4.10 24 §4.10 Q4 , W4 , P7
Next week’s tutorial is the last.
27 X 29 X A7
DECEMBER
Last lectures in both lecture sections are on Monday, December 4th, 2006.
01 X
4 X
Notation:
An = WeBWorK Assignment An due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
Pn = WeBWorK Practice Assignment Pn due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
(The Practice Assignments do not count in your grade.)
R = Read Only
Qn , W n = Hand in Wn at Quiz Qn in the tutorials this week; (there is no W0 ).
X = reserved for eXpansion or review
Section numbers refer to the text-book.
Supplementary Notes for Students in Lecture Section 1 of MATH 140 2006 09 1003

B Supplementary Notes for Lectures in Lecture Sec-

tion 001
Prof. Sancho may, should the need arise, place supplemental materials on the web page

http://www.math.mcgill.ca/∼sancho/math140a.html
Information for Students in Lecture Section 2 of MATH 140 2006 09 2001

C Information Specifically for Students in Lecture

Section 002
C.1 Timetable for Lecture Section 002 of MATH 140 2006 09
Distribution Date: Wednesday, September 21st, 2006
This revision as of December 1, 2006. (All information is subject to change.)

This Week
MONDAY WEDNESDAY (Until Sun. 24:00)
SEPTEMBER
04 LABOUR DAY 06 §1.1, App. D
All Tutorial Sections meet first during the week of September 11, 2006.
Quiz Q0 , at your first tutorial, diagnoses some precalculus deficiencies, and is compulsory!
11 §1.1, App. D, §1.2 (parts) 13 §1.2, §1.3 Q0 , P1 , P2

Course changes must be completed by Tuesday, September 19, 2006

18 §1.5, §1.6 (briefly) 20 §2.2, §2.3 A1 , A2
Deadline for withdrawal from course with fee refund = September 24, 2006
25 §2.5 27 §2.4, §2.6 Q1 , W1 , P3
OCTOBER
02 NO LECTURE IN LECTURE 04 §2.7, §2.8, §2.9 (A3 delayed until
SECTION 002 09 Oct., 23:30h)
Next week only Monday lectures and tutorials T003–T008 move to Tuesday, October 10th, 2006.
10 (Tuesday) , §3.1, §3.2, §3.3 11 §3.4 P4 , A3 (Mon.
23:30h)

16 §3.5, §3.6 18 §3.5, §3.6 Q2 , W2 , A4

Deadline for withdrawal (with W) from course = Oct. 22, 2006
23 §3.7, §3.8 25 §3.9, §3.10 P5
30 §3.10, §3.11, X Q3 , W3 , A5
Notation:
An = WeBWorK Assignment An due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
Pn = WeBWorK Practice Assignment Pn due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
(The Practice Assignments do not count in your grade.)
R = Read Only
Qn , W n = Hand in Wn at Quiz Qn in the tutorials this week; (there is no W0 ).
X = reserved for eXpansion or review
Section numbers refer to the text-book.

UPDATED TO December 1, 2006

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2002

This Week
MONDAY WEDNESDAY (Until Sun. 24:00)
NOVEMBER
01 §4.1 Q3 , W3 , A5
06 §4.2 08 §4.3 P6
13 §4.4 15 §4.5 — omit “slant asymp- A6
totes”
20 §4.7 22 §4.10 Q4 , W4 , P7
Next week’s tutorial is the last.
27 X 29 X A7
DECEMBER
Last lectures in both lecture sections are on Monday, December 4th, 2006.
4 X
Notation:
An = WeBWorK Assignment An due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
Pn = WeBWorK Practice Assignment Pn due at 23:30h on Sunday this week
(The Practice Assignments do not count in your grade.)
R = Read Only
Qn , W n = Hand in Wn at Quiz Qn in the tutorials this week; (there is no W0 ).
X = reserved for eXpansion or review
Section numbers refer to the text-book.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2003

D Notes for Lecture Section 002

Release Date: Wednesday, September 6th, 2006

D.1 Lecture style in Lecture Section 002

Lecture content The timetable on pages 2001-2002 will show you approximately what
I plan to discuss at each lecture. I suggest that you look through the material in advance.
If you have time to try some of the exercises, and find some that cause you difficulty,
you are welcome to bring them to my attention; perhaps I may be able to work some of
these examples into the lecture.

What goes on the chalkboard? — Should I take Notes? Your instructor believes
strongly that students should not spend the lecture hour feverishly copying notes for fear
of missing some essential topic; in this course most of what you need to know is contained
in the textbook. You should take notes, but you should be trying to think at the same
time. The chalkboard will be used for

• statement/illustration of specific definitions and theorems

• sketching solutions to problems, or classes of problems

• a scratchpad

Some of this material will be useful to you in learning the material in the course. Even
when the material on the board is equivalent to something in your textbook, the act of
writing may help you remember it. But much of the material will be restatements of
your textbook, so you should normally not panic if you miss something.

Graphs Several topics in the syllabus, culminating in [1, §4.5], are concerned with
sketching of curves. Our emphasis is on qualitative properties of the graphs of functions,
but not on the production of extremely precise graphs. You can expect to see me draw on
the chalkboard sketches that are extremely crude approximations of functions, sometimes
even caricatures of the true graph. Mathematicians do not base proofs on sketches of
graphs — the role of a sketch is usually only to assist the reader to visualize the verbal or
symbolic reasoning which accompanies it. Sometimes a graph is used help one discover a
phenomenon, but the result would not be acceptable to a mathematician unless it could
be proved in a non-graphical way.33
33
This is why I usually avoid in the textbook problems that appear to be making inferences from
graphs.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2004

These supplementary notes The following notes were prepared by me for my lec-
tures. The section and paragraph headings follow the order of topics in the textbook.
While some of the comments or explanations may be helpful in understanding the book,
the notes are not required reading for examination purposes. Sometimes it may happen
that the discussion of a topic or an exercise evolves during the lecture into one which
requires more detail than is practical to write on the chalkboard. In such cases you may
be referred at the following lecture to supplementary material that will be contained in
the notes placed on the Web. Such evolutions are spontaneous and not planned, and
cannot be announced in advance.

Timing and corrections The notes will usually not be posted until after the lecture.
While I do try to check the notes before posting them, there will inevitably be errors:
if you see something that doesn’t look right, please ask. The notes will be progressively
corrected as misprints and other errors are discovered.

D.2 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 6th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, September 6th, 2006
subject to correction

Tutorials in MATH 140 2006 09 begin next week. A 45-minute

long diagnostic test, Q0 , will be written at your first tutorial.
While the grade on this test does not count, writing the quiz is
compulsory34 for all students in the course. You must write
it in your assigned tutorial room. The quiz will be graded and
returned to you, so that you may identify areas of prerequisites
where you may need to do remedial work.

The supplementary notes for the first lectures are unusually long, as the text covers
much material in an introductory way, or as review of material that you are expected to
know well already. I will certainly not had time to discuss all of these issues in class. The
beginning of the lecture will be spent in discussing details of the course, as contained
in pages 1–23 of these notes, and the WeBWorK system, as described in pages 4001 –
4006 of these notes.

Textbook Chapter 0. A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS.

This chapter is motivational. Most of the issues raised will be considered in depth later
in MATH 140 or MATH 141.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2005

Textbook Chapter 1. FUNCTIONS AND MODELS.

Many of the concepts in this chapter should be review for most students, since they should
have appeared in a good pre-calculus course; some of the terminology and notation may
be new. Some of the material in [1, §1.6] may be new.
In discussing [1, §1.2] I will also review material from [1, Appendix D]; if any of this
material is new to you, you should take steps to reinforce your background in trigonom-
etry before a deficiency impedes your progress. A very small number of students may
find themselves hopelessly deficient in both high school trigonometry and algebra, and
might seriously consider transferring from MATH 140 2006 09 to MATH 112 2006 09,
a course given only in the fall term; or delaying MATH 140 until the second term, and
taking other steps to rebuild precalculus foundations.

D.2.1 §1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function.

Before we discuss the subject matter, I wish to make it clear that no one is going to
expect you to answer silly questions like “How many ways are there to represent a
function?” Aside from that, some of the ways described in this section are problematic.
The purpose of the section is to prepare you for subsequent discussions in which functions
will be specified in a variety of ways.

Functions To specify a function we need two sets. The first, called the domain of
the function, is the set on which the function “acts”. The second is the set where the
function’s values are located. Some authors call this “target” the codomain.
The textbook defines [1, p. 12] the range of a function f as “the set of all possible
values of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain.” Many mathematicians now avoid the
word range 35 and prefer to call the set of values the image of f .
When we write f (x), we normally mean the point to which the point x in the domain
is mapped by the function f ; sometimes we may, carelessly, talk about “the function
f (x)”, but the intention is to reserve this notation for the general point of the “range”
(image). The “variable” x is sometimes called the independent variable; if we write
y = f (x), older terminology would call y the dependent variable.
One part of the definition of a function is non-negotiable: we always require that,
for every point x of the domain, there be exactly one point to which it is mapped: this
means never more than one image point; and never fewer than one, i.e., every point in
the domain must be mapped somewhere: there must never be any doubt about the image
of every single point of the domain. We paraphrase the first of these observations in the
“Vertical Line Test” (see below); from the second of these observations we see that the
35
One reason for avoiding the use of this word is that some authors have used the same term for the
target, which could include points which are not values of the function.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2006

domain of a function is precisely the projection — the shadow — cast by the graph on
the x-axis (if one imagines the sun at the “point” (0, ∞) on the y-axis.
When a function f has domain A, modern mathematical notation will speak of the
function36 f : A → B, where B is the “target” or codomain. The choice of a codomain
is sometimes unclear in a particular context, since there is often no harm in enlarging
the set; when we say that B is the codomain we do not insist that every point in B
be realized as the image under the function of a point in the domain A; all we ask is
that the image or range should be contained in the codomain. There are good algebraic
reasons for being fussy about the codomain, but students are not likely to see them in
MATH 140 or MATH 141, except possibly in connection with inverse functions (to be
introduced in [1, §1.6]).
Suppose that f : A → B is a given function. If we have a formula for computing
f (x) when x is given, a useful notation is to denote the function
√ by x 7→ f (x); thus,
for example, the square root function could be denoted by x 7→ x. (Note the peculiar
symbol — a horizontal arrow with a vertical foot.)

Graph of a function The graph of f : A → B is the set of points in37 R2 whose first
coordinate x ranges over all points in the domain, where the second coordinate is the
corresponding value f (x). This set may be interpreted “graphically”, as points in the
plane, and that representation may be “sketched”. The “sketch” obtained may be useful
in solving problems, but mathematicians never base a serious proof on a sketch; if we
make a sketch, it is only as a visual aid. You are expected to follow this practice in your
written solutions.

Theorem D.1 (Vertical Line Test [1, p. 17]) A set S of points in R2 is the graph
of a function if and only if no vertical line passes through two distinct points in S.

Proof: The condition is necessary (the “only if” part of the theorem) because the presence
in S of two points with the same x-coordinate (the abscissa) would entail that that value
of x was mapped on to38 two distinct points. Otherwise we can interpret S as the graph
of a function whose domain is the set of all numbers that appear as an x-coordinate for
some point in S: every point in this domain is mapped on to exactly one point, so the
function is “well defined”. For each point x of this domain there is now exactly one point
36
The arrow notation is not generally used in your textbook, although you can see it at the bottom
of [1, Figure 3, p. 12], and is introduced here so that, at least, you can see the kind of notation that is
f
used by mathematicians today. Sometimes we may modify the notation f : X → Y , writing X → Y .
37
R is the set of real numbers or, when interpreted geometrically, “the real line”; R2 is the set of
“ordered pairs” of real numbers, or, when interpreted geometrically, “the real plane” or “the Cartesian
plane”.
38
Some English dictionaries do not accept onto as a single word.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2007

y such that (x, y) ∈ S, and so, if we define a function f by x 7→ y, then S is the graph
of f .

Representations of Functions As mentioned above, a complete definition of a func-

tion must specify

• the domain;

• the set where the function takes its values — we could call this the “target” or the
codomain);

• the rule that assigns to each point in the domain precisely one point in the target.

If there is even one point in the domain where the action of the function has not been
specified precisely, the function is not “well defined”! The textbook proposes four ways
of representing functions, some of which have restrictions in their applicability if the
representation is to be interpreted as defining the function. Of these “numerically (by
a table of values)” is possible only if the domain of the function is finite. Similarly, the
method described as “visually (by a graph)” is not adequate if by graph one thinks of
a sketch — a curve drawn on a piece of paper; if, however, the graph is specified in an
unambiguous way, as, for example “the line through points (1, −2) and (4, 2)”, or “the
circle with centre (1, −2) and radius 5”, then the curve is precisely specified; the second
example — the circle — would still not define a function, since it violates the “Vertical
Line Test”. My objection is to the word visually, not to by a graph.
When a function is described by an algebraic formula, there is often a “natural”
domain — the largest set for which the formula “makes sense”. So, for example, one
might be inclined to say that “the function x1 has domain all real numbers except 0”.
But, if the inventor wishes to specify a domain that is smaller than this set, and use
the same formula, that is completely “legal”. There are often good reasons to restrict a
function to a smaller domain than that for which a defining formula might be meaningful.
So a formula is not enough to thoroughly specify a function: it is necessary to specify
its domain precisely: if that is not done, the reader will usually take the domain to be
the “natural” domain.

Piecewise Defined Functions Mathematicians use the term piecewise to describe a

definition of a function where the domain is dissected into (subsets of) mutually disjoint
sets, within each of which it may be possible to define the function in some unified way.
(The reason for taking the sets to be mutually disjoint is to avoid the possibility that
two parts of the definition would be in conflict.) The graph appears to have been created
by cutting and pasting pieces of various graphs. When we cut and paste intervals that
are disjoint, some of those intervals will contain their end-points, and others will not
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2008

(since we don’t want the intervals to overlap). This can lead to definitions where there
are abrupt changes in the behavior of a function as we pass through specific points of
the domain. We will return to this issue when we discuss continuity in [1, §2.5].
Note that a definition can be given piecewise, and yet the function could admit a
more pleasing definition. For example, we could define

−1 when x ≤ 5
f (x) = , (32)
− sin2 x − cos2 x when x > 5

but the function f is simply the constant function −1. There is nothing wrong with
definition (32), but a definition

f (x) = −1 for all x (33)

is equivalent, and more pleasing.

For an exercise on construction of functions in this way, see [1, Exercise 18, p. 79
(Review Exercises for Chapter 1)].
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2009

D.3 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 11th,

2006
Release Date: Monday, September 11th, 2006
subject to correction

The first written assignment, W1 , has been posted on WebCT. This

assignment is expressed in a notation that will be defined when we
discuss [1, §1.3]. Until you understand the meaning of the notation,
you cannot expect to be able to solve the problems. The problems
themselves are concerned with domains of various functions. Some of
the functions in the problems will be discussed in [1, §§1.5, 1.6].

The following provisional notes were posted in advance of the lecture. It is likely that,
for want of sufficient time, some topics may not be explicitly discussed.

D.3.1 §1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function (conclusion).

Symmetry This topic will not be discussed in depth at this time. You should have met
some of these concepts in your precalculus preparation. However, you are not expected
to know the Theorem given below.

Even and Odd Functions. Intuitively, a symmetry of a function f is a trans-

formation of the graph that can be obtained by mapping the plane R2 onto itself,
in such a way that distances are not changed, and that the graph of f maps onto
itself. For example, the graph of the function sin is not changed when the whole
plane is shifted to the right a multiple of 2π units. A function f is even if it has
the property that
f (−x) = f (x) (34)
for every point in the domain. So, if x is in the domain, condition (34) refers to
f (−x); if it is permitted to mention f (−x), then −x must also be in the domain of
f . Not only must an even function have the property that its domain be symmetric
around the point 0; but, moreover, points which are symmetrically located with
respect to 0 must have the same function value. To prove that a function f is not
even, it suffices to show that there is a real number x such that either
1. f is defined at one of x, −x, but not at the other; or
2. f is defined at both x and −x, but the values of the function are different at
the two points.
Just one such pair is enough to permit the inference that f is not even, since
evenness requires that no such pair exist.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2010

A function f is odd if it has the property that

f (−x) = −f (x) (35)

Here, as for evenness, a function can be odd only if its domain is symmetric around
0. The equation must hold for all pairs of points in the domain; if there is one real
number x where either the equation fails or the function is defined at only one of
the points x, −x, the function is not odd. The terminology is easily remembered
by thinking about the properties of even and odd powers of x.

Theorem D.2 Let f be a function whose domain is R. Then f may be expressed

as the sum of an even function fe and an odd function fo , both with domain R.

Proof: (This proof is called constructive; not only will we prove the existence of
the functions postulated in the enunciation of the theorem, but we will show how
to construct the functions.)
We can define, for all x ∈ R,
f (x) + f (−x)
fe (x) = (36)
2
f (x) − f (−x)
fo (x) = (37)
2
1. For all x ∈ R,
1 1
f (x) = (f (x) + f (−x)) + (f (x) − f (−x))
2 2
= fe (x) + fo (x) (38)
= (fe + fo )(x)

according to the definition of the sum fe + fo , [1, p. 42]. Since functions f

and fe + fo have the same domain — R — and have the same action on every
point x in the domain, as shown in (38), the functions are said to be equal.39
2. The function fe is defined in (36). The proof that this function is even is left
to the student.
3. The function fo is defined in (37). The proof that this function is odd is left
to the student.

Exercise D.1 1. Show that the only function that is both even and odd is the
constant function 0.
39
This is the definition of what we mean when we say two functions are equal: they have the same
domain, and they act in the same way on every point of that domain. The student who thinks there
is no need for a definition here, must remember that, hitherto, the = sign has been used only between
numbers. We are now applying it to a different type of object; whenever we do that we must clarify
precisely what we mean by this symbol and language in this new context.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2011

2. Let r be a fixed real number. Is the constant function f given by f (x) = r

even? Is it odd?
3. Give an example to show that there exist functions that are neither even nor
odd.
4. There is a function that is both even and odd. What is it?

Some examples of 2nd-degree equations whose graphs are symmetric about one
of the coordinate axes can be found in [1, Appendix C, pp. A16-A21].

Increasing and Decreasing Functions Here are the textbook’s definitions:

Definition D.1 [1, p. 21]
1. A function f is called increasing on an interval I if
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I .

2. A function f is called decreasing on an interval I if

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I .

There are variations of the terms increasing and decreasing whose meanings are obvious;
you could see these variations when you use other textbooks, or look at old examinations.
Among these are
• non-decreasing: f is non-decreasing on interval I, if, whenever x1 < x2 on I,
f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ).
• non-increasing, defined analogously to the preceding,
• strictly decreasing, which is a term used by some authors for what Stewart calls
decreasing
• strictly increasing, which is a term used by some authors for what Stewart calls
increasing.

1.1 Exercises Remember, in problems like [1, Exercises 1.1.23-1.1.27, p. 23], when
the textbook asks for the domain of the function, it always intends the largest possible
or maximal or natural domain for which the formula could be meaningful; the range
or image in such a situation will be that corresponding to the largest possible domain.
However, there will be situations where we will wish to prescribe for a function a domain
which does not contain all points in the largest possible domain. This will happen, in
particular, in optimization problems, where the domain may be restricted by certain
conditions specific to the problem under discussion.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2012

D.3.2 §1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions.

Linear Models The author defines a function f to be linear 40 if there exist real
constants m and b such that, for every x, f (x) = mx + b.

Exercise D.2 Is the squaring function x 7→ x2 linear?

Solution: NO! Here is a proof by reductio ad absurdum, i.e., by showing that, if the
statement were true, it would imply an absurd contradiction. Suppose that there existed
real numbers m and b such that

x2 = mx + b for all x . (39)

We can complete the proof in various ways.

1. One way to show that this constraint cannot be satisfied by all x is to choose
several values of x which lead to a contradiction. By specializing values of x
we can determine information about m and b, eventually obtaining contradictory
information. If we take x = 0, we find that 0 = 0 + b, so b = 0. If we take x = 1,
we find that 1 = m + b = m + 0 = m. Then, if we take x = 2, we find that
4 = m · 2 + 0 = 1(2) + 0 = 2, which is a contradiction.41

2. Another approach would be to determine precisely those values of x for which the
given equation could be satisfied. The equation is quadratic, so, by completing the
square, we obtain
 m 2 m2
x− =b+ ,
2 4
m2
implying that there couldn’t be any solutions at all unless b + 4
≥ 0; and that,
even then, the only solutions are
r
m m2
x= ± b+ .
2 4
Thus there are at most 2 solutions to (39), which contradicts the claim that the
equation should hold for all real numbers in R.
40
In some areas of mathematics, the word linear would be reserved for the case where b = 0, i.e.,
where the graph of f passes through the origin, i.e. where the graph of the function is a line through
the origin. In such cases the word that is used to describe functions of the generality we want here is
affine. In this course we will usually follow the textbook’s use of language.
41
This is an example of a proof by contradiction or by reductio ad absurdum: one assumes the falsity of
a statement, shows that the falsity would imply some nonsense, and then concludes that the statement
must have been true.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2013

When we take the narrow definition of linear (i.e. the definition where b = 0), we find
that it is equivalent to the property

f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) .

Exercise D.3 Some students in MATH 140 appear to believe that both the square and
the square root functions have this property; see if you can prove that the square root
also fails to be linear.

Polynomials A polynomial is a function of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x1 + a0 x0

where n is a non-negative integer, and a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real numbers. We usually write

just x for x1 , and a0 for a0 x0 . If a0 = a1 = · · · = an = 0 the polynomial is the zero
polynomial. Otherwise there will be at least one non-zero coefficient among a0 , a1 , . . . , an ,
and we can assume that n is such that an 6= 0; we call n the degree of the (non-zero)
polynomial.42 When a0 is the only non-zero coefficient, the polynomial is constant,
having degree 0, and may be identified with the real number a0 : thus we may think of
the real numbers as being contained in the set of polynomials.
As observed earlier, you are expected to know how to solve equations of the form

a2 x2 + a1 x1 + a0 = 0 .

While you may be accustomed to doing so by using the “quadratic formula”, you are
encouraged to use the (equivalent) method of completion of the square which will be
discussed in the lectures. You are not expected to know how to solve higher degree
equations, except where the polynomial has an obvious factorization. There will be
specific facts that you should know about polynomials; these will be discussed when we
meet examples during the term.

Power Functions The textbook calls any function of the form x 7→ xa , a power
function.43

Rational Functions A rational function maps the independent variable on to the

ratio of two polynomials, where the denominator is not the zero polynomial. Since
the denominator could be a non-zero constant polynomial, e.g. 1, every polynomial is a
42
Zero is also a polynomial, but there the term degree is difficult to define, if we wish it to have
expected properties: some mathematicians refuse to use the term degree for the polynomial 0; others
define the degree to be −∞.
43
Power function is not a “standard” term.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2014

1 x2 − 2x
rational function. Other “degenerate” examples are , : note that such functions
x x−2
1
need not be defined for all real numbers x; for example is not defined when x = 0,
x
2
x − 2x
and is undefined when x = 2 — in both cases the formula cannot be evaluated
x−2
because of a 0 denominator.

Algebraic Functions The textbook definition of algebraic function is not quite right,
but in practice, the only algebraic functions we will be dealing with will indeed be
“constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and taking roots) starting with polynomials”.

Trigonometric Functions The prerequisites for this course require a basic knowledge
of trigonometry. We will summarize here some of the definitions and facts that we will
be appealing to, in case students have forgotten some of them.
1. These definitions will involve an angle. We normally express angles in terms of
radians. A radian is the angle at the centre of a circle subtended by an arc whose
length is the radius of the circle. (This definition is somewhat premature, as we
have not yet defined what we mean by the length of a curve.) The number of
radians in a straight angle is denoted by the symbol π — the lower case of a letter
of the Greek alphabet. Since a straight angle can also be defined to be 180 degrees
we have the relationship that

π radians = 180 degrees

which permits us to convert from degree measure to radian measure. In Calculus

3 students see how to approximate π:

π ≈ 3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751...

Remember that we normally interpret the “argument” (“independent” variable)

of a trigonometric function as representing an angle measured in radians; so, for
example, sin π = 0, but sin 180 is not equal to 0: 180 radians = (14 × 2π) +
4.0708114... radians; sin 180 = sin 4.0708114... = 0.07098390....44 The distinction
is important because, when we determine formulæ for, for example, the derivative
44
Occasionally we may wish to describe an angle in terms of degrees, and then we may write, for
example, sin 180◦ when we mean sin π. This is what we call an “abuse of notation”, since we are using
a well defined function — sin — to mean something other than its precise definition. If we wished to
be “formal”, one way out of this mess might be to introduce a new function, perhaps sindegrees . I will
not burden students with that type of formalism.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2015

of the sine function, the formula will depend on the assumption that the argument
is to be thought of as an angle measured in radians; while we can develop formulæ
for the case of angles measured in degrees, these would not be the familiar formulæ
found in the textbook. To summarize: even when we may appear to write the
argument of a trigonometric function in terms of degrees, the intention is that the
angle is first expressed in terms of radians, and then the trigonometric function is
applied.45

2. We will have 6 trigonometric functions. As the name suggests, these functions are
related to a trigon, i.e., to a triangle — to use a word of Latin origin instead of a
word of Greek origin. We usually think of the two functions sine and cosine to be
the primary functions, and define the other four functions in terms of them. For
our purposes the sine and cosine will both have the entire real line as their domain!
To define these functions for any x, think of a line segment of length 1 that is fixed
at the origin O(0, 0) and is rotating in a counterclockwise direction — this is the
direction we call positive; call this rotating line segment the radius vector . When
the unit radius vector has rotated through an angle of x – expressed in radians
— we define cos x and sin x respectively to be the x− and y− coordinates of the
end P of the radius vector remote from the origin. Denote by Q the foot of the
perpendicular dropped or erected from P to the x-axis. Then, in the right-angled
triangle, OP Q, where |OP | = 1,46 and the right angle is at vertex Q,

OQ
cos x = OQ = (40)
|OP |
QP
sin x = QP = . (41)
|OP |

We follow the usual sign conventions here:

Distances measured horizontally to the right are positive;

distances measured horizontally to the left are negative;
distances measured vertically upward are positive;
distances measured vertically downward are negative.

When x lies between 0 and π2 , these ratios are positive, so the functions can be
thought of as being defined as ratios of lengths of sides of the right-angled triangle.
45
This distinction will be important when we come to discuss the derivatives of the functions.
46
We will try to follow the convention that the length of the line segment joining points P, Q is denoted
by |P Q|, while the directed distance from P to Q will be denoted by P Q.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2016

3. The other four functions are defined in terms of these 2 functions as follows:
sin x QP
tan x = = (42)
cos x OQ
cos x OQ
cot x = = (43)
sin x QP
1 |OP |
sec x = = (44)
cos x OQ
1 |OP |
csc x = = (45)
sin x QP
if, for some x, the denominator is zero, the function is undefined; i.e., x is not in
the domain of the function.
4. By simple arguments based on similar triangles we may show that these definitions
make sense — and yield the same values — even if the length of the radius vector
is a positive number different from 1. If we interpret the distances OQ and QP
as directed distances, the definitions make sense for any real angle x, except for
isolated cases where a denominator is equal to 0. For angles x other than positive
angles between 0 and 180◦ it is not recommended to think of the angle as being
part of a triangle.
5. The full names of cot, sec and csc are cotangent, secant and cosecant; the words
tangent and secant will also be used with other meanings.
6. Where the ratios are not defined, the corresponding functions are not defined.
Thus, for example, the domain of the tangent function tan x consists of all real
numbers except the odd integer multiples of π2 .
7. Our definitions of sin x and cos x in terms of coordinates of a vertex of a right-
angled triangle yield, after a simple application of the Theorem of Pythagoras, the
basic identity:
(sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1 . (46)
If we divide this identity by (sin x)2 or (cos x)2 we obtain the following identities:

1 + (cot x)2 = (csc x)2 , (47)

(tan x)2 + 1 = (sec x)2 . (48)

8. We are in the custom of writing exponents (i.e., powers) of trigonometric functions

as superscripts to the name of the functions. Thus, we usually write

sinn x for (sin x)n

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2017

etc. The one exception is that we will not use this convention when n = −1: sin−1 x
will have another meaning!
We also try to suppress parentheses wherever we can; so, for example, we will write

sin 2x instead of sin(2x) .

(Some of these notational conventions will not be followed by WeBWorK.)

9. Simple considerations of symmetry allow us to prove that the sine function is
odd and the cosine function is even. These properties extend through our earlier
definitions to the following identities:

sin(−x) = − sin x (49)

cos(−x) = cos x (50)
tan(−x) = − tan x (51)
sec(−x) = sec x (52)
csc(−x) = − csc x (53)

10. You should be able to quickly determine the values of these 6 functions for any
value of x which is an integer multiple — positive or negative — of any of the
following submultiples of π:
π π π
, ,
4 3 2
where the respective functions are defined. In particular, see the values tabulated
in Table 9.
π π π π
x 0 6 4 √3 2
1 √1 3
sin x 0 1
√2 2 2
3 √1 1
cos x 1 2
0
2 √2
tan x 0 √1 1 3 undefined
3
cot x
sec x
csc x

Table 9: Values of the Trigonometric Functions for simple, non-negative submultiples of

π.

Exercise D.4 Some of the values in Table 9 have been left for you to compute
yourself.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2018

11. The following identities can be proved in several elementary ways: you will not
be expected to know how to prove them, but you are expected to remember these
identities and to be able to use them:

sin(x + y) = (sin x)(cos y) + (cos x)(sin y) (54)

cos(x + y) = (cos x)(cos y) − (sin x)(sin y) (55)
tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) = (56)
1 − (tan x)(tan y)

If we replace y by −y in the preceding, and use the facts that sin x and tan x are
odd, while cos x is even, we obtain the related identities,

sin(x − y) = (sin x)(cos y) − (cos x)(sin y) (57)

cos(x − y) = (cos x)(cos y) + (sin x)(sin y) (58)
tan x − tan y
tan(x − y) = (59)
1 + (tan x)(tan y)

12. In particular, substitutions into the preceding identities yield the following rela-
tionships between the trigonometric functions:
π 
sin x = cos −x (60)
 π2 
cos x = sin −x (61)
 2π 
tan x = cot −x (62)
 2π 
cot x = tan −x (63)
 π2 
sec x = csc −x (64)
π 2 
csc x = sec −x (65)
2

13. Other substitutions yield the “double-angle” formulæ:

sin 2x = 2 sin x · cos x (66)

cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x (67)
= (1 − sin2 x) − sin2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x (68)
= 2 cos2 x − 1 (69)
2 tan x
tan 2x = (70)
1 − tan2 x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2019

¿From identities (68) and (69) we can solve to obtain the “half-angle” formulæ
1 − cos 2x
sin2 x = (71)
2
1 + cos 2x
cos2 x = (72)
2

14. All of the trigonometric functions are periodic [1, p. 317]: there exists a positive real
number p — called the period with the property that the behavior of the function
repeats itself when the domain is shifted through that distance. More precisely, for
all real numbers x,
sin(x + 2π) = sin(x) (73)
cos(x + 2π) = cos(x) (74)
tan(x + π) = tan(x) (75)
cot(x + π) = cot(x) (76)
sec(x + 2π) = sec(x) (77)
csc(x + 2π) = csc(x) (78)
Some authors, e.g., your text book, use the word period to mean the smallest
positive number with this property; other authors designate this smallest number
in some other way, e.g., by calling it the primitive period. We will not be concerned
with these distinctions in this course.
15. Graphs of trigonometric functions. Portions of the graphs of the 6 trigono-
metric functions for −4π ≤ x ≤ 4π are shown in Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, respectively
on pages 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023, 2024. You should be familiar with the

0
-10 -5 0 5 10

Figure 4: Graph of the Function sin x

approximate shapes of the graphs of the trigonometric functions [1, Figures 13, 14,
pp. A30-A31]. No one expects you to draw a precise graph — just a crude sketch
that indicates things like the periodicity of the function, its domain and “range”,
etc.
16. Law of Sines and Law of Cosines for the 3 angles of a Triangle
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2020

0
-10 -5 0 5 10

Figure 5: Graph of the Function cos x

(a) Law of Sines: If the (lengths of the) sides of a triangle are a, b, c, and the
angles opposite them are A, B, C, then
sin A sin B sin C
= = (79)
a b c
(b) Law of Cosines: [1, Exercise 83, p. A33] If the (lengths of the) sides of a
triangle are a, b, c, and the angle between a, b is denoted by C, then
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C (80)

(c) Area of a triangle: [1, Exercise 88, p. A33] The area of a triangle can be
shown to be
1
× length of base × height ,
2
(known to Euclid over two thousand years ago). By the Law of Sines this is
equal to
1 1 1
ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B
2 2 2
where we follow the convention that the lengths of the sides opposite angles
A, B, C are denoted by a, b, c.
17. What kinds of trigonometry problems should I be able to solve? Trigonometry is
among the prerequisites to this course, so you should be able to solve any types
of problems that normally appear in a precalculus course. Some of these are more
likely than others to appear in MATH 140. Usually a calculus problem will not
be primarily trigonometric; but, if you are unable to deal with the trigonometric
issues that arise, you will be unable to solve the calculus problem. For example,
(a) In this course you are never expected to use a calculator or computer. If you
are solving any of the problems mentioned in that way, your method is not
what is intended!
(b) To solve an equation relating trigonometric functions of one or more variables.
For example, [1, Example 6, p. A30] asks you to determine where the graphs
of y = sin x and y = sin 2x intersect.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2021

10

0
-10 -5 0 5 10

-5

-10

Figure 6: Graph of the Function tan x

(c) Given the value of, for example, sec x, to determine the value of, for example,
sin x. Usually this should not be solved by first attempting to determine x;
rather, you need to be able to express one trigonometric function in terms of
the others. This could involve a possible choice of two solutions; sometimes
there is additional information available to enable you to exclude one of the
possible solutions.
(d) Determination of some facts about side lengths and angle magnitudes of a
given triangle from other given facts; this is sometimes called “Solution of a
triangle”. Where the triangle is right-angled, this is usually not complicated.
Where the triangle is not right-angled, you could need to “drop” a perpen-
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2022

10

0
-10 -5 0 5 10

-5

-10

Figure 7: Graph of the Function cot x

dicular from a vertex to the opposite side; or to use the Law of Sines or Law
of Cosines.
(e) More than being able to solve trigonometry problems, you need to be able
to work efficiently with the functions. Sometimes this is best done by apply-
ing some identities involving the functions. For example, the formulæ which
express sin2 x and cos2 x in terms of cos 2x can be used to reduce the de-
gree of a product of sines and cosines, a simplification which may make a
great difference in solving a problem where trigonometric functions happen to
appear.
(f) While the derivation of trigonometric identities is not central to this course,
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2023

10

0
-10 -5 0 5 10

-5

-10

Figure 8: Graph of the Function sec x

the skills learned from that part of a trigonometry course will be needed in
this first calculus course. Remember the procedures to follow in proving an
identity of the form
f (x) = g(x)
where f and g are functions that are known.
• Your proof must be completely general: you must not restrict the variable
x in any way beyond the restrictions that are stated in the problem.
• One method of solution is to transform the two sides of the equation until
each of them can be shown to be equal to the same convenient function
of x.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2024

10

0
-10 -5 0 5 10

-5

-10

Figure 9: Graph of the Function csc x

• A more elegant solution would start on one side of the alleged equation
and, through a sequence of reversible transformations, evolve it into the
other side of the equation. This type of solution is more pleasing than
the preceding, but does not always suggest itself immediately.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2025

D.4 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 13th,

2006
Release Date: Tuesday, September 19th, 2006

These notes were prepared in advance of the lecture; because of a family emergency I
was unable to deliver that lecture, and Professor Sancho lectured in my place. His choice
of topics for this review lecture were certainly not the same as I had planned to discuss.
This is review material — students in a calculus course are expected to be familiar with
these topics when they enter.

D.4.1 §1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions (con-

clusion).
Exponential Functions We will meet exponential functions next in [1, §1.6]; both
here and there the discussion of these functions is not entirely rigorous. The intention is
that you should thoroughly understand what is meant by an integer power of a positive
real number: if n > 0, an is the product of n copies of a; if n < 0, an is the product of n
copies of a1 ; if a = 0, an is defined to be 1. You should then generalize this understanding
r
by taking roots: for integers r and s, where s > 0, a s is the (real) sth root of ar — and,
if s is an even integer, this sth root is chosen to be the positive root rather than the
negative one. Finally, if we wished to make this definition rigorous, we would need to be
able to think of every real number as being a limit of a sequence of rational numbers.

Logarithmic Functions You are expected to be familiar with simple properties of

the logarithm — to any base — from your precalculus prerequisite. We will be reviewing
and proving some of these properties in connection with [1, §1.6].

Transcendental Functions You are not expected to be able to determine whether

a function is transcendental . We will not be using this terminology — even though it
appears in the title of the textbook.

Some review exercises in trigonometry, from the Trigonometry Supplement

which was used in this course in 2005/2006.
[15, Exercise 62, p. 558] Prove the identity,

4(sin6 x + cos6 x) = 4 − 3 sin2 x .

Solution: By an identity we mean an equation involving variables, which is true for

all values of those variables in a prescribed domain. Thus it’s not enough to know
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2026

the equation is true sometimes: it must be true for every value, and its failure for
just one value of x would be enough to prevent us from calling it an identity.
The most elegant solutions of problems of this type will begin with one side of
the alleged equation, and, by applying various results that we know, progressively
transform it into the other side. This strategy is not always easy to see at first. It
is best to begin with what you see as the “more complicated” of the two members
of the equation.
I plan to base my argument on the factorization of the left side of the equation.
You may not know how to factorize a sum of 6th powers, but you should know how
to factorize a sum of 3rd powers:

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) .

So let’s interpret the 6th powers as cubes of squares.

4(sin6 x + cos6 x) = 4(sin2 x + cos2 x)(sin4 x − sin2 x cos2 x + cos4 x)

= 4 · 1 · (sin4 x − sin2 x cos2 x + cos4 x)
by (46)

At this point we examine the expression within parentheses on the right, and
observe that it looks something like a square. If we compare it with

(sin2 x + cos2 x)2 = sin4 x + 2 sin2 x cos2 x + cos4 x ,

we see that we are short 3 sin2 x cos2 x. So we have

4(sin6 x + cos6 x) = 4(sin4 x − sin2 x cos2 x + cos4 x)


2 
= 4 sin2 x + cos2 x − 3 sin2 x cos2 x
= 4 12 − 3 sin2 x cos2 x

= 4 − 3 (2 sin x cos x)2

And why have I expressed the subtracted term in this way? Because I wish to
make use of the double angle formula (66):

sin 2x = 2 sin x · cos x .

We obtain
4(sin6 x + cos6 x) = 4 − 3 sin2 2x
as required.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2027

[15, Exercise 48, p. 558] Find the value of the product 3 cos 37.5◦ · cos 7.5◦ .
Solution: First note that does not contradict my earlier statement that I wish the
argument of trigonometric functions to be expressed only in radians. I referred in
item 1 on page 2015 of these notes that we should interpret these expressions as
referring to the radian equivalent of the angle given in angles. There will be no
need to actually compute that equivalent.
What is the point of this problem? The intention is that you should be able
to “simplify” products into sums. It is often — but not always — preferable to
work with a sum of like trigonometric functions rather than a product. So the
intention here is that you should convert this product of cosines into a sum of
sines or cosines. The tool we use is a family of identities which your textbook calls
“product formulas”. These formulæ are consequences of the sum formulæ. If we
add the expansions of cos x + y and cos(x − y), we obtain

cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) = 2 cos x · cos y (81)

Taking x = 37.5◦ and y = 7.5◦ , we obtain

3
3 cos 37.5◦ · cos 7.5◦ = (cos 45◦ + cos 30◦ )
2
3 π π
= cos + cos
2 4 3
√ !
3 1 3
= √ +
2 2 2

Why, you might ask, is this answer an improvement over the original product —
since one will still need to use a calculator to evaluate it? One needs to recognize
that numbers like square roots can be evaluated, albeit laboriously, by hand; while
the evaluation of trigonometric functions is much more complicated47 . The uses
of the procedures to convert from products to sums are more convincing when
one considers, for example, a product of the cosines of variables rather than of
constants, which is the case in the present, easy example.
π
[15, Exercise 52, p. 558] Find the value of the sum cos 12 + cos 5π
12
.
Solution: This is an example of the reverse of the operation considered in [15,
Exercise 48, p. 558], solved above. There are situations where one finds a product
more amenable than a sum. In order to make this more convincing, I am going
make the question more difficult. So let’s change it to
47
although it can still be done by hand, as you will see it you take Calculus 3
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2028

π 5π



Find the value of the sum cos x + 12
+ cos x + 12
.

(So the case that we are being asked about is x = 0.) To convert from a sum to a
product we add identities (54) and (55), to obtain

cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) = 2 cos x cos y . (82)

This is an identity — true for all real numbers x and y. Suppose that we choose x
and y so that

x+y = X
x−y = Y

These two equations are equivalent to those obtained by solving the system for X
and Y in terms of x, y:
X +Y
x =
2
X −Y
y =
2
so (82) can be rewritten as
X +Y X −Y
cos X + cos Y = 2 cos · cos (83)
2 2
π 5π
For the general problem stated above take X = x + 12
, Y =x+ 12
: thus
X +Y π
= x+
2 4
X −Y π
= −
 2  6
 π 5π  π  π
so cos x + + cos x + = 2 cos x + · cos −
12 12 4 6
 π  π
= 2 cos x + · cos
√  4 π 6
= 3 cos x + .
4
The identity shows us that this sum of two cosines has a graph which is a scaled
and translated sine curve. As for the special case, setting x = 0 yields

5π √
r
π 1 3
cos + cos = 3· √ = .
12 12 2 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2029

Some “classical” exercises in trigonometry

Exercise D.5 The following problems are taken from a textbook which was once a
standard high school source [30]. While the edition is over a century old, the problems
are still appropriate trigonometric background for a calculus course.

1. [30, Problem 13, p. 62] Show that tan2 x − sin2 x = sin2 x · sec2 x.

2. [30, Problem 26(2), p. 63] Solve the equation tan θ + sec π6 = cot θ.
5 sin x − 3 cos x
3. [30, Problem 27, p. 63] If 5 tan x = 4, determine the value of
sin x + 2 cos x
without using inverse trigonometric functions.
sin 3x
4. [30, Problem 10, p. 122] Determine the domain of the function , and
sin 2x − sin x
express the function in terms of cos x.
5
5. [30, Problem 4, p. 337] If sin x = 13
, find the value of tan x + sec x.

6. [30, Problem 45, p. 341] Find all x such that 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π and 2 cos2 x = 1 + sin x.

7. [30, Problem 63, p. 344] Let α and β be fixed real numbers, where β is not an
integer multiple of π. Determine the domain and image of the function

sin(α + x) − sin(α − x)
f (x) = .
cos(β − x) − cos(β + x)

D Exercises

[1, Exercise 72, p. A33] Find all values of x in the interval [0, 2π] that satisfy the
equation 2 + cos 2x = 3 cos x.
Solution:

2 + cos 2x = 3 cos x ⇔ 2 + (2cos2 x − 1) = 3 cos x

⇔ 2 (cos x)2 − 3 cos x + 1 = 0
⇔ (2 cos x − 1)(cos x − 1) = 0
1
⇔ cos x = or cos x = 1
2
π 5π
⇔ x= , or x = 0, 2π.
3 3
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2030

Exercise 74, p. A33 [12]51 Find all values of x in the interval [0, 2π] that satisfy the
inequality 2 cos x + 1 > 0.
Solution: The inequality is equivalent to cos x > − 12 = cos 2π
3
= cos 4π
3
=. One way
to solve the problem is to make use of the fact that the cosine function is decreasing
in the first and second quadrants, and increasing in the third and fourth. It follows
that either 0 ≤ x < 2π3
or 4π
3
< x ≤ 2π.

D.4.2 Remedying deficiencies in your precalculus background

Some of the topics I have been discussing should be part of any reasonable high school
precalculus or trigonometry course — but they may not have been part of yours. Don’t
despair! Possibly you were short-changed by your high school, or by the bureaucracy
that prescribed the syllabus for your high school — or you may simply not have paid
attention when the topics were covered. Whichever was the case, you can probably
remedy deficiencies, as you may have to remedy other deficiencies in your training, but
it will take some effort on your part, and you will have to manage that remediation
on your own. Provided the gaps are not too extensive, if you were good enough to be
admitted to McGill, you should be able to accomplish this painlessly.
However if you never had a precalculus course, or have never studied any trigonom-
etry, you might be advised to drop MATH 140 2006 09, and to take MATH 140 112 09
— a precalculus course that we offer only in the fall term.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2031

D.5 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 18th,

2006
Release Date: Tuesday, September 19th, 2006

D.5.1 §1.3 New Functions from Old Functions.

Transformations of Functions Read this material. You will not be expected to
carry out “shifts”, “stretching”, “compression”, “reflection” on a given function, but you
are certain to meet functions that have been obtained from others in these ways.

Combinations of Functions (Not discussed in the lecture). Given functions f

and g, we can define the functions f + g, f − g, f g, f /g by a precise definition of the
value of each of these functions at a general point x of its domain. The largest domain
possible is the set of points where both of the functions f and g are defined; except that,
in the case of f /g, we have to exclude points where g is 0. That is why the domain is
described in terms of the intersection operator on pairs of sets.

Composition of Functions Remember that the definition of f ◦ g takes g as the

function applied first, and f second [1, p. 44]. This definition is a practical consequence
of the notation we are using for functions, wherein we place the name of the function to
the left of the name of the point on which it acts. This means that the actions of the
functions can be represented by a diagram like
g f
x 7→ g(x) 7→ f (g(x)) = (f ◦ g)(x) .

1.3 Exercises Try problems among [1, Problems 1.3.15, 1.3.31, 1.3.39 – pp. 46] and
use the Solution Manual or the TEC CD-ROM (cf. these notes, page 13) to check your
work; look first at the worked examples in the textbook, like [1, Examples 1.3.7 and
1.3.8, p. 44].

[1, Exercise 1.3.32, p. 47] (not discussed at the lecture) Find f + g, f − g, f g, and
f /g, and state their domains:
√ √
f (x) = 1 + x g(x) = 1 − x .

Solution: Since the domains of the functions have not been stated explicitly, our
convention is that the domains are to be the largest possible in each case. The
function f is the composition of two functions: first x is mapped on to 1 + x, a
function whose (maximal) domain is the whole real line R. Then the result of that
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2032

first operation is subjected to the square root function, which is defined for all
non-negative real numbers; thus that phase is well defined if and only if 1 + x ≥ 0,
i.e., iff48 x ≥ −1. Thus the domain of f is x ≥ −1. In a similar way, we can show
that the domain of g is the set of all x such that 1 − x ≥ 0, i.e., x ≤ 1. When we
combine these two functions f and g, the domain will be the intersection of these
two domains — from which we will have to further delete the point x = −1 —
the point where the g(x) = 0 — in the case of f /g. The intersection is the closed
interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. Thus we have

domain of f ± g, f g = [−1, 1]
domain of f /g = [−1, 1)

(As an exercise you might try to determine the range (or image) of each of the new
functions.)
1
[1, Exercise 1.3.48, p. 47] Express the function G in the form f ◦ g: G(x) =
x+3
Solution: The last operation performed in the evaluation of G is the taking of a
1
reciprocal. Define f (x) = . Prior to that the first step was x 7→ x + 3, which we
x
can define to be the function g. Then G = f ◦ g.
(The domain of g is R; the domain of f is R − {0}. Hence the domain of G is49
“the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f ”, i.e., the
set of all x such that x + 3 6= 0, i.e., R − {−3}.)
The preceding is probably the solution that the textbook was seeking; but it not
the only solution. For example, if we define h(x) = x for all x; then G = G ◦ h;
also, G = h ◦ G. Less trivially, if we define k(x) = − x1 , and ℓx = −x − 3, then
G = k ◦ ℓ.
[1, Exercise 1.3.39, p. 47] Part of this problem was discussed in the lecture. A solu-
tion can be found in the Student Solution Manual [3, p. 13].

D.5.2 §1.4 Graphing Calculators and Computers

This section may be safely omitted; we will not be using calculators or computers in
this course. Remember that, when I use technical words or symbols that are not in the
textbook, these are intended only to expose you to the current language of mathematics;
you are not expected to retain such words or symbols for examination purposes, although
you may hear them in my lectures or see them in these notes.
48
a mathematicians’ abbreviation for “if and only if”
49
[1, p. 44]
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2033

There will probably not be time to discuss §1.3 further in the lectures. This material
is a review of topics, most of which should have been seen in a pre-calculus or functions
course. Try exercises and read the text when you find you cannot solve the problems.
Ask the instructors or TA’s about problems that elude you.

D.5.3 §1.5 Exponential Functions

(cf., these notes, §D.4.1, p. 2025) In this “early transcendental” treatment of exponen-
tials, the author’s introduction is intuitive, without proofs. He states the

Theorem D.3 (Laws of Exponents [1, p. 57]) Let a and b be any positive real num-
bers, and x and y be any real numbers. Then

1. ax+y = ax ay .
ax
2. ax−y =
ay
3. (ax )y = axy

4. (ab)x = ax bx

Note that one consequence of these “Laws” is that a0 = 1, and that is true even when
a = 0: 00 = 1. We will not attempt to prove Theorem D.3 in this course, and you will
not be expected even the cite the theorem by name whenever you need to use it. At this
point in this course you are asked to assume these laws without proof, and to become
comfortable using them. These are skills you should be bringing with you from your
pre-calculus and earlier courses.

Applications of Exponential Functions This is motivational material. Read it.

The Number e In MATH 141 you will see ways in which the constant e can be defined
formally, and can be evaluated to any desired accuracy. For the present it is satisfactory
to think of e as that constant c — between 2 and 3 — for which the tangent to the
graph of the exponential function cx makes an angle of π4 radians with the y-axis where
it crosses that axis (at the point (x, y) = (0, 1)). An alternative definition will be found
on [1, p. 189, §5.1]. The “early transcendental” presentation of the calculus makes do
with these crude definitions as an expedient, in order that you can work early with the
exponential and logarithm functions. Historically, the traditional definition would be
based on theory in [1, §11.9 et seq.], which is not even in the syllabus of our MATH 141.
Most mathematicians today prefer to define the logarithm function first, where ln t is
1
defined to be the area under between the graph of y = and the x-axis, the line y = 1
x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2034

and the line y = t. This type of definition is not available to us yet, as we haven’t defined
areas.

1.5 Exercises [1, Exercise 1.5.16,
p. 62] (not discussed

√ in the lecture) “Find the domain
−t t
of each function: (a) g(t) = sin e , (b) h(t) = 1 − 2 .”
Solution:

1. We first examine the “innermost” function in the composition. The function t 7→

e−t is defined for all real numbers t, i.e., its domain is R. Likewise, the second
function in the composition, the sine function, is also defined for all values of its
argument. Consequently the domain of g is R.

2. While the first function applied, t 7→ 1 − 2t , is defined for all real numbers t, we
have to confine ourselves to those points in its domain which yield a non-negative
value, in order that the square root may be taken. The inequality 1 − 2t ≥ 0
is equivalent to 2t ≤ 1, hence to t ≤ 0. Thus the domain of h is the half-line50
(−∞, 0].

D.5.4 §1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms

Obtaining the inverse function of f from its graph The graph of a function f
can be interpreted as describing the action of the function: given any point a in R, there
is, by the “Vertical Line Test”, at most one point on the line x = a on the graph. If
there is no such point, then a is not in the domain of f . If there exists such a point,
say (a, b), then f (a) = b. Thus the graph can be used to reconstitute the function. This
same graph can sometimes be interpreted as describing a function that maps points in
the image of f , on the y-axis, on to points in the domain of f . We will call this test the
“Horizontal Line Test”: any line y = b may intersect the graph in at most one point:

Horizontal Line Test: A function is one-to-one if and

only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than
once.
Once a function f is known to be injective, or one-to-one, we know that there exists an
inverse function which acts on the image or range of f and takes its values in the domain
of f . But, even if we have a simple formula for the action of f , this does not mean that
it will be easy or even possible to find a simple formula for f −1 . When it is possible to
find a formula for the inverse, this can be done by following the boxed instructions on
[1, p. 66]:
50
We sometimes call a half-line a ray.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2035

STEP 1 Write y = f (x).

STEP 2 Solve the equation y = f (x) for x in terms of

y. This gives a formula expressing y in terms of
x, i.e., a formula for x = f −1 (y). This determines
the function f −1 in a “non-standard” way, in that
the action of the function is expressed in terms of
a variable named y.

STEP 3 If you wish to express your formula using the

symbol x for the independent variable, simply re-
place the symbol y by x throughout your solution.

1.6 Exercises
4x−1
[1, Exercise 24, p. 75] Find a formula for the inverse of the function f (x) = 2x+3
.
Solution:

1. Denote the “dependent variable” by y:

4x − 1
y= .
2x + 3

2. Solve for x in terms of y: y(2x + 3) = 4x − 4 implies that (2y − 4)x = −4 − 3y;

hence
−4 − 3y
x= .
2y − 4
3. What we have found is the point in the target, i.e., on the x-axis, which is
the image of a point y on the y-axis. We can denote that fact by
−4 − 3y
f −1 (y) = . (84)
2y − 4

4. If we wish to represent the function f −1 as mapping part of the x-axis on to

part of the y-axis, i.e., if we wish to name the “independent” variable x, then
we can simply replace y by x in equation (84):
−4 − 3x
f −1 (x) = . (85)
2x − 4
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2036

D.6 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 20th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, September 20th, 2006; updated on September 25th, 2006;
subject to further revision

I am planning to shift my Friday office hour to 10-11 a.m. The change

will eventually be shown in the appropriate charts in these notes and
on WebCT.

D.6.1 §1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms (continued)

Definition D.2 [1, Definition 1, p. 64] A function f is one-to-one or injective if distinct
points are mapped on to distinct points; symbolically, if

x1 6= x2 implies that f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) .

Instead of writing the words implies that we will often use the symbol ⇒. To be precise,
we should explain that the implication must be true whenever x1 and x2 are any points
of the domain of the function f . We can write this using mathematical logic symbols as
∀x1 ∀x2 , or (∀x1 )(∀x2 ); ∀ is called the “universal quantifier”, because it tells you that a
statement must be true for all points in the “universe”, which, in this case, is understood
to be the domain of f . You won’t be expected to use either of these symbols, but you
may see them on the chalkboard or in the notes.
There is an equivalent way of defining one-to-one or injective which is often easier to
work with:

Definition D.3 A function f is one-to-one or injective 51 if

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2

or, more precisely,

∀x1 ∀x2 (f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 ) (86)

Logicians call
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2
the contrapositive of
x1 6= x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) :
51
The term one-to-one is older than injective, but is still in current use. A function that is not
one-to-one might be described as “many-to-one”.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2037

it is obtained by negating the statements connected by the ⇒ and reversing the di-
rection of the arrow. It can be shown that any implication is true precisely when its
contrapositive is true.
The author provides a “geometric” test for a function being one-to-one (i.e. a test for
injectivity):

Horizontal Line Test: A function is one-to-one if and

only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than
once.
One way of inferring that a function is one-to-one is from the fact that a function is
monotone, i.e., it is always increasing or always decreasing. For, if the function is
increasing or decreasing, the graph can cross a horizontal line no more than once.

Exercise D.6 Can you construct an example of a function that is one-to-one but is not
monotone?

In the important cases below we will be naming and developing the properties of the
inverse functions of some of the important functions that we need to have available to
us.

Theorem D.4 Suppose that f : A → B has an inverse function f −1 : B → A. Then

1. The domain of f −1 is the image of f .

2. The image of f −1 is the domain of f .

3. (Cancellation Equation, cf. [1, p. 65])

f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ A . (87)

4. (Cancellation Equation, cf. [1, p. 65])

f (f −1 (y)) = y for all y ∈ B (88)

We can write the “Cancellation Equations” more compactly. For any set X, define
a function 1X : X → X (called the identity function) by x 7→ x. Then we may rewrite
equations (87), (88) as

f −1 ◦ f (x) = 1A (x) for all x ∈ A

(89)
−1


f ◦f (y) = 1B (y) for all y ∈ B (90)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2038

or, even more compactly, as

f −1 ◦ f = 1A (91)
f ◦ f −1 = 1B . (92)

(Remember that two functions are equal when they have the same domain and the same
action on every point of that domain.) This pair of equations will always hold when
there exists a “true” inverse to a function, in particular, for logarithms and exponentials.
But, when we come to trigonometric functions, the situation becomes murkier.52

Logarithmic Functions (Some of this subsection was not discussed in the lecture; I
will return to it.)
Let a be a positive fixed real number (=positive constant). Once we have proved
that the function x 7→ ax has an inverse, we assign to the inverse function the name loga .
We can then apply the preceding general theory of inverses to the pair of functions ax ,
loga x. Equations (87) and (88) become

loga (ax ) = x (93)

alog y = y (94)

where the first equation is valid over the domain of the function ax , i.e., over the entire
line R; and the second equation is valid over the domain of loga , i.e., over (0, ∞). We
can solve equations by applying either exponentiation or the taking of the logarithm (to
any base) to both sides of the equation.
The basic property of the logarithm is a consequence of its being the inverse of the
exponential:53
loga (xy) = loga x + loga y . (95)
This property can be shown to imply the other properties stated in the textbook:
 
x
loga = loga x − loga y (96)
y
loga (xr ) = r loga x (97)

first for integers r; then for rational numbers r; then for any real number r; these
proofs will not be given in the course, but you should remember the facts, and use them
whenever necessary.
52
because, as we shall see, all of the 6 basic trigonometric functions fail the horizontal line test, and
so none of them possesses an inverse!
53
One can prove that this property is a consequence of properties (93), (94); I do not expect you to
be able to supply such a proof.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2039

Natural Logarithms (Some of this subsection was not discussed in the lecture; I will
return to it.)
Here we specialize the constant a of the previous item to a = e; instead of writing
loge , the custom of calculus textbooks is to denote the function by ln. Mathematicians
often persist in writing loge , or more likely just log, where the base of the logarithms is
understood from the context54 . The “change of base formula”
loga x loga x ln x
loga x = = =
1 loga a ln a

or, more generally,

loga x logb x
=
loga y logb y
for any positive real numbers a, b, x, y, permits statements in terms of logs to one base
to be converted to another base.

Example D.5 Use the “change of base formula” to express

log6 10 + log6 20 − 3 log6 2

in terms of logarithms to base 7 (cf. [1, Exercise 1.6.37(b), p. 76]). Simplify your answer.
Solution:
 
10 × 20
log6 10 + log6 20 − 3 log6 2 = log6
2×2×2
= log6 25
logb 25
= to any base b
logb 6
log7 25
= to the required base 7
log7 6

I will return to this section next day, to discuss, among other things, the “inverse”
functions of trigonometric functions. (The quotation marks have been used because the
so-called inverses are not inverses of the full trigonometric functions.)

54
In some situations mathematicians write log to denote a logarithm to a base other than e; you will
not likely encounter such situations in your calculus courses.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2040

Textbook Chapter 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES.

The essence of this chapter of the textbook is contained in [1, §2.4]. The concepts in
that section are difficult to grasp, and you should not expect to be comfortable with it
until the end of the term. We have reasonable expectations of what you will be able to
absorb from this section, and, in practice, most of what you do will be discussed in the
preceding section, [1, §2.3], in which the abstract definitions of [1, §2.4] are applied to
create workable “Laws”.

D.6.2 §2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems.

We will not spend much time on this section, which is mainly present at this point for
motivational purposes. Here, and again in [1, §2.7], the author discusses two applications
which motivate the definition of the derivative, which will be defined in [1, §2.8]. That
definition will apply the concept of limit, which we shall study in [1, §§2.2-2.4].

The Tangent Problem The determination of the slope of tangents is, indeed, one
motivation for the development of the calculus. But you should be cautioned that the
suggestion that one can infer the slope from a table of values is unwise, and even ob-
jectionable. It is always possible to construct examples where a table of values can give
totally misleading information.

The Velocity Problem The textbook discusses two concepts:

distance travelled
average velocity =
time elapsed
and
instantaneous velocity .
It is the latter that we will eventually call, simply, velocity. As for the former, you
are free to use the 2-word name for the concept. But we cannot formally define what
we mean by an average until [1, §6.5, p. 465], which we meet in MATH 141.55 Here
you have an instance where mathematicians have appropriated words from the general
vocabulary, and given them “reasonable” meanings, but where the precise meaning still
requires an explicit definition.
55
This sounds unreasonable — after all, every school child knows what is meant by an average. The
problem is that the concept is not being used for a finite list of numbers, but for a function defined over
an interval.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2041

D.6.3 §2.2 The Limit of a Function.

The discussion in this section is useful, motivational, and intuitive, but there are no
mathematically valid proofs. Based on the ideas in this section we will justify results in
[1, §2.3], which will then be used to evaluate limits. We will be discussing the meaning
of the following statements (where a is a point in the domain of a function f , and L is
a real number):

lim f (x) = L lim f (x) does not exist

x→a x→a
lim f (x) = L lim f (x) does not exist
x→a+ x→a+
lim f (x) = L lim f (x) does not exist
x→a− x→a−
lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a x→a
lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a+ x→a+
lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a− x→a−

We shall then define what is meant by the statement.

“The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function f .”

To prove the validity of the results in [1, §2.3] we would need to apply the theory of
[1, §2.4]. Students should not infer that we can evaluate lim f (x) by computing and
x→a
tabulating values of f near a, or by using a graphing calculator. The tables might be
helpful if we wish to guess the value of the limit, but are of no use if we wish to prove
that our guess is correct. I reiterate: A table of values of a function has NO place in
a proof that the limit of the function is a particular number at a particular point in its
domain.
One property we will discuss when we reach the formal definitions in [1, §2.4] is that
a function never has two different values for its limit at a point: either the limit exists
and has a specific value, or the limit does not exist. While it’s not hard to prove, we will
not expect you to be able to prove this; but we will expect you to know the fact.

One-Sided Limits In denoting one-sided limits, using symbols + and − to the right
of the number being approached, your textbook follows the style of writing the symbol
as a superscript, as in lim+ f (x), or lim− f (x); some other authors write the symbols
x→3 x→3
“on the line”, as in lim f (x), or lim f (x). Both methods are in common use; your
x→3+ x→3−
instructor prefers the superscripted symbols.
One-sided and two-sided limits are related by the following important theorem, which
we will not prove:
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2042

Theorem D.6 ([1, p. 98]) lim f (x) = L if and only if both of the following statements
x→a
are true:
lim− f (x) = L and lim+ f (x) = L .
x→a x→a

In words, the 2-sided limit exists only if the limits on both the left and the right exist
and are equal; its value is then their common value.

Infinite Limits When we first define lim f (x) we will require both that a be a real
x→a
number (hence finite), and that the function values f (x) be also be (finite) real numbers.
There are two ways in which we will wish to generalize this concept to the infinite:
• by allowing the function values to become arbitrarily large;
• by allowing a to become arbitrarily large.

2.2 Exercises Many of the problems in this set of exercises suggest the use of argu-
ments that will not be acceptable once we have studied [1, §§2.3 – 2.5]. While you may
wish to use figures and tables to suggest what the value of a limit might be, there is no
place for them in a proof of such a statement. Thus, for example, the wording of [1,
Problem 2.2.12, p. 103] is not acceptable:
“Sketch the graph of the following function, and use it to determine the values
of a for which lim f (x) exists:
x→a

 2−x if x < −1
f (x) = x if − 1 ≤ x < 1 .”
(x − 1)2 if x ≥ 1


We can make it acceptable by replacing the word determine by, for example suggest:
when you are asked to determine a value, we usually expect you to be able to justify
your work.
READ THIS AFTER WE HAVE STUDIED [1, §2.5]: To solve this problem
in a more acceptable way, use [1, Theorem 2.5.7, p. 129] to argue that 2 − x, x,
(x− 1)2 are all polynomials, so they are continuous; so the limit of f is the function
value at all points on R except possibly for the points −1, 1. Those 2 points have
to be examined individually. At x = −1 we can argue, again from the continuity
of polynomial functions, that lim (1 − x) = 2 − (−1) = 3, while lim x = −1;
x→−1− x→−1+
as the limits of f (x) from the right and left are different at x = −1, the function
has no limit there, by [1, Theorem 2.2.3, p. 98]. The same kind of reasoning shows
that f also lacks a limit at x = 1.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2043

D.6.4 §2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws.

We now know precisely what we mean by the limit. But the calculations appear to be
very complicated: is this what has to be done whenever we need to find a limit or prove
that one does not exist? Fortunately not! We can prove some theorems that enable us
to evaluate limits routinely for the types of functions we meet most often in practice.
The author calls these theorems “Limit Laws”. You should remember the results and
be able to use them; you should also be able to identify situations where they cannot be
applied, i.e., where some condition of the theorem is not satisfied.

Theorem D.7 (Limit Laws [1, §2.3]) Let a, c be constant real numbers, n be a pos-
itive integer, f and g be functions such that lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
x→a x→a

lim c = c (98)
x→a
lim x = a (99)
x→a
lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x) (100)
x→a x→a x→a
lim c · f (x) = c · lim f (x) (101)
x→a x→a
lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) (102)
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

lim = x→a if lim g(x) 6= 0 (103)
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
h in
lim [f (x)]n = lim f (x) (104)
x→a x→a
lim xn = a n
(105)
x→a
√ √
lim n x = n a
x→a
if n is even, we assume a > 0; (106)
p q
n
lim f (x) = n lim f (x)
x→a x→a
if n is even, we assume lim f (x) > 0. (107)
x→a

2.3 Exercises

[1, Exercise 10, p. 112] 1. What is wrong with the following equation?

x2 + x − 6
= x +3?
x−2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2044

2. In view of part 1, explain why the equation

x2 + x − 6
lim = lim (x + 3)
x→2 x−2 x→2

is correct.
Solution:
1. There is nothing wrong with the first equation, unless one wishes to interpret
it as implicitly suggesting that the condition is to be true for all x. An
equation is a statement — a sentence. This sentence is, in fact, true for all
but one real number (since x2 + x − 6 = (x + 3)(x − 2) for all x). But, for
the value x = 2, the left side of the equation is undefined, while the right side
is still meaningful. It’s not that the equation is false for x = 2 — it is that
the statement does not even make sense there, since the left side refers to a
division operation that is forbidden, as we have no meaning for the quotient
0
. This is what the textbook intends by “wrong”.
0
2. When we consider a limit as x → 2, we expressly avoid any consideration of
the behavior of the function at x = 2. While the function x + 3 is defined at
x = 2, that is completely irrelevant, as we don’t need to consider that value in
finding the limit; the function on the left is undefined at x = 2, but that does
not prevent us from showing that it has a limit as x → 2. Thus the equation
between limits is meaningful. It is also true, since the value of the limit is, in
both cases, 5.
x2 + 5x + 4
[1, Exercise 12, p. 112] Evaluate the limit, if it exists of lim .
x→−4 x2 + 3x − 4
Solution: Since the limit of the denominator is 0, we cannot apply the Quotient
Law here. But both numerator and denominator factorize:
x2 + 5x + 4 (x + 1)(x + 4)
lim = lim
x→−4 x2 + 3x − 4 x→−4 (x − 1)(x + 4)
x+1
= lim
x→−4 x − 1
since x + 4 is a non-zero common factor away from x = 4
lim (x + 1)
x→−4
=
lim (x − 1)
x→−4
for the Quotient Law is applicable now
−4 + 1 3
= = .
−4 − 1 5
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2045

[1, Exercise 22, p. 112] Evaluate, if it exists,

√
1+h−1
lim .
h→0 h
Solution: Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we cannot apply the Quotient
Law...yet. Instead, we first perform an operation, sometimes called rationalization
which transforms the difference of unpleasant expressions in the numerator into
a sum in the denominator. This will permit a simplification, after which we can
apply the Quotient Law.
The logic is one we will use repeatedly: we will multiply by a factor, thereby
distorting the function, and then divide it out, thereby restoring the function to
its original value.
√ √ √ 
1+h−1 1+h−1 1+h+1
lim = lim ·√
h→0 h h→0 h 1+h+1
(1 + h) − 1
= lim √

h→0 h 1+h+1
h
= lim √

h→0 h 1+h+1
1
= lim √

h→0 1 1+h+1
dividing numerator and denominator by h,
which we may assume is non-zero
1
= lim √
h→0 1+h+1
lim 1
= √ h→0
lim 1 + h + lim 1
h→0 h→0
by the Quotient and Sum Laws
1
= √
lim 1 + h + 1
h→0
since we know the limit of a constant
1
= q
lim (1 + h) + 1
h→0
1 1
= √ = .
1+1 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2046

D.7 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 25th,

2006
Release Date: Monday, September 25th, 2006
subject to correction
Since there appear to be temporary difficulties in accessing WebCT via
the usual route, I have sent to all students an e-mail message which
describes an alternative method of access.
You don’t need to pass through WebCT to access WeBWork; instead,
you may follow the instructions on page 4001 of these notes; namely,
direct your browser to one of the sites

http://msr04.math.mcgill.ca/webwork/m140f06
or
http://msr05.math.mcgill.ca/webwork/m140f06,

depending on the last digit of your student number: even last digits go
to the first URL above, odd last digits go to the second; 0 is considered
to be even.
Some of this material was planned to be discussed during an earlier lecture; my plans
were disrupted by my absence from one lecture.

D.7.1 §1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms (conclusion)

Review item: Change of base in logarithms In my notes for the last lecture on
page 2039 is included the following formula, for positive constants a and b:
loga x logb x
=
loga y logb y
which is equivalent to
loga x loga y
= (108)
logb x logb y
Proof: If we take logarithms to base b on both sides of the equation
aloga x = x ,
we obtain
loga x · logb a = logb x ,
logb x
implying that = logb a, which is a constant, independent of x. This yields equation
loga x
(108), which is equivalent to the desired equation.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2047

1.6 Exercises
 πx 
[1, Exercise 1.6.18, p. 75] “Let f (x) = 3 + x2 + tan , where −1 < x < 1.
2
(a) Find f −1 (3).
(b) Find f (f −1 (5)).”

Solution: The first step in solving this problem is to show that there is an inverse.
We cannot do so by following the boxed instructions given earlier and producing
an explicit formula for the inverse, since we have no way of solving the defining
equation for x in terms of f (x). However, we know that, for 0 ≤ x < 1, the function
tan πx
2
is the sum of three functions, one of which is constant, and the other two are
increasing; hence, the sum is increasing, and, for x in that portion of the domain,
the function possesses an inverse. For −1 < x ≤ 0 it is more difficult to prove that
the function is increasing, although we will be able to do this using the methods of
[1, §4.3, p. 296]. Thus this problem is premature, unless the author were to restrict
the domain to 0 ≤ x < 1.

(a) Once we know the inverse exists, we do not need to have an explicit formula,
since we can see by inspection that the specific value of 3 for f is attained.
Evidently f (0) = 3 + 02 + tan 0 = 3. Thus f −1 (3) = 0.
(b) But we can’t use this approach for the second part of the problem, since
inspection does not yield a convenient value for f −1 (5). Here we may apply
the “cancellation equation” (92) to conclude that

f f −1 (5) = 5 .

Since we can find the “answers” in both cases, does my objection about the proof
of invertibility apply? Without having proved invertibility, we can’t be sure that
the graph of f doesn’t cross the line y = 3 more than once: so the invertibility is
needed to prove the uniqueness of the answer.
x
[1, Exercise 1.6.28, p. 75] “Find a formula for the inverse of the function y = 1 + ex .”
1−e
Solution: Here the “boxed” procedure in the textbook [1, p. 66], given on page
2035 of these notes, is applicable. Solving the given equation algebraically yields
y−1
ex = .
y+1
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2048

We next apply the inverse function of ex to both sides of the equation, to obtain
y−1
ln (ex ) = ln
y+1
y−1
⇒ x = ln
y+1
If we wish to express the inverse function in terms of an independent variable
named x, we have to interchange the symbols: the inverse function is y = ln x−1
x+1
or
x−1
x 7→ ln .
x+1
x−1
The domain of the inverse function consists of those x for which the ratio is
x+1
positive, which can be shown to be (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞), or R − [−1, 1], or |x| > 1
(short for {x : |x| > 1}).

[1, Exercises 1.6.15–16, p. 75] I do not approve of these problems, which ask “Use
a graph to decide whether f is one-to-one.” While the problems are marked with
the symbol the author uses for problems requiring the use of technology, and we
are normally omitting such materials, that is not the reason for the objection.
The objection is to the word “decide”: in this course we will often use a graph to
suggest a property, but will never use a graph to decide anything. The reason for
the objection is that, no matter how fine the technology is able to produce a graph,
we could contrive functions whose important properties are not visible under the
technology.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions None of the six trigonometric functions is one-

to-one (injective), so none of them has an inverse! What we will be calling the inverses
of trigonometric functions will actually be inverses of restrictions of these functions to a
smaller subdomain. In the case of sin, cos, tan, cot, there is a “natural” choice for this
restricted domain; these are not the only possible choices, but they are the ones that are
made in practice around the world at the present time.
The functions sec and csc also fail to be invertible, since their graphs cross some
horizontal lines more than once; i.e. they violate the “Horizontal Line Test” [1, p. 64].
But we can find an inverse for a restriction of either function to a smaller domain. Unlike
the situations for the functions sin, cos, tan, cot, the author of the textbook can argue
that there is no “natural” choice for which restricted domains one should use. Some
authors select as the domains the same domains they used for the reciprocals of these
functions, except that they delete the points 
where
cos and sin were zero.
 π Such a selection
π π
would give us the restricted domains [0, π]− 2 for the cosine, and − 2 , 2 −{0} for the
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2049

sine; within these respective domains the functions are one-to-one, and can be inverted.
The author of your textbook finds these selections to be problematical. One reason is
that later, when we wish to determine the derivatives of the inverse functions, these
choices would lead to unpleasant formulæ which involve the absolute value function.
Possibly for this reason, the author selects a different part of the domain of the cos
and sin functions. The resulting functions have graphs consisting of two branches which
are separated by an empty horizontal band; the possible choices mentioned earlier would
also have produced graphs with two branches, but the graphs would have been separated
only by an empty horizontal line of 0 height. Since we have chosen to use the Stewart
textbook, we shall adopt the Stewart choice.56 For trigonometric functions, (and later
for hyperbolic functions) the inverse functions are denoted either with a superscripted
−1, or by prefixing the function name with the particle arc; thus the inverse function
associated with the portion of the sine function defined for the variable between − π2 and
+ π2 is often denoted by arcsin, and called the arcsine function.
The discussion of inverse trigonometric functions in [1, §1.6] will be completed when
we reach [1, §3.6]. At that time we will explain further why the author of the textbook
has chosen to define the inverse secant and inverse cosecant functions in a way that
appears to be non-intuitive. Because these two definitions are difficult, we may avoid
using the two functions in question, except to illustrate the essential conditions needed
for an inverse function to exist.
The basic fact is that because all six trigonometric functions have graphs
which fail to satisfy the Horizontal Line Rule, none of them has an inverse!
We cope with this difficulty in every case by restricting ourselves to a subset of the
domain of the original trigonometric function. There are infinitely many ways in which
such a restriction could be carried out. In the case of the sine, cosine, tangent, and
cotangent we select a subdomain which one could argue is “natural”. Your textbook’s
selected subdomain for the secant and cosecant is “unusual”, and I shall discuss the
reasons for the author’s choice later in the term. In the meantime I will not expect you
to be able to work with inverse secants and cosecants. Here are the restricted domains
that we select for inversion of the sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent:
56
Other choices would have been possible, even for the inverses of the other trigonometric functions.
For example, we could have chosen, for sin, to invert the portion of the graph of sin that is above the
following union of intervals:
h π π   5π 3π   11π 13π 
, ∪ , ∪ , .
4 2 4 2 4 4
An inverse sine function determined by the restriction of the sine function to this union of intervals
would be just as useful as the function we usually denote by sin−1 or arcsin. The computations would,
however, be hideous and nonintuitive.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2050

function restricted domain for inversion

sin x − π2 ≤ x ≤ + π2
cos x 0 ≤ x ≤ +π
tan x − π2 < x < + π2
cot x 0<x<π
The intervals shown in this table are also the images or “ranges” of the 4 respective
inverse functions. I tabulate domains and ranges of the inverse functions, using the
“arc-” names for these functions, instead of the “function−1 ” names:

function domain image=range

y = arcsin x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − π2 ≤ y ≤ + π2
y = arccos x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0 ≤ y ≤ +π
y = arctan x −∞ < x < +∞ − π2 < y < + π2
y = arccot x −∞ < x < +∞ 0<y<π
(Note that in this last chart I have called the independent variable x and the dependent
variable y.) You should verify that the “cancellation equations”:

sin(arcsin x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
cos(arccos x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
tan(arctan x) = x for −∞ < x < ∞
cot(arccot x) = x for −∞ < x < ∞
arcsin(sin x) = x for − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2
arccos(cos x) = x for 0≤x≤π
arctan(tan x) = x for − π2 < x < π2
arccot(cot x) = x for 0<x<π

In the cases of the first four lines of the preceding table, the compositions have the
desired property wherever they “make sense”. But, in the case of the last four lines, the
compositions “make sense” for real numbers x outside of the designated intervals. Then
the compositions do not have the stated properties!
You need to try to understand how the inverse trigonometric functions are con-
structed. The construction always involves selecting a portion of the latter and reversing
the roles of the x- and the y-axes. We will have frequent occasions to need to remember
the images of the inverse functions in the course of other calculations: typically what
will be involved will be the choice of signs in some square root calculation.

Example D.8 Construction of the Inverse Sine Function, arcsinx or sin−1 x.

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2051

1. Start with the sine function, (cf. Figure 4, page 2019).

2. Select a (maximal) portion of the domain for which the Horizontal Line Test is
satisfied; usually we select the portion of the domain − π2 ≤ x ≤ + π2 (cf. Figure
10). The graph of the inverse function, y = arcsin x = sin−1 x (cf. Figure 11,

1
-10 -5 -10 5 10

Figure 10: Invertible restriction of the Function sin x

page 2052) can be obtained reflecting the selected portion of the graph of the sine
function in the line y = x.

[1, Exercise 1.6.70, p. 77] Simplify the expression tan(arcsin x).

Solution:

Textbook SOLUTION 1: Let y = arcsin x. The first step is to try to express

the tangent of y in terms of the sine:
sin y
tan y = .
cos y
We know an identity that relates sines and cosines:

sin2 y + cos2 y = 1 ,

which could be solved to yield

12
cos y = ± 1 − y 2 .

But which sign is correct? Are they both right? The answer is that they are
not both right! To resolve this dilemma we have to remember how the inverse
since function was defined; and the resolution depends on the specific choices
that we made when we constructed the inverse function. We decided to invert
the portion of the sine function defined for a variable between − π2 and + π2 .
So we know that y is in either the fourth or the first quadrant; and the cosine
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2052

0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

-1

Figure 11: Graph of the Inverse Sine Function

function is positive in these quadrants. Thus the correct sign here is +. Now
we can complete the calculations:

tan(arcsin x) = tan y
sin y
=
cos y
sin y
=
1
+ 1 − sin2 y 2
sin(arcsin x)
=
12
+ 1 − sin2 (arcsin x)
x
= √ .
1 − x2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2053

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

-1

Figure 12: Reflection (in red) of the restriction of sin x in the line y = x

NOTE: Your proof could be considered incomplete unless you explain clearly
why you choose a particular sign when there was a choice of 2; it may not be
enough to make the right choice without a clear explanation!
Textbook SOLUTION 2: (cf. [1, p. 74]) The textbook gives a second proof
that uses a diagram. As usual, I urge you to avoid proofs using diagrams, as
they tend to be incomplete. Here again it is simplest if we begin by defining
y = arcsin x, and conclude that
sin y = x .
The author then constructs a right-angled triangle in which one angle is to
represent y. For its sine to be equal to x he denotes the side opposite y by
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2054

x, and the hypotenuse of the triangle as 1. Then, this being a right-angled

triangle, he applies the Theorem
√ of Pythagoras to conclude that the 3rd side
of the triangle is equal to 1 − x2 . The tangent of y can then be read off
from the triangle.
What’s wrong with this proof? The essential difficulty is that the proof is
implicitly assuming that y ≥ 0; but the property we proved above holds
for negative y as well — so this proof covers only “half” of the cases. This
objection could be removed by producing another diagram that holds for the
negative cases; this is delicate, since we would have to draw the triangle in a
coordinatized plane.
In practice the diagram method “works”, but only because of the careful
way in which we have decided to invert our functions: it has its place in a
high school, where the main interest is in positive, acute angles. I would
recommend that students in a science course like MATH 140 avoid this type
of solution.
(One student has observed that it would have been better form had the textbook
restricted the values of x to − π2 < x < π2 , since the tangent function is not defined
at ±∞.)
[1, Exercises 1.6.15–16, p. 75] I do not approve of these problems, which ask “Use
a graph to decide whether f is one-to-one.” While the problems are marked with
the symbol the author uses for problems requiring the use of technology, and we
are normally omitting such materials, that is not the reason for the objection.
The objection is to the word “decide”: in this course we will often use a graph to
suggest a property, but will never use a graph to decide anything. The reason for
the objection is that, no matter how fine the technology is able to produce a graph,
we could contrive functions whose important properties are not visible under the
technology.
|x + 4|
[1, Exercise 40, p. 112] Find lim − , if it exists. If the limit does not exist,
x→−4 x+4
explain why.
Solution: Numerator and denominator both approach 0, so the Quotient Law may
not be applied. However
x+4

|x + 4|  −
 when x < −4
= x+4
x+4 x+4

 when x > −4
 x+4
−1 when x < −4
=
1 when x > −4.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2055

We see that the limit from the right is +1, while the limit from the left is −1. As
these one-sided limits are different, the “two-sided” limit does not exist.

Corollary D.9 (to Theorem D.7) If f is a polynomial or a rational function (=a

ratio of two polynomials) defined at a point a, then lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

[1, Theorem 2.3.1, p. 109] is the same as [1, Theorem 2.2.3, p. 98], which was introduced
before we knew precisely what we intended limit to mean.

The “Squeeze” Theorem, [1, Theorem 2.3.3, p. 110] (The name of this theorem
is not standard.) If you trap the values of a function g(x) between two other functions
f (x) and h(x), so that
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)
for all x in an interval of positive width around a real number a, and if the bounding
functions f (x) and h(x) have the same limiting value as x → a, then g(x) also approaches
a limit as x → a, and that limiting value is the common limiting value of f (x) and h(x).
Symbolically, we can write

 f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)
If then lim f (x) = lim g(x) = lim h(x) .
 lim f (x) = lim h(x) x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a

For this discussion the values of the functions at x = a are irrelevant.

The “greatest integer function” [[x]]. The function that your textbook denotes
by [[x]] has also been denoted simply by [x]. Mathematicians, and computer scientists
nowadays usually denote this function by a different symbol, ⌊x⌋, and call it the “floor”
function; an analogous function is denoted by ⌈x⌉, and called the “ceiling” function. The
value is defined to be the largest integer n whose value does not exceed x; for x ≥ 0
[[x]] can be obtained by truncating the decimal expansion of x at the decimal point. The
graph of [[x]] is a rising sequence of horizontal line segments of length 1, each containing
the left end-point but not the right. The function does not have a limit at any integer
point, because the limits from the left and right are different; but, at any point a other
than an integer point, the limit exists and is equal to [[a]].

2.3 Exercises (continued)

cf. [1, Exercise 50, p. 113] Let f (x) = x − [[x]].

(a) Make a crude graph of f .

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2056

(b) If n is an integer, evaluate lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x).

x→n x→n

(c) If α is not an integer, evaluate lim− f (x) and lim+ f (x).

x→α x→α

(d) For what values of a does lim f (x) exist, and what is its value?
x→a

Solution:

(a) The graph is a sequence of line segments with slope 1, starting from an integer
point (n, 0) on the x-axis (which point is included in the graph) and rising
until the point (n + 1, 1), which is excluded from the graph.
(b) At any integer point the limit from the right is 0, which is also the function
value. But the limit from the left is +1.
(c) At any non-integer point α the limit from the left is equal to the limit from
the right is equal to the function value, f (α).
(d) The limit exists at all points in R except at the integers.

[1, Exercise 36, p. 112] If 3x ≤ f (x) ≤ x3 + 2, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, evaluate lim f (x).

x→1
Solution: The function f is “trapped” between the two given functions when 0 ≤
x ≤ 2. Note that the 2 inequalities given imply that 3x ≤ x3 +2, but we could prove
that if we had to, by observing that this inequality is equivalent to x3 − 3x + 2 ≥ 0,
i.e., to (x − 1)2 (x + 2) ≥ 0; since (x − 1)2 is a square, it is always non-negative,
so the product with (x + 2) is positive for x > −2, which is where the interval
0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is located. Both of the functions 3x and x3 + 2 have limit 3 as x → 1.
The Squeeze Theorem implies that the function f , being trapped between these
two functions, also has limiting value 3 as x → 1.

Here we are introducing the first of these two generalizations. Students must understand
that this is a convenience of terminology, but that even when lim f (x) = ±∞, we will
x→a
still say that the limit does not exist: we will speak of a limit existing only when it is a
(finite) real number.
As for limits at a real number (as opposed to limits at ±∞), one can prove the
analogue of

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L

x→a x→a− x→a+

[1, p. 98] when we replace L by +∞ or −∞. Thus [1, Definition 6, p. 100] can be
sharpened:
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2057

Vertical Asymptotes

Definition D.4 The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if
at least one of the following 4 statements is true:

lim f (x) = +∞ lim f (x) = +∞

x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→a− x→a+

When does a limit exist? We say that lim f (x) exists whenever there is a real
x→a
number L such that lim f (x) = L. For a limit to exist it essential that L be a real
x→a
number; even if
lim f (x) = ∞ or lim f (x) = ∞ ,
x→a x→a

we say that lim f (x) does not exist: a fortiori we also say the limit does not exist when
x→a
left and right limits are different, or when one or other or both of them do not exist.
Sometimes authors will include the word finite in a statement, as in Suppose that a finite
limit exists... to emphasize this distinction.
Whenever we have a statement of one of the forms lim− f (x) = L, lim+ f (x) = L,
x→a x→a
lim f (x) = L, we can assert that the one- or two-sided limit referred to exists; the
x→a
statement that it exists is weaker than a statement which actually asserts the value of
the limit — but sometimes we may know that a limit exists without knowing its exact
value!

Infinite Limits The definition for finite limits is modified to describe functions that
become arbitrarily large positively or arbitrarily large negatively as one approaches a
given finite value. The changes in the symbol just involve replacing a constant by ±∞,
but the changes in the definition are more substantial. However, we shall see that these
kinds of limits have similar properties to finite limits; this justifies the use of a similar
notation to describe them.

“Turning the crank”. Students like to be able to treat calculus like a machine: dump
in the function, turn the crank, and out comes the limit, or the derivative, etc. We are
going to discuss some Limit Laws which will enable you to evaluate limits for many
common types of functions. But it is not hard to manufacture functions for which these
rules together will not be enough to give you the value of a limit. Fortunately, few of
these “pathological” functions will be studied in MATH 140. One type of case that we
will be considering frequently will involve functions that behave in one “nice” way on
one side of a point x = a, and in another way on the other side. It will be easy to find
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2058

the limits from the left and right; if they are different, the function does not have a limit
at the point.

D.7.2 §2.5 Continuity.

Definition of continuity The definition of

the function f is continuous at the point x = a

looks like a single condition:

lim f (x) = f (a) (109)
x→a

but is better remembered as three conditions:

1. f is defined at a, i.e. a is in the domain of f ;

2. lim f (x) exists as x → a; and

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Our limit notation includes all of this information in the single statement (109). Similar
interpretations can be made for the statements

lim f (x) = f (a) (110)

x→a−
lim f (x) = f (a), (111)
x→a+

which we read, respectively as

f is continuous from the left at a

and
f is continuous from the right at a
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2059

D.8 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of September 27th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, September 27th, 2006
subject to correction

D.8.1 §2.4 The Precise Definition of a Limit (not examination material in

2006-07).
As posted in the course outline, there will be no lecture
in this section of MATH 140 on Monday, October 3rd,
2006.

The order of doing mathematics For thousands of years mathematics has followed
a logical order:
• First we define the terms that are to be used.

• Then we state the results we plan to prove.

• Then we prove what we claim.

• Finally, we may apply the new tools that we have forged.

Often there will be interruptions to this sequence where we may experiment with ideas, to
explore new possibilities, and to motivate the subsequent steps. Your textbook frequently
includes such motivational sections; §§2.1 and 2.2 are largely of this type. Where you
see, in these sections, statements that appear to be results you should interpret them
as being advance hints of results that will become available after the formal definitions
are announced and theorems have been proved. That is the nature of, for example, [1,
Theorem 2.2.3, p. 98]; the result is stated again as [1, Theorem 2.3.1, p. 109]. Some of
the “definitions” in [1, §2.2] will become perfectly valid once the basic concept of limit
is defined. But [1, Definition 2.2.1, p. 93] is purely motivational, and will be replaced
by [1, Definition 2.4.2, p. 115]. In your first reading of the subject, these motivational
statements help you to understand the purpose of the formal definitions.
The main formal definitions appear in [1, §2.4]. When we discuss [1, §2.3], students
should understand that we are actually assuming [1, §2.4]. Your responsibility will be
to be able to be able to use the results in [1, §2.3] intelligently, without necessarily
understanding how they are proved. Most of our demands on the limit concept can
be satisfied with these results; we will return to it in [1, §2.6], where we generalize
the concept to lim f (x) and lim f (x). In MATH 141 we will have several occasions
x→∞ x→−∞
to return to the definition for further generalizations; but you will not be expected to
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2060

work extensively with the formal definitions in either of these courses: we are spending
some time on the definition because we believe that, without exposure to it, you cannot
understand how the calculus “works”. A logical order for reading these sections is
• Sections 2.1, 2.2 for motivation
• Section 2.4 — the formal definitions
• Section 2.3 — the basic theorems about limits
• Section 2.5, etc.

A game between x and y This part of the lecture will begin with a careful discussion
of the formal definition of the statement lim f (x) = L, where a and L are real numbers
x→a
[1, Definition 2.4.2, p. 115]. One way of understanding this definition is to think of a
2-player game. The game is played with a function f . Player A chooses a real number, a,
and player L responds with a choice of a real number L, the number that he suspects to
be the “limit” of f as x approaches a. Play proceeds as follows: A prescribes a tolerance,
representing half of the width of a horizontal band that is centred at the line y = L;
this half-width is traditionally denoted by the lower case Greek letter epsilon, ǫ. Then
L has to produce a positive real number, traditionally denoted by the lower case Greek
letter delta, δ, with the property that all the points in the interval a − δ < x < a + δ
(except possibly the point a) must have function value within a distance of ǫ from L —
equivalently, that the graph of the function for the points in the given punctured interval
surrounding x = a lies entirely in the vertical band of width 2ǫ centred at the line y = L;
symbolically, L needs to produce δ such that
0 < |x − a| < δ implies that |f (x) − L| < ǫ .
Such a game would never end, since there are infinitely many values of ǫ that can be
chosen. L wins the game if he can produce a procedure or formula that will always yield
a value of δ, for any ǫ that A tries.57 When L wins we say that lim f (x) exists and is
x→a
equal to L. A wins if she can show that there exists no procedure that can accomplish
the task; then we say that either lim does not exist, or that it exists but is not equal to
x→a
L.
How can A win? She has to show that there is some real number ǫ such that it is
impossible to find a real number δ with the property described above; that is, a positive
real number ǫ so that, no matter how close we get to the point a, there are points x for
which f (x) is at least a distance of ǫ from L. We may discuss briefly examples of this
situation.
57
This overstates the requirement. All L needs is to demonstrate that a value of δ exists — it isn’t
even necessary to show how to find it.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2061

Limits from the left and right. The preceding definition is modified in the obvious
way to permit us to speak of “one-sided” limits. We say that lim− f (x) = L if, for every
x→a
positive real number ǫ, there exists a positive real number δ such that

a − δ < x < a implies that |f (x) − L| < ǫ ;

and that lim+ f (x) = L if, for every positive real number ǫ, there exists a positive real
x→a
number δ such that

a < x < a + δ implies that |f (x) − L| < ǫ .


 3x + 1 when x < 0
Example D.10 Let f (x) = 2 when x = 0 .
x2 when x > 0


1. Find lim− f (x), or show that it does not exist.

x→0

2. Find lim+ f (x), or show that it does not exist.

x→0

3. Find lim f (x), or show that it does not exist.

x→0

Solution:

1. Examination of the function f for x < 0 (using a graph or a table of values) suggests
that, as x moves close to 0, the function value will also be close to 1; this suggests
that the limit from the left is 1 — but this suggestion is not a proof. Given any
positive real number ǫ > 0, we find that we can confine the graph in a horizontal
band of width 2ǫ centred at the line y = 1 by taking δ = 13 ǫ: when
ǫ
− < x < 0,
3
1 − ǫ < 3x + 1 < 1, so
−ǫ < f (x) − 1 < 0 < ǫ .
As this argument holds for any positive real number ǫ, we conclude that

lim f (x) = 1 .
x→0−

2. Examination of the function f for x > 0 (using a graph or a table of values) suggests
that, as x gets close to 0, the function value gets close to 0; this suggests that the
limit from the right is 0 — but this suggestion also is not a proof. Given any
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2062

positive real number ǫ > 0, we find that we can confine the

√ graph in a horizontal
√
band of width 2ǫ centred at the line y = 0 by taking δ = ǫ: when 0 < x < ǫ,
0 < x2 < ǫ, so
−ǫ < f (x) − 0 < ǫ .
As this argument holds for any positive real number ǫ, we conclude that

lim f (x) = 0 .
x→0+

3. The limits from the left and right are different. To show that lim f (x) does not
x→0
exist, we can consider the specific value ǫ = 41 (any positive number less than 12
will do here). To the right of x = 0 the graph of f is close to the x-axis; to the
left of x = 0 the graph is above the line y = 1. No horizontal line y = L is within
1
4
of both of these parts of the graph, so there is no number L which could be the
value of the limit. This argument could be made more precise by giving precise
inequalities. This proof needed the fact that we were working with ǫ “sufficiently
small”: if we tried to give the same argument when ǫ = 1, it would not be correct;
but any value less than 41 would also work.
In future we will simply refer to the theorem [1, p. 98] (Theorem D.6 of these
notes): a limit exists if and only if the limits from the left and right exist and are
equal.

D.8.2 §2.5 Continuity (continued)

Classification of Discontinuities. We call a point where a function fails to be con-
tinuous a discontinuity. If f has a discontinuity at x = a, but it is possible to extend the
definition of the function so as to assign a value to the function at the offending point,
or to change a value already assigned in such a way that the new function is continuous
there, then we say that the discontinuity is removable. This can happen in various ways:

* Sometimes a point a is not in the domain only because the inventor of the function
did not choose to define the function there. For example, if we were to define

f1 (x) = 6 for all x different from 1

and say nothing about the value of f1 at x = 1, that discontinuity may be removed
by extending the definition to give the function the value 6 at x = 1. (Technically
we should58 also change the name of the function now, since the extended function,
having a changed domain, is not the same function as before.)
58
but usually don’t
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2063

** Sometimes a point a is not in the domain because some operation on the expressions
that were used to define the function may not be defined. For example, if we define
2(x − 1)
f (x) to be , then f is not defined at x = 1. Here the limit as x → 1 does
x−1
exist, but the graph of f has a hole in it over the point x = 1 on the x-axis. We
can remove this discontinuity by assigning to the function the value 2 at x = 1.

*** Sometimes a point a is in the domain, but the inventor has assigned a function
value there that causes the discontinuity; it may be possible to change the function
value at x = a and thereby remove the discontinuity, as in the function

2 if x 6= 1
f2 (x) =
7 if x = 1

where we can shift the function value at x = 1 from 7 to 2 and thereby remove the
discontinuity. Here again, the change in the function should remind us to change
its name.

Some discontinuities cannot be removed : there may be no way of repairing the function
at x = a to make it continuous. This can happen, for example

• if lim− and lim+ both exist, but are different — we call this a jump discontinuity;
x→a x→a

• if at least one of lim− or lim+ is ∞ or −∞, i.e., if the line x = a is a vertical

x→a x→a
asymptote to the graph — we call a an infinite discontinuity;

• more generally, if at least one of lim− or lim+ does not exist, since continuity at a
x→a x→a
requires the existence and equality of both one-sided limits

Continuity on an interval. A function is continuous on an open interval (c, d) if it is

continuous at every point in the interval. We extend this concept to intervals including
either or both of their left and right end-points, i.e. to [c, d), (c, d], [c, d], by requiring
that the appropriate one-sided continuity hold when an end-point is included. So, for
example, f is continuous on [a, b] if it is continuous at every point in (a, b) and if, in
addition, it is continuous from the right at a and from the left at b.

Consequences of the Limit Laws [1, Theorem 3, p. 127]. Functions that are
continuous at the same point can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (provided
the divisor has non-zero value). There are no surprises here.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2064

Large families of continuous functions. In [1, Theorem 7, p. 129] the author sum-
marizes his comments about various classes of functions, observing that all of the follow-
ing types of functions are continuous wherever they are defined :
• polynomials; more generally,

• rational functions

• “root” functions

• trigonometric functions

• inverse trigonometric functions

• exponential functions

• logarithmic functions

(to be continued)
We can apply [1, Theorem 7, etc., §2.5] to evaluate limits at a point in the domain of a
function. Since continuity at x = a implies that the limit of f (x) as x → a is equal to
the function value f (a), we need only evaluate f at a to find the limit.59
Theorem D.11 1. If a function f (x) is continuous from the right at x = a, then
lim+ f (x) = f (a).
x→a

2. If a function f (x) is continuous from the left at x = a, then lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a

3. If a function f (x) is continuous at x = a, then lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Thus the only difficulties in finding limits of these functions will be at points not in their
domains, or as x → ±∞.

The Intermediate Value Theorem. This is an important result, enabling us to

determine with any desired accuracy the points where graphs of continuous functions
cross a horizontal line, in particular, the x-axis. As stated, the result is an existence
theorem, in that it asserts that a number exists, without telling you how to find it.
However it may be shown in class that one can apply the result to obtain approximations
to the desired numbers. These approximations do not, in theory, require the use of a
calculator; but, as the arithmetic becomes more and more complicated, the algorithm
59
The fact that the limits of continuous functions can be found by substitution was seen earlier in the
“Direct Substitution Property” stated for polynomials and rational functions in [1, p. 107].
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2065

we will describe is not practical for hand calculation. For that reason, we will not expect
you to carry out extended calculations at quizzes or the final examination.
The proof of this theorem is beyond the course, but you are expected to understand
the statement [1, Theorem 10, p. 131], and how to use it:
Theorem D.12 (Intermediate Value Theorem) Let f be continuous on the closed
interval [a, b], and let N be any number such that f (a) ≤ N ≤ f (b) or that f (b) ≤ N ≤
f (a). Then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that f (c) = N.

Example D.13 While the Intermediate Value Theorem is an existence theorem, we can
derive from its statement, a constructive procedure or algorithm to determine where a
continuous √function assumes a particular value. Suppose, for example, we wished to
determine 3 to any desired accuracy. We can consider the equation f (x) = x2 . By
trial and error we observe two values of the function above and below 3: f (0) = 0 < 3,
f (2) = 4 > 3. The theorem tells us that there will be a point in the interval [0, 2] at
which f (x) = 3. If we cut the interval in half, and determine the value of f at the
mid-point x = 1, we find that f (1) = 12 = 1. As this is less than 3, we can now confine
our attention to the half-interval [1, 2],
and repeat the operation. We test the function at
3 3 9
the mid-point, 2 , and find that f 2 = 4 < 3: thus we can now work with the interval
3
3  +2 7 7

49
2
, 2 . The mid-point of this interval is 2
2
= 4
, at which point f 4
= 16 > 3. Now we
3 7
3 7 +
work
with the interval 2 , 4 . We evaluate f at the mid-point of this interval, 2 4
2
= 13
8
:
f 13 169 13 7 27
 
8
= 64
< 3, so the next interval we work with is ,
8 4
. The mid-point is 16
, etc.
If we carry out this procedure 10 times, we reduce the size of the interval considered by
a factor of 210 = 1024 > 1000, so every 10 applications improve our approximation by 3
decimal places.
Several comments are needed:
• There are other, better ways of determining square roots — this example is pre-
sented only to illustrate a consequence of the Intermediate Value Theorem.

• We can’t use an approach like this to approximate solutions to an equation where

the functions involved are not continuous. For such functions there might not even
be a solution. So, for example, the function [[x]] never takes the value 12 , even
though it does have values 0 = [[0]] and 1 = [[1]] and 0 < 12 < 1. This example
shows that failure of the hypotheses to hold, even at just one point, can cause the
theorem to be inapplicable. (The interval is [0, 2], and the point of discontinuity is
1.)
We will return to this topic in connection with [1, §4.2 The Mean Value Theorem], when
we will refine these investigations to determine maximum numbers of solutions in a given
interval.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2066

2.5 Exercises

[1, Exercise 2.5.41, p. 134] . For what value of the constant c is the function f
continuous on (−∞, +∞)?

cx + 1 if x ≤ 3
f (x) = ? (112)
cx2 − 1 if x > 3

Solution: The problem is solved in the Student Solution Manual [3, [p. 49], and
hints are available on the CD-Rom “Tools for Enriching Calculus” (cf. §1.5.3).

[1, Exercise 2.5.43, p. 134] is a problem on removable discontinuities. Read the solu-
tions in the manual and be sure you understand why certain of the discontinuities
described are removable and others are not.

Problems 44–54 are concerned with the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Definition D.5 A root or zero of a polynomial f (x) is a number a such that f (a) = 0;
as solution to an equation f (x) = 0 is a number a such that f (a) = 0. The textbook
sometimes uses the word root to describe what I call a solution, but there is no danger
of confusion.

[1, Exercise 42, p. 134] “Find the constant(s) c that make g continuous on (−∞, ∞):
 2
x − c2 if x < 4
g(x) = ”
cx + 20 if x ≥ 4

Solution: First observe that, for x < 4, the function is a polynomial, and we
know that polynomials are continuous everywhere; thus g is continuous for x < 4.
Similarly, for x > 4, the function is again a polynomial, and is again continuous. I
have carefully avoided saying anything about the point x = 4; for all other points
the function is a polynomial in an interval surrounding the point, so the limits from
left and right will exist and be equal. But, for the point x = 4, the description of
the polynomial is different on the two sides of the point, and we cannot use this
argument in this simple a form.
To the left of x = 4 the function is a polynomial; as we know that polynomials are
continuous everywhere, we can conclude that the limit of x2 − c2 as x → 4 will be
the value of this polynomial at x = 4, i.e., 42 − c2 . Similarly

lim g(x) = lim+ (cx + 20) = c(4) + 20 .

x→4+ x→4
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2067

For g to be continuous at x = 4 we need to know, in particular, that the limit

exists. We have just seen that the limits from the left and right exist, so we need
only impose the condition that these two one-sided limits are equal:

42 − c2 = 4c + 20

which is equivalent to the equation

c2 + 4c + 4 = 0 , (113)

which has the single solution, c = −2. But we are not done yet. For continuity we
need to know that

• the limit exists as x → 4

• the function is defined at x = 4
• the limit is equal to the function value.

Now we return to the definition, and apply information that we haven’t used yet.
That is the specific value of g(4), which is given in the second line of the definition
as c(4) + 20, which we now know must be (−2)(4) + 20 = 12. When c = 2 the
common value of the limits from left and right is

42 − c2 = 42 − 4 = 12

which is equal to the function value at the point. Now we may conclude that the
function is continuous everywhere when c = 2, and only for this value of c.

[1, Exercise 50, p. 134] (not discussed in the lectures) “Use the Intermediate Value
Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation in the specified interval:
ln x = e−x , on the interval (1, 2).”
Solution: Because students do not have access to calculators, I will provide60 the
following additional information:

2.7 < e < 2.8 (114)

0.69 < ln 2 < 0.7 . (115)

In order to apply the theorem we need to work with a single function. I will define
f (x) = ln x − e−x ; the same sort of reasoning would work if we took the function
2
to be, for example, − ln x + e−x , 5(ln x − e−x ), (ln x − e−x ) , ln x − e−x + 17.
60
You could have determined (115) easily yourself by experimentally squaring numbers of the form
k
1+ 10 .

UPDATED TO December 1, 2006

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2068

We calculate
1 1
f (1) = ln 1 − =0− <0
e e
1 1 1
f (2) = ln 2 − 2 > 0.69 − 2
= 0.69 − >0
e (2.7) 7.29

It is essential that we also observe that f is continuous on the interval [1, 2], since it
is the sum of a logarithm and an exponential function, both known to be continuous
by our observation on page 2064 of these notes, and since the sum of two continuous
functions is also continuous. Then, as we have proved that

f (1) ≤ 0 ≤ f (2) ,

we may conclude that f assumes all values between f (1) and f (2), in particular,
the value 0, say at a point c such that 1 < c < 2. The proof may now be completed
by observing that f (c) = 0 is equivalent to ln c = e−c .

Continuity of the composition of two functions Stewart observes that the com-
position of continuous functions is continuous, subject to conditions on the components
at the appropriate points; more generally, he states that
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) ,
x→a x→a

provided lim g(x) exists, and that f is continuous at that limit value lim g(x). In par-
x→a x→a
ticular this implies [1, Theorem 9, p. 130]:

Theorem D.14 If g is continuous at a, and f is continuous at g(a), then f ◦ g is

continuous at a.

Example D.15 (Exercise 2.5.34, p. 134) “Use continuity to evaluate

x2 − 4
lim arctan .”
x→2 3x2 − 6x
Solution: The function in question may be interpreted as a composition (f ◦ g)(x), where

x2 − 4
g(x) =
3x2 − 6x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2069

x2 − 4 x+2
and f (x) = arctan x. Since = when x 6= 2,
3x2 − 6x 3x
x2 − 4
lim g(x) = lim 2
x→2 x→2 3x − 6x
x+2
= lim
x→2 3x
lim (x + 2)
x→2
=
lim 3x
x→2
by the Quotient Law
2+2
=
3·2
by the continuity of polynomials
2
=
3
Then
 
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = f lim g(x)
x→2 x→2
by continuity of f at 23
2
= arctan
3
2
The answer need not be reduced further, as 3 is not the tangent of a familiar angle, and
is approximately 0.59 radians.

Existence of limits I reiterate the convention discussed in §D.8.1, page 2057 of these
notes. We say that lim f (x) exists only if there is a real number L such that lim f (x) = L,
x→a x→a
not if we know that lim f (x) = +∞ or lim f (x) = −∞; while those last two statements
x→a x→a
do convey some information about the behavior of the function, we still say that the
limit does not exist in such cases. In practice many of the properties we know about
limits (e.g., the various laws) usually hold even when the limits are infinite, provided we
avoid situations that cannot be given meaning — like subtracting ∞ from ∞. We could
have allowed for this by “extending” the real number system to include the two objects,
∞, and −∞; we have chosen not to do this because it replaces one set of inconveniences
with another: we would then have a number system where certain operations would not
be defined, e.g. the multiplication of 0 and ∞, and the subtraction mentioned earlier.
In this course we will continue to follow the prevalent convention stated in the second
sentence of the paragraph. “Infinity” and “Minus Infinity” are not real numbers, and
are not the value of a function or a limit. When we write “= ∞” or “= −∞”, we are
simply using a notation, or rather an abuse of notation, that we find convenient.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2070

D.8.3 §2.6 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes.

As soon as he has discovered a useful concept and proved a few theorems, a mathemati-
cian tries to generalize it. After defining what is meant by lim f (x) = L, we generalized
x→a
this definition by defining what we mean by lim f (x) = ±∞. The generalization is a
x→a
new definition, but we adopt it because the newly defined “limits” behave similarly to
finite real limits. We can generalize the concept “to infinity” in another way also — by
defining what we mean by lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L. When either or both of
x→∞ x→−∞
these limits is equal to L, we say that the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the
graph y = f (x). This is intended to say that the vertical distance between the graph and
the line approaches 0 as one moves arbitrarily far to the right or arbitrarily far to the
left on the x axis. The either or both part of the definition is analogous to our definition
of vertical asymptotes, where we demanded that either a limit from the left or from the
right or both approach ±∞.

Can a graph cross its asymptote? Some students have the impression that an
asymptote is a line that is approached but never met. While this will be the case
for vertical asymptotes, because of the “Vertical Line Test”, it is not a restriction for
horizontal asymptotes: a graph can cross its asymptotes. For example, the graph of the
sin x
function has the x-axis as a horizontal asymptote, and it crosses this asymptote
1 + x2
infinitely often, at every integer multiple of π.

Limits of powers Consider the function f (x) = x1 as x becomes large. If we want to

ensure that the graph of this function lies in a narrow horizontal band between the lines
y = 0 and y = ǫ — where ǫ is any small, positive number — all we need to do is to take
x greater than 1ǫ ; what this argument shows, using a definition that has not been stated
explicitly, is that
1
lim = 0 .
x→∞ x

Similar reasoning can be applied to any positive power of x: if r is any positive real
number,
1
lim r = 0 ,
x→∞ x

or, equivalently,
lim x−r = 0 .
x→∞

(Your textbook restricts these results to rational real numbers r, since the author has
not yet defined what he means by an irrational exponent.)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2071

Infinite Limits at Infinity We can also combine the two generalizations of the original
limit definition, and define what we mean by lim f (x) = ±∞, and by lim f (x) = ±∞.
x→∞ x→−∞
The precise definitions are given in the subsection called “Precise Definitions”.

Limits of polynomials and reciprocals of polynomials We will illustrate the

general situation by considering some specific examples.
Example D.16 In each of the following cases evaluate the limit, or show that it does
not exist:
1. lim (3x5 + 4x − 6)
x→∞

2. lim (3x5 + 4x − 6)
x→−∞

1
3. lim
x→∞ 3x5 + 4x − 6

2
4. lim (3x5 + 4x − 6)
x→−∞

3x5 + 4x − 6
5. lim
x→∞ 4x7 − 2x5 + 3x

3x5 + 4x − 6
6. lim
x→−∞ 4x7 − 2x5 + 3x

4x7 − 2x5 + 3x
7. lim
x→∞ 3x5 + 4x − 6

4x7 − 2x5 + 3x
8. lim
x→∞ 3x7 + 4x3 − 6x2

Solution:
1. A recommended way of dealing with problems of this type is to factor out from
the polynomial the leading power of x. Here
 
5 5 4 6
3x + 4x − 6 = x 3 + 4 − 5 .
x x
4 6
As x → ∞ or x → −∞, both 4 and 5 approach 0, so
x x
 
4 6 1 1
lim 3 + 4 − 5 = lim 3 + 4 lim 4 − 6 lim 5
x→∞ x x x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x
by the Sum Law
= 3+4×0−6×0= 3+0+0 =3
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2072

We see that as the variable becomes infinite, a polynomial behaves like its leading
term: it is as though we simply disregarded the terms of lower powers. It now
follows that
 
5

5 4 6
lim 3x + 4x − 6 = lim x · lim 3 + 4 − 5
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x x
by a variant of the Product Law
= ∞·3 = ∞.

It looks as though we have violated the instructions about ∞ stated earlier. But, in
fact, we can show that the various limit laws continue to hold with infinite limits,
provided the various operations are defined. In the case of multiplication, a Product
Law can be proved that would justify taking a product, even if one “factor” is ∞,
provided the finite factor is not 0: we cannot give a meaning to a product ∞ · 0 or
1
−∞ · 0. Notwithstanding this comment, we still say that lim 5
does
x→∞ 3x + 4x − 6
not exist.

2. A result analogous to the preceding holds as x → −∞:

lim 3x5 + 4x − 6 = −∞ .


x→−∞

3. We may apply the Quotient Law: since the denominator approaches ∞, the re-
ciprocal of the polynomial approaches 13 . Or, we may factor out from the fraction
x−5 , whose limit is 0, leaving a factor which approaches limit 31 ; so the limit of the
product is 0.

4. = ∞, left to the student.

5. We again factor out leading powers;

3x5 + 4x − 6 x5 (3 + 4x−4 − 6x−5 )

lim = lim
x→∞ 4x7 − 2x5 + 3x x→∞ x7 (4 − 2x−2 + 3x−6 )

x5 3 + 4x−4 − 6x−5
= lim 7 ·
x→∞ x 4 − 2x−2 + 3x−6
x5 3 + 4x−4 − 6x−5
= lim 7 · lim
x→∞ x x→∞ 4 − 2x−2 + 3x−6
3
= 0· =0
4

6. Left to student.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2073

7. This time the first factor has “limit” ∞, while the second has limit 43 . The Limit
Law can be shown to applicable, and the limit is ∞.
8. Show that the limit in this case is 43 .

Precise Definitions We are not expecting you to work with these precise definitions
in this course.

2.6 Exercises
 √ 
2
[1, Exercise 2.6.24, p. 147] “Find lim x + x + 2x .”
x→−∞
Solution: Since the limits of the two summands are, respectively −∞ and +∞, we
cannot apply the Sum Law here; while we extended this and other laws to situations
where limits are infinite, we cannot give a meaning to −∞ + ∞. Accordingly we
modify the function using a technique related to one we saw earlier:
 x − √x2 + 2x
!
 √   √
lim x + x2 + 2x = lim x + x2 + 2x · √
x→−∞ x→−∞ x − x2 + 2x
x2 − (x2 + 2x)
= lim √
x→−∞ x − x2 + 2x
−2x
= lim √
x→−∞ x − x2 + 2x
Note that, superficially, this last function appears “more complicated” than the one
we started with. But there is an important difference: in the earlier function there
was a sum whose value was indeterminate, even if we were prepared to work with
±∞; but, in the last quotient, both numerator and denominator are meaningful,
provided we are still willing to work with ±∞. Unfortunately there is still a snag:
we cannot evaluate the ratio of two functions that are both approaching ±∞.
Fortunately, we can cope with that by dividing numerator and denominator by x:
−2x −2
lim √ = lim √ 1
x→−∞ x − x2 + 2x x→−∞ 1 − x2 + 2x
x
−2
= lim √
x→−∞ 1 − 1 x2 + 2x
−|x|
−2
= lim 1
√
x→−∞ 1 − √
− x2
x2 + 2x
−2
= lim q
x→−∞ x2 +2x
1+ x2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2074

−2
= lim q
x→−∞ 2
1+ 1+ x
−2
= r !
2
lim 1+ 1+
x→−∞ x
by the Quotient Law
−2
= r
2
1 + lim 1+
x→−∞ x
by the Sum Law
−2
= s  
2
1+ lim 1 +
x→−∞ x
√
by the continuity of
−2
= √ = −1
1+ 1+0
Suppose
√ that we wished to determine the horizontal asymptotes to the graph of
x + x2 + 2x. The preceding shows that the line y = −1 isone asymptote.
√ 
To complete the investigation we would need to determine lim x + x2 + 2x .
√ x→+∞
Since each of x and  x2 + 2x approaches +∞ as x → +∞, we conclude that
√
lim x + x2 + 2x = +∞ and so there are no horizontal asymptotes other
x→+∞
than the one already found.

[1, Exercise 2.6.38, p. 147] (Not discussed in the lecture) Find the horizontal and
5x2 + 4
vertical asymptotes of the graph of 2 .
x −1
Solution: (The textbook suggests that this type of problem could use a calculator;
but that is totally unnecessary.) Observe that numerator and denominator are
polynomials of the same degree. First observe that the denominator is the product
of x − 1 and x + 1: it will be undefined at x = 1 and x = −1, and will approach
±∞ as x → −1− , x → −1+ , x → +1− , x → +1+ , so each of the lines x = −1 and
x = +1 is a vertical asymptote (in each case for more than one reason, because 2
of these one-sided limits are infinite).
If we divide out from numerator and denominator the “leading” power of x, we
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2075

obtain
4
x2 5 +


5x2 + 4 x2

= 1
x2 − 1 x2 1 − x2
5 + x42
=
1 − x12
for x 6= ±1
5+0
→ = 5 as x → ∞ and as x → −∞ .
1−0
Thus y = 5 is the only horizontal asymptote.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2076

D.9 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 4th, 2006

Release Date: Wednesday, October 4th, 2006, subject to revision
I have posted the following message on WebCT:
Written Assignment W1 has been posted elsewhere on this site. The
second problem on this assignment involves the topic of Mathematical
Induction, which we will not have time to discuss in the lectures or
tutorials at this time. This topic will not be examination material.
Mathematical Induction is discussed in the textbook on pages 81, 84.
Students are expected to read the material up on their own, and then
to work the assignment.

D.9.1 §2.6 Limits at Infinity; Horizontal Asymptotes (continued).

2.6 Exercises (continued)
sin x
[1, Exercise 2.6.49(a), p. 148] “Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim .”
x→∞ x
Solution: This limit should not be confused with the limits that we will be deter-
mining in connection with [1, §3.4].
The sine function never exceeds 1 in absolute value; thus
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x .
1
We multiply these inequalities by obtaining
x
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤ for x > 0 . (116)
x x x
Similarly, for x < 0, we obtain
1 sin x 1
≤ ≤− for x < 0 , (117)
x x x
and the two inequalities can be combined into one:
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤ for x 6= 0 . (118)
|x| x |x|
The extreme members of these inequalities approach 0 as x approaches ∞, trapping
sin x
the middle member; thus we may conclude that lim = 0 . This is, as the
x→∞ x
author suggests, another example of a function whose graph crosses a horizontal
asymptote infinitely often.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2077

[1, Exercise 2.6.44, p. 148] “Find a formula for a function (whose graph) has vertical
asymptotes x = 1 and x = 3 and one horizontal asymptote, at y = 1.”
Solution: There are infinitely many solutions to problems of this type. We can
construct a function by adding together functions having the properties indepen-
1
dently. One function whose graph has a vertical asymptote at x = 1 is ;
x−1
1
similarly, one function whose graph has a vertical asymptote at x = 3 is .
x−3
Adding or subtracting these we obtain a function like
1 1
−
x−1 x−3
whose graph has vertical asymptotes at precisely the designated places. The graph
of the function we have found has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. We can shift
this asymptote to y = 1 by adding a constant:
1 1 2 x2 − 4x + 1
1+ − =1− = .
x−1 x−3 (x − 1)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 3)
A “simpler” example would be
x2
.
(x − 1)(x − 3)

D.9.2 §2.7 Tangents, Velocities, and Other Rates of Change.

§2.7 continues the discussion begun in [1, §2.1], where the author proposed two applica-
tions which would require the concept of limit.

Tangents For a given point P0 = (x0 , y0 ) on the graph of the function f , a secant
through P0 is a line passing through P0 and another point, P1 = (x1 , y1 ), on the graph;
since the points are on the graph, y0 = f (x0 ), y1 = f (x1 ). The slope of such a secant
y1 − y0 f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
is = . As we allow the point P1 to move along the curve towards
x1 − x0 x1 − x0
P0 , the secant 61 becomes a tangent 62 ; its slope is
f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
lim .
x1 →x0 x1 − x0
61
from the Latin, secare, to cut; do not confuse with the trigonometric function tangent whose name
has a similar etymology.
62
from the Latin tangere, to touch; do not confuse with the trigonometric function tangent whose
name has a similar etymology.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2078

Note that, in the foregoing, x0 is the abscissa63 of the fixed point, and x1 is the abscissa
of the variable point; we have avoided using the letter x here, as we may wish to write
the equation of a line, and wish to have the usual symbols free for that purpose. When
we reach [1, Chapter 3], we will be developing methods for routine computation of
limits of the preceding type; at present we will have to compute such limits “from first
principles”, without the use of the “Differentiation Rules”. Please remember that, even
if you know the “Rules”, you are expected to be able to carry out computations “from
first principles” when asked to do so. And, since the definition involves a limit, you
could even be expected to evaluate the limit according to the formal definition for that,
although we don’t expect you to be able to work complicated limits that way.

Velocities Suppose a particle is moving along a straight line — which we conveniently

coordinatize as the x-axis — so that its position at time t is f (t). Between times t = t0
and t = t1 , the position of the particle has changed by a distance f (t1 ) − f (t0 ); this
is a signed distance. We often use the word displacement to describe the position of a
particle measured relative to a fixed point, which we often take to be the origin of the
coordinate system. The “average distance traversed per unit time between t = t0 and
f (t1 ) − f (t0 )
t = t1 ” is defined to be the quotient , often called the average velocity.64
t1 − t0
If, as we allow t1 to approach t0 , we obtain a limit; we call that limit the velocity or
instantaneous velocity of the moving particle. We may denote the velocity at time t = t0
by v(t), and define
f (t1 ) − f (t0 )
v(t0 ) = lim .
t1 →t0 t1 − t0
If we change our notation, and denote t1 by t0 + h, or by t0 + ∆t (so h or ∆t denote
t1 − t0 , the change in time t from t0 to t1 ), the equation becomes

f (t1 ) − f (t0 ) f (t1 ) − f (t0 )

v(t0 ) = lim or v(t0 ) = lim .
h→0 h ∆t→0 ∆t

Other Rates of Change In the preceding discussion the symbol ∆t denotes a single
variable with a two-letter name; it is not a product, and you must not pull the two
characters ∆ and t apart. Historically, it was intended to denote the “increment” in t.
63
x-coordinate
64
Later, in MATH 141, when we define the concept of average, we will be able to show that, in fact,
this is the average of the velocity function we are about to define. (The problem is that, at this stage,
we haven’t defined what we mean by average of a function over an interval. We do know what we mean
by the average of a finite list of numbers, and our eventual definition will generalize that definition.
But being responsible mathematicians, we know that we can’t use a concept until it has been formally
defined. So, for the present, we can simply work with a concept having a 2-word name, average velocity.)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2079

We also use the “operator” ∆ to describe the change in the function f , writing ∆y or
∆f (t0 ) to denote f (t1 ) − f (t0 ), so that the instantaneous velocity may also be expressed
as
∆f (t0 ) ∆y
v(t0 ) = lim = lim .
∆t→0 ∆t0 ∆t→0 ∆t0

Students may observe, quite correctly, that the meaning of the symbol ∆f is not always
completely unambiguous, even when we write the variable, as ∆f (t0 ): how does one
know what the second value of the argument65 is? The answer is that, in practice, that
information can be inferred from the context.
The author of the textbook again uses the word average in this section to describe
the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the independent variable.
We might call the first limit above the limit as h → 0 of the “average value” of f over
the interval [x, x + h] or the “average value” of f over the interval [x + h, x], depending
on whether h is taken to be positive or negative; but, as before, this is simply a 2-word
name for a concept, as we haven’t yet defined what we mean by an “average”.

2.7 Exercises
[1, Exercise 2.7.20, p. 156] (not discussed in the lecture) “The displacement (in me-
ters) of a particle moving in a straight line is given by s = s(t) = t2 − 8t + 18,
where t is measured in seconds.
(a) Find the average velocity over each time interval:
(i) [3, 4]
(ii) [3.5, 4]
(iii) [4, 5]
(iv) [4, 4.5]
(b) Find the instantaneous velocity when t = 4.
Solution:
(a) Each of the average velocities is defined to be the ratio of the displacement
over the elapsed time.
s(3) = 32 − 8 · 3 + 18 = 3
s(3.5) = (3.5)2 − 8 · (3.5) + 18 = 2.25
s(4) = 42 − 8 · 4 + 18 = 2
s(4.5) = (4.5)2 − 8 · (4.5) + 18 = 2.25
s(5) = 52 − 8 · 5 + 18 = 3
65
Argument is a synonym for variable; the argument of f (t) is t.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2080

It follows that
s(4) − s(3) = −1
s(4) − s(3.5) = −0.25
s(5) − s(4) = 1
s(4.5) − s(4) = 0.25
and
s(4) − s(3)
= −1
4−3
s(4) − s(3.5) 1
= −
4 − 3.5 2
s(5) − s(4)
= 1
5−4
s(4.5) − s(4) 1
=
4.5 − 4 2
(b)
∆(s) s(t + ∆t) − s(t)
lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
((t + ∆t)2 − 8(t + ∆t) + 18) − (t2 − 8t + 18)
= lim
∆t→0 ∆t
2
2∆t · t + (∆t) − 8∆t
= lim
∆t→0 ∆t
= lim (2t + ∆t − 8)
∆t→0
= 2t − 8
for any value of t, in particular for t = 4, in which case the value of the limit
is 0. Thus the particle is instantaneously at rest when t = 4.

D.9.3 §2.8 Derivatives.

The examples in the previous section, involving slopes of tangents and velocities of
moving points, can be generalized in the following definition, applicable to any “well
behaved” function of a real variable:
Definition D.6 The derivative of f at the point x = a, is defined to be any one of the
following limits, if they exist (as they are then all equal):
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim
h→0 h
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2081

f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
lim
∆x→0 ∆x
f (b) − f (a)
lim
b→a b−a
A number of different notations are used for the value of the derivative at a; we may,
from time to time, use any one of the following symbols, all of which have the same
df df 
meaning: f ′ (a), (a), , Df (a), Df (x)|x=a. Other notations may be presented
dx dx x=a
later.
Intuitively a function f is differentiable at x = a when the graph of f does not have a
“corner” at (x, y) = (a, f (a)).

Interpretation of the Derivative as the Slope of a Tangent

2.8 Exercises The intention is that all derivatives be computed “from first principles”,
since we have not yet derived “Rules” for calculating derivatives of familiar functions.
[1, Exercises 2.8.8, p. 163] “If g(x) = 1 − x3 , find g ′(0) and use it to find an equation
of the tangent line to the curve y = 1 − x3 at the point (0, 1).”
Solution:
g(x) − g(0)
g ′ (0) = lim
x→0 x−0
(1 − x3 ) − (1 − 03 )
= lim
x→0 x
3
−x
= lim = lim x2 = 0
x→0 x x→0

so the tangent at (x, y) = (0, 1) has slope 0, i.e., is horizontal. Its equation is
y − 1 = 0(x − 0), i.e., y = 1.
1
cf. [1, Exercises 2.8.17-18, p. 163] Find f ′ (5) if f (x) = √
3 .
x+4
1 1
√ 3 − √ 3
( x+4)( 5+4)
f ′ (5) = lim
x→5 x−5
3
√
3
3 − x+4
= lim √
3
x→5 (x − 5) · 33 · x+4
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2082

We can rationalize the numerator:

√
3 √
3 √
3
33 − x+4 33 − x+4 33 + x+4
lim √
3 = x→5
lim √
3 · √
3
x→5 (x − 5) · 33 · x+4 (x − 5) · 33 · x+4 33 + x+4
272 − (x + 4)3
= lim √
3  √
3 
x→5
(x − 5) · 33 · x + 4 · 33 + x+4
1
= lim  √
3  √
3
x→5
27 27 + x+4 x+4
272 − (x + 4)3
× lim
x→5 x−5
1
by the Product Law, in which the first limit is . For the second limit we see
2 · 273
that the numerator is a polynomial which has value 0 when x = 5, which tells us
that x − 5 must divide the polynomial. By long division or otherwise we can see
that
272 − (x + 4)3 = −x3 − 12x2 − 48x + 665
= (x − 5) −x2 − 17x − 133 .

Thus the second limit factor is

272 − (x + 4)3
= lim −x2 − 17x − 133 = −25 − 85 − 133 = −243 .


lim
x→5 x−5 x→5

1
We conclude that f ′ (5) = − .
162
tan x − 1
[1, Exercises 2.8.22, p. 163] “The limit limπ represents the derivative of
x→ 4 x − π4
some function f at some number a. State such an f and a.”
Solution: (The solution is not unique: once we have one solution f , we can add a
constant to it and obtain another function, since the added constant will disappear
when one value of the function is subtracted from another. We can also change the
point at which the derivative is evaluated by an appropriate change of the formula
for the function.)
When we remember that tan π4 = 1, we see that the numerator is the the difference
between values of the tangent function at a general point x and at the first point
π
4
, precisely the same numbers whose difference is computed in the denominator.
Accordingly the given limit is the derivative of f (x) = tan x at x = π4 . (We have
not yet determined the value of this derivative.)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2083

[1, Exercises 2.8.35–36] are interesting, but it would be beyond the expectations of
this course to expect you to be able to solve them without assistance. However, I
may discuss them in class, perhaps together with a third function:

sin x1 if x 6= 0

f1 (x) =
0 if x = 0
x sin x1 if x 6= 0

f2 (x) =
0 if x = 0
x sin x1 if x 6= 0
 2
f3 (x) =
0 if x = 0

Here f1 is continuous everywhere except at x = 0, and has a derivative at every

point; f2 is continuous everywhere, and has a derivative at every point except
x = 0; and f3 is continuous everywhere and has a derivative everywhere.

Interpretation of the Derivative as a Rate of Change The derivative of f at a

point x in its domain was defined as any of the equal limits

f (x + h) − f (x)
lim
h→0 h
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
lim
∆x→0 ∆x
f (b) − f (x)
lim
b→x b−x
′
if they exist, and denoted by f (x).

D.9.4 §2.9 The Derivative as a Function

In the definitions given above, as we permit x to take values over the points in the domain
of f — or rather, at those points where the limit exists — we define a function. This
function is called the derivative of f , and denoted by f ′ . If the limit in question is not
defined at a point a in the domain of f , then a is not in the domain of the derivative of
f .66 67
66
When the limit in question is defined on only one side, we can speak of the left-hand derivative or
right-hand derivative; these are discussed in [1, Exercise 2.9.46. p. 175].
67
The domain of the derivative of f cannot include points that are not in the domain of f , since the
difference quotient for f ′ (x) refers to f (x), which must exist before we can even discuss the existence of
a limit of the difference quotient.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2084

Example D.17 The derivative of the function |x| is defined at all points in R except 0.
Solution: The calculations were performed in the last lecture. At any point x > 0 the
value of the derivative is f ′ (x) = 1; at any point x < 0 the value of the derivative is
f ′ (x) = −1. But, at x = 0, the difference quotient has values +1 or −1 depending
on which side of 0 we take the second point of the secant. As the limits from the left
and right are not equal, the limit does not exist, and the function lacks a derivative at
x = 0.68 .

Other Notations We have already presented in Definition D.6, on page 2080 a number
of equivalent notations for the derivative evaluated at  the value (point) a. We list
df df 
them again, and include a few others: f ′ (a), (a),  , Df (a), Df (x)|x=a , Dx f (a),
  dx dx 
x=a
df
.
dx x=a
If a function is differentiable at every point in an open interval (a, b), i.e. at all x such
that a < x < b, f is said to be differentiable on (a, b).

Differentiability implies Continuity. This result is proved in [1, Theorem 4, p. 171].

You will not be responsible for proving the result, but a very short proof is possible. First
observe that the definition of f ′ (a) involves f (a); that is, we can’t even write down the
quotient whose limit we need unless we know that f ′ (a) exists: this gives one of the
conditions we need for continuity of f at x = a. Thus

lim f (x) = lim ((f (x) − f (a)) + f (a))

x→a x→a
= lim ((f (x) − f (a)) + lim f (a) (by Sum Law)
x→a x→a
 
f (x) − f (a)
= lim · (x − a) + lim f (a)
x→a x−a x→a

(dividing and multiplying by x − a)

 
f (x) − f (a)
= lim · lim (x − a) + lim f (a) (by Product Law)
x→a x−a x→a x→a

= f ′ (a) · lim (x − a) + lim f (a) (since f is differentiable at a)

x→a x→a
= f ′ (a) · 0 + lim f (a) (as x → a, (x − a) → 0)
x→a
= 0 + lim f (a)
x→a
= 0 + f (a) (limit of a constant, f (a))
= f (a)
68
But the function has a left derivative and a right derivative at x = 0.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2085

Note the author’s warning that the converse69 of the preceding theorem is not true! You
should be able to supply examples of a function f and a point a in its domain such that f
is continuous at a, but fails to be differentiable there. Graphs of the simplest examples are
made by piecing together at a point two line segments with different slopes; for example,
the function |x| is of that type. You should be able to construct other examples, with
additional constraints on their construction.

How Can a Function Fail To Be Differentiable? The author describes several

situations in which differentiability of a function f can fail at a point a.
f (x)−f (a) f (x)−f (a)
• If lim− x−a
and lim+ x−a
both exist, but do not have the same value, then,
x→a x→a
by definition lim f (x)−f (a)
does not exist. The graph of the function will appear to
x−a
x→a
have a “corner” at x = a.

• If f is not continuous at x = a, then, a fortiori , by the result above, it cannot be

differentiable.70

• If f is continuous, but has a vertical tangent line, we say that lim f (x)−f
x−a
(a)
does
x→a
not exist, so f is not differentiable.
p An example of such a situation is at the point
x = 0 for the function |x|. Note that the function is continuous at 0. We say
that its graph has a cusp at x = 0.

• Differentiability can fail for other reasons. For example, the function defined in [1,
Problem 35, §2.8, p. 164] fails to have a limit because the slopes of the secants
through the origin oscillate between ±1 arbitrarily close to x = 0. In this course
you are not expected to be able to construct “pathological” functions of this type.

2.9 Exercises Remember that, in these exercises, you are not permitted to use stan-
dard formulæ for calculating derivatives, even though you may have learned them prior
to taking this course. those formulæ will be developed in [1, Chapter 3].

[1, Exercise 26, p. 177]

√ (not discussed in the lecturre) Find the derivative of the func-
tion f (x) = x + x using the definition of derivative. State the domain of the
function and the domain of its derivative.
69
The converse of a statement of the form “If A then B” is the statement “If B then A.” Can you
think of other implications which are true in one direction but not in the other?
70
In the language of logic we are using the contrapositive of the result we proved: the contrapositive
is true if and only if the original statement is true. The contrapositive is obtained by reversing the
implication direction and also negating both statements. So the contrapositive of “A implies B” is “if
B is false, A is false”.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2086

Solution: The square root is defined for all non-negative x; the polynomial x is
defined for all real numbers. The intersection of these sets is the domain of the
function, [0, ∞).
√ √
′ (x + h) + x + h − x − x
f (x) = lim
h→0
√ x
 √ 
x+h− x
= lim 1 +
h→0 h
√ √ √ √ 
x+h− x x+h+ x
= 1 + lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
(rationalizing the numerator)
√ √ !
( x + h)2 − ( x)2
= 1 + lim √ √

h→0 h x+h+ x
!
|x + h| − |x|
= 1 + lim √ √

h→0 h x+h+ x
!
(x + h) − x
= 1 + lim √ √

h→0 h x+h+ x
since the domain of f is [0, ∞)
!
h
= 1 + lim √ √

h→0 h x+h+ x
 
1
= 1 + lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
lim 1
h→0
= 1+ √ √
lim x + h + lim x
h→0 h→0
1
= 1+ q q
lim (x + h) + lim x
h→0 h→0
by continuity of the square root function
1 1
= 1+ √ √ =1+ √ .
x+ x 2 x
The domain of the derivative is (0, ∞): the point 0, which is in the domain of
the function, is not in the domain of the derivative. (As x → 0+ the slope of the
tangent approaches = ∞.)
Suggested exercises:
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2087

1. Try to extend the method of rationalization shown above to find the derivative
of the derivative.
√ p
2. Replace x by |x|, so that the function is now defined over all of R, and
determine the derivative.

D.9.5 2 Review
True-False Quiz (Good problems, but not discussed in the lecture) These are valuable
exercises for determining whether you understand the material in the chapter. We can’t
use problems like this on assignments, since, as True/False problems, you can guess the
answer with an expectation of 50% correctness. But you should try them yourselves,
and ask me or a TA if you are unsure of the correctness of your answer. Some of them
could be modified into good examination questions.

based on [1, True-False Question 6, p. 176] “Prove or disprove the following state-
ment: ‘If lim f (x) · g(x) exists, then the limit must be f (6) · g(6).’”
x→6
Solution: The statement is false. A very simple example is

1 if x 6= 6
f (x) = g(x) = ,
undefined if x = 6

where f and g are not even defined at x = 6, even though the limit of their product
exists. In this case the discontinuity of the functions is removable, but we could
1
modify the example to make it unremovable, for example, by taking f (x) =
x−6
and g(x) = x−6. Here g has limit 0, but f (6) is undefined and has an unremovable
discontinuity. Other variations can be constructed where f and/or g are more “ill
behaved”, and one is the reciprocal of the other, so their product is “well behaved”.
We can use the same device to construct functions whose sum is “well behaved”
but where the individual functions are not, if we design the functions so that the
sum cancels out the poor behavior of the individual summands.

based on [1, True-False Question 10, p. 176] “Prove or disprove the statement ‘If
f has domain [0, ∞), and has no horizontal asymptote, then lim f (x) = ∞ or
x→∞
lim f (x) = −∞.’”
x→∞
Solution: The statement is false. To disprove it I supply a counterexample. To
have a horizontal asymptote we need the limit to exist (i.e., as a real number). But
the non-existence of the limit does not imply that the limit is ±∞. For example,
the function f (x) = [[x]]−x has no limit as x → ∞ or as x → −∞; another example
is sin x.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2088

based on [1, True-False Question 11, p. 176] “Prove or disprove the following state-
ment. If you claim it is false, you are expected to supply a counterexample:

‘If the line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of y = f (x), then f is not

defined at x = 1.’”

Solution: The statement is false. To be a vertical asymptote we need only that

one of lim− f (x), lim+ f (x), is either −∞ or +∞; thus there are 4 possible reasons
x→1 x→1
why x = 1 might be a vertical asymptote, and we need at least one of them to
hold; it could happen that 2 of them hold, but not more. These conditions are
independent of the question of whether f is defined at x = 1. For example, the
function f defined by 
 1
 if x 6= 1
f (x) = x−1

 5 if x = 1
is defined at x = 1 and has the line x = 1 as a vertical asymptote (for two different
reasons).

based on [1, True-False Question 17, p. 176] We could ask “Is the following state-
ment true or false? If it is true simply state that. If it is false, you are expected to
provide an example — called a counterexample — to substantiate your claim:

‘If f is continuous at a, then f is differentiable at a.’”

Solution: The statement is false, as we have seen above. One counterexample is

the function f (x) = |x|, which is continuous at all points — you could be asked to
prove that — but which fails to have a derivative at x = 0.

Exercises

[1, Exercise 22, p. 177] Find lim arctan (x3 − x).

x→∞
Solution: 

lim arctan x3 − x = arctan lim x3 − x


x→∞ x→∞

by continuity of the arctangent function [1, Theorem 2.5.8, p. 129]. We cannot

apply the Difference Law here, as it would lead to a difference of the type ∞ − ∞,
whose behavior we cannot appraise. Instead we observe that x3 − x = x(x2 − 1).
This expresses the argument of the arctangent as a product of two factors, both of
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2089

which become infinite as x → ∞. In this case the obvious extension of the Product
π
Law does hold, and so lim (x3 − x) = +∞. As u → ∞, arctan(u) → .71
x→∞ 2
[1, Exercise 24,
√ p. 177] Determine
√ all horizontal and vertical asymptotes to the graph
2 2
of f (x) = x + x + 1 − x − x.
Solution: By “completion of the square” we see that
 2
2 1 3
x +x+1= x+ + >0
2 4
√
so the domain of x2 + x + 1 is all of R. However,
√ p
x2 − x = x(x − 1)
is defined only for x ≤ 0 and for x ≥ 1. The domain of the difference f (x) is the
intersection of these two domains, i.e., again the union of the intervals (−∞, 0] and
[1, +∞). But, at every point of this domain, the one-sided limits are finite; hence
there are no vertical asymptotes.
√ √Note that x = 0 is not a vertical asymptote, since
the limit from the left is 1 − 0 = 1, not ±∞; the graph is, in fact, tangent to
the y-axis, and touches the axis, at the point (x, y) = (0, 1).
As x → ±∞ the two square roots both become infinite, so we cannot evaluate the
limit by using the Difference Law. We will use the usual device of rationalizing the
square roots:
√ √
x2 + x + 1 − x2 − x
√ √  √x2 + x + 1 + √x2 − x
= 2
x +x+1− x −x · √2 √
x2 + x + 1 + x2 − x
(x2 + x + 1) − (x2 − x)
= √ √
x2 + x + 1 + x2 − x
2x + 1
= √ √ ,
x2 + x + 1 − x2 − x
provided x is not in the interval 0 < x < 1. Now what? We are planning to have
x → ∞ and x → −∞. Both the numerator and the denominator approach ±∞,
so we can’t use the Quotient Law.
x 2 + x1


2x + 1
√ √ = q
q
x2 + x + 1 + x2 − x x 1 + x + x2 + x2 1 − x1
2 1 1

71
Finally, we might ask precisely where the continuity of the arctangent function was required. We
can see now it is the continuity of that function from the left at π2 . This is a delicate observation, and
I would normally not expect students in this course to be able to answer this question.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2090

1


x 2+ x
= √ q √ q
x2 1 + x1 + x12 + x2 1 − x1
√ √ √
since ab = a · b where everything is defined
x 2 + x1


= q q
|x| 1 + x1 + x12 + |x| 1 − x1
by definition of |x|
x 2 + x1
= ·q q
|x| 1+ 1 + 1 + 1− 1
x x2 x

2
As x → +∞ this product approaches 1 · 1+1 = 1, and as x → −∞ the product
2
approaches (−1) · 1+1 = −1. There are thus two horizontal asymptotes: y = ±1,
(see Figure 13).

y
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
x

-1

y=f(x)
upper bound, y=f(1)
horizontal asymptote y=-1
horizontal asymptote y=1

√ √
Figure 13: Graph of the Function f (x) = x2 + x + 1 − x2 − x

Textbook Appendices.
Since the syllabus includes some topics in the appendices to the textbook, either directly
or as prerequisites, a few comments are in order; these comments have not been discussed
in the lectures.

D.9.6 Appendix A. Numbers, Inequalities, and Absolute Values

When a decimal expansion of a real number is truncated — by ignoring all but a finite
number of the digits, then, if any of the ignored digits is different from 0, an error is
introduced. This can happen in rational numbers, e.g. 13 = 0.33333 . . . is not the same
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2091

as 0.3333333333333; and in irrational numbers, e.g. 3.14159265358979323846 is not the

same as π = 3.14159265358979323846 . . .72 .

D.9.7 Appendix B. Coordinate Geometry and Lines

Familiarity with all of the material in this appendix is assumed.

D.9.8 Appendix C. Graphs of Second-Degree Equations

Not all students will be familiar with all the material in this appendix.

Circles You should be comfortable with all of the material in this subsection.

Parabolas We will be working with functions whose graphs are parabolæ, ellipses,
hyperbolæ, but we do not expect you to know all of their properties; however, students
who have not studied these curves before are urged to read the rest of the appendix.

Ellipses

Hyperbolas

Shifted Conics This is a useful topic, but we don’t expect you to know about it; some
students will see the ideas in MATH 133.

D.9.9 Appendix D. Trigonometry

I have reviewed some portions of this appendix in the lectures. Students are assumed
to be familiar with this material from their precalculus course. Any discussion in the
lectures will be confined to isolated topics. However, problems on this material could
already have appeared in WeBWorK Assignments or in quizzes. Students who find
that they are weak in this material could also consult [32].

72
You may see a way of determining the exact value of π at the very end of MATH 141.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2092

D.10 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 10th,

2006
Release Date: Tuesday, October 10th, 2006
subject to correction

I began the lecture by explaining briefly the meaning of the concepts of Mathematical
Induction, and the iterated derivative.

2.9 Exercises (conclusion)

[1, Exercise 36, p. 178] “Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is
2
a solution of the equation e−x = x in the interval (0, 1).”
Solution: To apply the given theorem we need to designate a continuous function.
But the equation relates two functions! There are many ways to combine them,
2
but the easiest is something like this. Define f (x) = e−x − x. We know that
the polynomials −x2 and x are continuous everywhere; and we know that the
exponential function ex is continuous everywhere. Hence the composition of the
2
polynomial function −x2 followed by the exponential function, i.e., e−x , is also
continuous everywhere. We also know that sums and differences of continuous
functions are continuous where the summands and “differands” are continuous.
That tells us that the function we have called f is continuous everywhere. The
theorems we have applied are [1, Theorems 2.5.4, 2.5.5, 2.5.7, 2.5.8 in §2.5].
Now we have to show that the value of interest lies between the values of the
2
function at the end points of the given interval. f (0) = e−0 −0 = e0 −0 = 1−0 = 1,
and
2 1
f (1) = e−1 − 1 = − 1 < 1 − 1 = 0 .
e
Thus f (0) > 0 > f (1). By the Intermediate Value Theorem [1, Theorem 2.5.10,
p. 131] there exists a point c such that 0 < c < 1 and f (c) = 0, i.e., such that
2
e−c = c.
(One application of the theorem simply proves the existence of the point. But,
if we were to bisect the interval (0, 1), and evaluate the function at the midpoint
1
x = , we could trap a root in an interval of half the length; every 10 repetitions
2
of this bisecting reduces the size of the interval by a factor of 210 > 1000 = 103 , so
we could determine a solution to any desired number of decimal places, provided
we had a way of evaluating the exponential function whenever we needed it.)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2093

2
[1, Exercise 38, p. 178] “Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve y =
1 − 3x
at the points with x-coordinates 0 and −1.”
Solution: We will first determine the derivative in general from first principles,
then take the specific values for the given points.
y(x + h) − y(x)
y ′(x) = lim
h→0 h
2 2
1−3(x+h)
− 1−3x
= lim
h→0 h
(1 − 3x) − (1 − 3x − 3h)
= lim 2 ·
h→0 h(1 − 3x)(1 − 3(x + h))
3h
= 2 lim
h→0 h(1 − 3x)(1 − 3(x + h))
3
= 2 lim
h→0 (1 − 3x)(1 − 3(x + h))
3
= 2 lim = 6(1 − 3x)−2
h→0 (1 − 3x)2

Then y ′ (0) = 6, and y ′(−1) = 38 . The tangents at the points (0, 2) and −1, 21

respectively have equations

y − 2 = 6(x − 0) or 6x − y = −2 and
1 3
y − = (x + 1) or 3x − 8y = −7.
2 8
[1, Exercise 14, p. 181] “Suppose that f is a function with the property that
|f (x)| ≤ x2 (119)
for all x. Show that f (0) = 0. Then show that f ′ (0) = 0.
Solution: One reason I am discussing this problem is to remind you of how to
interpret an inequality where the left member is an absolute value.
First observe that when we set x = 0 in (119) we obtain |f (0)| ≤ 0; but, as we
know that |f (0)| ≥ 0 (being an absolute value), we conclude that
f (0) = 0 . (120)
f (x) − f (0)
The derivative of f at x = 0 is the limit of the quotient as x → 0.
x−0
From (119) we may conclude that
−x2 ≤ f (x) ≤ x2 (121)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2094

for all x; hence, for x 6= 0, we may divide all members by x to obtain

f (x) − f (0)
−x ≤ ≤ x. (122)
x
Since
lim (−x) = 0 = lim x ,
x→0 x→0

f (x) − f (0)
we conclude from the Squeeze Principle that lim = 0, i.e., that f ′ (0) =
x→0 x
0.

Textbook Chapter 3. DIFFERENTIATION RULES.

D.10.1 §3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

Beginning in this section we develop properties of the differentiation operation that will
permit the systematic computation of derivatives without the need for computations
“from first principles”. While students are expected to master these “Rules”, you are
also expected to be able to carry out computations “from first principles”. Except for
problem functions that don’t fit into the categories to which the “Rules” apply, you will
normally not use “first principles” unless asked to do so.

Power Rules We can prove from first principles that

d
x=1
dx
This can be generalized to
d n
x = nxn−1
dx
in various ways. The textbook is careful to assert, at first that this generalized “Power
Rule” is true for positive integers. But, in the course of several steps, it will eventually be
“proved” for all real number n. You are not expected to be able to reproduce the proofs.
Both of the proofs that the textbook gives of the Power Rule for integer exponents rely
on this Principle.
d
Yet another proof could be based on applying to the result (x) = 1 the Product
dx
Rule (proved below in the discussion of [1, §3.2]). A proof would require using Mathe-
matical Induction or an equivalent tool, [1, Exercise 3.2.43, p. 198].
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2095

New Derivatives from Old The author proves “rules” he calls the Constant Multiple
Rule, the Sum Rule, the Difference Rule (a consequence of the preceding two rules). You
are not expected to memorize these proofs. (But the level of difficulty of the proofs is
no greater than could arise in a reasonable problem that could be set on the material of
this section and some of the preceding sections.)

Exponential Functions The author considers, for any positive real number a, the
value of the derivative of the function ax at any point x. He shows that
d x ah − 1
a = ax · lim .
dx h→0 h
Thus, if the limit
ah − 1
lim
h→0 h
73
exists — which he assumes without proof — the derivative is a constant multiple of
the function; this can be shown to be a property that actually characterizes exponential
functions — they are the only functions that have this property. The textbook continues
to report without proof that the value of limit (D.10.1) ranges continuously over the
positive real numbers. Then Napier’s constant, denoted by e, is “defined” to be the
eh − 1
unique constant, lying between 2 and 3, with the property that lim = 1, and
h→0 h
d x
consequently e = ex .
dx
The differentiation rules developed in this section are summarized in Table D.10.1

3.1 Exercises Remember that the author’s intention is that you use only tools that
are mentioned, or, in any case, do not use tools that will be developed in subsequent
sections. So, for example, [1, Exercise 3.1.22, p. 191] should not be solved using the
product rule.
[1, Exercise 3.1.46, p. 191] (not solved in the lecture) “For what values of x does the
graph of f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + x + 3 have a horizontal tangent?”
Solution: To determine the points on a curve y = f (x) having a horizontal tangent
one solves the equation f ′ (x) = 0. In this problem that equation is quadratic, and
leads to two points (with unpleasant coordinates). By the Rules developed thus
far
d 3 d 3 d d d
(x + 3x2 + x + 3) = (x ) + (3x2 ) + (x) + (3)
dx dx dx dx dx
73
Remember, this is the “Early Transcendentals” version of the textbook: the study of exponential
functions has been advanced to a point where some steps cannot be proved.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2096

Derivative of a Constant:
d
(c) = 0
dx
Power Rule:
d n
(x ) = nxn−1
dx
for any real number n

Constant Multiple Rule:

d d
(cf (x)) = c f (x)
dx dx
for any constant c
and any differentiable function f

Sum and Difference Rules:

d d d
(f (x) ± g(x)) = f (x) ± g(x)
dx dx dx
for any differentiable functions f , g

Derivative of Natural Exponential Function:

d x
(e ) = ex
dx

Table 10: Differentiation Rules from [1, §3.1]

by the Sum Rule

d 3 d d d
= (x ) + 3 (x2 ) + (x) + (3)
dx dx dx dx
by the Constant Multiple Rule
d 3 d d
= (x ) + 3 (x2 ) + (x) + 0
dx dx dx
by the Derivative of a Constant Function Rule
3x2 + 3 2x1 + 1 x0 + 0



=
by the Power Rule
= 3x2 + 3 (2x) + 1 (1) + 0 = 3x2 + 6x + 1

Tangents are horizontal at points whose abscissa x is a root of the polynomial

3x2 + 6x + 1. Students should be able to find the roots by using the “Quadratic
Formula”. I prefer to use “Completion of the Square”, because it is a technique
that we will find useful in the next course: 3x2 + 6x + 1 = 3(x2 + 2x) + 1 =
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2097

3((x + 1)2 − 1) + 1 = 3 (x + 1)2 − 23 . The expression in parentheses may be

interpreted as a difference of squares, and we know how to factor such differences:

r !2 r ! r !
2 2 2 2
(x + 1)2 − = (x + 1)2 − = x+1+ x+1−
3 3 3 3
so the derivative is 0 when either of these linear factors is 0, i.e., when
r
2
x = −1 ± .
3
Some students may have been “taught” to avoid placing a surd in the denominator;
if you prefer, we can write the solution as
1√
x = −1 ± 6.
3
(Placing a surd in the denominator is not incorrect; in the days before calculators
were commonly available, computation could be greatly simplified when denomi-
nators were integers. Avoiding surds in the denominator may still be advisable,
but it is not mandatory.)
[1, Exercise 3.1.50, p. 191] “Find equations of both lines through the point (2, −3)
that are tangent to the parabola y = x2 + x.”
Solution: The point (x, x2 + x) on the curve has a tangent with slope
d 2
(x + x) = 2x + 1 .
dx
As we wish to find an equation, and require the symbol x to denote the abscissa
of the general point on that line, we will rephrase the preceding result: the point
(a, a2 + a) on the curve has a tangent with slope 2a + 1. The tangent at the point
(a, a2 + a) has equation
y − (a2 + a) = (2a + 1)(x − a) or y = (2a + 1)x − a2 .
We impose the condition that these tangent lines pass through the point with
coordinates (2, −3), i.e., that (x, y) = (2, −3) is a solution of the equation:
−3 = (2a + 1)2 − a2 or a2 − 4a − 5 = 0 .
Solving this quadratic equation yields a = −1, 5, so the two tangents through
(2, −3) are
y = −x − 1 and y = 11x − 25 .
(There is a “classical” way of solving this problem without apparent use of the
calculus, but it will not be studied in this course.)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2098

[1, Exercise 3.1.52, p. 192] “Where does the normal line to the parabola y = x − x2
at the point (1, 0) intersect the parabola a second time?”
Solution: (In this context the word normal means perpendicular : thus its slope
will be not the derivative but the negative reciprocal of the derivative:
1
− .
dy
dx
This is by virtue of the property that
 π 1
tan θ + = , (123)
2 − tan θ
which is a consequence of the property that
tan a + tan b
tan(a + b) = . (124)
1 − tan a · tan b
Of course, one can’t obtain (124) from (123) by substituting b = π2 , since the tan-
gent is not defined at π2 . But we can argue that the tangent function is continuous
from the left or right, and take either one-sided limit as b → π2 :

tan a + tan b
lim tan(a + b) = lim
π−
b→ 2 b→ 2 1 − tan a · tan b
π−

tan a
+1
= lim tan b
b→ π2 − 1
− tan a
tan
b 
tan a
lim +1
b→ π2 − tan b
=  
1
lim − tan a
b→ π2 − tan b
0+1
= = − cot a .
0 − tan a
An easier proof would be to show, again from the sum formulæ (or otherwise), that
 π
sin a + = cos a
2
 π
cos a + = − sin a.)
2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2099

d
(x − x2 ) = 1 − 2x, so the tangent at the point (1, 0) has slope 1 − 2 = −1, and
dx
1
the normal (line) has slope − = 1; thus the equation of that normal is
−1
y − 0 = 1(x − 1) .

If we solve this equation with the equation of the curve, we obtain two values for the
x-coordinate of a point of intersection, x = −1 and x = 1, so there are two points
where the line and curve intersect: (1, 1 − 12 ) = (1, 0) and (−1, −1 − (−1)2 ) =
(−1, −2). The first is the point of tangency; the second is where the tangent meets
the curve a second time.

D.10.2 §3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules

The textbook continues the derivation of “Rules” which will permit the mechanical
computation of derivatives for common functions without the need to evaluate limits. In
practice you will usually use these rules, but need to be able to find limits “from first
principles” when requested.

The Product Rule The proof of the Product Rule requires a familiar “trick”, similar
to one we saw in the proof that differentiability implies continuity: we add a term, to
transform a function to a more convenient form, then subtract the offending term so
that the value has not been changed. One point in the proof is delicate — we use the
continuity of one of the functions at one point: we know this to be true since we are
assuming that both functions are differentiable.
While we will not ask you to memorize this proof — or any proofs — we expect
you to understand the use of continuity, and could devise a way of calling on you to
demonstrate that in an examination — without having to reproduce a memorized proof.

The Quotient Rule This “rule” could also be proved by first proving a Reciprocal
Rule [1, Exercise 3.2.44, p. 198]:

d
d

1
 g(x)
=− dx ,
dx g(x) (g(x))2
1
and then applying the product rule to the product f (x) · . The differentiation rules
g(x)
developed in this section are summarized in Table D.10.2.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2100

Product Rule:
d d d
(f (x) · g(x) = f (x) · g(x) + f (x) · g(x)
dx dx dx
for any differentiable functions f , g

Quotient Rule:
d d

d f (x)
 f (x) · g(x) − f (x) · g(x)
= dx dx
dx g(x) (g(x))2
for any differentiable functions f , g,
(where g(x) 6= 0)

Reciprocal Rule: [1, Exercise 44, p. 198]

d
d

1
 f (x)
= − dx
dx f (x) (f (x))2
for any differentiable function f , where f (x) 6= 0

Table 11: Differentiation Rules from [1, §3.2]

3.2 Exercises
[1, Exercise 3.2.43, p. 198] This problem is a special case of a generalization of the
Product Rule: If f (x) is the product of n differentiable functions,
f (x) = f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fn (x) ,
the derivative of f can be obtained by summing all products of the functions in
which exactly one of the factors is differentiated, and the other n − 1 factors are
unchanged. It is the general rule that I discuss here, as an opportunity to introduce
the concept of Mathematical Induction.
We need to prove that
f ′ (x) = f1′ (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fn (x)
+f1 (x) · f2′ (x) · . . . · fn (x)
+ . . . + f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fn′ (x) (125)
This sequence of theorems can be proved by “Mathematical Induction” as follows:
I. First prove the case n = 1. We observe that, when n = 1, f = f1 , and the
claimed result is just f ′ = f1′ .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2101

II. Assume that the theorem has been proved for n = N. (This is called the In-
duction Hypothesis.)
III. Prove the case n = N + 1. If we know that

(f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fn (x))′

= f1′ (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x)
+f1 (x) · f2′ (x) · . . . · fN (x)
+ . . . + f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN′ (x) (126)

we can differentiate the product

(f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x)) fN +1 (x)

by the Product Rule:

((f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x)) fN +1 (x))′

= (f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x))′ fN +1 (x)
+ (f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x)) fN′ +1 (x)
= (f1′ (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x)) fN +1 (x)
+ (f1 (x) · f2′ (x) · . . . · fN (x)) fN +1 (x)
+ . . . + (f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN′ (x)) fN +1 (x)
+ (f1 (x) · f2 (x) · . . . · fN (x)) fN′ +1 (x)

which is just (125) when n = N + 1.

IV. Conclude that (125) is true for every natural number n.

The textbook problem is case n = 3; to prove it one does not need to use Mathe-
matical Induction: simply apply the Product Rule twice.

[1, Exercise 3.2.42, p. 198] (not solved in the lecture) “Find equations of the tangent
x−1
lines to the curve y = that are parallel to the line x − 2y = 2.”
x+1
Solution: One way of solving this problem would be similar to that given earlier for
[1, Exercise 3.1.50, p. 191] above: one finds the slope of the tangent at any point on
the curve y = f (x), say with coordinates (a, f (a)), and imposes the condition that
these tangents have the slope of a given line, thereby locating the points at which
the tangents are parallel to the given line. There are two solutions. Problems of
these types, involved specific techniques of using the calculus to solve geometric
problems, specifically to find tangents to a curve where the given information does
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2102

not include the point(s) of contact of the tangents, are well within the range of
problems that students in Math 140 are expected to be able to solve.
x−1
Here is a slightly different approach. The derivative of can be shown to be
x+1
−2
2(x + 1) . We wish to find the tangent lines that are parallel to x − 2y = 2, i.e.,
those whose slope is 12 . Imposing that condition on the derivative yields

2 1
=
(x + 1)2 2

which reduces to x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 or (x + 3)(x − 1) = 0, satisfied by x = −3 and

x = 1. We have thus shown that
the tangents
we seek are those which touch the
−3−1 1−1
curve at the points −3, −3+1 and 1, 1+1 , i.e., at (−3, 2) and (1, 0). The lines
through these points with slope 21 are x − 2y = −7 and x − 2y = 1.

[1, Exercise 3.2.32, p. 197] (not solved in the lecture) “If f (3) = 4, g(3) = 2, f ′ (3) =
−6, and g ′(3) = 5, find the following numbers:

(a) (f + g)′(3)
(b) (f g)′(3)
 ′
f
(c) (3)
g
 ′
f
(d) (3)”
f −g
These problems refer to the conventions that the textbook defined in [1, “Algebra
of Functions”, p. 42].
Solution:

(a) By the Sum Rule, (f + g)′(x) = f ′ (x) + g ′ (x) for all x. Here (f + g)′(3) =
f ′ (3) + g ′(3) = (−6) + 5 = −1.
(b) By the Product Rule (f g)′(3) = f (3) · g ′(3) + f ′(3) · g(3) = 4 · 5 + (−6) · 2 = 8.
 ′
f g(3) · f ′ (3) − f (3) · g ′ (3) 2 · (−6) − 4 · 5
(c) By the Quotient Rule (3) = 2 = =
g (g(3)) 22
−8.
(d)
′
(f − g)′(3) · f (3) − f (3) · (f − g)′(3)

f
(3) =
f −g ((f − g)(3))2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2103

(f (3) − g(3)) · f ′ (3) − f (3) · (f ′ (3) − g ′(3))

=
((f − g)(3))2
(4 − 2) · (−6) − 4 · (−6 − 5)
= =8
(4 − 2)2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2104

D.11 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 11th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, October 11th, 2006, subject to revision

D.11.1 §3.3 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences.

The purpose of this section in this course is to provide examples of the use of derivatives
in problems stated verbally. Since some of the problems are stated in very technical
language, you should try to read those problems that are in an area that is close to your
interest. The technical language is usually superficial, so that once a problem is stated
in mathematical language, you should all be able to solve it, although you may not find
the language interesting. The differences in your backgrounds make it difficult to find
problems that will interest all of you. For that reason most of the material in this section
is considered outside of the syllabus.

Physics Since one of the original motivations in the development of the calculus was to
solve problems of motion, and since some problems of that type are found in WeBWorK,
I shall consider one such problem.

3.3 Exercises
[1, Exercise 3.3.10, p. 208] If a ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 80
feet per second, then its height after t seconds is

s(t) = 80t − 16t2 . (127)

1. What is the maximum height reached by the ball?

2. What is the velocity of the ball when it is 96 feet above the ground, on its
way up? ...on its way down?
74
Solution:

1. To determine the maximum height. One method would be to examine the

function s(t). If we express the given formula
 as s(t)  = −16(−5t + t2 ), we
2
can complete the square: s(t) = −16 t2 − 5t + 25 + 16 · 25


4
= 100 −
74
This problem could have been made more difficult by requiring that you determine the “equation
of motion” from the initial velocity and the initial position. But the equation of motion is given to
you in (127). The determination of this equation would be premature, as it would depend on a result
in [1, §4.2] not yet proved; but the textbook occasionally does ask you to proved results of this type
prematurely.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2105

2
4 t − 52 = 100 − (4t − 10)2. The subtracted term is a square, so it cannot
be negative; s(t) will be greatest when the subtracted term is as small as
possible, i.e. 0, i.e. where t = 52 . When t = 25 , s(t) = 100: this is the
maximum height. No calculus is needed!
2. The velocity is dtd s(t) = 80 − 32t; but this is given in terms of t, not in terms
of position s. When s = 96, t satisfies the equation 96 = 80t − 16t2 , so t = 2
or t = 3.
s′ (2) = 80 − 64 = 16
s′ (3) = 80 − 96 = −16
As the positive direction has been taken to be upward, height s = 96 is
attained when t = 2, when the velocity is 16 ft/sec upward; and when t = 3,
on the downward trip, when the velocity is again 16, but this time directed
in the negative, i.e. downward, direction.

D.11.2 §3.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions.

sin x
All the result in this section depend on the value of lim , through the application
x→0 x
of simple trigonometric identities.

Trigonometric functions defined (with isolated omitted points) over all of R.

(This is precalculus material, included in these notes only as a reminder to

students who have to fill a gap in their preparation.)
Consider a point (x, y) moving on the unit circle centred at the origin, from a position
at rest at (1, 0). Suppose that the point has rotated through an angle of θ. Then we
may define
sin θ = y
cos θ = x
and then extend these definitions to the other 4 functions, defined as follows:
sin θ y
tan θ = =
cos θ x
1 cos θ x
cot θ = = =
tan θ sin θ y
1 1
sec θ = =
cos θ x
1 1
csc θ = =
sin θ y
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2106

These definitions agree with definitions that should be familiar to all students for trigono-
metric functions of acute positive angles. One can think of a triangle with one vertex
at the origin, one at the point (x, y), and the right angle at the point (x, 0), which is
the foot of the perpendicular drawn from (x, y) to the x-axis. The definition has been
simplified by taking the hypotenuse to be of length 1. Students should be able to de-
termine the sign of each of these functions from the position of the moving point in the
various quadrants. All but the sine and cosine have points where they are not defined,
and all of these are non-removable discontinuities of the functions, where the limit on
one side of the discontinuity is infinite of the opposite sign from the limit on the other
side. Students should also be familiar with the approximate shapes of the graphs of these
functions [1, pp. A30–A31].

sin θ
lim The derivation we will discuss in the lectures of the value of the limit in
θ→0 θ
question will be somewhat different from that in the textbook, as we will consider areas
rather than the lengths of arcs in its derivation.

Warning! The results of this section apply only if the variable of the trigonometric
functions is considered to be in radians; if we wish to consider, for example, a function
f (θ) = the sine of an angle of θ degrees, the derivative will not be the cosine function of
the angle measured in degrees. We can reconsider this question after we have completed
the next section of the textbook.
sin θ
The determination of lim shown in the lectures differs from that in the textbook:
θ→0 θ
we base our inequalities on comparisons of areas, rather than of lengths. While students
are not expected to memorize this proof, it is a valuable example of uses of the “Squeeze”
Theorem, which student often find difficult. We first prove that
tan θ θ sin θ
≥ ≥
2 2 2
sin θ
for θ > 0; then we divide through by , to obtain
2
θ
sec θ ≥ ≥ 1,
sin θ
and then take reciprocals of the three members, which reverses both inequalities, yielding
sin θ
cos θ ≤ ≤ 1, (θ > 0) .
θ
Our objective is to apply the Squeeze Theorem, taking the limit as θ → 0. For that
purpose we need to have the pair of inequalities holding in a (possibly “punctured”)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2107

interval surrounding 0, not only on one side. We obtain a corresponding result for θ < 0
simply by renaming θ as −λ, and now requiring λ < 0; the inequalities become

sin(−λ)
cos(−λ) ≤ ≤ 1 (λ < 0) .
−λ
sin(−λ) sin λ
We observe that, since the sine function is odd , sin(−λ) = − sin λ, so =
−λ λ
sin λ
even when λ < 0; and cos(−λ) = cos λ: indeed, both cos λ and are even functions.
λ
Thus we have shown that the same pair of inequalities hold on both sides of 0; of course,
they fail to hold at 0 because the middle member is not defined there. There is no longer
any reason to use two different symbols for the variable on the two sides of 0, so we
combine them into
sin θ
cos θ ≤ ≤ 1 , (θ 6= 0) .
θ
We may now apply the Squeeze Theorem, which does not require that the inequalities
hold at θ = 0, to obtain
sin θ
lim cos θ ≤ lim ≤ lim 1 ,
θ→0 θ→0 θ θ→0

sin θ
i.e., 1 ≤ lim ≤1
θ→0 θ

from which it follows that

sin θ
lim = 1. (128)
θ→0 θ

Note that what we have found is the derivative of sin θ evaluated when θ = 0. We will
d
apply this result to find the value of sin θ at any θ.
dθ
cos θ−1
lim θ
There are a number of easy ways to extract this limit from (128). The
θ→0
proof in the textbook proceeds as follows:
 
cos θ − 1 cos θ − 1 cos θ + 1
lim = lim ·
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ cos θ + 1
2
cos θ − 1
= lim
θ→0 θ(cos θ + 1)

− sin2 θ
= lim
θ→0 θ(cos θ + 1)

sin θ − sin θ
= lim · lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 cos θ + 1
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2108

sin θ − lim sin θ

θ→0
= lim ·
θ→0 θ lim cos θ + lim 1
θ→0 θ→0
0
= 1· =0 (129)
2
This shows that the value of the derivative of cos θ at θ = 0 is 0.

Derivatives of trigonometric functions Thus far we have been able to determine

the values at θ = 0 of the derivatives of the sine and cosine function. As the other 4
trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of sines and cosines, it should not be
surprising that we can now evaluate all of their derivatives at θ = 0. But, in fact, we
now have enough information to evaluate the derivatives of the these 6 functions at all
points in their domains. (The functions are differentiable wherever they are defined, but
all of them except the sine and cosine have points on R where they are not defined, and
a fortiori there are no derivatives at those points.) Here are the derivatives:

d
sin θ = cos θ (130)
dθ
d
cos θ = − sin θ (131)
dθ
d
tan θ = sec2 θ (132)
dθ
d
cot θ = − csc2 θ (133)
dθ
d
sec θ = sec θ · tan θ (134)
dθ
d
csc θ = − csc θ · cot θ (135)
dθ

I will prove at least one of these results in the lecture, but you should be able to derive
any of the others from one of them by using standard identities [1, pp. A28-A30] involving
the trigonometric functions. Don’t memorize proofs! While you should remember how
we proved these formulæ, the first priority is that you have the formulæ committed to
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2109

memory, as several of them are in very frequent use. (This is one of the few times in this
course when I suggest memorization.)

Other limit problems involving trigonometric functions We can also apply the
sin 4x
limit results above to other limit problems. For example, to evaluate lim , we
x→0 tan 7x
would rewrite the given fraction as a product of two fractions of the form siny y where
y → 0:
 
sin 4x sin 4x 7x 4
lim = lim · ·
x→0 tan 7x x→0 4x tan 7x 7
sin 4x 7x 4
= lim · lim · lim
x→0 4x x→0 tan 7x x→0 7
by the Product Law
sin 4x cos 7x 4
= lim · lim sin 7x · lim
x→0 4x x→0 x→0 7
7x
lim cos 7x
sin 4x x→0 4
= lim · sin 7x
· lim
x→0 4x lim 7x x→0 7
x→0
by the Quotient Law
1 4 4
= 1· · =
1 7 7
In the last line I am, on two occasions, using the result that lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x))
x→a x→a
under assumptions of continuity, [1, p. 129]. I usually don’t expect students in Math 140
to give this explanation, but it is the justification that is missing above.

3.4 Exercises
tan x − 1
[1, Exercise 3.4.12, p. 216] “Differentiate y = .”
sec x
Solution: While it is possible to solve this problem correctly by applying the Quo-
tient Rule naively, it is easier if the numerator and denominator are first both
multiplied by cos x.
 
d tan x − 1 d
= (sin x − cos x)
dx sec x dx
= cos x + sin x

However, we must not forget that the original the is not defined at any odd multiple
of π2 , where it has removable discontinuities.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2110

sin x − cos x
[1, Exercise 3.4.42, p. 217] (not worked in the lecture) “Find limπ ”.
x→ 4 cos 2x
Solution:
sin x − cos x sin x − cos x
limπ = limπ
x→ 4 cos 2x x→ 4 cos2 x − sin2 x

by a “double angle” formula

sin x − cos x
= limπ
x→ 4 (cos x − sin x)(cos x + sin x)

1
= limπ
x→ 4 (−1)(cos x + sin x)
π
since sin x − cos x 6= 0 near (but not at) x = 4
1 1
=   = −2− 2 .
− √12 + √12

cos θ − 1
[1, Exercise 3.4.38, p. 217] (not worked in the lecture) “Find lim .”
sin θ
Solution: When you remember the simple trigonometric identities, there are often
many methods of solving problems of this type that will suggest themselves. One
simple method that does not require such identities would involve first dividing
numerator and denominator by θ, in order to transform both into functions that
have been studied in this section:
cos θ − 1
 
cos θ − 1 θ
lim = lim 
 
sin θ sin θ

θ→0 θ→0

 θ 
cos θ − 1
lim
θ→0 θ
=  
sin θ
lim
θ→0 θ
0
= = 0.
1
Another attack could be as follows:
1 − 2 sin2 2θ − 1


cos θ − 1
lim = lim
θ→0 sin θ θ→0 2 sin 2θ · cos θ2
θ 0
= lim tan = tan = tan 0 = 0
θ→0 2 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2111

D.12 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 16th,

2006
Release Date: Monday, October 16th, 2006, subject to revision
Today’s and next day’s lecture are being devoted to [1, §§3.5, 3.6].

D.12.1 §3.5 The Chain Rule.

The “Chain Rule” enables us to determine the derivative of the composition of several
differentiable functions. It can be described briefly using the “Leibniz notation”: If
y = f (u) and u = g(x), where f and g are both differentiable, then the derivative of the
composite function f ◦ g is given by
dy dy du
= · ,
dx du dx
which is easy to remember because it appears to be a statement about the product of
two fractions. More precisely, we have
d
f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′(x) .
dx
The chain rule may need to be applied more than once when we differentiate a function
that has been constructed by composing many functions. In general, it involves “peeling
off one layer after another” of the composed functions, at every stage multiplying by
a factor which is a derivative evaluated at the point where the original function was
evaluated. When you are first learning the Chain Rule, you may find it convenient
to name the various functions that compose. Eventually this intermediate step should
become unnecessary.

The “Power Rule” combined with the Chain Rule Let u = g(x) be a differen-
tiable function, and a be any non-zero real number. By applying the Chain Rule, we
can show that
d
(g(x)a ) = a(g(x))a−1 · g ′(x) . (136)
dx
Note the presence of the final factor g ′ (x). If we apply these combined rules to a negative
power of a function  n
1 1
= = (g(x))−n
g(x) (g(x))n
we obtain a generalization of the “Reciprocal Rule” [1, Exercise 3.2.44, p.198]:
n  d
g(x)

d 1
= (−n)(g(x))−n−1 · g ′(x) = (−n) · dx n+1
dx g(x) (g(x))
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2112

g ′(x)
= (−n) · .
(g(x))n+1
A special case is

The “Reciprocal Rule”

 
d 1 d
g(x)−1 = (−1) g(x)−1−1 · g ′ (x)



=
dx g(x) dx
g ′ (x)
= − ,
(g(x))2
which can also be proved by the Quotient Rule.

Derivative of an exponential whose base is not e: Let a(x) be any positive,

differentiable function of x. Then
d x d  ln a(x)
x 
((a(x)) ) = e
dx dx
since exponential and logarithm are inverses
d x ln a(x)

= e
dx
by the exponent rules
d
= ex ln a(x) · (x ln a(x))
dx
 
x ln a(x) d
= e · 1 · ln a(x) + x · ln a(x)
dx
by the Product Rule
 
x ln a(x) d
= e · ln a(x) + x · ln a(x)
dx
 
x d
= a(x) · ln a(x) + x · ln a(x) (137)
dx
which we cannot complete yet, because we don’t know the derivative of the logarithm.
However, when a(x) is a constant, a, then ln a(x) is also constant, and its derivative is
0; we obtain
d x
(a ) = ax · ln a . (138)
dx
In the next sections we shall show how our tools are now strong enough to determine
the derivative of the logarithm function; indeed, we are now equipped to differentiate all
of the functions we are likely to meet in this course. We will also see another way of
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2113

determining the derivative of (a(x))x , and, more generally, of (a(x))b(x) , where b is any
differentiable function; the other method, which is no stronger than the method we have
shown here, is called logarithmic differentiation, [1, p. 246-248].

How to Prove the Chain Rule You are not expected to be able to prove this
theorem. The author includes this discussion because the earlier sketch of a proposed
proof [1, pp. 218-219], while intuitively satisfying, is flawed.

3.5 Exercises
[1, Exercise 3.5.4, p. 224] “Write the composite function in the form y = f (g(x)). ...
dy
Then find the derivative : y = tan(sin x).”
dx
Solution: The function that is applied first is sin: let’s call it g, so g(x) = sin x.
The function applied next is tan; I’ll call it f , so f (x) = tan x. Then y = f (g(x)).
By the Chain Rule,
dy
= f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
= sec2 (sin x) · cos x .

Alternatively, denoting g(x) by the single letter u, we could have written

dy d
= f (u)
dx dx
du
= f ′ (u) ·
dx
= f ′ (sin x) · g ′(x)
= sec2 (sin x) · cos x .
2
[1, Exercise 3.5.24, p. 225] “Find the derivative of the function y = 101−x .”
Solution: Let u = 1 − x2 . Then
d  1−x2  d u
10 = 10
dx dx
d u du
= 10 ·
du dx
d
= 10u · ln 10 · (1 − x2 )
dx
by (138)
2
= 101−x · ln 10 · (−2x)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2114

e2u
[1, Exercise 3.5.28, p. 224] “Find the derivative of the function y = .”
eu + e−u
Solution: We could apply the Quotient Rule, using the Chain Rule where necessary:
e2u (e2u · 2) · (eu + e−u ) − e2u · (eu + e−u · (−1))
 
d
=
du eu + e−u (eu + e−u )2
eu + 3e−u
= e2u ·
(eu + e−u )2
Another approach would be to first divide top and bottom by e2u , thereby making
the Reciprocal Rule applicable:
e2u
   
d d 1
=
du eu + e−u du e−u + e−3u
 2
1 −u −3u


= − −u · e · (−1) + e · (−3)
e + e−3u
e−u + 3e−3u
= .
(e−u + e−3u )
Yet another approach would be to introduce an intermediate variable, t = eu :
e2u
   2 
d d t dt
u −u
= 1 ·
du e + e dt t + t du
 3 
d t dt
= ·
dt t2 + 1 du
(to simplify the rational function before differentiation)
3t2 (t2 + 1) − t3 (2t) dt
= ·
(t2 + 1)2 du
4 2
t + 3t dt
= 2 2
·
(t + 1) du
e4u + 3e2u u
= ·e .
(e2u + 1)2

[1, Exercise 3.5.30, p. 224] (not discussed in the lecture) “Find the derivative of the
sin2 x
function y = .”
cos x
Solution: This problem could be solved by using the Quotient Rule, and by differ-
entiating (sin x)2 by the Product Rule and the Chain Rule:
d sin2 x (2 sin x · cos x) · cos x − sin2 x(− sin x)
 
=
dx cos x cos2 x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2115

sin x · (2 cos2 x + sin2 x)

= ,
cos2 x
which, while correct, can certainly be simplified, since cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, to
sin x · (cos2 x + 1)
2
; some users would want to reduce it further to sin x · (1 + sec2 x).
cos x
However, it is easier to use a trigonometric identity earlier:

d sin2 x d 1 − cos2 x
   
=
dx cos x dx cos x
d
= (sec x − cos x)
dx
d d
= sec x − cos x
dx dx
= sec x · tan x − (− sin x)
= sec x · tan x + sin x .
sin x
Another approach would be to replace by tan x, and write the function as
cos x
sin x · tan x, whose derivative may be found by the Product Rule: cos x · tan x +
sin x · sec2 x, which again admits simplification:

cos x · tan x + sin x · sec2 x = sin x + sin x · sec2 x = sin x · (1 + sec2 x) .

Additional Problems
x
1. (not discussed in the lecture) Differentiate y = sin · cos 2x.
2
Solution:
(a) First Solution: There are no tricks. We apply the Product Rule, and,
within it, the Chain Rule twice:
d  x  x 1 x
sin · cos 2x = cos · · cos 2x + sin · (− sin 2x) · 2
dx 2 2 2 2
x 1 x
= cos · · cos 2x − sin · (sin 2x) · 2 (139)
2 2 2
(b) [Second Solution]: We can apply the identity [1, 18.a p. A30] which the
textbook calls a “Product Formula”,
1
sin x · cos y = [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)].
2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2116

(You are not expected to memorize this identity in this course.)

     
d  x  d 1 5 3
sin · cos 2x = sin · x + sin − · x
dx 2 dx 2 2 2
    
1 d 5 3
= sin · x + sin − · x
2 dx 2 2
      
1 5 5 3 3
= cos · x · + cos − · x · −
2 2 2 2 2
   
5 5 3 3
= cos · x − cos − · x
4 2 4 2
   
5 5 3 3
= cos · x − cos ·x .
4 2 4 2
The answer obtained first could also be simplified by applying the same
identity. The advantage of the second method is that the functions which
are eventually differentiated are “simpler” than those given, in that the
trigonometric functions appear only multiplied by a constant, rather than
in products.
2. r
(Only the part involving
r function y(x) was discussed in the lecture.) If y(x) =
x+1 x2 + 1
, and z(x) = , find y ′(2) and z ′ (2).
x−1 x2 − 1
Solution:
(a)
r
dy d x+1
=
dx dx x−1
  12 !
d x+1
=
dx x−1
  1 −1  
1 x+1 2 d x+1
= · ·
2 x−1 dx x − 1
 − 12
1 x+1 1 · (x − 1) − (x + 1) · 1
= · ·
2 x−1 (x − 1)2
1
= − 1 3
(x + 1) 2 (x − 1) 2
√
′ 1 3
When x = 2, y = − √ = − .
3 3
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2117

(b) Let u = x2 . Then z(x) = y(u), so

d d d
z(x) = y(u) · u
dx du dx
= y ′(u) · u′
1
= − 1 3 · 2x
(u + 1) 2 (u − 1) 2
1
= − 1 3 · 2x
(x2 + 1) 2 (x2 − 1) 2
4 4√
so z ′ (2) = − 1 3 = − 15.
52 · 32 45

D.12.2 §3.6 Implicit Differentiation.

The techniques we have developed in the preceding sections are sufficient for determining
the derivatives of functions formed from the familiar classes of functions (polynomials,
roots, rational functions, trigonometric functions, exponential functions, exponential and
logarithmic functions, etc.) by the methods seen in [1, §1.3, New Functions From Old].
But sometimes we have to work with functions whose definitions are not explicit, that
is, where we do not have a precise formula for the function, and yet the function is still
fully determined. One way in which this happens is where the values of a function are
known to satisfy an equation, which we may not be able to solve explicitly. In such cases
we can think of the function as being implicitly defined by the equation. The Chain
Rule can often be used to find the derivative of such an implicitly defined function. It is
something of a misnomer to call the operation of differentiation in such a case implicit
differentiation: there is nothing implicit in the differentiation — it is the definition that
is implicit. When we apply differentiation in cases like these, the result is often a formula
which gives the values of the derivative of the function in terms of both the independent
variable and the function values; that is, we may have to express f ′ (x) in terms of x and
f (x), and may be unable to find an explicit formula for f ′ (x) in terms of x alone.

The derivative of the logarithm function Since the logarithm and exponential
functions are inverses of each other, we know that
eln x = x for all x > 0 (140)
and ln ex = x for all x . (141)
Analogously to our earlier determination of the derivatives of the inverses of the trigono-
metric functions, let us differentiate implicitly in (140) with respect to x:
d
eln x · ln x = 1 ,
dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2118

which equation we may solve for the derivative of ln x:

d 1 1
ln x = ln x = .
dx e x
dy
Example D.18 [1, Exercise 10, §3.6, p. 233] Suppose we need to find y ′, i.e. , where
dx
all we know is that
2
y 5 + x2 y 3 = 1 + yex . (142)
We do not have practical methods for solving this equation for y explicitly in terms of
x. But we can apply the Chain Rule to the two sides of the defining equation, treating
each term on each side as a function of x:
y 5 : We differentiate by the Power Rule combined with the Chain Rule, to obtain
d 5 dy
y = 5y 4 · ,
dx dx
dy
and make no attempt to determine at this time; indeed, this derivative is what
dx
we are trying to find, and we are in the process of determining a constraint on it.
x2 y 3 : This term is differentiated by the Product Rule, and then one of the resulting
terms by the Power Rule combined with the Chain Rule:
d 2 3 dy
(x y ) = 2x · y 3 + x2 · 3y 2 · .
dx dx
1:
d
1=0
dx
In this case the definition is “explicit”.
2
yex :
d  x2  dy x2 2
ye = · e + y · ex · 2x .
dx dx
Collecting the differentiated terms together, and equating the two expressions we have
found for the derivative of the function given by each of the sides of the equation, we
obtain
dy dy dy x2 2
5y 4 · + 2x · y 3 + x2 · 3y 2 · =0+ · e + y · ex · 2x .
dx dx dx
dy
We shift all terms having a factor to one side of the equation:
dx
dy dy dy x2 2
5y 4 · + x2 · 3y 2 · − · e = −2x · y 3 + y · ex · 2x .
dx dx dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2119

dy
and solve for :
dx
 
x2 2
dy −2xy 3 + ye 2x x2 2xy e − y
= 4 = 4 .
dx 5y + x2 3y 2 − ex2 5y + x2 3y 2 − ex2
I normally do not work in the lecture problems which are solved in the textbook.
However, the following example is related to a very interesting curve in the plane.

Example D.19 (Discussed very briefly at the end of the lecture; cf. [1, Example 2, p.
230]) The Folium of Descartes has equation x3 + y 3 = 6xy.

1. Find a formula for y ′.

2. Find the tangent to the folium at the point (x, y) = (3, 3) on the curve.

3. Determine where the (tangent to the) curve is horizontal.

Solution: By implicit differentiation with respect to y we see that

3x2 + 3y 2 · y ′ = 6(1 · y + x · y ′) ,

which we can solve for y ′:

2y − x2
y′ = .
y 2 − 2x
This function can be evaluated at (x, y) = (3, 3) to yield y ′ = −1; knowing a point on
the tangent line and its slope, we can find an equation for the line. Then, to determine
the locations of the horizontal tangents, we solve the equation y ′ = 0, which is equivalent
to
2y = x2 ,
with the equation of the curve, since the points (x, y) that we seek satisfy both of these
√
conditions. We obtain, after reduction, x3 = 0, 16, which imply that x = 0 or x = 3 16.
2 √ 4
2
5
When x = 0, y = 02 = 0, so the point is the origin; when x = 3 16 = 2 3 , y = 1623 = 2 3 .
Note that the curve has two tangents at (x, y) = (0, 0): one is horizontal, and the other
is vertical.

UPDATED TO December 1, 2006

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2120

D.13 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 18th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, October 18th, 2006, subject to revision

Today’s and last day’s lecture are being devoted mainly to [1, §§3.5, 3.6].

D.13.1 §3.5 The Chain Rule (conclusion)

§3.5 Exercises
[1, Exercise 3.5.52, p. 225] “Find the x-coordinates of all points on the curve y =
sin 2x − 2 sin x at which the tangent line is horizontal.”
Solution: We have to find all solutions x of the equation y ′ = 0, i.e.,

y ′ = cos 2x · 2 − 2 cos x . (143)

We can solve this if we replace cos 2x by 2 cos2 x − 1, an identity that you are
expected to have available:

2 2 cos2 x − 1 − 2 cos x = 0 ⇔ 2 cos2 x − cos x − 1 = 0

⇔ (2 cos x + 1)(cos x − 1) = 0
1
which is satisfied when (and only when) cos x is equal to either 1 or − .
2
cos x = 1 ⇔ x = 2nπ
1 2π
cos x = − ⇔ x=± + 2mπ
2  3 
2
⇔ x = ± + 2m π
3
where m and n are any integers. We find that the points with horizontal tangents
are evenly spaced along the x-axis, at intervals of length 2π
3
. (We could also have
solve equation (143) in a simpler way, by replacing the difference of cosines by a
product of sines:
2x + x 2x − x
2(cos 2x − cos x) = −4 sin · sin
2 2
3x x
= −4 sin · sin .
2 2
The factor sin x2 vanishes precisely where x = 2nπ; the factor sin 3x
2
vanishes pre-
2n
cisely where x = 3π .)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2121

D.13.2 §3.6 Implicit Differentiation (conclusion)

As explained in the last lecture, implicit differentiation means differentiation of functions
which are defined implicitly (by an equation), rather than being defined explicitly. I begin
by illustrating this technique with the very last problem in the Review Exercises for the
Chapter:
Example D.20 [1, Exercise 106, p. 273] Show that the length of the portion of any
2 2 2
tangent line to the astroid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 cut off by the coordinate axes is constant.
Solution: Let’s differentiate all terms in the given equation with respect to x. We
don’t have a formula for y as a function of x (although, in this case, we could find
2
one by solving the equation), so let’s just differentiate y 3 by the Chain Rule without
attempting to obtain a formula. (We call this implicit differentiation, since we are
defining the function y(x) “implicitly” in terms of x, rather than attempting to obtain
an explicit formula.) We obtain, as a result of that differentiation,
2 −1 2 −1 ′
x 3 + y 3 ·y =0
3 3
so r
′ y
y =−3 .
x
Suppose that we are considering the tangent torthe curve at the point (x, y) = (u, v) on
v
the curve. Then the slope of the tangent is − 3 , and the equation of that tangent is
u
r
v
y − v = − 3 · (x − u) .
u
This line meets the x-axis in the point
 r 
3
u
u+v ,0
v
and the y-axis in the point  r 
v
0, v + u 3
u
The square of the distance between these two intercepts is
 r 2  r 2
u v
u+v 3 + v+u3
v u
1 2 2 2 2
   1

= u + u3v 3 + v + v 3u3
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2122

2 2 2 2
2
 2  2
 2 
= u3 u3 + v 3 + v 3 v 3 + u3
2 3
 2 
= u +v
3 3 .

But we assumed that (u, v) is a point on the curve, so

2 2 2
u3 + v 3 = a3 (144)
 2 3
and the square of the distance between the intercepts is a 3 = a2 , which is, indeed,
a constant. Hence the length of the portion of the tangent line intercepted by the
coordinate axes is the constant |a|.

dy
Simplifications Sometimes it may happen that the formula we obtain for may
dx
simplify further if we use the constraint we know to hold between x and y. In the
preceding example we saw such a constraint in equation (144).

Higher Derivatives In [1, §3.7] we shall consider problems where we will wish to find
the derivative of the derivative of a function defined explicitly. In those situations there
will be a variety of ways of applying implicit differentiation, and some methods may be
more efficient than others.

Orthogonal Trajectories Orthogonal means perpendicular . Sometimes we may wish

to explore the angles between members of two families of curves, particularly in the case
where they are mutually perpendicular. The determination of the slopes of members of
one or other of these families could require the use of implicit differentiation. Remember
that two slopes are mutually perpendicular if their product is −1.
(This is a consequence of an application of the expansion of cot(θ1 − θ2 ) when θ1 − θ2 = π2 .
cos(θ1 − θ2 )
cot(θ1 − θ2 ) =
sin(θ1 − θ2 )
cos θ1 · cos θ2 + sin θ2 · sin θ1
=
sin θ1 · cos θ2 − sin θ2 · sin θ1
1 + tan θ1 · tan θ2
=
tan θ1 − tan θ2
after division of numerator and denominator by cos θ1 · cos θ2 .

If θ1 − θ2 = ± π2 , the cotangent of the difference is 0, so the numerator of this last fraction must
be 0; equivalently,
tan θ1 · tan θ2 = −1 .)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2123

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions Earlier in the term we investi-

gated the definitions of inverse trigonometric functions, and found that, for each of the
6 functions, we needed to restrict the domain in order that the graph would satisfy the
“Horizontal Line Rule”, and that the function would have an inverse.
We can obtain, for example, the derivative of the inverse cosine function, as follows.
We recall that the custom is to restrict the domain of the cosine to

0 ≤ x ≤ π, (145)

so that
arccos(cos x) = x (146)
for all x satisfying (145), and
cos(arccos x) = x (147)
for all x in the domain of the arccosine function, i.e. for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. Differentiating
(147) “implicitly” with respect to x, we obtain

d
− sin(arccos x) · arccos x = 1 ,
dx
so
d 1 1
arccos x = − =− 1 . (148)
dx sin(arccos x) ± (1 − cos2 (arccos x)) 2
But the values of the arccosine function are in the restricted domain of the cosine, i.e. in
(145), where the sine function is positive. Thus the ambiguous sign ± may be replaced
by +, and
d 1 1
arccos x = − 1 = −√
dx (1 − cos2 (arccos x)) 2 1 − x2
by (147). The derivatives of the other 5 inverse trigonometric functions may be deter-
mined in a similar way. Here are the derivatives:
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2124

d 1
sin−1 x = √ (149)
dx 1 − x2
d 1
cos−1 x = −√ (150)
dx 1 − x2
d 1
tan−1 x = (151)
dx 1 + x2
d 1
cot−1 x = − (152)
dx 1 + x2
d 1
sec−1 x = √ (153)
dx x x2 − 1
d 1
csc−1 x = − √ (154)
dx x x2 − 1

However, the textbook’s definitions of the inverse secant and inverse cosecant functions
are non-standard, and the resulting derivatives are also non-standard. If you need to
work with either of these functions outside of this course, you must first check what
definition is in force.

Derivatives of inverse functions in general [1, Exercise 67, §3.6, p. 235] The
preceding discussion generalizes. If we know that a function f has an inverse, so that we
have

y = f (x) (155)
x = f −1 (y) (156)
f f −1 (y)


= y (157)
f −1 (f (x)) = x (158)

then we can differentiate implicitly to show that

dx 1
= (159)
dy dy
dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2125

dy
(where 6= 0), so that the derivatives appear to behave like fractions. Sometimes we
dx
dy dx
need to determine the slope of a curve, , but it is much easier to determine . We
dx dy
can determine the latter first, then simply take its reciprocal.

3.6 Exercises
[1, Exercise 3.6.36, p. 234] extended: (not solved in the lecture)
x2 y 2
1. “Show by implicit differentiation that the tangent to the ellipse + 2 =1
a2 b
(where a and b are non-zero constants) at the point (x0 , y0 ) on the curve is
x0 x y0 y
+ 2 = 1 .”
a2 b
 
3a 4b
2. Find an equation for the normal to the curve at the point , . (In this
5 5
context the word normal means perpendicular ; the normal to the curve at a
point is the line through the point which is perpendicular to the tangent line.)
Solution:
1. Differentiating the equation of the curve implicitly with respect to x yields
2x 2y ′
+ 2 · y = 0,
a2 b
so the slope of the tangent to the curve at the point on the curve with coor-
b2 x
dinates (x, y) is y ′ = − 2 . At the point with coordinates (x0 , y0), the slope
ay
b2 x0
of the tangent is, therefore, − 2 , and the equation of the tangent line is,
a y0
therefore,
b2 x0
y − y0 = − 2 · (x − x0 )
a y0
which may be rewritten as
x0 x y0 y x20 y02
+ = + 2. (160)
a2 b2 a2 b
We haven’t yet used the fact that (x0 , y0 ) lies on the curve; this implies that
these coordinates satisfy the equation of the curve, so
x20 y02
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2126

When we substitute this information in equation (160), we obtain the desired

equation for the tangent line.
2 3a

3a 4b
 b ·
2. The slope of the tangent at , ′
is y = − 5 = − 3b . The slope of
5 5 4b 4a
a2 ·
5
4a
the normal will, therefore, be the negative reciprocal of this number, i.e. .
3b
The equation of the line through the given point, with this slope, will be
 
4b 4a 3a
y− = · x−
5 3b 5
i.e. 5(4ax − 3by) = 12(a2 + b2 ).
[1, Exercise 3.6.46,
√ p. 234] “Find and simplify the derivative of the function f (x) =
arctan(x − 1 + x2 ).”
Solution:
 
′ 1 1 2 − 12
f (x) = √ · 1 − · (1 + x ) · 2x
1 + (x − 1 + x2 )2 2
 
1 x
= √ · 1− √
1 + x2 + (1 + x2 ) − 2x 1 + x2 1 + x2
√ !
1 1 1 + x2 − x
= · √ · √
2 1 + x2 − x 1 + x2 1 + x2
√ !
1 1 1 + x2 − x
= ·√ √
· √
2 1 + x2 1 + x2 − x 1 + x2
1 1
= ·
2 1 + x2

[1, Exercise 3.6.50, p. 234] (not discussed in the lecture) “Find the derivative of the
function
y = arctan cos θ ; (161)
simplify where possible.”
Solution:
1. First solution, using the Chain Rule:
d 1
arctan(cos θ) = · (− sin θ) .
dθ 1 + cos2 θ
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2127

2. Second solution, using implicit differentiation: Applying the tangent function

to both sides of (161) yields

tan y = cos θ .

We differentiate both sides with respect to θ:

dy
sec2 y · = − sin θ
dθ
dy
and solve for :
dθ
dy sin θ sin θ sin θ
=− 2 =− 2 =− .
dθ sec y 1 + tan y 1 + cos2 θ

[1, Exercise 3.6.56, p. 235] “Show that the given curves are orthogonal:

x2 − y 2 = 5 (162)
4x2 + 9y 2 = 72 .” (163)

Solution: Differentiating the first equation “implicitly” with respect to x yields

dy dy x
2x − 2y · =0⇒ = ;
dx dx y
while the second equation yields
dy dy 4x
8x + 18y · =0⇒ =− .
dx dx 9y
dy
In the preceding, the derivatives are not the same; they denote the slopes of
dx
the two curves, even if we are considering a point which is simultaneously on both
curves. That is precisely what we must do if we wish to test orthogonality, i.e.,
perpendicularity: we must show that, at the points where the curves meet, their
tangents are perpendicular; or, equivalently, we must show that the products of
the slopes of the two curves at a point where they meet is −1. The product is

4x2
  
x 4x
− = − 2.
y 9y 9y
But this does not seem to be equal to −1; where have we gone wrong? Remember
that we are considering this product of derivatives only at points that are on both
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2128

curves. So the only points we need to consider are those satisfying both of the
equations. Consider a point (x, y) which is on both curves. If we solve equations
(162), (163), interpreting them as equations in the variables x2 and y 2, we obtain

(x2 , y 2 ) = (9, 4)

from which it follows that the product of the slopes of the tangents at the points
(x, y) of intersection is
4x2 4·9
− 2 =− = −1
9y 9·4
so the tangents at points of intersection are, indeed, perpendicular.
[1, Exercise 65, §3.6, p. 235] (not discussed in the lecture) Find all points on the
curve
x2 y 2 + xy = 2 (164)
where the slope of the tangent line is −1.
Solution: Implicit differentiation of (164) yields

2x · y 2 + x2 · 2y · y ′ + y + x · y ′ = 0 . (165)

While we could solve for y ′, we need only set y ′ = −1 directly in (165), obtaining

2x · y 2 − x2 · 2y + y − x = 0 , (166)

which factorizes as
(1 + 2xy)(x − y) = 0 .
Thus the points we seek lie on at least one of the curves
1
y = − (167)
2x
y = x. (168)

They also lie on the given curve (164); we can find the points by solving each of the
preceding equations with (164). We see immediately that there are no points of
intersection on (167); but the coordinates of points of intersection on (168) satisfy
x4 + x2 = 2, i.e. (x2 + 2)(x2 − 1) = 0, so x = ±1, and y = ±1.
(The equation of the given “curve” factorizes into

(xy + 2)(xy − 1) = 0

so the “curve” actually is the union of two curves, xy = −2 and xy = 1, indeed it

has 4 branches! We could have attacked the problem by explicit differentiation of
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2129

2 1
− and − , setting the derivatives equal to the given value of 1, etc. This is not
x x
always the case, but often happens in textbook examples that are chosen to have
simplified algebra. Try to solve problems for the purpose they are intended, but
then look for facts like this one to verify your work or to permit more insight into
the particular example.)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2130

D.14 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 23rd,

2006
Release Date: Monday, October 23rd, 2006
(subject to revision or correction)

3.6 Exercises (conclusion)

[1, Exercise 3.6.68, p. 235] 1. “Show that f (x) = 2x + cos x is one-to-one.

2. “What is the value of f −1 (1)?
′
3. “... find (f −1 ) (1)?”
Solution:

1. This question is actually premature, since a rigorous proof would need to use
the theory we will meet in [1, §4.2]. So let us look at the question intuitively.
The slope of the graph is y ′ = 2 − sin x, which can never be less than 2 − 1 =
1 > 0; thus the tangents are always sloping upwards, so the graph is always
rising as one proceeds from left to right, and there cannot be two points on
the curve having the same y-value; what we have “proved” is that the graph
satisfies the Horizontal Line Test [1, p. 64]. This proof is a bit “fuzzy”, and
we will have a better way of expressing these ideas when we reach [1, §4.2]
and consider the Mean Value Theorem.
2. We have to solve, for x, the equation 1 = y = 2x − cos x. While this would
be difficult if y were a general number, we can do it easily by inspection when
y = 1, as we can see that x = 0 has the desired property. Since the function
has an inverse, x = 0 is the only solution.
3. The equation of the graph of the given function is

y = 2x + cos x,

and, as seen above, differentiation yields

dy
= 2 − sin x
dx
dy
We just saw that, when y = 1, x = 0. We know that the value of is
dx
dx 1
2 − sin 0 = 2 at this point; it follows from (159) that = .
dy 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2131

D.14.1 §3.7 Higher Derivatives

Notation for higher derivatives In the notes for the earlier lectures (cf. §D.6) I have
listed some alternative notations for the (first) derivative. The “higher” derivatives, i.e.
the iterated derivatives, may be denoted by variants of these notations, e.g., f ′′ (a), ′′′
 n f  (a),
2 n n 
df d f d f d f
. . . , f (n) (a); 2
(a), . . . , n
(a); n
; D n f (a), D n f (x)|x=a ; Dxx...xf (a); .
dx dx dx x=a
 dxn x=a
Note that in the “Leibniz” (fractional) notation the symbol indicating the number of
differentiations is placed at a location in the “numerator” different from that in the
“denominator” of the symbol.

Significance of the higher derivatives The second derivative represents the rate of
change of the first derivative. In [1, §4.3] we shall see that, for a doubly differentiable
function f (x), f ′′ (x) has a significance in connection with the “concavity” of the graph
of f .
When f (t) represents the position at time t of a particle moving on a line, the first
derivative represents the velocity of the moving particle, and y ′′ (t) represents the rate of
change of velocity, which is called the acceleration of the moving particle. Many of the
common equations of mathematical physics involve the second derivative, since Newton’s
2nd Law of Motion [1, §6.4, p. 460] relates the time derivative of the product of mass
and f ′ (t) to the applied force. Where mass is constant, this reduces to the equation
F = mass × f ′′ (t) ,
which leads to a differential equation that must be solved to determine the equation of
motion of the moving particle. Even where mass is not constant, as, for example, in a
rocket rising vertically under gravity, and gradually expending its fuel (and so reducing
its mass), an equation can be obtained involving the second derivative:
d mass ′
· f (t) + mass × f ′′ (t) .
F =
dt
Example D.21 Prove that the function y = e4x + 2e−x has the property that
y ′′′ − 13y ′ − 12y = 0 (169)
for all x. We say that y = e4x + 2e−x is a solution of the differential equation (169).
Solution: We determine the derivatives by repeated applications of the rules of differen-
tiation, including the Chain Rule:
y = e4x + 2e−x
y′ = 4e4x − 2e−x
y ′′ = 16e4x + 2e−x
y ′′′ = 64e4x − 2e−x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2132

Hence

y ′′′ − 13y ′ − 12y = 64e4x − 2e−x − 13 4e4x − 2e−x − 12 e4x + 2e−x

= 0 · e4x + 0 · e−x = 0

Does the second derivative behave “like a fraction”? We have seen in §D.12.1
of these notes that the first derivative “behaves like a fraction”, in the sense that, where
a function y(x) has an inverse,
dx 1
= .
dy dy
dx
This symbolically simple situation does not hold for higher derivatives. Let’s attempt to
d2 x
express in terms of the derivatives of y with respect to x. In the equation
dy 2
dx dy
· =1
dy dx
we interpret each of the factors on the left side as a function of x; but, in differentiating
dx
the first factor we interpret as a function of an intermediate variable y which is a
dy
function of x; we obtain  2 
dx dy dx d2 y
· + · = 0,
dy 2 dx dy dx2
d2 x
which we may solve for :
dy 2

d2 x dx
·
d2 x dy 2 dy
= −  2
dy 2 dy
dx
d2 y
2
= −  dx 3 .
dy
dx

(You are not expected to memorize this formula!)

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2133

Determination of higher derivatives by implicit differentiation:

Example D.22 Suppose that x and y are related by the equation ex+y = xy. Determine
d2 y
.
dx2
Solution: Implicit differentiation of the given equation with respect to x yields

ex+y · (1 + y ′) = 1 · y + x · y ′ .

We can now proceed in two ways.

Solve for y ′: Solving for y ′ yields

y − ex+y
y′ =
. (170)
ex+y − x
However, we could have simplified the equation before solving, since ex+y = xy:

xy · (1 + y ′) = 1 · y + x · y ′ . (171)

Now, when we solve, we obtain

y(1 − x)
y′ = − .
x(1 − y)

We then differentiate using the Quotient Rule:

(y ′ (1 − x) + y(−1)) · x(y − 1) + y(1 − x) · (1(1 − y) + x(−y ′ ))

y ′′ =
x2 (1 − y)2

Differentiate implicitly first: As in the preceding method, first simplify the equation
to (171); then differentiate implicitly without solving for y ′ :

1 · y · (1 + y ′ ) + xy ′ · (1 + y ′) + xy · (0 + y ′′ ) = y ′ + 1y ′ + xy ′′ (172)

At this point we could solve for y ′′.

Neither of these solutions is fully simplified. For the 1st method we can further simplify
by using the information in (170):
y
y ′′ = · (x − 1)2 + (y − 1)2 .


x2 (y − 1)3
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2134

Example D.23 In [1, Example 3.6.2, p. 230] the textbook shows by implicit differenti-
ation that, if
x3 + y 3 = 6xy (173)
then
2y − x2
y′ = . (174)
y 2 − 2x
d2 y
Determine the value of 2 when (x, y) = (3, 3).
dx
Solution:
d 2y − x2
 
′′
y =
dx y 2 − 2x
(2y ′ − 2x)(y 2 − 2x) − (2y − x2 )(2yy ′ − 2x)
=
(y 2 − 2x)2

24y ′(3) − 24
Substituting x = y = 3 yields y ′′ = , where the argument of y ′ refers to
9
x = 3. Since substitution of (x, y) = (3, 3) in (174) yields y ′(3) = −1, we have
−24 − 24 16
y ′′ = − =− .
9 3

A high order derivative evaluated by Mathematical Induction (This subsec-

tion is not examination material in 2006/07.) Consider [1, Exercise 40, p. 241]:
to determine a formula for D 1000 (xe−x ).
Solution: We begin by some experimentation. We evaluate D n (xe−x ) where n is a small
positive integer, and try to guess what a general formula might involve.

D 1 xe−x = 1 · e−x + x · e−x · (−1) = (1 − x)e−x

D 2 xe−x = D D xe−x = D (1 − x)e−x

= (−1) · e−x + (1 − x) · e−x · (−1) = (x − 2)e−x

D 3 xe−x = D D 2 xe−x = D (x − 2)e−x

= 1 · e−x + (x − 2) · e−x · (−1) = (3 − x)e−x

By now we can guess what the general formula might be; if you don’t see how I arrive
at the guess, differentiate a few more times until the likely pattern emerges. My guess is

D n xe−x = (−1)n+1 (n − x)e−x .

(175)

We can observe that this formula “works” for n = 1, 2, 3; it also “works” for n = 0, where
we interpret D 0 as an operation that maps a function on to itself. Under Mathematical
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2135

Induction, having proved the formula valid at some starting value — here either n = 0
or n = 1, we assume it true for a general value, n = N, and try to infer that it is also
true for the next value, n = N + 1. Indeed, if (175) is valid when n = N, then

D N +1 xe−x = D D N xe−x

by definition of D N +1
= D (−1)N +1 (N − x)e−x

which is our “induction hypothesis”

= (−1)N +1 (−1) · e−x + (N − x) · e−x · (−1)

by the Product Rule

= (−1)N +1 (x − (N + 1)) · e−x

= (−1)(N +1)+1 ((N + 1) − x)e−x

which is precisely what we wanted to prove for the value of the (N + 1)st derivative.
The Principle of Mathematical Induction permits us to infer that (175) is true for all
non-negative integers n, thereby proving that the guess was correct.
For a proof by Mathematical Induction to succeed, one needs to have the right guess,
and to be able to infer each case from the preceding one, in a general way.
Let’s not lose sight of why we proved this result: it was to determine D 1000 xe−x .

So we now may use the case n = 100 of equation (175).

3.7 Exercises

[1, Exercise 3.7.20, p. 240] “Find the first and second derivatives of the function y =
tan−1 (x2 ).”
Solution: By the Chain Rule,
d 1 2x
tan−1 (x2 ) = 2 2
· 2x = .
dx 1 + (x ) (1 + x4 )2

We then apply the Quotient Rule:

2(1 + x4 ) − 2x · 4x3 2 (1 − 3x4 )

y ′′ = = .
(1 + x2 )2 (1 + x2 )2

[1, Exercise 3.7.36, p. 241] (This exercise may be omitted by students in 2006/07, as
Mathematical Induction, which is require in its proof, is not examination material
√
this semester.)“Find a formula for f (n) (x) for all positive integers n: f (x) = x.”
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2136

Solution: This problem must be solved using Mathematical Induction, or an equiv-

alent method. We first experiment to arrive at a general result, which we will then
have to prove to be correct. Let’s start with the experimentation:
√ 1
f (0) (x) = x = x2 (hypothesis)
1 1 1 1
f (1) (x) = x 2 −1 = x− 2
2
   2
1 1 1 1 3
f (2) (x) = − x− 2 −1 = − 2 x− 2
2 2 2
  
3 1 3 1·3 5
f (3) (x) = − − 2 x− 2 −1 = 3 x− 2
2 2 2
  
5 1·3 5 1 · 3 · 5 −7
f (4) (x) = − 3
x− 2 −1 = − x 2
2 2 24

We can now guess that the general formula will be

1 · 3 · 5 · 7 · . . . · (2n − 3) 2n−1
f (n) (x) = (−1)n+1 x 2
2n
for n ≥ 1. We need to formulate this conjecture75 in “closed form”, i.e., without
using the “. . .” symbol. The magnitude of the numerator is the product of the first
n − 1 odd integers. If we multiply by the even integers between them, and then
divide these out, we obtain
1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · . . . · (2n − 4) · (2n − 3)
1 · 3 · 5 · 7 · . . . · (2n − 3) =
2 · 4 · 6 · . . . · (2n − 4)
(2n − 3)! (2n − 2)!
= n−2 = n−1
2 (n − 2)! 2 (n − 1)!
where n! — read n factorial — is the product of the positive integers 1, 2, . . ., n,
and where we define 0! to mean 1. We can now guess that the general formula is
(2n − 2)! 2n−1
f (n) = (−1)n+1 · x− 2 (n ≥ 1) . (176)
22n−1 (n
− 1)!
All of the preceding work was just to prepare the guess, now the proof proper
begins. In a proof by induction we must first prove a starting case. Usually we
start from 0 or 1, but here I will start at n = 2. If we substitute n = 2 into the
right-hand member of equation (176), we obtain
(2 · 2 − 2)! 2·2−1 2! 3 1 3
(−1)2+1 · x− 2 = (−1)3 3 · x− 2 = − · x− 2 ,
22·2−1 (2− 1)! 2 (1)! 4
75
=guess
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2137

which agrees with the value computed earlier for the 2nd derivative. Thus the case
n = 2 has been proved. Now suppose that we know that (176) is true for the case
n = N > 1. Then we can differentiate both sides of the equation, to obtain
 
(N +1) d N +1 (2N − 2)! − 2N−1
f = (−1) ·x 2
dx 22N −1 (N − 1)!
(2N − 2)! d  − 2N−1 
= (−1)N +1 2N −1 · x 2
2 (N − 1)! dx
 
N +1 (2N − 2)! 2N − 1 2N−1
= (−1) 2N −1
· − x− 2 −1
2 (N − 1)! 2
 
N +1 (2N − 2)! 2N − 1 −
2(N+1)−1
= (−1) · − x 2
22N −1 (N − 1)! 2
(2(N + 1) − 2)! 2(N+1)−1
= (−1)(N +1)+1 2(N +1)−1 · x− 2
2 ((N + 1) − 1)!

which is exactly the value that equation (176) gives in the case n = N + 1. Thus
we have shown that, starting from the value n = 2, the truth of every case of
the equation implies the truth of its successor. By the Principle of Mathematical
Induction we may conclude that the equation is true for all positive integers n ≥ 2.

[1, Exercise 3.7.50, p. 241] (Not solved in the lecture.) This problem asks that you
consider a particle moving along the x-axis, with position x at time t ≥ 0 given
t
by x(t) = . You are asked to find a formula for the acceleration, and to
1 + t2
determine when the particle is speeding up and slowing down.
Solution:
1 · (1 + t2 ) − t · (0 + 2t)
x′ (t) =
(1 + t2 )2
1 − t2
= (177)
(1 + t2 )2
′′ −2t · (1 + t2 )2 − (1 − t2 ) · 2(1 + t2 )2t
x (t) =
(1 + t2 )4
−2t(3 − t2 )
= (178)
(1 + t2 )3
To analyze when the particle is “speeding up”, we first need to askwhat is meant
d 
by speed . This concept was defined on [1, p. 161] to be  x(t), the absolute
dt
value of the velocity. The particle is “speeding up” when the first derivative of
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2138

this function is increasing; equivalently, when the derivative of the first derivative
is positive; equivalently, when the second derivative is positive. We know from
(t + 1)(t − 1)
(177) that x′ = ; as the denominator is always positive, the fraction
(1 + t2 )2
is positive when either 0 or 2 of the factors in the numerator are positive. This
occurs either when t < −1 or when t > 1. As we are told to consider only non-
negative t, this yields

−(t + 1)(t − 1)
= x′ for 0 < t < 1


2
(1 + t ) 2

|x′ | = (t + 1)(t − 1) (179)
′
= −x for 1 < t


(1 + t2 )2

√ √
−2(t + 3)(t − 3)
We know from (178) that x′′ = 2 3
; knowing where x′ (t) is posi-
(1 + t )
tive and negative, we can infer from this statement that
 √ √
2t(t + 3)(t − 3)
 x′′ = for 0 < t < 1


d ′ (1 + 2 3
|x | = √t ) √ (180)
dt ′′ 2t(t + 3)(t − 3)
 −x = − for 1 < t


(1 + t2 )3
(We would have to examine the formulæ more carefully to show that the function
has no derivative √ at t = 1.) The
√ functions have a numerator which is a constant
multiple of t, t − 3, and t + 3. At time t = 0 the particle starts from x(0) = 0
and moves to the right (i.e., in the positive direction). The initial speed is 1,
and this speed decreases as t → 1− . When t = 1, the particle√has arrived at
x(1) = 12 , its speed has decreased to 0. As t increases from 1 to 3, the velocity
becomes negative,
√ and the particle moves
√ to the left at an increasing speed, until
time t = 3, when it is at position 43 , and it is moving to the left at the rate of
1
8
. At that point in time the speed stops increasing and starts to decrease again,
although the particle does not change its direction of motion. It continues to move
to the left, now at decreasing speed, approaching — but never reaching — the
origin, which is its limiting position as t → ∞.

D.14.2 §3.8 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

The derivative of the logarithm function Since the logarithm and exponential
functions are inverses of each other, we know that
eln x = x for all x > 0 (181)
and ln ex = x for all x . (182)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2139

Analogously to our earlier determination of the derivatives of the inverses of the trigono-
metric functions, let us differentiate implicitly in (181) with respect to x:
d
eln x · ln x = 1 ,
dx
which equation we may solve for the derivative of ln x:
d 1 1
ln x = ln x = .
dx e x
More generally, if a is any positive real number, and we differentiate implicitly in

aloga x = x ,

we obtain
d
aloga x ln a · loga x = 1 ,
dx
which we may solve to obtain
d 1 1
loga x = log x = .
dx a a ln a x ln a

The derivative of ln |x|: If we consider separately the domains 0 < x and x < 0, we
d 1
can show that ln |x| = for x 6= 0. Read the proof in [1, Example 3.8.6, p. 246].
dx x

Fixed base and exponent vs. variable base and exponent. Let’s consider how
we differentiate functions of the form a(x)b(x) .

1. When a(x) and b(x) are both constants, a(x)b(x) is also constant, and its derivative
is 0.

2. When b(x) is a constant b 6= 0, use the Chain Rule:

d da(x)
a(x)b = b · a(x)b−1 ·


;
dx dx
d d
a(x)0 =


of course 1 = 0.
dx dx
3. When a(x) is a positive constant a, and b(x) = x, we saw in equation (138), that
d x
a = ax ln a .
dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2140

4. When a(x) is a positive constant a, and b(x) is unrestricted, we may apply the
result just preceding to obtain (by the Chain Rule with u = b(x)),

d b(x)

d u  d
a = a  · u
dx du u=b(x) dx
d
= ab(x) · ln a · b(x)
dx

5. But we are even able to differentiate the most general case, if a(x) > 0:

d d  ln a(x)
b(x) 
a(x)b(x) =


e
dx dx
d (ln a(x))·b(x)

= e
dx
d
= e(ln a(x))·b(x) · ln e · ((ln a(x)) · b(x))
dx
d
= a(x)b(x) · ln e · ((ln a(x)) · b(x))
dx
 
b(x) d d
= a(x) · ln e · (ln a(x)) · b(x) + ln a(x) · b(x)
dx dx
 
b(x) 1 d d
= a(x) · ln e · · a(x) · b(x) + ln a(x) · b(x)
a(x) dx dx
 
b(x) 1 d d
= a(x) · · a(x) · b(x) + ln a(x) · b(x)
a(x) dx dx

since ln e = 1.

Warning! Do not attempt to memorize these formulæ. If you are asked to

differentiate functions of these types, we will always expect you to show your work, so it
will not be acceptable to substitute in a memorized formula, even if you could remember
it perfectly.

Logarithmic Differentiation The last case discussed above can also be approached
as follows. First give a name to a(x)b(x) , say y = a(x)b(x) . Then take logarithms of both
sides of the equation:
ln y = b(x) · ln a(x) ,
and differentiate the resulting equation implicitly with respect to x:
1 dy d 1 d
· = b(x) · ln a(x) + b(x) · · a(x) .
y dx dx a(x) dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2141

dy
Now solve the equation for and express in terms of a(x) and b(x):
dx
 
dy d 1 d
=y b(x) · ln a(x) + b(x) · · a(x) .
dx dx a(x) dx
Then express this result in terms of the original function:
 
d b(x)

b(x) d 1 d
a(x) = a(x) b(x) · ln a(x) + b(x) · · a(x) ,
dx dx a(x) dx
as before. You may use either the method given before, or this latter one, (which is often
called “logarithmic differentiation”).
The preceding formula should not be memorized! What you should remember
is the procedure:
• Name the function.
• Take logarithms of both sides of the naming equation.
• Differentiate both sides implicitly with respect to the original independent variable.
• Solve for the derivative.
• Simplify, and remove reference to the name given to the function.

3.8 Exercises
1
[1, Exercise 3.8.26, p. 249] To differentiate f (x) = , and to find the domain
1 + ln x
of f .
Solution: The domain of f consists of all x where the denominator is defined, and
where that denominator is non-zero. The denominator is defined wherever ln x is
defined, i.e. where x > 0. However, it is 0 when ln x = −1, i.e. when x = 1e . So the
domain is    
1 1
0, ∪ ,∞ .
e e
   
d 1 −1 1
= · 0+
dx 1 + ln x (1 + ln x)2 x
−1
=
x(1 + ln x)2
Problems involving logarithms can often lead to several solutions that appear to
be different. For example, in this problem one can use the fact that 1 = ln e to
rewrite 1 + ln x as ln e + ln x, which is ln(ex).
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2142

[1, Exercise 3.8.38, p. 249] “Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of
the function r
2
4 x + 1
y= .” (183)
x2 − 1
Solution: Taking logarithms in equation (183) yields

1 x2 + 1
ln y = ln .
4 x2 − 1
We observe that the numerator of the fraction is always positive; as we are taking
the 4th root of the fraction, it must be positive, so the denominator also must be
positive. We may, therefore, invoke the property of logarithms [1, 2nd Law, p. 68]
that the log of a quotient is the difference of the logs:
1
ln x2 + 1 − ln x2 − 1 .




ln y =
4
Differentiating implicitly with respect to x in the last equation yields
 
1 ′ 1 1 1
·y = · 2x − 2 · 2x
y 4 x2 + 1 x −1
−x
=
(x + 1)(x2 − 1)
2

implying that
−x
y′ = y · 2
(x + 1)(x2 − 1)
3 5
= −x(x2 + 1)− 4 (x2 − 1)− 4 .

[1, Exercise 3.8.18, p. 249] “Differentiate the function

r
3u + 2
G(u) = ln .” (184)
3u − 2

Solution: In the Solutions Manual that the publisher provides instructors, the
authors write
1
G(u) = [ln(3u + 2) − ln(3u − 2)] (185)
2
⇒  
′ 1 3 3 −6
G (u) = − = 2 (186)
2 3u + 2 3u − 2 9u − 4
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2143

The value given for the derivative is correct; but the full solution is not always
correct. Suppose that u < − 23 . Then both the numerator and the denominator of
3u + 2
are negative: while the fraction is positive, and the square root function is
3u − 2
defined there, the logarithm function is not defined at either the numerator or the
denominator. One could modify the preceding incorrect derivation as follows:
2 1
When u > , G(u) = [ln(3u + 2) − ln(3u − 2)] (187)
3 2
⇒  
′ 1 3 3 −6
G (u) = − = 2 (188)
2 3u + 2 3u − 2 9u − 4
2 1
When u < − , G(u) = [ln(−3u − 2) − ln(−3u + 2)] (189)
3 2
⇒  
′ 1 −3 −3 −6
G (u) = − = 2 . (190)
2 −3u − 2 −3u + 2 9u − 4
Thus the expression given for the derivative was correct, even though the derivation
was incorrect when u < − 32 .
1
[1, Exercise 3.8.40, p. 249] To differentiate y = x x .
Solution:
Using logarithmic differentiation:
1 1 ln x
y = x x ⇒ ln y = · ln x =
x x
1
1 ′ · x − (ln x) · 1
⇒ ·y = x
y x2
1 − ln x 1 1 − ln x
⇒ y′ = y · 2
= xx ·
x x2
Without using logarithmic differentiation:
d  ln x
x1 
y′ = e
dx
d  ln x 
= e x
dx
 ln x  d  ln x 
= e x ·
dx x
 ln x  1 · x − (ln x) · 1
= e x · x
x2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2144

1
ln x

x1 x
· x − (ln x) · 1
= e ·
x2
1
· x − (ln x) · 1
= x · x
1
x
x2
etc.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2145

D.15 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 25th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, October 25th, 2006
subject to revision

The number e as a limit Let a be a real number. Then

1
1
lim (1 + ax) x = lim eln(1+ax) x
x→0 x→0
 ln(1+ax) 
= lim e x
x→0
ln(1+ax)
lim
= ex→0 x
by the continuity of the exponential function
ln(1+ax)−ln(1+0(x))
lim
= ex→0 x−0

e dx (ln(1+ax))|x=0
d
=
e 1+ax |x=0
a
=
= ea .
In particular,
1
lim (1 + x) x = e . (191)
x→0
We may wish to express this as a limit to +∞, by defining y = x1 :
 y
a
lim 1 + = ea . (192)
y→+∞ y

D.15.1 §3.9 Hyperbolic Functions

In this section we define functions that have a strong relationship to the 6 trigonometric
functions; they are called the hyperbolic functions, and their names resemble those of
the trigonometric functions, except for the letter “h” added at the end. Most of the
reasons for this relationship cannot be proved in this course, however; in MATH 141,
when we study [1, §10.1]76 , we shall see that there is a certain analogy between two of
these functions and the corresponding trigonometric functions.
Earlier in these notes I stated a theorem (D.2, p. ??) which asserted that any function
can be decomposed into an “even” part and an “odd” part. The hyperbolic cosine
function, cosh, is defined to be the “even” part of ex ; formally, its definition is
1 x
e + e−x .


cosh x =
2
76
see, for example [1, Exercise 17, p. 657]
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2146

By definition, it is even, (just like the cosine function), because

1 x
e + e−x


cosh x =
2
1 −x
e + ex


=
2
1 −x
e + e−(−x)


=
2
= cosh(−x) .

In a similar way, one can prove that the hyperbolic sine, defined by
1 x
e − e−x .


sinh x =
2
has the property that
sinh(−x) = − sinh x
which, by definition of odd , tells us that the function is odd, just like the sine function.
The other four hyperbolic functions are defined by the same ratios used to define the
analogous trigonometric functions:

sinh x ex − e−x
tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
cosh x ex + e−x
coth x = = x
sinh x e − e−x
1 2
sech x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
1 2
csch x = = x
sinh x e − e−x
The similarities with the trigonometric functions do not end here. We find that the hy-
perbolic functions satisfy identities that resemble trigonometric identities. For example,
you should be able to prove that

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y .

The similarities continue to the derivatives:

d
sinh x = cosh x
dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2147

d
cosh x = sinh x
dx
d
tanh x = sech2 x
dx
d
coth x = −csch2 x
dx
d
sech x = −sech x · tanh x
dx
d
csch x = −csch x · coth x .
dx

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions Hyperbolic functions sinh and tanh are invertible;
as are csch and coth, but their domain excludes the origin. Functions cosh and sech are
invertible only if we confine ourselves to a portion of their domain, usually taken to be
the non-negative real numbers. The properties of the inverse functions can be discovered
using similar methods to those we used to study the inverse trigonometric functions.
However, unlike the inverse trigonometric functions, these inverse functions don’t enable
us to express any new ideas, in that they are expressible in terms of known functions
like the natural logarithm.
Example D.24 Express the inverse hyperbolic cosecant in terms of familiar functions.
Solution: Suppose that y = csch x; we wish to solve for x in terms of y.
1
y = csch x ⇔ sinh x =
y
2
⇔ ex − e−x =
y
2 x
⇔ e2x − 1 = ·e
y
2 x
⇔ (ex )2 − ·e −1=0
y
1 p 
⇒ ex = 1 ± 1 + y2
y
Case 1: Suppose y > 0. As exponentials are never negative, we can replace ± by +; then
we take logarithms of both sides:
p !
1 + 1 + y2 p
x = ln = ln(1 + y 2 + 1) − ln y .
y

Since we are in the custom of calling the independent variable x, we will change the
variable’s name, to obtain
p
csch−1 x = ln(1 + x2 + 1) − ln x .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2148

Case 2: Suppose y < 0. Here the positivity of ex leads us to choosing the minus sign; we
obtain, after reduction and the taking of logarithms,
!
−y p
x = ln p = − ln(1 + y 2 + 1) + ln(−y) .
1 + 1 + y2

Since we are in the custom of calling the independent variable x, we will change the
variable’s name, to obtain
p
csch−1 x = − ln(1 + x2 + 1) + ln(−x) .

This example demonstrates that anything we wish to “say” using the inverse hy-
perbolic cosecant could be expressed in terms of polynomials and logarithms; the same
phenomenon holds for the other inverse hyperbolic functions.
We sometimes use the alternative “arc” names: arcsinh, arccosh, . . .. The derivatives
of these functions can be determined using implicit differentiation, similarly to what we
did for inverse trigonometric functions. The derivatives of the inverses may also be found
by explicit differentiation after we have found a formula for the inverse functions.

What should I remember? It is essential to remember the definitions of the functions

in terms of exponential functions. Then, even if you don’t remember some identities,
you can reconstruct them by expressing the hyperbolic functions in those terms.
We will not expect students in this course to remember the explicit formulæ for the
inverse hyperbolic functions, although you should know how to find those formulæ if
asked, using the method of the preceding example. You should also be comfortable with
the general question of finding the inverse function of any function whose graph satisfies
the “Horizontal Line Test”, and know how to find its derivative.

3.9 Exercises

[1, Exercise 3.9.9, p. 255] “Prove that ex = cosh x + sinh x.” This is a decomposition
of ex as a sum of an even function and an odd function.
3
[1, Exercise 3.9.20, p. 255] “If sinh x = 4
, find the values of the other hyperbolic
functions at x.”
Solution: Since we know that the hyperbolic sine has an inverse, we could use that
function to determine x, then evaluate the other functions there.
3
x = arcsinh
4
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2149

 s  
2
3 3
= ln  + + 1
4 4
 
3 5
= ln + = ln 2
4 4
⇒ ex = 2
1
⇒ e−x = .
2
It follows that cosh x = 54 , tanh x = 35 , etc.
Instead, we will proceed from first principles; in effect we are repeating some of the
work that was done to determine a formula for the inverse function (which you are
not expected to memorize).

3 ex − e−x 3
sinh x = ⇒ =
4 2 4
x −x
⇒ 2(e − e ) = 3
⇒ 2 (ex )2 − 3ex − 2 = 0
√
x 3 ± 9 + 16 3±5 1
⇒ e = = = 2 or − ,
4 4 2
But, of these 2 values, the second is extraneous, since an exponential cannot be
negative. From the value of ex we can proceed as above to determine the values of
the other hyperbolic functions.
[1, Exercise 3.9.38, p. 255] (not solved in the lecture) “Find the derivative: f (t) =
ln(sinh t).”
Solution: We apply the Chain Rule:
1
f ′ (t) = · cosh t
sinh t
= coth t .
sinh x
[1, Exercise 3.9.52, p. 256] Evaluate lim .
x→∞ ex
Solution:
ex −e−x
sinh x 2
lim = lim
x→∞ ex x→∞ ex
−2x
1−e 1
= lim = .
x→∞ 2 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2150

[1, Exercise 3.9.54, p. 256] (not discussed in the lecture) “ If x = ln(sec θ + tan θ),
show that sec θ = cosh x.”
Solution:

cosh x = cosh(ln(sec θ + tan θ))

1 ln(sec θ+tan θ)
+ e− ln(sec θ+tan θ)


= e
2 
1 ln(sec θ+tan θ) 1
= e + ln(sec θ+tan θ)
2 e
 
1 1
= sec θ + tan θ +
2 sec θ + tan θ
2 2
sec θ + tan θ + 2 sec θ · tan θ + 1
=
2(sec θ + tan θ)
2
2 sec θ + 2 sec θ tan θ
=
2(sec θ + tan θ)
= sec θ

D.15.2 §3.10 Related Rates.

In this section we consider problems where there are multiple functions, but usually one
independent variable. Typically we need to relate the rates of change with respect to
this single independent variable. The problems are usually presented in a verbal form,
and so the first step of solution requires translation into a mathematical statement to
which we may apply the tools we have available from the calculus. When a function is
spoken about, it may be advisable to attempt to specify the domain; which will often —
but not always — be the “maximal” domain. There are a number of “typical” questions
that calculus books like to ask; of course, you can prepare yourself for those types by
working extensive examples. These “typical” questions involve the basic issues, but have
become typical over the years because they entail a practical level of difficulty, or involve
concepts that students like you are able to identify with; however, the equations that
one obtains using the Chain Rule are normally “linear” — of a form where the various
derivatives are related by a sum of the form
function time derivative + function times derivative +...=0
and that means that it is normally possible to solve for the derivative that interests us in
terms of the other derivatives. Thus there is potentially a very wide range of problems
that can be formulated, and, in theory, you should be able to solve all of them! Since it is
possible that you will be asked a problem different from any you have seen, so you should
try to understand the underlying issues. The textbook contains 5 worked examples of
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2151

different types, and we will not have time to work all of these types in the lectures. Do
not assume that, because a particular type does not appear in the worked examples, or
does not appear in a WeBWorK assignment, that it is not a reasonable question for
Math 140.

TO BE CONTINUED
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2152

D.16 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of October 30th,

2006
Release Date: Monday, October 30th, 2006, subject to further revision

D.16.1 §3.10 Related Rates (conclusion)

3.10 Exercises

[1, Exercises 3.10.3, 3.10.5, p. 260] Try these problems and look at the solutions in
the Solution Manual. These problems are already in purely mathematical language,
so there is no verbiage to penetrate.
dy dx
[1, Exercises 3.10.4, p. 260] If x2 + y 2 = 25 and = 6, find when y = 4.
dt dt
Solution: Differentiating implicitly with respect to t in the equation of the circle
gives
dx dy
2x · + 2y · = 0.
dt dt
dy
Substituting y = 4 amd dt
= 6 yields

dx
2x · + 2(4)6 = 0 ,
dt
dx
so x · = −24. However, the given value of y implies that x2 = 25 − 16 = 9,
dt
so x = ±3. If follows that there are 2 different values of the derivative we seek:
dx
= ∓8, according as x = ±3.
dt
[1, Exercise 3.10.12, p. 260] “A spotlight on the ground shines on a wall 12 m away.
If a man 2 m tall walks from the spotlight toward the wall, at a speed of 1.6 m/s,
how fast is the length of his shadow on the building decreasing when he is 4 m
from the building.”
Solution: It is usually good practice to draw a sketch of whatever situation is being
described; (I shall not do that in these notes because the software I am using is
very cumbersome and time-consuming to create even simple figures).
Since I don’t have a figure to rely on, I am forced to do what you should always
do: to define every symbol that is used precisely. I will place the spotlight at the
origin, and denote the foot of the wall by W ; I take the ground to be along the
positive x-axis, and so the coordinates of W are (12, 0). The top of the shadow
will be the point S, and I define its height as h, so its coordinates are (12, h). Let
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2153

the feet of the walking man be at A(x, 0), and the top of the man’s head B(x, 2).
dh dx
The problem is to determine − , when we know .
dt dt
Triangles SOW and BOA are similar, and so the lengths of their sides must be
proportional. This implies that
h 12 |OS|
= = .
2 x |OB|
From these equations, of which we are using only one, we infer that
24
h= .
x
Differentiating all members of this equation with respect to t, we obtain
 
dh d 24 24 dx
= =− 2 · .
dt dt x x dt
We now have the relationship we need in general; we apply it when |AW | = 4, i.e.,
when x = 12 − 4 = 8.
dh 24
= − 2 · (1.6) = −0.6 m/s .
dt 8
The negative sign of the answer indicates that the top of the shadow is moving
in the negative direction, i.e., downwards. As the problem requested the rate at
which the length is decreasing, that will be +0.6 m/s.

[1, Exercise 26, p. 261] “Two sides of a triangle have lengths 12 m and 15 m. The
angle between them is increasing at a rate of 2 degrees/minute. How fast is the
length of the third side increasing when the angle between the sides of fixed length
is 60 degrees.”
Solution: To solve this problem you need to know a relationship between the angle
and the lengths of the sides. This relationship has not been stated in the problem,
but is in the elementary trigonometry that you are assumed to have brought to the
course from your precalculus or earlier background. The simplest way to express
this relationship is by the Law of Cosines, which is given in the textbook [1,
Exercise 83, Appendix D, p. A33]:

If a triangle has sides with lengths a, b, c, and C is the angle between the
sides with lengths a and b, then

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2154

In the present problem, the relationship is given by

c2 = 122 + 152 − 2 · 12 · 15 cos C
so
c2 − 144 − 225
cos C = − ,
360
but we should precede the invocation of this equation by a statement defining
what c and C are in our discussion, as we should never use a symbol that isn’t
mentioned in the problem without first defining it. (This is a rule that we don’t
have a chance to remind you about when you work problems on WeBWorK.)
When we differentiate either of the last 2 equations with respect to time, we will
obtain the relationship we need. Prior to doing that, if we wish to denote time by
a symbol, we need to define it. So we begin with
Let t denote time, measured in seconds.77
Now, differentiating, say, the latter of the two equations, we obtain
dC 2c dc
− sin C · =− · ,
dt 360 dt
which we may solve to yield
dc sin C dC
= 2c · ,
dt 360
dt
dC
which expresses the desired rate of change in terms of sin C, , and c. But we
dt
don’t know c yet; so we will have to apply the law of cosines to express c in terms
of things we know, and substitute that formula to obtain
dc sin C dC
= √ ·
dt 2 122 + 152 − 2 · 12 · 15 cos C dt
360
sin π3 dC
= √ ·
2 122 +152 −2·12·15 cos π3 dt
360
30 dC
= √ ·
7 dt
But there is still a snag! We are given that “The angle between (the sides) is
increasing at a rate of
77
Strictly speaking, we should always indicate the orientation of the coordinate axis when we describe
a new variable; as time is normally measured from the past to the future, we will dispense with that
pedantic statement.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2155

2 degrees/minute.”

dC
Why can’t we simply substitute 2 as the value of ? Because our convention is
dt
that angles are always measured in radians! We have chosen to be consistent about
this, because the alternative would be to have 2 sets of trigonometric functions,
with conversion tables. So we have to recall that
2
2◦ = · 2π radians
360
dC π
so = radians/minute; substituting this value, we obtain
dt 90
dc π
= √ metres/minute.
dt 3 7
While it is always possible for a nasty examiner to mischievously insert a trap in a
verbally stated problem, by an inconspicuous unit change, the distinction between
degrees and radians is more serious than that, because the basic differentiation
rules that we have developed depend on the use of radian measure. Be careful!
A word about notation. We often use letters like c and C to denote constants; but, when
you are in control, you are free to use any symbol for any purpose, and here both of these
letters represent variables, following an old convention in trigonometry that the angle is
named with a capital letter and the opposite side with the corresponding small letter.
Of course, it might be unwise to use a letter like d for a variable, since we might wish to
use it in representing a derivative.

[1, Exercise 3.10.38, p. 262] “The minute hand on a watch is 8 mm long, and the
hour hand is 4 mm long. How fast is the distance between the tips of the two hands
changing at 1 o’clock?”
Solution: This is the last problem in the set of exercises, and might be assumed
from its location to be more challenging than the earlier problems. But, once
all the facts are expressed symbolically, it is only moderately difficult. It does,
however, have one distinction: there are two different rates that are known, in
terms of which a third needs to be determined. There is quite a bit of work that
needs to be done in managing definitions, etc., before the relevant mathematical
formulæ are available; once that has been done, the computations are simple and
straightforward.
Let’s first set up a coordinate system. It appears natural to locate the origin at
the centre of the watch, and to orient the watch so that 12 o’clock is on the y-axis,
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2156

that 3 o’clock is on the x-axis, and that the units are chosen to be mm, so that the
tip of the minute hand rotates on the circle x2 + y 2 = 82 , and the hour hand on the
circle x2 + y 2 = 42 . The problem involves a rate with respect to time. I will denote
time by t, measured in hours. The hour hand on the clocks we use completes a
cycle in 12 hours; the minute hand in 1 hour. The problem is to determine the
rate of change of distance between the tips of the hands: let’s denote the position
of the tip of the hour hand by H, and of the minute hand by M; since the motion
of these hands is linked to a constant rate of rotation, it is convenient to name
the angles between the hands and the positive x-axis: call the angle made by HO
h, measured in radians, and the angle made by MO m, also measured in radians;
both h and m are functions of time — the hour hand moves at a constant rate,
completing a revolution in 12 hours, while the minute hand, moving at a faster but
constant rate, completes a revolution in 1 hour. Note that we are not following the
usual convention for clocks, where an angle is measured from the y-axis in what
we would consider the negative direction — clockwise. Then we know that the
coordinates of H are (4 cos h, 4 sin h), and those of M are (8 cos m, 8 sin m). The
distance between H and M is given by
p
|HM| = (4 cos h − 8 cos m)2 + (4 sin h − 8 sin m)2

However, we can use the Law of Cosines to express the distance in terms of the
difference of the respective angles:
p
|HM| = 42 + 82 − 2 · 4 · 8 cos(h − m) .

It follows that
d|HM| 1 1 d 2
4 + 82 − 2 · 4 · 8 cos(h − m)


= ·p ·
dt 2 42 + 82 − 2 · 4 · 8 cos(h − m) dt
 
1 1 d
= ·p · −2 · 4 · 8 (cos(h − m))
2 42 + 82 − 2 · 4 · 8 cos(h − m) dt
 
1 1 d
= · p · 2 · 4 · 8 sin(h − m) (h − m)
2 42 + 82 − 2 · 4 · 8 cos(h − m) dt
  
1 1 dh dm
= · p · 2 · 4 · 8 sin(h − m) − .
2 42 + 82 − 2 · 4 · 8 cos(h − m) dt dt

And what do we know? We know that

dh 2π
= − ,
dt 12
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2157

dm
= −2π ,
dt
π
h = ,
3
π
m = .
2
Hence
d|HM| 22π
=− p √ = −18.5896...
dt 3 5−2 3
approximately. At 1 o’clock the distance between the tips of the hands is decreasing
at the rate of 18.5896... mm/hour.

D.16.2 §3.11 Linear Approximations and Differentials

In this section we are interested in determining convenient approximations to a function
f . Our approximations will always be associated with a specific point in the domain of
f . For an approximation to be useful we need to know how close it is to the correct
value; or, what is the worst that the error can be within a given interval around the
point where the approximation is made.

0th degree approximations: Suppose that we approximate the function f near the
point x = a in the domain by the constant function f (a). Then the error at x = a is
0; but, without more information about the function, we can say little about the size of
the error away from x = a. Nevertheless, approximation by a constant is often a useful,
crude approximation.

1st degree approximations: A next stage of approximation is to approximate the

function by one whose graph is still a straight line, but where we choose the line to better
match the graph of f . We can do this by taking the tangent line to the graph of f at
x = a. This type of approximation is called a linear approximation, or a tangent line
approximation, or the linearization of f . A linear function is one of the form kx + ℓ,78
and what we are doing is to choose the constants k and ℓ to “fit” the curve best. To
make the approximating curve pass through the point (a, f (a)), we impose the condition
that
ka + ℓ = f (a) ,
but this single equation is not enough to determine both of the constants. For a tangent
line approximation the second constraint we impose is that the approximating line should
78
The word linear is sometimes used in a more restrictive way, to describe a function of the form kx,
i.e., where ℓ = 0; when an author uses the word linear in that sense, then she usually calls a function
kx + ℓ affine. You could meet this version of the terminology in your Linear Algebra course.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2158

“touch” the curve at the point (a, f (a)); we require that its slope be the same as the
slope of the tangent line; in fact, we are requiring that the approximating line be the
tangent line. The constraint is
k = f ′ (a) ,
which implies that ℓ = f (a) − af ′ (a), and that the approximating function, which we
may denote by L(x) is
L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a) · (x − a) .

Higher order approximations: Could we improve the approximation by finding a

curve that fits the curve better? If f is differentiable more than once, i.e. if f ′′ exists,
we can approximate better with a polynomial of degree 2, i.e. a function of the form
kx2 + ℓx + m. We will not pursue this possibility at this time, but may return to it at
the end of Math 141.

Why do we need approximations, anyhow? Sometimes an approximation is such

that, when we replace the actual function by the approximation in an important equation,
the problem changes from one that is very difficult to solve to one that is amenable. Your
textbook gives examples of this in the subsection.

Applications to Physics One interesting example is in studying the motion of a

“simple” pendulum. After determining the differential equation that describes the mo-
tion of the pendulum, we simplify it by replacing a term sin θ by θ, where θ is a small
angle, measured in radians. In terms of linear approximation we are replacing the graph
of the sine curve near θ = 0 by the graph of its tangent line: the slope is cos 0 = 1, so
the linearization is
sin θ ≈ sin 0 + cos 0 · θ = θ .
(Remember that the angle θ must be given in radians; if we wish to work in degrees,
sin x
then the limit of will not be 1, and L(x) will take a different form.)
x

Differentials:

Increments: The notation here can be a little confusing. The prefixing of the
symbol for a variable with a Greek upper case (capital) Delta (∆), normally represents
the increment in the variable; when x is the independent variable — the variable over
which we have control, the variable which is restricted only by the domain of the function
— we may denote any change in its value by ∆x. In the days before the language of
functions was formalized, mathematicians used to talk of a dependent variable y, where
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2159

we today would speak of a function y(x). Then the change in y(x) corresponding to a
change ∆x in x might be denoted by ∆y; in our notation, we would be defining

∆(y) = y(x + ∆x) − y(x) .

dy
We give meanings to dx and dy, so that, with these definitions, the fraction will
′
dx
actually be equal to f (x). We define dx to simply be any real number, although we are
not going to use this formalism for “large” numbers; the interpretation we wish to make
is that dx is to denote the increment: thus we are taking dx to be ∆x. Then we define
dy to be a function of x and of dx also; more precisely, we define

dy = f ′ · dx

which depends on two variables — on x, and also on the value we assign to dx. We will
not dwell on this issue in Math 140, because the concept of functions of more than one
variable is not introduced in our calculus sequence until Calculus 3 (Math 222). Hitherto
I have been saying that the derivative “behaves like a fraction”; with these definitions
you are free to actually consider it a fraction; it is not simply a convenient notation.

Using ingenuity to improve an approximation. Sometimes one can get “better”

results with a mathematical tool by applying it more carefully.
Example D.25 Suppose we wish to approximate cos x for − π3 ≤ x ≤ π3 . A naive
application of the present theory would approximate with the linear function

cos 0 + (− sin 0)(x − 0) = cos 0 = 1

so the linear approximation is the same as the 0th degree approximation: we would be
approximating the graph of the cosine function by the horizontal line which is tangent
cos x − 1
to the cosine graph at (0, 1). Now recall that we have proved that lim = 0.
x→0 x
Let’s try to approximate the function cos xx−1 linearly. Since 0 is not in the domain of this
function, but since its limit as x → 0 exists, the discontinuity is removable. We define

 cos x − 1 if x 6= 0


f (x) = x .
0 if x = 0


This function is continuous at all points x. In order to find a first order approximation,
we will need its derivative. This is no problem for x 6= 0, since
−(sin x)x − (cos x − 1)1 sin x 1 − cos x
f ′ (x) = = − + .
x2 x x2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2160

But, to approximate around x = 0, we will need to know f ′ (0), and we don’t even know
whether f is differentiable there. Consider the ratio

1 − 2 sin2 x2 − 1 sin x2 2
 
f (x) − f (0) cos x − 1 1 1
= 2
= 2
=− · x →−
x−0 x x 2 2
2

as x → 0. Thus a first approximation of f around x = 0 is

 
1
f (x) ≈ 0 + x · −
2

which implies that

x2
cos x ≈ 1 −
2
This is a much better approximation to the cosine function. In fact, we have found a
2nd degree approximation. Indeed, we could continue this procedure through as many
steps as we like, and obtain the Taylor polynomial which approximate the cosine function
around x = 0. This topic appears in Calculus 3, unless we succeed in introducing it at
the very end of Calculus 2.

Be careful when you choose variables! [1, Review Exercise 99, p. 273] “A window
has the shape of a square surmounted by a semicircle. The base of the window is measured
as having width 60 cm, with a possible error in measurement of 0.1 cm. Use differentials
to estimate the maximum error possible in computing the error of the window.”
Solution: We need some named variables. Let’s denote the side of the square by x. Then
x
the semicircle has radius . This makes the whole exercise involve fractions. So let’s
2
go back to the drawing board, and name the side of the square 2X; the radius of the
semicircle is X, and the area of the entire window, which we will denote by A(X) is
1
A(X) = (2X)2 + · πX 2 .
2
(Note that the remedy to eliminate fractions didn’t work — we would have to rename
the variable again if we wish to do that.) Differentiating the last formula yields

dA = 2(2X)2 dX + πX dX = (8 + π)X dX .

When dX = ±0.1, and X = 30, dA = . . .. WAIT! It was

dx that was equal to ±0.1,
3π
dX = ±0.05; then dA = ±(8 + π)30(0.05) = ± 12 + 2 .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2161

3.11 Exercises

[1, Exercise 32,√ p. 268] Use differentials (or, equivalently, a linear approximation) to
estimate 99.8.
√ 1
Solution: Let f (x) = x; then f ′ (x) = √ . We are going to approximate by a
2 x
tangent line. What should be the contact point of the tangent? If we take the point
(a, f (a)) = (0, 0), the tangent line is vertical: it never crosses the line x = 99.8,
and cannot be used to approximate this function at this point; or, alternatively, we
can say that the approximation is infinite. If we take the point (1, 1) on the graph
of the function, we obtain a very, very bad approximation:

L(x) = f (1) + f ′ (1) · (99.8 − 1) = 1 + 49.9 = 50.9 .

But, if we take as the contact point the closest convenient point to 99.8, which is
(a, f (a)) = (100, 10), then the linearization is
1
L(x) = f (100) + f ′ (100) · (−0.02) = 10 + (−0.02) = 9.99 .
20

Laboratory Project: Taylor Polynomials (This is a topic which may be reached

at the end of Math 141; it is not in the syllabus of Math 140.)

D.16.3 3 Review
True-False Quiz

[1, True/False Exercise 10, p. 271] A discussion of this problem appears in these
notes on page 2163 et seq.

Exercises
√
[1, Review Exercise 96, p. 273] Find the linear approximation to f (x) = 25 − x2
near 3.
1 x
Solution: f ′ (x) = 21 (25 − x2 ) 2 · (−2x) = − √ ; thus f ′ (3) = − 34 . Since
25 − x2
√
f (3) = 16 = 4, the linearization of f near x = 3 is

L(x) = f (3) + f ′ (3) · (x − 3)

3 25 − 3x
= 4 − · (x − 3) =
4 4
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2162

[1, True/False Exercise 12, p. 272] “Determine whether the statement is true or
false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain why, or give an example
that disproves the statement:
 2
d2 y ? dy
= .” (193)
dx2 dx

More precisely, the statement is asserting that the equality holds for all functions
f having derivatives of the given orders.
Solution: This statement is false, and most functions you know could serve as
counterexamples. For example, if f (x) = a + bx, then the second derivative is
0, but the square of the first derivative is b2 ; so any linear function of the form
f (x) = a + bx (b 6= 0) is a counterexample. We couldn’t take a constant function,
as such functions do have the given property.
A more interesting question might be to characterize all counterexamples. And
it’s not hard to do. With a property we will meet in the next chapter, we can do
dy
this! For convenience let’s denote by v. Then (193) could be rewritten as
dx
dv
= v2 .
dx
If v 6= 0, this can be rewritten as
1 dv
· = 1,
v 2 dx
d 1
or − = 1.
dx v
We shall see in the next chapter that the most general function having 1 as a
derivative is a linear function x + C, where C is any constant (real number). Thus
the most general solution of the “differential equation” is
1 dy 1
v=− ⇔ =− .
x+C dx x+C
But, again by the theory of the next chapter, the most general function having
1
− as its derivative is − ln |x + C| + K, where K is another constant. So we
x+C
see that the most general non-zero function that possesses property (193) is

y = − ln |x + C| + K
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2163

where C and K are constants. We have seen earlier that the function 0 also has
the property.
You are not expected to solve general differential equations per se in this course;
this last paragraph is presented to show you an application of the theory we will
be meeting in [1, §4.2]. If you wish to read more about Differential Equations, you
could look at [1, Chapter 9, Differential Equations], which is not on the syllabus of
MATH 140 or MATH 141. The present application could, however, be formulated
as looking for an “antiderivative” of certain functions, and we shall be meeting
that topic later in this course in [1, §4.10].

Operations that “commute”. We say that two operations commute if the order in
which they are performed does not affect the result. For example, on the set of functions
of a real variable x
• the operations of multiplication by a constant c and taking the limit as x → a
commute (provided all the limits exist); this is the Constant Multiple Law;

• the operations of addition and taking the limit commute provided the limits exist;
this is the Sum Law;

• the operations of multiplication and taking the limit commute provided the limits
exist; this is the Product Law;

• the operations of multiplication by a constant and differentiation commute (pro-

vided all derivatives exist); this could be called the “Constant Multiple Rule” of
Differentiation;

• the operations of addition and differentiation commute provided all derivatives

exist; this is the Sum Rule of Differentiation.
But there are situations where operations do not commute; one that we have just met
is the Product Rule of Differentiation, which gives a formula for the derivative of the
product of two functions, but where you can see that the derivative of the product is
not usually equal to the product of the derivatives. The following problem investigates
a question about whether two given operations commute.
[1, True/False Exercise 10, p. 271]
“Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false,
explain why or give an example that disproves the statement:
d  2 
x + x = |2x + 1| .”
dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2164

More generally, the question could have asked: “Do the operations of taking the absolute
value and differentiation commute; i.e., is it always true that
 
d d 
|f (x)| =  f (x) ?”
dx dx

Solution: Your first reaction to the statement should be one of suspicion: while we have
seen that some operations “commute” with differentiation — operations like addition,
multiplication by a constant — there is no good reason why a function that we already
know to be “unruly” should commute with differentiation. But, until we investigate a
possible proof, we can’t dismiss the possibility. The best way to approach this problem
is to determine the value of the left and right sides of the proposed equation, and to
compare them carefully.

 2 
x + x = x(x + 1) if x(x + 1) ≥ 0
−x(x + 1) if x(x + 1) < 0

x(x + 1) if x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 0
=
−x(x + 1) if −1 < x < 0

Now we differentiate:

d
[x(x + 1)] if x < −1 or x > 0

d  2  
dx
x + x = d
dx 
 [−x(x + 1)] if −1 < x < 0
 dx
d 2
[x + x] if x < −1 or x > 0


= dx
d

 [−x2 − x] if −1 < x < 0
 dx
2x + 1 if x < −1 or x > 0
=
−2x − 1 if −1 < x < 0

(We had to exclude the points −1 and 0 because the function fails to be differentiable
at those points.) We see both 2x + 1 and −(2x + 1) appearing in our formula, and it is
tempting to jump to the conclusion that the claimed equality holds. But let’s determine
the value of the right side of the proposed equation without using absolute value signs:

2x + 1 if 2x + 1 ≥ 0
|2x + 1| =
−2x − 1 if 2x + 1 < 0
2x + 1 if x ≥ − 12

=
−2x − 1 if x < − 12
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2165

Now we see that significant points for analyzing this problem are −1, − 12 , and 0. These
divide the real line into 4 intervals. By examining the values of the two sides of the equa-
tion for points in these four intervals, we should be able to find a counterexample to the
claimed equation. It’s hard work! Note first that, if x ≥ 0, the claimed equation holds;
similarly, it can be seen to hold for −1 < x < − 12 . But we claim it fails throughout the
intervals (−∞, −1) and − 21 , 0 . We don’t need to prove that much for a counterexample

— we just need to provide one example. For example, take the point x = − 14 . Around
that point on the real line |x2 + x| = −x2 − x, so its derivative is −2x − 1: at x = − 14
this is 12 − 1 = − 12 . But, at x = − 14 , |2x + 1| is 12 . (In fact, it is enough to observe that,
being an absolute value, it cannot be negative.) Thus we have disproved the claim.
Most of this “solution” is superfluous, as I was showing you how I arrived at a
counterexample. All that is needed in the proof is something like the following:
2 1 1


The claim is false, because the
 derivative
 of x +x at x = − 4
is −2 − 4
−1 =
− 21 , which is negative, but 2(− 14 ) + 1 is positive.

Another way to “discover” a counterexample in this case would be to sketch a graph of

left and right sides. Of course, the graph has no place in the proof itself, but it could be
used to discover the problem. The graph of y = |x2 + x| can be obtained from the graph
of y = x2 + x by “folding” the portion that lies below the x-axis upward so that it now
appears above the x-axis. You can then see that there are 2 intervals where the function
is increasing, and two intervals where it is decreasing; but the graph of |2x + 1| has just
one interval where the function is decreasing, and one interval where it is increasing.
This shows that something is wrong, etc.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2166

D.17 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of November 1st,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, November 1st, 2006, subject to further revision

Textbook Chapter 4. APPLICATIONS OF

DIFFERENTIATION.

D.17.1 §4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values

An “existence” theorem. A maximum point of a function is a point c in the domain
of the function at which the function has a value that is not less than its value in some
designated larger set which contains c. In particular, a global maximum point or absolute
maximum point is a point where the function has a value that is not less than its value
anywhere else in the domain. Note that we are permitting that the same value could be
attained elsewhere, i.e. that there could be more than one maximum point. A minimum
point, global minimum point or absolute minimum point are defined analogously —
change less to greater throughout the definitions. We use the word extremum to mean
“either a maximum or a minimum”; we use the Latin form of plural for maximum,
minimum, extremum: maxima, minima, extrema.
Local or relative maximum, minimum, or extremum are defined analogously to the
preceding, except that we require that the designated larger set be an interval surround-
ing the point c, where the interval could be as small as you like, so long as its ends have
a positive distance from c. The values that the function assumes at extrema (also called
extreme points) are called the extreme values or the maximum values, etc. Note the
terminology: a maximum or minimum must be attained. For example, we will say that
1
the function f defined by f (x) = has no global minimum (value): if we make
1 + x2
x large enough, we can cause the value of f to be small than any positive number we
take. Why, then, don’t we say that the minimum is 0? Because the function is never
equal to 0, even though it gets as close to 0 as we wish. Fortunately we have79 a theorem
that ensures the existence of global extrema under certain conditions that are often not
difficult to satisfy:

Theorem D.26 (Extreme Value Theorem) [1, p. 281] A function f which is con-
tinuous on a finite, closed interval [a, b] attains both a global maximum and a global
minimum at point(s) of the interval.

(Remember that continuity on a closed interval [a, b] entails continuity at every point
except a and b, as well as continuity from the right at a, and from the left at b.) This
79
The proof of this theorem is beyond Math 140; it could be studied, for example, in Math 242.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2167

theorem is “best possible”, in the sense that the conditions of continuity and the closed
interval are needed for it to be true. If the function is permitted to have a discontinuity,
then it is possible to design a function that has no maximum or minimum; similarly, if
the interval is permitted to be open at one or other of its ends, there again we can design
1
a function that lacks extrema. The domain of the function discussed above is
1 + x2
not a finite closed interval, so the theorem does not apply there. Students should try
to construct “counterexamples” to extensions of the theorem, i.e. examples where some
part of the hypotheses is not available, and where the function fails to have extrema.
Note that the Extreme Value Theorem is only an existence theorem — it asserts that
extreme values exist, but gives no information about how to find them.

A “necessary condition” for an extremum. When a function is more than con-

tinuous on an interval, we may have more information available that will enable us to
determine the extrema. For example, we know that differentiability is a stronger property
than continuity. What if a function is known to be differentiable?
80
Theorem D.27 (Fermat [1, p. 282]) If g is differentiable at c and has a local ex-
tremum there, then g ′(c) = 0.

This theorem provides a condition that is necessary for the existence of an extremum
at a point where g is differentiable; but it may happen that the condition is satisfied,
and yet g still has no extremum at the point. That is, the condition is necessary for an
extremum, but is not sufficient to ensure that the point is an extremum. As an example,
consider the function g(x) = x3 , and take as the domain either the whole real line R or
any convenient interval around 0. To the right of 0 the function is positive, and to the
left of 0 it is negative. Thus it cannot have an extremum at x = 0, where g(x) = 0;
but the derivative is equal to 0 at x = 0. However, the theorem does provide us a way
of narrowing our search for local extrema: just determine all the points in the domain
where the derivative is 0, or where there is no derivative, and the local extreme points
— if any — will be among them. Remember that a function which is being considered
on a closed interval [a, b] cannot be considered to be differentiable at x = a or x = b,
because that property requires consideration of a limit on both sides of the point, and
the function is not defined on one of those sides; thus the theorem can never exclude the
possibility that the end point of a closed interval is an extremum. For that reason the
method we are developing will require explicit, separate consideration of the end points
of intervals in the domain as candidates for extrema.
80
This result is not always linked to P. Fermat; and there are other well known results that are often
called “Fermat’s Theorem”.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2168

Critical Numbers or Critical Points. For ease in formulating a method for finding
extrema, we define a critical number or critical point of the domain of f to be a number
or “point” c such that either

• f fails to be differentiable at c; or

• f is differentiable at c, and f ′ (c) = 0.

The value of the function at a critical point is a critical value. Then Theorem D.27 may
be reformulated as follows:

Theorem D.28 [1, p. 283] The local extrema of f can occur only at critical points of
the domain.

Is a global extremum always a local extremum? If a global extremum of f occurs

at a point a which is in the “interior” of the domain of f , in the sense that a is contained
inside an interval (a−k, a+k) in the domain of f (where k is some positive number), then
this global extremum is also a local extremum. But if, for example, the extremum occurs
at the end point of an interval [a, b] of the domain, where the domain does not contain
the points immediately to the left of a, then a cannot be called a local extremum.81 We
can formalize the situation for a function being considered on one closed interval [a, b]:

Theorem D.29 (The Closed Interval Method) [1, p. 283] The following procedure
serves to narrow the search for absolute extrema of a continuous function f on a closed
interval [a, b]:

1. Determine all critical points of f in (a, b), and the critical values of f at each of
these critical points.

2. Determine the values of f at the end points, viz., f (a) and f (b).

3. The global maximum of f on [a, b] will be the maximum of the set of values de-
termined in the preceding two steps; analogously, the global minimum will be the
minimum of the set.

It can happen that the preceding method is still not finite, as the set of critical points.
81
There are other ways of defining the use of the term local , and some authors may follow a practice
under which the end points can still be considered local extrema, if they are “one-sided” local extrema.
These variations in definition will not affect you in this course, but you may see slightly different
formulations if you read other textbooks.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2169

Exercise D.7 The function given by

x sin x1 when x 6= 0

f (x) =
0 when x = 0

when considered in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 has infinitely many critical points. (What
are they?)
Solution: The derivative vanishes at all points of the form x1 = nπ, where n is any integer,
1
i.e., where x = nπ . In addition there is one point — just one — where the function is
not differentiable. That point is x = 0, since the limit of the slope of the line segment
joining (0, f (0)) to a nearby point on the curve does not exist, as the slopes oscillate
between ±1.

Are end-points of an interval domain critical? If a function f is defined only

on [a, b], it can’t have a derivative at either a or b. Technically, such points satisfy the
textbook’s definition of critical . Some authors call such points critical, and some do not.
You will not be expected to make such a decision; in any case, Part 1 of Theorem D.29,
speaks only of critical points in (a, b); then Part 2 requires you consider the end points
without reference to any question about differentiability. To summarize it doesn’t matter
whether you wish to consider end-points as critical, you will not need to use that concept
at end-points.
Example D.30 Find the global extrema of the function |x| on the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Solution: This function has no points where the derivative vanishes, but it does have
one point where it is not differentiable; that is x = 0, and is, by definition, a critical
point. The global extrema will occur among the points −1, 0, 2: the global minimum is
at x = 0, of value 0; and the global maximum is at x = 2, of value 2.

4.1 Exercises
[1, Exercise 4.1.50, p. 287] “Find the absolute (=global) maximum and absolute
(=global) minimum values of f on the given interval”: f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2,
on the interval [−1, 4]
Solution: The function is a polynomial, which is differentiable everywhere. Thus
the only critical numbers possessed by f1 are points in the domain where the
derivative vanishes. f (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9 = 3(x − 3)(x − 1). Thus the critical
points (=critical numbers) are 3 and 1. Following the “Closed Interval Method”,
we have to consider the function’s values at the critical points and at the end points
of the interval; we calculate that

f (3) = 27 − 54 + 27 + 2 = 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2170

f (1) = 1 − 6 + 9 + 2 = 6
f (−1) = −1 − 6 − 9 + 2 = −14
f (4) = 64 − 96 + 36 + 2 = 6

We see that the maximum value is 6, and it is attained at 2 maximum points, 1 and
4; the minimum value is −14, and it is attained uniquely at the minimum point
−1. Point 3 is neither a global maximum, nor a global minimum. (Using methods
we have still to develop, we could prove that it is [the only] local minimum.)

[1, Exercise 4.1.54, p. 287] Same instructions as the preceding, with function f (x) =
x2 − 4
and interval [−4, 4].
x2 + 4
Solution: Before applying the Closed Interval Method, I will simplify the function,
so that its behavior will become obvious.
x2 − 4 x2 + 4 − 8 8
f (x) = 2
= 2
=1− 2 .
x +4 x +4 x +4
The subtracted term has numerator and denominator which are both positive.
Since the numerator is constant, the fraction increases as the denominator de-
creased, and the denominator cannot be less than 02 + 4 = 4, a value which is
attained at x = 0. Thus we see — without even appealing to the calculus — that
f attains its minimum when x = 0. But the denominator has no maximum, so the
subtracted term may be made arbitrarily small, This shows that f approaches 1
from below, but never attains this value: f does not have a maximum value. But
wait — we were not asked to consider the function over the maximal domain, only
over the domain −4 ≤ x ≤ 4. The same reasoning we have used shows that the
value of the function increases as we move from 0 to either +4 or −4, where its
8 3
value is, in either case, 1 − = .
20 5
Now let’s use the calculus.
8 16x
f ′ (x) = 0 − 2 · 2x =
(x2 + 4) (x2 + 4)2
for all x in −4 < x < 4; this function is 0 only when x = 0, so x = 0 is a critical
number of f . Because we haven’t been authorized to consider f to the left of −4
or to the right of +4, we really can’t claim to know f ′ (±4), so, technically, ±4
could be considered to be critical numbers of f . Some textbook authors define
their terms slightly differently from yours, and, under their definitions, the end
points ±4 might not be critical points. It doesn’t matter which definitions we use,
however, because we are going to meet the end-points in the next step of the Closed
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2171

Interval Method anyhow, as this step requires us to determine the values of the
3
function at the end-points of the interval of definition. As seen earlier, f (±4) = .
5
To complete the application of the Closed Interval Method we consider the values
of the function at the three points — −4, 0, +4:

x −4 0 +4
3 3
f (x) 5
−1 5

and conclude that the absolute minimum of −1 on the interval is attained at x = 0,

and the absolute maximum of 35 on the interval is attained at x = ±4.

[1, Exercise 4.1.58, p. 287] Same instructions as the preceding, with function f (x) =
x − 2 cos x and interval [−π, π].
Solution: This function, being a sum of a polynomial and a cosine, is differentiable
everywhere. f ′ (x) = 1 + 2 sin x, which vanishes when the sine is − 21 , i.e. at x =
2n − 16 π, and at x = 2n − 56 π, n being any integer. In the interval given, there

are only the points − π6 ; − 5π

6
.
 π √
π 3
f − = − −2·
6 6 2√
 
5π 5π 3
f − = − +2·
6 6 2

We must also check the end-points of the prescribed domain.82

f (−π) = −π + 2
f (π) = π + 2

Of the four values, we find, using a very crude approximation

√ for π, that the largest
is π+2, attained when x = π, and the minimum is − 6 − 3, attained when x = − π6 .
π

[1, Exercise 4.1.62, p. 287] (not discussed in the lecture) Same instructions, f (x) =
e−x − e−2x , interval =[0, 1].
Solution: f ′ (x) = −e−x + 2e−2x = e−x (−1 + 2e−x ). In this product, the first
factor, e−x cannot be zero, as no exponential is zero. Hence f
′ can vanish only
2
when e−x = 21 , i.e. when x = ln 2; we note that f (ln 2) = 21 − 12 = 14 . Checking
82
Note that, again, this is not the “natural” domain of the function, but a restricted domain prescribed
by the author of the problem.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2172

the function at the end points, we find that f (0) = 1 − 1 = 0, and f (1) = 1e − e12 .
Comparing the values, again using a very crude approximation for e, we find that
the global maximum is at x = ln 2, with value 14 , and the global minimum is at 0,
with value 0.

[1, Exercise 4.1.68(b), p. 287] (not discussed in the lecture) “Use calculus to find
cos x
the exact maximum and minimum values: f (x) = .”
2 + sin x
Solution: (In the (a) part of this problem the textbook asks you to graph the
function; but that graphing is not at all necessary to finding the extrema.)
− sin x · (2 + sin x) − cos x · cos x 2 sin x + 1
f (x) = 2
=−
(2 + sin x) (2 + sin x)2

which vanishes when sin x = −12, i.e., when x = − π6 + 2mπ and x = 7π 6

+ 2nπ,
where m and n are any integers. We are confined by the conditions of the problem
to the closed interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, so the critical points are
π 11π
− + 2π =
6 6
7π
and . We must also consider the function at the end-points of the given closed
6
interval. We tabulate the values:
7π 11π
x 0 6 6
2π
end point critical point critical point end point
1
f (x) 2
− √13 √1
3
1
2
√
Since the function x is an increasing function,
√ √ 1 1
3<4⇒ 3< 4=2⇒ √ >
3 2

so the absolute maximum on the given interval is √13 , and the absolute minimum is
− √13 ; in fact, because the function is periodic with period 2π, these are the absolute
extrema for the natural domain of the function, R.

[1, Exercise 4.1.74, p. 288] (not discussed in the lecture) “Show that 5 is a critical
number of the function g(x) = 2 + (x − 5)3 , but g does not have a local extreme
value at 5.”
Solution: g(x) = 3(x − 5)2 , which vanishes only at x = 5; thus x = 5 is the only
critical point. This function resembles the function x3 considered on page 2167.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2173

If we take x < 5, the function value is less than 2, while, for x > 5, g(x) > 2.
It follows that 5 cannot be either a local maximum or a local minimum, and, a
fortiori it cannot be a global maximum or a global minimum. (The only way in
which 5 could be a local extremum is if we were to consider the function on an
interval ending at 5.)

For the final examination, do we need to know how to prove theorems? Math
140 is mainly a “problem-oriented” course — we usually don’t expect students to mem-
orize proofs of theorems; however if a theorem can be formulated as a “reasonable”
problem, then it could be posed as such, and you could be expected to be able to solve
it.
While you aren’t expected to memorize proofs, you are certainly expected to know

• the statements of important theorems

• precisely what the theorem assumes, and what it applies to

• how and when to use the theorem

You could certainly be presented with questions which test that knowledge. So, for
the Mean Value Theorem, discussed below, [1, Exercise 4.2.15, p. 295] is a perfectly
reasonable question for students in Math 140. Few, if any, questions that probe your un-
derstanding of a theorem are to be found on WeBWorK. We have adopted WeBWorK
because of its great value in monitoring your progress in solving numerical problems, but
it does not “drive” the course: the best aid for learning the material in the course is the
exercises in the book, monitored with the Student Solutions Manual. Excellent problems
for testing your understanding of the concepts are in the Review exercises entitled “Con-
cept Check” and “True-False Quiz” at the end of each chapter of the textbook. However,
these problems are not necessarily formulated in a form that would be practical for an
examination.

Summary of §4.1 In §4.1 you were introduced to the concepts of maximum, min-
imum, and extremum, and to the terms global (=absolute) and local (=relative); the
Extreme Value Theorem asserts that a function which is continuous on a closed interval
has a global maximum and a global minimum in the interval. While our goal is often to
find the global extremum, we saw that any global extremum not at an end-point is also
a local extremum; we were introduced to Fermat’s Theorem, which provides a necessary
condition for a local extremum: At a local extremum either the derivative does not exist,
or it does exist and is 0. This theorem sees application in the Closed Interval Method
for finding the global extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2174

D.18 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of November 6th,

2006
Release Date: Monday, November 6th, 2006, subject to further revision

D.18.1 §4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

We interrupt our study of extrema to consider two “existence” theorems, whose impor-
tance is often misunderstood because of a type of problems that often appear in calculus
textbooks. The theorems assert the existence of a number with a particular property,
but make no attempt to locate that number; problems in other textbooks that ask you
to find the numbers in question are misleading, since, in applications of these theorems,
we are interested not in the numbers themselves, but only in the “worst possible” values
they may have. Most of the problems in your textbook do adopt a “correct” stance; but,
for example, [1, Exercises 4.2.1-4.2.4, p. 295] and the part of [1, Exercises 4.2.11-4.2.14,
p. 295] which states “Then find all numbers c that satisfy the conclusion of the Mean
Value Theorem” are alien to the spirit of the theorem, unless one interprets them as
verifying that there is at least one point with the desired property.

The theorems There are two main theorems in this section, and, while it appears
from the enunciations that one of them is “stronger” than the other, they are equivalent,
in the sense that either of them can be used to prove the other.

Theorem D.31 (Rolle’s Theorem) Let [a, b] be a given closed interval. Let f be a
function such that

1. f is continuous on [a, b];

2. f is differentiable on (a, b); and

3. f (a) = f (b).

Then there exists a number c such that a < c < b and f ′ (c) = 0.

Theorem D.32 (Mean Value Theorem) Let [a, b] be a given closed interval. Let f
be a function such that

1. f is continuous on [a, b];

2. f is differentiable on (a, b).

f (b) − f (a)
Then there exists a number c such that a < c < b and f ′ (c) = .
b−a
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2175

It appears that the Mean Value Theorem should be “stronger” than Rolle’s Theorem,
since Rolle’s is the special case of the Mean Value Theorem where f (a) = f (b). But, in
fact, the theorems are equivalent, since the Mean Value Theorem can be proved from
Rolle’s Theorem.

Geometric interpretation of these theorems The Mean Value Theorem says that,
if we consider the secant to the graph of f obtained by joining the points (b, f (b)), and
(a, f (a)), there will always be at least one point c between a and b where the tangent to
the graph of f is parallel to that secant.

Doesn’t one hypothesis imply another? Since you know that differentiability im-
plies continuity, you may ask why we need both 1. and 2. Indeed, the portion of 1.
that speaks of continuity at the points of (a, b) is totally redundant: continuity at these
points is implied by differentiability. Remember what continuity f on [a, b] means83 :

• continuity of f on the interval (a, b),

• continuity from the right at x = a, and

• continuity from the left at x = b.

Thus we could weaken the first hypothesis of the theorem, to

1′ . f is continuous from the right at x = a, and continuous from the left at x = b.

The conclusion of Rolle’s Theorem. If the hypotheses of the theorem are satisfied,
the theorem asserts the existence of a point (c, f (c)) on the graph of f such that a < c < b,
where the tangent is horizontal.

Proof of the Mean Value Theorem from Rolle’s Theorem Given a function f
which satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem, we will consider, instead, the
function h defined by

f (b) − f (a)
h(x) = f (x) − f (a) − · (x − a) .
b−a
The continuity and differentiability properties of f imply that h has the same properties,
so h satisfies the first 2 conditions of Rolle’s Theorem. Moreover, we can see that h(a) =
83
This is a definition, not a theorem.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2176

h(b), so the 3rd condition of Rolle’s Theorem is also satisfied. Hence the conclusion of
Rolle’s Theorem holds: there exists a point c such that a < c < b and
f (b) − f (a)
h′ (c) = f ′ (c) − ,
b−a
is zero, and so f ′ (c) has the claimed property.
Corollary D.33 (to the Mean Value Theorem) Rolle’s Theorem is the special case
where f (a) = f (b).
Corollary D.34 (to the Mean Value Theorem) If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in an interval
(a, b), then f is constant on the interval.
Proof: If we take any two distinct points x1 , x2 in the interval, we know that between
them there is a point c such that f (x2 ) −f (x1 ) = f ′ (c) · (x2 −x1 ) = 0, since the derivative
must be 0 at c. Since f ′ (c) = 0, f (x2 ) = f (x1 ), proving that, at any point in the interval,
the function has the same value as at any other point; or, equivalently, that the function
has the same value at every point.
Corollary D.35 (to the Mean Value Theorem) If f ′ (x) = g ′(x) for every point x
in an interval (a, b), then there exists a constant k such that, for all x in the interval
(a, b),
g(x) = f (x) + k .

Proof: To the function h defined by h(x) = g(x) − f (x) we apply the corollary immedi-
ately preceding. Since h′ (x) = g ′(x) − f ′ (x) = 0 for all x, there exists a constant k such
that h( x) = k for all x; equivalently, such that g ′(x) − f ′ (x) = k for all x.
This is the result I used earlier in these notes, when I solved a differential equation to find
all functions f that had the property that f ′′ = (f ′ )2 .

Comparison with Tangential Approximations In a linear or tangential approxi-

mation to a function f near a point a we approximate
f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a) · (x − a) ,
where the derivative is evaluated at the point a, but where an error is introduced — an
error that we have made no attempt to quantify. If we apply the Mean Value Theorem
on an interval [a, b], then, for x in that interval,
f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (c) · (x − a) ,
where the exact location of c in the interval (a, x) is not known, but where there is no
error in the equation.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2177

Example D.36 Prove that, for any x in [−1, 1],

π
arcsin x + arccos x =
2
Solution:
Proof using the calculus. Define f (x) = arcsin x + arccos x; then
1 −1
f ′ (x) = √ +√ =0
1−x2 1 − x2
so, by one of the Corollaries above, f is a constant function over its domain. We
can determine the value of that constant by selecting a convenient value of x in
the domain; we might be tempted to choose x = 1,
π π
arcsin 1 + arccos 1 = +0=
2 2
and to conclude that π2 must be the value of the sum at any point in [−1, 1]. But,
if we were to make this choice, we would be overextending ourselves: our corollary
applies to an open interval, and one of the two functions, arcsin, is not defined in
an open interval containing x = 1. It would be possible to “repair” the corollary
to one that would permit this choice, but the version we have available now does
not permit it: neither of the inverse functions has a derivative at the end-point
of its domain. So, instead, let’s choose a convenient point in the interior of the
domain, where both functions have a derivative. Among the values that should
be convenient to students knowing just a little trigonometry are x = 0, x = ± √12 ,
x = ± 12 , x = ± √13 : for all of these values you should know the arcsine and arccosine.
I shall take x = 0:
π π
arcsin 0 + arccos 0 = 0 + = ,
2 2
which is the same result we obtained earlier by a proof of doubtful validity.

Trigonometric proof. Define θ = arcsin  x, so sin θ = x. Moreover, the image (=range)

π π
of the arcsin function is − 2 , + 2 . Then
π  π π
cos − θ = cos · cos θ + sin · sin θ
2 2 2
= 0 · cos θ + 1 · sin θ
= sin θ = x

Since − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 , 0 ≤ π2 − θ ≤ π. By definition of the inverse cosine function,

π
2
− θ = arccos x, so arcsin x + arccos x = π2 .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2178

Warning! When a mathematical theorem requires that a function possess a certain

property for all x in some “universe”, then the failure of that property at even one
point can cause the result of the theorem to fail to apply. So, for example, the function
|x| is differentiable at all but one point. If that point, x = 0, is in the domain we are
considering, then we have no right to claim that the results of the two theorems apply.
For example, on the interval [−1, +1] there is no point where the derivative is equal to
0. In mathematics even one exception can destroy the rule.

A moderately difficult examination problem made much more difficult.

Example D.37 The following problem appeared on the Final Examination in this
course in December, 2002:

1. [8 MARKS] Determine the derivative of the function

1+x
h(x) = arctan x + arctan 1 − arctan .
1−x
for x 6= 1 . You are expected to simplify your answer.

2. [7 MARKS] Use your solution to (the preceding) question to determine the value
of h(−5) . Only a solution using the previous result will be accepted. Reduce your
answer as much as possible; the examiners are aware that you do not have the use
of a calculator.

3. [THIS IS DIFFICULT, AND WAS NOT PART OF THE EXAMINATION QUES-

TION] Use your solution to (the preceding) question to determine the value of
h(+5) .

Solution:

1. For all points x in the domain of h,

 
′ d 1+x
h (x) = arctan x + arctan 1 − arctan
dx 1−x
1 1 2
= 2
+0− 2 ·
1+x (1 − x)2

1+x
1+
1−x
= 0

2. We have shown that h has a derivative, and that the value of that derivative is 0
for all x. By the corollary above, that would appear to imply that the function h
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2179

is constant. But we must be careful. The corollary refers to an interval, and we

must also refer to an interval here. We will take the largest possible interval, to
obtain the strongest result.
The domain of the function h is the set of all x for which both arctan x and
1+x
arctan are defined. We know that the arctangent function is defined every-
1−x
1+x
where. But we need to restrict x so that is defined, and this requires the
1−x
exclusion of the point x = 1. Thus the domain of h is a “punctured” real line,
R − {1}. If we wish to apply the corollary, we will need to choose an interval that
avoids the excluded point x = 1. For x < 1 the corollary tells us that the value of
h is constant; in order to determine that constant, we need only evaluate h at a
“convenient” point. For example, take x = 0:

h(x) = h(0)
1+0
= arctan 0 + arctan 1 − arctan
1−0
= arctan 0 + arctan 1 − arctan 1
π π
= 0+ − =0
4 4
for all x < 1. In particular, this tells us that h(−5) = 0.

3. But the preceding computation does not apply for x > 1; all we know is that h is
constant over the interval. It’s not so easy to find a convenient value of x in this
interval, and it will turn out that the constant value of the function for this√
interval
84
is not the same as for the interval containing −5. √Try, for example x = 3; this
is a reasonable choice, since we know that tan π3 = 3. Then we have
√
h(x) = h( 3)
√
√ 1+ 3
= arctan 3 + arctan 1 − arctan √
1− 3
√
π π 1+ 3
= + − arctan √
3 4 1− 3
√
7π 1+ 3
= − arctan √
12 1− 3
84
This is not a contradiction to the Corollary to the Mean Value Theorem: the corollary does not
apply to the entire domain of h because there is one point where the domain is broken, and where the
function fails to satisfy the conditions of the theorem; so the most we can do is to apply the corollary
separately on the two halves of the domain; of course, it could have happened that the constant values
for the two halves were the same — but it didn’t happen, and the constants are, indeed, different!
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2180

But what is the last term? You may recall an identity found on one of the endpapers
of your textbook:
tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) = .
1 − tan x tan y
π
Apply this identity with x = 4
and y = π3 , to obtain
√
7π 1+ 3
tan = √ .
12 1−1· 3
π π


As we defined the arctangent function using the branch
 π π − 2
, 2
, our inverse tan-
gent function takes its values on the interval − , ; we restate the last result
2 2
in a form that we can use:
√
−5π 1+ 3
tan = √ ,
12 1−1· 3
and infer that √ !
1+ 3 5π
arctan √ =− ,
1−1· 3 12
from which it follows that
 
7π −5
h(x) = − =π
12 12

for all x > 1.

4.2 Exercises

[1, Exercise 4.2.21, p. 295] “Show that a polynomial of degree 3 has at most 3 real
roots.”
Solution: Let the polynomial be named f (x), and suppose that it had 4 or more
distinct roots:
r 1 < r2 < r3 < r4 . (194)
Then, by definition of a root, f = 0 at each of these 4 locations; by Rolle’s Theorem
f has a horizontal tangent between each successive pair of these roots. That is,
there exist real numbers c1 , c2 , c3 such that

r 1 < c1 < r 2 < c2 < r 3 < c3 < r 4 ,

f ′ (c1 ) = f ′ (c2 ) = f ′ (c3 ) .

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2181

But the derivative of f is a quadratic polynomial, and we are able to calculate its
roots: we know that there cannot exist more than 2 points where f ′ = 0. From
this contradiction we can infer that our assumption that there were 4 distinct roots
was unjustified. By reductio ad absurdum we have shown that the number of roots
cannot exceed 3.
This theorem can also be proved using purely algebraic methods, without any
mention of the calculus.

[1, Exercise 4.2.18, p. 295] “Show that the equation 2x − 1 − sin x = 0 has exactly
one real (solution).” The problem could also have been stated in the following,
equivalent way: “Show that the graphs y = 2x − 1 and y = sin x cross at exactly
one point.”
Solution:

1. We will show that the difference in height between where a line x = u crosses
the graph is equal to zero exactly once. That difference is 2u − 1 − sin u, and
we will denote it by f (u).
2. We use two theorems in this type of proof: the Intermediate Value Theorem
to prove that the function is 0 at least once; and the Mean Value Theorem or
Rolle’s Theorem to show that it is not 0 more than once.
3. Since f (u) is the difference between a polynomial and sin u — two differen-
tiable functions — it is differentiable everywhere;

f ′ (u) = 2 − cos u ≥ 2 − 1 = 1 > 0 .

Since it is differentiable everywhere, it is surely continuous everywhere.

4. When u gets large, 2u also becomes large; but the subtracted sine function
remains between ±1; thus we can certainly find a value of u for which f (u) > 0.
For example, f (π) = 2π − 1 > 0. Similarly, when u becomes large negatively,
f becomes large negatively; we need only one convenient point: f − π2 =

−π − 1 + 1 = −π < 0.
5. We now have an interval − π2 , π such that f is negative at one end-point,
 

positive at the other, and continuous throughout. By the Intermediate Value

Theorem, f is zero somewhere in the interval.
6. Suppose that f was 0 twice — not necessarily in the interval, but twice any-
where on the real line — say at points u = a and u = b. Then we could apply
Rolle’s theorem to conclude that there is a point c such that a < c < b and
f ′ (c) = 0. But we saw earlier that f ′ (u) > 0 for all u.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2182

7. From this contradiction we conclude that it was not correct to assume there
were two points where f = 0; as we have already shown that there is at least
one such point, we can now conclude there is exactly one such point.

[1, Exercise 4.2.23, p. 295] “If f (1) = 10 and f ′ (x) ≥ 2 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 4, how small can
f (4) possibly be?”
Solution: For a solution, please consult the Student Solutions Manual [3, p. 140].
The solution given is not quite complete: the author shows that f (4) ≥ 16, but
does not show that there could exist a function f for which this value of 16 would
be attained. One such function is 2x + 8 is a function that satisfies the conditions
of the problem for which this inequality is “best possible”.

[1, Exercise 4.2.29, p. 296] “Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove the inequality

| sin a − sin b| ≤ |a − b|

for all a and b.

Solution: For a solution, please consult the Student Solutions Manual [3, p. 140].
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2183

D.19 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of November 8th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, November 8th, 2006

This lecture was poorly attended, possibly because of competition from a

test in another section. Students who are diverting calculus time to other
subjects have already been reminded of the risks.

D.19.1 §4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

What does f ′ say about f ? The first theorem is another corollary to the Mean Value
Theorem:

Corollary D.38 (to the Mean Value Theorem:) (“Increasing/Decreasing Test” or

“I/D Test”)

1. If f ′ (x) > 0 at every point of an interval [a, b], then f is increasing on the interval.

2. If f ′ (x) < 0 at every point of an interval [a, b], then f is decreasing on the interval.

Remember that the textbook’s definitions of increasing and decreasing [1, p. 21] do not
permit equality; these are concepts that some mathematicians call strictly increasing and
strictly decreasing. There are variations of these results that can be proved to cover cases
when equality may hold. Based on the above results, we can prove the following “Test”.
This “test” describes conclusions that hold when f ′ exists in an interval on both sides of
c — even if it does not exist at c itself. When we speak of the left “side” of c, we mean
an interval of the form (c − ǫ, c), where ǫ is a positive number — any positive number;
the right “side” is defined analogously. The theorem requires that certain conditions
occur on the “sides”: if they do not hold, then you cannot use this theorem to draw the
conclusions stated.

Theorem D.39 (First Derivative Test) Suppose that c is a critical number of a con-
tinuous function f .

1. If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.

2. If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.

3. If f ′ is defined on the two sides of c, but does not change sign at c then f has
neither a local maximum nor a local minimum at c.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2184

What does f ′′ say about f ?

Definition D.7 1. If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval [a, b],
the graph is said to be concave upward on the interval.

2. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on an interval [a, b], the graph is said
to be concave downward on the interval.

3. A point P = (c, f (c)) is an inflection point of the graph of the function f if

(a) f is continuous at x = c;
(b) the curve is concave upward on one side of P , and concave downward on the
other side.

Theorem D.40 (Concavity Test) 1. If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of
f is concave upward on I.

2. If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.

Theorem D.41 (Second Derivative Test) Suppose that f ′′ is continuous in a neigh-

bourhood of x = c, i.e., in some interval (c−ǫ, c+ǫ), where ǫ is some positive real number.

1. If f ′ = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.

2. If f ′ = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.

3. If f ′ = 0 and f ′′ (c) = 0, this theorem gives no information.

Note that the Second Derivative Test is inconclusive when f ′′ (c) = 0. Consider the
functions f1 (x) = x3 and f2 (x) = ±x4 at x = 0. All of these functions have a zero first
derivative at x = 0, but the second derivatives also vanish. In the case of f1 there is
no extremum at x = 0; in the case of x4 there is a local minimum; while −x4 has a
local maximum. It is possible to refine the Second Derivative Test by considering higher
derivatives, but that is beyond Math 140.

What should I retain from this section? This section contains definitions and tests
that are required in the analysis of functions: all of these need to be retained and drilled
for examination purposes. However, you will not be expected to be able to reproduce
proofs of these results, although they are all simple consequences of the results in the
preceding two sections of the textbook.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2185

Tabulation of function data. The textbook suggests that routine problems can be
best approached by tabulating the necessary data. If these methods appeal to you, use
them — they tend to keep your information orderly, and to reduce the chance that you
forget something. The rationale for the methods is that we are often interested in the
sign of a derivative or second derivative; since the sign of a product is related to the signs
of its factors, a table can be created where the signs of the factors are tabulated and
the sign of the product deduced. Not all functions can be factored into simple factors,
and for them these tabular methods are of limited value. The best way to prepare for
examination on these topics — after you have thoroughly absorbed the definitions and
theorems is by extensive drill, using the Student Solutions Manual to correct your work
and to guide you as to what constitutes a good solution.

4.3 Exercises As stated earlier, you are advised to work multiple problems and to
verify your solutions in the Student Solutions Manual.

[1, Exercise 4.3.14, p. 305] You are asked to

1. Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing.

2. Find the local maximum and minimum values of f , (if any).
3. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points (if any).
x2
Here f (x) = .
x2 + 3
Solution: This is a straightforward example, and the exposition is certainly im-
proved by tabulation of the data. We will be needing the derivatives. The first
derivative may be computed by the Quotient Rule and Chain Rule, but the compu-
tations are even easier if you notice that f (x) = 1 − x23+3 . Thus, by the Reciprocal
Rule and the Chain Rule,
3 6x
f ′ (x) = 0 + · 2x = 2 .
(x2 + 3)2 (x + 3)2

The denominator is a power of a factor which is always positive; the numerator is

a constant multiple of the polynomial x, which changes sign at x = 0. Extending
the author’s style, I will tabulate, but will also include information about the end
points of the intervals.:

Interval x x2 + 3 f ′ (x) f
x<0 − + − decreasing on (−∞, 0)
x=0 0 + 0 critical point
x>0 + + + increasing on (0, ∞)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2186

Note that f (−x) = f (x): this is an even function, and its graph is symmetric
under reflection in the y-axis. There is only one critical point. As f is differentiable
everywhere, we know that the local extrema will occur only at points where f ′ = 0;
so the only candidate is x = 0. The change of sign of f ′ tabulated above shows, by
the First Derivative Test, that f has a local minimum at x = 0; there are no local
maxima.
The second derivative may be computed by the Quotient Rule:

′′ 1(x2 + 3)2 − x · 2(x2 + 3)(2x) 18(1 − x)(1 + x)

f (x) = 6 · 2 4
= .
(x + 3) (x2 + 3)3
To analyze its behaviour, we may again tabulate:

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-20 -10 0 10 20
x

x2
Figure 14: Graph of the Function and its horizontal asymptote, y = 1
x2 + 3

Interval 1 − x 1 + x x2 + 3 f ′′ (x) f
x < −1 + − + − concave downward on(−∞, −1)
x = −1 + 0 + 0 inflection point
(because concavity changes)
−1 < x < 1 + + + + concave upward on(−1, −1)
x = +1 0 + + 0 inflection point
(because concavity changes)
x>1 − + + − concave downward on(1, ∞)

At the points x = ±1 f ′′ is continuous, and changes sign. Consequently both of

these are inflection points of f .
We have determined the nature of the critical point x = 0 by using the First
Derivative Test; we could also have applied the Second Derivative Test there: since
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2187

f ′′ (0) > 0, the critical point is a local minimum; the minimum value is 0. A sketch
of the graph with its horizontal asymptote is given in Figure 14, page 2186).

[1, Exercise 4.3.16, p. 305] (This example was not worked completely in the lecture.)
The instructions are the same as for the preceding example, but the function is

f (x) = cos2 x − 2 sin x ,

no longer a pure polynomial; however, it may be possible to treat it as a polynomial

in a trigonometric function, and to still use the methods used above. This function
is periodic with period 2π, since both the sine and cosine functions have periods
2π; thus it suffices to study its behavior on an interval of length 2π: the author
has selected the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
While it has not been requested, we may observe by completion of the square that

f (x) = cos2 x − 2 sin x

= (1 − sin2 x) − 2 sin x = 2 − (sin x + 1)2
√ √
= ( 2 − 1 − sin x)( 2 + 1 + sin x)

This information can also be analyzed in a tabular form, and used to locate the
graph above and below the x-axis:√ the second factor is always positive, but the
first changes sign at x = arcsin( 2 − 1).

f ′ (x) = 2 cos x · (− sin x) − 2 cos x

= −2(cos x)(sin x + 1)
f (x) = −2(cos2 x − sin2 x + cos x − sin x)
′′
 
1
= 4 sin x − (sin x + 1)
2
The sign of the first derivative depends on the sign of the cosine, which is negative
in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants; the sign of the second derivative depends on the
sign of sin x − 21 . We tabulate the signs of the factors and the derivatives:

Interval cos x sin x + 1 f ′ (x) f

0 end point
0 < x < π2 + + − decreasing on (0, π2 )
π
2
0 + 0 critical point
π 3π
2
<x< 2
− + + increasing on ( π2 , 3π
2
)
3π
2
0 0 0 critical point
3π
2
< x < 2π + + − decreasing on ( 3π2
, 2π)
2π end point
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2188

We haven’t classified the critical points yet: at the critical point π2 the function
changes from decreasing to increasing, so the point is a local minimum; analogously,
3π
2
is a local maximum. The instructions asked for the extremal values of the
π 3π



function, so we need to compute f 2 = 0 − 2 = −1 and f 2 = 0 − 2(−1) = 2.

0
-2 0 2 4 6
-1 x

-2

Figure 15: Graph of the Function cos2 x − 2 sin x

1
Interval sin x − 2
sin x + 1 f ′′ (x) f
0 < x < π6 − + − concave downwards
π
6
0 + 0 inflection point
π 5π
6
<x< 6 + + + concave upwards
5π
6
0 + 0 inflection point
5π 3π
6
< x < 2
− + − concave downwards
3π
2
− 0 0 NOT inflection point
3π
2
< x < 2π − + − concave downards
The coordinates of the inflection points are π6 , − 41 and 5π , − 14 . There is no



6
inflection point at x = 3π
2
, even though the second derivative vanishes, because the
concavity does not change at that point. A sketch is given in Figure 15, on page
2188 of these notes.

[1, Exercise 4.3.20, p. 305] (This problem was not discussed at all at the lecture.)
You are asked to

1. “Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing.

2. “Find the local maximum and minimum values of f , (if any).
3. “Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points (if any).”
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2189

Here f (x) = x ln x.
Solution: First observe that the domain of f is (0, ∞).
1 1
1. f ′ (x) = 1 · ln x + x · = ln x + 1. f ′ (x) > 0 ⇔ ln x > −1 ⇔ x > . Thus
x e
the function
is increasing over the interval 1e , ∞ , and decreasing over the

interval 0, 1e .
1
2. f ′′ (x) = . The second derivative exists at all points of the domain, and is
x
always positive: the graph is concave upwards throughout its domain. There
are no inflection points.

While we have answered the questions that were asked, we still do not have enough
information to graph the function. Investigation of the graph of this function will
be continued in [1, Exercise 4.5.43, p. 323] (cf. Figure 16, [3, p. 165].) The graph
can be shown to be tangent to the y-axis at (x, y) = (0, 0).

1.2

0.8

0.4

0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
-0.4

Figure 16: Graph of the Function x ln x

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2190

D.20 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of Monday, Novem-

ber 13th, 2006
Release Date: Monday, November 13th, 2006, (subject to correction)

D.20.1 §4.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule

In [1, §2.3, §2.5] we discussed several limit laws that could be used to evaluate a combi-
nation of functions when all of the components had limits, subject to certain restrictions.
The first restriction we met, in [1, §2.3], was in the “Quotient Law”:

f (x) lim f (x)

x→a
lim = if lim g(x) 6= 0 ,
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

in addition to the requirement that the two limits mentioned exist. Subsequently we
studied the concept of derivative, whose definition involved just such a limit — where
the limit of the denominator (of the ratio giving the slope of the secant to the graph) is
zero. Then, in [1, §2.5], we generalized our definitions to permit limits to have “values”
of ±∞. This raises the question of whether the “limit laws” hold for such limits also.
In [1, Exercise 2.4.44, p. 124] some such laws are proved to hold. The generalizations to
infinite limits can be seen to hold so long as we can avoid certain “forbidden” operations:
∞
like ∞ · 0, ∞ − ∞, . I have mentioned, on page 2069 of these notes, the possibility
∞
of “extending” the real number system to include two new objects: +∞ and −∞. In
practice this is what we do informally, but it has the downside that we have to avoid
certain types of operations — like those combinations just mentioned — to which we
cannot give a meaning. The issue is not that we don’t know the correct value to attach to
these combinations; it is that we can show that there is no number — either real or ±∞
that can serve as a value, without creating inconsistencies in the rest of our algebraic
system. If we wish to work with ±∞, then we must avoid these combinations. That
means that the limit laws do not hold for such combinations; but the corresponding
limits may still exist, even though we can’t find them using the limit laws. This is
the subject of the present section — to evaluate the limits of certain combinations of
functions where the limit laws fail to hold. We call these combinations “indeterminate
forms”. The first case we consider is a ratio of two functions whose limits are either both
0 or both one of ∞ or −∞. The name of the theorem is, in practice, given either the
archaic French spelling, L’Hospital’s Rule, or the more modern spelling, where the
silent “s” is replaced by a circumflex on the preceding vowel: L’Hôpital’s Rule.
Theorem D.42 (L’Hospital’s Rule) Suppose that
1. f and g are differentiable;
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2191

2. g ′ (x) 6= 0 near a, except possibly at a; and that one of the following pairs of
conditions holds:

(a) lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0

x→a x→a

(b) lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞

x→a x→a

(c) lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞

x→a x→a
′
f (x)
(d) lim exists or is ∞ or −∞.
x→a g ′ (x)

Then
f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

An analogous result holds for limits from the right and limits from the left.85

Instructors in Calculus courses often discourage their students from using L’Hospital’s
Rule because it renders the computation of limits so easy: many of the problems that
you will see in this section can be solved without the Rule, and you might wish to see if
you can accomplish that. But a technique that is so powerful is too important to ignore
for macho reasons, so you are expected to become competent in the use of L’Hospital’s
Rule; sometimes it could be the only method you will have to determine a limit; and,
even when other methods are possible, L’Hospital’s Rule will usually be faster. However,
there are skills that you need to acquire to use the Rule effectively, and these will come
from working many examples.
The theorem tells us that the last equation holds only if it known that the second
limit exists. Sometimes we may need to apply the theorem several times in succession.
When we do that, the equations we write are not known to be valid until the limit of
the very last ratio in the sequence has been shown to exist; only then all intervening
equations are justified.
85

Example D.43 Let’s apply L’Hospital’s Rule first to the case of the derivative of a continuous function
f at x = a. We cannot use the Quotient Law on the ratio f (x)−f x−a
(a)
because both top and bottom have
limit equal to 0. If f is differentiable the conditions of L’Hospital’s Rule are satisfied, and the limit is
′
lim f (x) = lim f ′ (x) which will equal f ′ (a), provided we know that f ′ is continuous at x = a. This
x→a 1 x→a
verifies the Rule in a special case, shows that L’Hospital’s Rule is not completely efficient, as it requires
the continuity of f ′ , and is of no use otherwise, as it does not help us evaluate any limit that we couldn’t
evaluate otherwise.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2192

Equal signs in applications of l’Hospital’s Rule L’Hospital’s Rule, where applica-

ble, replaces a given limit of certain types of ratios by the limit of another ratio, hopefully
easier to evaluate. If the second limit cannot be evaluated, then the entire application is
worthless. For this reason the authors of the solution manual for your textbook [3] have
H
introduced the novel symbol =. The message conveyed by the H is that the equality
H
will not be justified until the sequence of =’s and =’s ends in the limit of a ratio which
H
can be evaluated. When that last limit has been evaluated, all intervening =’s can be
replaced by =’s. This is actually the spirit of some of the other Limit Laws that we have
learned earlier, but we haven’t used a modified equal sign in those cases. For example,
the Produce Law replaces the problem of evaluating the limit of a product by evaluating
the limits of its factors; but, if the factors do not all have a limit, or if the product of
the limits is undefined, then the Law fails.
2
ex − 1 − x − x2
Example D.44 [1, Exercise 4.4.22, p. 313] Evaluate lim 3
.
x→0 x
ex − 1
Solution: First look at lim , and then at [1, Exercise 4.4.21, p. 313], which is solved
x→0 x
in the Student Solutions Manual, and also on one of the CD-Roms that comes with the
textbook. These are a progression of more difficult versions of the same problem. In the
first case we may apply L’Hospital’s Rule since lim (ex − 1) = 1 − 1 = 0, by the continuity
x→0
of the exponential function, and the fact that e0 = 1. Then we have
ex − 1 ex − 0
lim = lim = e0 = 1 .
x→0 x x→0 1
We could also have proved this without L’Hospital’s Rule, by observing that
ex − 1 ex − e0

d x 
lim = lim = e = ex |x=0 = 1 .
x→0 x x→0 x − 0 dx x=0
Proceeding to the present example,
x2 2x
ex − 1 − x − 2
ex − 0 − 1 − 2
lim = lim
x→0 x3 x→0 3x2
e − 0 − 22
x
= lim
x→0 6x
ex − 0
= lim
x→0 6
whose limit we know by the continuity of ex to be 16 . The intermediate = signs are not
justified until this last step, where we prove that the last limit exists, hence the preceding
one, hence the one before that, etc.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2193

Of course, just because a function whose limit is sought is presented as a quotient

does not guarantee that L’Hospital’s Rule is applicable to the problem. Don’t forget
that the numerator and denominator need to either both have limits equal to 0, or both
have limits of either +∞ or −∞. So, for example, you must not use L’Hospital’s Rule
to solve the following problem:
x + sin x
Example D.45 [1, Exercise 4.4.29, p. 314] lim =?
x + cos x
x→0
Solution: While the limit of the numerator as x → 0 is, indeed, 0; the limit of the
denominator is 0 + 1 = 1. You may not apply L’Hospital’s Rule, and there is no need
to attempt to do so, since the Quotient Rule applies here, and the limit is the ratio
of the limits, i.e. 01 = 0. (The “answer” that you might have obtained here, using the
inapplicable Rule, is irrelevant, since the operation cannot be justified by the theorem!)

Indeterminate Products L’Hospital’s Rule is available only for quotients of functions

with the properties described earlier: you do not have a counterpart to this theorem for
products. So, if you are presented with a product of functions whose limit is required,
you must either apply one of the other Rules you have available, or attempt to transform
the product into a quotient by moving a factor to its reciprocal in the denominator of
a fraction. This could require some experimentation: if you move the “wrong” factor,
you may transform the function into a ratio where the ratio of the derivatives is “more
complicated” than the original function; unless L’Hospital’s Rule leads to a ratio whose
limit can be found, all steps in the transition to that ratio become invalid.
1
Example D.46 [1, Example 4.4.50, p. 314] lim (xe x − x) =?
x→∞  1 
1
Solution: The function may be factorized as xe x − x = x e x − 1 . Now we can move
one of the factors as a reciprocal into the denominator of a fraction. There are two
choices, either
1
1
 1  ex − 1
xe − x = x e − 1 =
x x
1
x

1
 1  or x
xe x − x = x e x − 1 = 1
1
e x −1

Of these the second does notappearto be amenable, and we shall try the first first.86
1
After ascertaining that lim e x − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0, and lim x1 = 0, ensuring that
x→∞ x→∞

86
But we could be wrong, and it might be that a very complicated-looking ratio might lend itself to
simplification after the differentiations are carried out.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2194

L’Hospital’s Rule is applicable, we proceed:

1
 1
 ex − 1
lim xe − x =
x lim 1
x→∞ x→∞
x
1
e x · − x12


= lim
x→∞ − x12
1
= lim e x
x→∞
1
lim
= ex→∞ x (by continuity of ey at y = 0)
= e0 = 1 .

It might have been wiser to change the variable during this process, in order to simplify
the differentiation:
1
 1  ex − 1
lim xe x − x = lim 1
x→∞ x→∞
x
ey − 1
= lim+
y→0 y
(defining y = x1 and letting it → 0+ )
ey
= lim+ = e0 = 1.
y→0 1

And we could have observed that the quotient was precisely the difference quotient which
d y
defines dy e evaluated at y = 0.

Indeterminate Differences The example just worked could also be interpreted as

a difference of two functions, both of which become infinite. In such a situation the
Difference Law is not applicable, but it may still be possible to transform the function
into a quotient to which L’Hospital’s Rule is applicable.
 
1 1
Example D.47 [1, Exercise 4.4.48, p. 314]: lim − =?
x→1 ln x x−1
Solution: In this case the transformation to a quotient appears to “complicate” the
function, but we are still able to proceed.
 
1 1 x − 1 − ln x
lim − = lim
x→1 ln x x − 1 x→1 (x − 1) ln x
1 − x1
= lim
x→1 1 ln x − (x − 1) · 1
x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2195

1
x2
= lim
x→1 1
+ x12
x
1
= lim
x→1 x + 1
1
=
2
1
(by continuity of x+1
at x = 1.)
In this last example we might have been tempted to eliminate the negative powers of x;
the saving in effort would be insignificant:
1 − x1 x−1
lim 1 = lim
x→1 1 ln x − (x − 1) · x→1 x ln x + x − 1
x
1
= lim
x→1 1 ln x + x · 1 + 1 − 0
x
1 1 1 1
= lim = = (by continuity of ln x
at x = 1).
x→1 ln x + 2 0+2 2

Indeterminate Powers Since a function of the form f (x)g(x) with f (x) > 0 may be

g(x)
interpreted as eln f (x) = eg(x)·ln f (x) , limits of functions of this type may be found by
finding the limit of the exponent, and then applying the continuity of the exponential
function to infer that the limit of the exponential is equal to the exponential of the
limit. Alternatively, one may use logarithmic differentiation and evaluate the limit of
the logarithm of the given function. But, when the time comes to apply L’Hospital’s
Rule, be sure to check that the Rule is, indeed, applicable.
 2x+1 !
2x − 3
Example D.48 [1, Exercise 4.4.62, p. 314] lim =?
x→∞ 2x + 5
Solution: To apply “logarithmic differentiation”, first assign a name to the function;
then take its logarithm and find the limit of the logarithm:
 2x+1
2x − 3
y =
2x + 5
 
2x − 3
ln y = (2x + 1) ln
2x + 5
= (2x + 1) (ln(2x − 3) − ln(2x + 5))
ln(2x − 3) − ln(2x + 5)
= 1
2x+1
ln(2x − 3) − ln(2x + 5)
⇒ lim ln y = lim 1
x→∞ x→∞
2x+1
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2196

But note that I have made a tactical error here: by expressing the logarithm of the
quotient as the difference of the logarithms, I have created an indeterminate difference,
and am unable to establish its limit, so I can’t show that l’Hospital’s Rule is applicable.
I need to observe that
   
2x − 3 2x − 3
lim ln = ln lim
x→∞ 2x + 5 x→∞ 2x + 5

(by continuity of ln)

2 − x3
 
= ln lim
x→∞ 2 + 5
x
= ln 1 = 0 ;
1
and, obviously, lim = 0. Now we can return to the earlier expression and apply
x→∞ 2x + 1
L’Hospital’s Rule:

ln 2x−3


2x+5
lim ln y = lim 1
x→∞ x→∞
2x+1
ln(2x − 3) − ln(2x + 5)
= lim 1
x→∞
2x+1
2 2
2x−3
− 2x+5
= lim 1
x→∞ − ·2
(2x+1)2
−8(2x + 1)2
= lim
x→∞ (2x − 3)(2x + 5)

−8(2 + x1 )2
= lim
x→∞ (2 − 3 )(2 + 5 )
x x
= −8

Then
 2x+1 !
2x − 3
lim = lim y
x→∞ 2x + 5 x→∞

= lim eln y
x→∞
lim ln y
= ex→∞
(by continuity of the exponential)
−8
= e
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2197

4.4 Exercises

[1, Exercise 4.4.6, p. 313] “Find the limit. Use l’Hospital’s Rule where appropriate.
If there is a more elementary method, consider using it. If l’Hospital’s Rule doesn’t
x+2
apply, explain why. lim 2 .”
x→−2 x + 3x + 2

Solution: This problem does not require l’Hospital’s Rule. If the denominator of
the fraction is factorized, into (x + 1)(x + 2), then the fraction can be seen to equal
1
, whose limit may be found by the Quotient Law; or by using our result that
x+1
rational functions are continuous at points which are not discontinuities, since the
1
only discontinuity of is at x = −1, and we are taking the limit as x → −2.
x+1
1
Thus we see that the limit is −2+1 = −1.
Since both numerator and denominator approach 0 as x → −2, we may use
1 1
l’Hospital’s Rule. The ratio of the derivatives is → = −1, as
2x + 3 −4 + 3
before.
Mathematicians prefer not to use l’Hospital’s Rule where the problem has an easy
solution without it. This may derive from the “macho” element of traditional
mathematics. Sometimes on examinations you may be asked to find a limit and
explicitly instructed not to use l’Hospital’s Rule.

[1, Exercise 4.4.12, p. 313] (This problem was not discussed in the lecture.) “Find
e3t − 1
the limit. ... lim ”.
t→0 t
Solution: Since both numerator and denominator approach 0, this problem may
be solved by l’Hospital’s Rule. (More precisely, we may attempt to solve it using
l’Hospital’s Rule: the Rule does not always yield a solution — if the ratio of deriva-
tives does not have a limit, or if it is not again amenable to another application
of l’Hospital’s Rule then the Rule fails to provide any information.) The ratio of
3e3t
derivatives is . By the continuity of the exponential, the limit may be obtained
1 3t
by evaluating this last function at t = 0, which is 3e1 , to which the Quotient Law
may be applied, yielding a limit of 3e0 = 3. Of course, this problem could also be
viewed as finding the value at t = 0 of dtd (e3t ), and l’Hospital’s Rule would not be
needed.

[1, Exercise 4.4.56, p. 314] (This problem was not discussed in the lecture.) “Find
ln 2
the limit. ... lim x 1+ln x ”.
t→∞
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2198

Solution:
ln 2 ln 2
lim x 1+ln x = lim eln x

1+ln x
t→∞ t→∞

= lim e((ln x)· 1+ln x )

ln 2

t→∞
 
ln 2
lim (ln x) ·
= et→∞ 1 + ln x

We now investigate the limit in the exponent.

 
ln 2 ln x
lim (ln x) · = (ln 2) · lim
t→∞ 1 + ln x t→∞ 1 + ln x
1
= (ln 2) · lim 1
t→∞
ln x
+1
lim 1
t→∞
= (ln 2) ·
lim ln1x + 1


t→∞
1
= (ln 2) · = ln 2
0+1
which permits us to assert that
ln 2
lim x 1+ln x = eln 2 = 2 .
t→∞

We didn’t have to use l’Hospital’s Rule, but needed the fact that lim ln t = ∞;
t→∞
but we would have needed to use this fact to apply l’Hospital’s Rule anyhow. This
fact follows from the observation that, as t → ∞, it passes through values which
are powers en , and ln (en ) = n → ∞ as n → ∞.

Example D.49 I end the lecture with an example where a limit of an indeterminate
fraction does exist, but where l’Hospital’s Rule breaks down and is unable to reveal that
x + sin x
limit. Consider lim . Here lim x + sin x = ∞ = lim x , so we cannot use the
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞
Quotient Law. But, if we apply L’Hospital’s Rule, we obtain
x + sin x H 1 + cos x
lim = lim .
x→∞ x x→∞ 1
Hitherto, in the examples of l’Hospital’s Rule that we have studied, the limit of the
last ratio could be calculated, and that would validate the differentiation operations,
H
permitting us to replace = by =. But, in this case, the limit of the numerator does not
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2199

exist, while the limit of the denominator is 1. So, in this case, the attempted application
of l’Hospital’s Rule must be aborted, with no progress in evaluating the limit of the
original function. That does not imply that the original limit does not exist; in fact
x + sin x  cos x 
lim = lim 1 +
x→∞ x x→∞ x
cos x
= lim 1 + lim
x→∞ x→∞ x
by the Sum Law
cos x
= 1 + lim
x→∞ x
since the limit of a constant is that constant
= 1 +0.

(Since
1 cos x 1
−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 ⇒ − ≤ ≤ for x > 0 .
x x x
As x → ∞, the extremes of the last pair of inequalities both approach 0, so the “Squeeze”
cos x
Theorem ensures that lim = 0.)
x→∞ x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2200

D.21 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of Wednesday, Novem-

ber 15th, 2006
Release Date: Thursday, November 15th, 2006
(subject to correction)

D.21.1 §4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching

Read the textbook! The author’s preamble to the section, [1, pp. 316-317] provides an
excellent introduction to the issues, and to the limitations of both plotting isolated points
on a curve and using calculators and computers to produce graphs.

Limitations of the method of plotting points. If you attempt to graph a curve

only by plotting a number of points — even a large number — you expose yourself to
the risk that either

• your selection of points is too sparse at critical places where the graph changes
rapidly, and so you miss those important features; or

• your selection happens to show undue emphasis on features which are not repre-
sentative of the global behavior of the function.

It is always important to obtain some information about specific points on a curve. The
author warns that such information alone is often misleading. A good policy is that you
should never base any serious conclusions on the behavior of a function at specific points
unless you have some theoretical justification.87

Limitations of graphing calculators and computers. Graphing calculators and

computers are limited by the technical sophistication of the software. In principle the
software should be able to do anything you can do, and more: but, at the moment it
may not be able to do that.
Here again, the issue is that the global behavior of a function may not be best rendered
by selection of specific points in the domain, even if the points are close together.
87
Sometimes we do have such justification! For example, when we tabulate the factors whose product
is f ′ , and then indicate where each of the factors is positive, we are justified in concluding that the sign
of the derivative in an interval can be determined by selecting any point in the interval. Or, when we
use a corollary to the Mean Value Theorem to prove that a function is constant over an interval, we are
justified in determining that constant by choosing any point we like in the interval.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2201

Guidelines for Sketching a Curve The textbook recommends 8 steps to follow when
sketching, and emphasizes that “not every item is relevant to every function”. Try to
use this as a checklist when you solve problems from the chapter.

A. Domain: Remember that sometimes the domain is not the “natural domain” — the
largest set of values where the definition of the function makes sense; sometimes
you are explicitly instructed to consider the function over a restricted subset of
that “natural” domain. But sometimes — particularly in problems stated verbally
— the “instruction” to restrict the function is implicit in other information given
about the problem. Thus it may happen that there are real numbers where the
function is defined, but where the function in the question does not “make sense”.

B. Intercepts: Technically, this term refers to the distance between two designated
points on a line. In this context the line is usually one of the coordinate axes,
and the points in question are the origin and the point where the curve crosses the
axis; we interpret distance as directed distance, so the y-intercept of the graph of
f is usually taken to be the y-coordinate88 of the point where the curve crosses
the y-axis, i.e., the value f (0); and each x-intercept is the x-coordinate89 of a
point where the curve crosses the x-axis, i.e., where f (x) = 0. If you are given an
explicit formula for f , then it is often easy to determine f (0); if the function is
defined implicitly, you may be faced with solving an equation to determine f (0).
I have often used the word “intercept” to describe the corresponding coordinates of
points of intersection of the graph with lines parallel to the coordinate axes. This
kind of information is often helpful, particularly if the graph has symmetry about
lines parallel to but distinct from the coordinate axes.

C. Symmetry: The textbook reminds you of the concepts of evenness and oddness
discussed in [1, §1.1, pp. 20, 21], and in these notes. Where a function is known to
be even or odd it suffices to consider its behavior on only half of its domain. The
full graph of an even function can be obtained from the graph for non-negative
positive x by reflecting the graph in the y-axis; the full graph of an odd function
can be obtained from the graph for non-negative x by rotating that portion of the
graph through an angle of π radians around the origin.
The textbook also discusses the property of periodicity under which a function may
echo over its entire domain the behavior over one portion of the domain. If f has
period p, it has the property that

f (x) = f (x + p) for all real numbers x. (195)

88
the ordinate
89
the abscissa
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2202

Examples are

• sin and cos, which have period 2π

• tan and cot which have period π
• x − [x] (or x − ⌊x⌋), which have period 1.

The author defines period to be the shortest distance for repetition to take place.
Sometimes we are more casual with this term, and may use it to mean any distance
for which (195) holds.

D. Asymptotes: The textbook reminds you of the two types of asymptotes we have
studied:

Horizontal Asymptotes: These are lines y = L with the property that either
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L. It can happen that a graph has 2 distinct
x→∞ x→−∞
horizontal asymptotes, just one asymptote to which it is asymptotic both as
x → ∞ and x → −∞, or no horizontal asymptotes at all. You should be able
to give examples of these situations.
Vertical Asymptotes: These are lines y = a with the property that one of the
following 4 situations holds:

lim = +∞ lim = +∞
x→a+ x→a−
lim = −∞ lim = −∞
x→a+ x→a−

Of course, if we know either that lim = +∞ or lim = −∞, we have more

x→a x→a
than enough information to claim that y = a is a vertical asymptote.

The textbook also discusses the possibility of “Slant Asymptotes”. This topic is
omitted from the syllabus of Math 140.

E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease: We have discussed methods for obtaining this

information and presenting it in tabular form in connection with [1, §4.3].

F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: This topic has also been discussed in
connection with [1, §4.3]; remember that you have 2 tests available for classifying
critical points, and it may happen that one of these is much more useful than the
other in a particular application.

G. Concavity and Points of Inflection: This also has been discussed in connection
with [1, §4.3]. Remember that it is not enough to find points where f ′′ (x) = 0. We
have seen instances where this happens, and yet the point is not an inflection point;
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2203

and instances where there is an inflection point and yet there is no 2nd derivative
available. For example, the continuous function x · |x| changes concavity at x = 0,
but has no 2nd derivative there; so x = 0 is an inflection point.

H. Sketch the Curve: The textbook offers practical assistance in the use of the pre-
ceding information to plot the graph. The author suggests that, where you have
determined a point (x, f (x)) on the curve, you may sometimes wish to determine
the value of f ′ (x), in order to know the slope at which the curve passes through
the point.

Slant Asymptotes Students in MATH 140 are not expected to be familiar with the
concept of slant asymptotes. More generally, we could wish to explore situations where
curves are asymptotic to other kinds of curves than lines; such topics will not be consid-
ered in MATH 140.

4.5 Exercises I will work several problems to indicate the way in which I would ap-
proach problems of this type. But there are so many essentially different kinds of func-
tions, you are advised to work many problems in this section. This is time-consuming,
but essential.

[1, Exercise r
4.5.22, p. 323] Use the guidelines of this section to sketch the graph of
x
f (x) = .
x−5
Solution: (cf. Figure 17, page 2204)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2204

4
y

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x

r
x
Figure 17: Graph of f (x) = and its horizontal asymptote
x−5
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2205

A. Domain: f is the composition of more than one function. We can interpret it

as resulting from the application of the square root function to the function
x
x 7→ . This last function is defined for all x except 5. But the square
x−5
root function is defined when its argument is non-negative; thus we have to
restrict x according to the following sequence of inequalities:
x
≥0
x−5

 x ≥ 0 and x − 5 > 0
⇔ or
x ≤ 0 and x − 5 < 0


⇔x>5 or x ≤ 0.
Thus the domain is made up of two non-intersecting infinite intervals: the
function is not defined for any x in the interval (0, 5].
B. Intercepts: The y-intercept is f (0) = 0. And the only solution to the equation
f (x) = 0 is the point x = 0. Thus both intercepts of f with the coordinate
axes are both 0.
C. Symmetry: We can check that f (−x) 6= f (x) (for any x in the domain), so
the function is not even; it is surely not odd, since an odd function would
have a positive value at some x paired with a negative value at −x, and the
present function is never odd. It is also not periodic, although we have not
discussed in this course the details of proving that.
D. Asymptotes: For valuess of x that are large in absolute value, it is convenient
r
1 5
to view the function as 5 or as 1+ . Either of these functions
1− x x−5
√
can be seen to approach 1 = 1 as x → ±∞. Thus y = 1 is the only
horizontal asymptote (and the graph is asymptotic to it both as x → ∞
and as x → −∞). Indeed, the function approaches the value 1 from below
as x → −∞, and approaches the value 1 from above as x → +∞. This
observation is made only to help in the sketching: a limit as x → ∞ or as
x → −∞ need not be approached “monotonically”: it is possible for a curve
to cross its horizontal asymptote, although that does not happen here.
p x
The graph is also asymptotic to the vertical line x = 5, since lim+ x−5 =
x→5
+∞.
E. Intervals of Increase and Decrease:
r
′ 1 x−5 −5
f (x) = ·
2 x (x − 5)2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2206

5

 − if x>5

1 3

2x (x − 5) 2
2
= 5
 − if x<0

 1 3
2(−x) 2 (5 − x) 2

which is always negative. Thus the function is decreasing over its entire do-
main, except for the end-point x = 0, where f ′ is not defined. Since the
domain consists of two separate disconnected intervals, this property of be-
ing decreasing applies separately to each of the two intervals (−∞, 0) and
(5, +∞).
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: There are no critical points; (we
follow the textbook’s terminology, under which an end-point is not a critical
point). By Fermat’s Theorem there is only one point where an extremum
could occur, and that is at x = 0, when f (0) = 0. This is evidently a
local minimum. Indeed, this is the global minimum of the function, since a
square root cannot be less than 0. There is no local maximum, and no global
maximum either.
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection: Since
5 1
f ′ (x) = − · p ,
2 x(x − 5)3
1 · (x − 5)3 + 3x(x − 5)2
 
′′ 5 1
f (x) = − · − · p ·,
2 2 ( x(x − 5)3 )3
5 (x − 5)2 (4x − 5)
= · p 3
4
x(x − 5)3
r  
5 x−5 5 4x − 5 p
= (4x − 5) = x(x − 5) .
4 x3 4 x2

We could set up a chart, analyzing the various factors. We would find that
the second derivative is positive for x > 5 and negative for x < 0: the graph
is concave downward for x < 0, and upward for x > 5. There are no points
where the concavity changes within the domain, so no inflection points.
H. Sketch the Graph: This will be done at the lecture.

[1, Exercise 4.5.50, p. 323] To sketch the curve y = ex − 3e−x − 4x (cf. Figure 18,
page 2207).
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2207

y 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
-2

-4

Figure 18: Graph of y = ex − 3e−x − 4x

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2208

Solution:
A. Domain: The exponential function ex is defined for all real x; e−x also has
the whole of R as its domain; and 4x also has domain R: so the domain of
f (x) = ex − 3e−x − 4x is R.
B. Intercepts: The y-intercept is f (0) = 1 − 3 − 0 = −2. We will defer consider-
ation of the x-intercepts until we have more information about f .
C. Symmetry: f (−x) = e−x − 3ex + 4x. The equality f (x) = f (−x) would thus
x −x
be equivalent to the equation e −e
x
= 2, or to sinh x = x. While this equation
may have some solutions — x = 0 is one such value — it is not always true; if
it were true, then the derivatives of the two sides of the equation would also
be equal, and cosh x would be constant, 1, which it certainly is not; thus f
is not an even function. Similarly, it would follow from f (x) = −f (−x), that
ex is negative; from such a contradiction we know that f is not odd either.
After we have investigated the limits as x → ∞ we will be able to conclude
that the function is not periodic either.
D. Asymptotes: The graph has no vertical asymptotes, since, being continuous
everywhere, it has a finite limit at every point in its domain.
 
x 3 x
lim f (x) = lim e 1 − x − 4 x
x→∞ x→∞ e e
x 1
We can show, by L’Hospital’s Rule, that lim x = lim x = 0; evidently
x→∞ e x→∞ e
lim 3x = 0. Hence, by the Product Law,
x→∞ e
 
x 3 x
lim f (x) = lim e 1 − x − 4 x
x→∞ x→∞ e e
 
x 3 x
= lim e · lim 1 − x − 4 x
x→∞ x→∞ e e
    x 
x 3
= lim e · lim lim 1 − lim − lim 4 x
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ ex x→∞ e
x
= lim e · (1 − 0 − 0)
x→∞
= lim ex · 1 = +∞
x→∞

In a similar way we can show that

 x 
lim f (x) = lim e−x e2x − 3 − 4 −x
x→−∞ x→−∞ e
 x 
= lim e−x · lim e2x − 3 − 4 −x
x→−∞ x→−∞ e
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2209

  x 
−x −2x
= lim e · lim e − 3 − lim 4 −x
x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞ e
−x
= lim e · (0 − 3 − 0) = −∞
x→−∞

Thus there are no horizontal asymptotes to the graph of f .

E. Intervals of increase or decrease:
e2x − 4ex + 3 (ex − 1)(ex − 3)
f (x) = ex + 3e−x − 4 = = .
ex ex
The critical points are x = ln 1 = 0 and x = ln 3. We tabulate the signs of
the derivative:
Interval ex − 1 ex − 3 ex f ′ f
x<0 − − + + increasing
x=0 0 −2 1 0 critical point
0 < x < ln 3 + − + − decreasing
x = ln 3 + 0 + 0 critical point
ln 3 < x + + + + increasing
By the First Derivative Test, both critical points are local extrema: x = 0 is
a local maximum, and x = ln 3 is a local minimum.
We can now return to the question of the x-intercepts. There can be no zero
a of f such that a < 0, since then, applying the Mean Value Theorem to
f on the interval a ≤ x ≤ 0, we would find that f (0)−f 0−a
(a)
= f ′ (c) > 0, so
−2−0
0−a
> 0, which would imply that a > 0, contradicting the hypothesis. Since
f (0) = −2, and since f ′ < 0 for 0 < x < ln 3, the function values in this
interval will be negative. f (ln 3) = 2 − 4 ln 3 = 2 − ln 81 < 0. Finally, consider
f on the interval ln 3 < x: here the function is increasing; by a familiar use
of the Mean Value Theorem, the graph cannot cross the x-axis more than
once. Since f (3) = e3 − e33 − 12 > (2.7)3 − (2.7)3 3
3 − 12 > (2.7) − 12 > 0, we

know by the Intermediate Value Theorem that there is a point x between ln 3

and 3 where f (x) = 0 — hence it is a unique point, and this is the second
x-intercept.
G. Concavity and Points√
of Inflection: Differentiating, we find that f ′′ (x) =
√
(e + 3)(e − 3)
x x √
ex − 3e−x = . The factor ex
+ 3 is always positive, as is the
e x
√
factor e . The factor e − 3 is negative for x < ln23 and positive for x > ln23 .
x x

Thus, to the left, the graph is concave downwards; and, to the right of ln23 ,
the graph is concave downwards. Thus x = ln23 is an inflection point.
Example D.50 One student asked that I consider the graph of the function f (x) =
sin x
.
x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2210

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
5 10 15 20 25 30
x
-0.2

sin x
Figure 19: Graph of f (x) = for x > 0
x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2211

A. Domain: This function has as its domain R − {0}, since the fraction is not defined
when the denominator is 0. However, we know that lim x → 0f (x) = 1

B. Intercepts: There is no y-intercept, since 0 is not in the domain. The graph will
cross the x-axis whenever sin x = 0, i.e., precisely at the integer multiples of π —
infinitely often.

C. Symmetry: This function is even:

sin(−x) − sin x sin x

f (−x) = = = = f (x)
−x −x x
for all x. It is not periodic, since the maximum magnitude of f (x) gets smaller as
x grows.

D. Asymptotes: The curve has no vertical asymptotes, since there is no place where
a one-sided limit is infinite: even at x = 0 the limit is finite. As x → ∞,
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤
x x x
and the extremes both approach 0; hence, by the Squeeze Theorem, lim = 0, and
x→∞
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. The same limit holds as x → −∞, since the
function is even, and the graph to the left of x = 0 is the mirror image of the graph
to the right.

E. Intervals of Increase and Decrease: At this point the author’s proposed rubrics
for investigation become difficult for this function. We find that the derivative is
x cos x − sin x
f ′ (x) = ,
x2
so the tangent is horizontal when tan x = x, i.e., where the curve y = x crosses the
graph of the tangent function. It is beyond this course to be able to extract further
information about precisely where this happens, except to observe that there is
going to be one crossing in every interval of length π. So there are going to be
infinitely many critical points; they are located “near” the odd multiples of π2 .

When x is equal to an odd multiple of π2 , the graph touches one of the curves y = ± x1 ; it
is, in that sense, asymptotic to that pair of curves; more precisely, the distance between
y = f (x) and y = x1 approaches 0 as x → ±∞ and also the distance between the given
curve and y = − x1 . So the curve is oscillating between those two curves, all the while
approaching the y-axis. A sketch is given in Figure 19
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2212

D.21.2 §4.6 Graphing with Calculus and Calculators

(This portion of the notes covers material for which there was not time for a classroom
discussion.)
Because we are asking student to avoid the use of calculators in MATH 140/141, this
section is not examination material. You are, however, urged to peruse it, since some
of the skills required in solving the problems is similar to what you will be expected to
know.

4.6 Exercises You might wish to try some of the problems to see how far you can get
without having to resort to the use of a calculator.

[1, Exercise 4.5.26, p. 331] : “Describe how the graph of f varies as (the parameter)
c varies...You should investigate how maximum and minimum points and inflection
points move when c changes. You should also identify any transitional values of c
at which the basic shape of the curve changes. f (x) = x3 + cx.”
Solution:

A. Domain: The domain of f is the entire real line.

B. Intercepts: The y-intercept is f (0) = 0. The x-intercepts are the solutions to
x3 + cx = 0: √
when c > 0 the only x-intercept is 0; when c ≤ 0 the x-intercepts
are 0 and ± −c.
C. Symmetry: f (−x) = (−x)3 + c(−x) = −f (x). Thus these functions are
always odd . They are never even, and never periodic.
D. Asymptotes: As lim = ±∞, there are no horizontal asymptotes. There are
x→±∞
also no vertical asymptotes, as the function is continuous on the whole real
line.
E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease: f ′ (x) = 3x2 + c. When c > 0, f ′ > 0
for all x, and the function is always increasing. When c = 0, the function
is increasing for x > 0, and decreasing for x < 0. And,p when c < p0, the
function is increasing for x < − − 3c , decreasing for − − 3c < x < − 3c ,
p

and increasing again for x > − 3c . The points x = ± − 3c are then critical
p p
points.
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: For c > 0 there are no critical
points, and no local extrema. For c = 0 there is one critical point, x = 0;
but this point is not a local extremum since f < 0 to its left and f > 0 to
its right; so here
p also there are no local extrema. But, for c < 0, thep
critical
point x = − − 3 is a local maximum, and the critical point x = − 3c is
c
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2213

a local minimum. These properties may be shown by either the First or the
Second Derivative Tests.
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection: f ′′ (x) = 6x for all c: The graph is
always concave upward for x > 0, and concave downward for x < 0. Thus
x = 0 is always an inflection point!
H. Sketch the Curve: This may be done at the lecture.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2214

D.22 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of Monday, Novem-

ber 20th, 2006
Release Date: Monday, November 20th, 2006
subject to correction

Before presenting the notes for today’s lecture, I am including, from my files, sketches
of solutions to problems on the December final examinations in this course in 2003 and
in 2004. These will not be discussed in the lectures. However, I plan to discuss the
solutions to the December final examination for 2005 once I have finished covering the
syllabus.

D.22.1 Sketch of Solutions to Problems on the December, 2003 Final Ex-

amination
We do not have files of solutions to old examinations, as I try to discourage students from
studying from old exams. However, the following solutions were prepared for discussion
in my classes in November, 2004, and I am making them available to you. I plan to
discuss a different examination with this year’s class, but you are invited to ask me or
the TA’s about any of the following examination questions. The sketches I provide in
these notes do not constitute “official” solutions of the examination questions, but are
designed to explain the questions to current student.
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination,
each clearly marked as to its type:
• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!
• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.
“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”
1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Give the limit in each of the following cases. If the limit does
not exist, or is +∞ or −∞, write “DOES NOT EXIST”, +∞, or −∞ respectively.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2215

15 − 2x − x2
(a) lim− =?
x→3 x−3
Solution: The intention was that students would observe that the quadratic
numerator factors into −(x−3)(x+5), so that the function is equal to −(x+5)
at all points except x = 3, where it is undefined. For the purpose of finding
the one-sided limit as x → 3− , where the value of the function at x = 3 is
irrelevant, we can use the textbook result that polynomials are continuous
everywhere; hence the limit of −x − 5 is obtained by replacing x + 5 by that
function’s value at x = 3, i.e., by −3 − 5 = −8.
Of course, since students did not have to show their work, they could have
found this limit also by using l’Hospital’s Rule:
15 − 2x − x2 −2 − 2x
lim− = lim− = −2 − 6 = −8
x→3 x−3 x→3 1
7x5 + 2x3 − x2 + 11
(b) lim =?
x→−∞ x5 − 3x4 + 2
Solution: For the limit of a quotient of polynomials as x becomes infinite
positively or negatively, I recommend dividing out the leading power of x:
x5 7 + x22 − x13 + x115


7x5 + 2x3 − x2 + 11
lim = lim
x5 1 − x3 + x25


x→−∞ x5 − 3x4 + 2 x→−∞

7 + x22 − x13 + x115

= lim
x→−∞ 1 − x3 + x25
7
=
1
Here also, l’Hospital’s Rule could have been used (5 times).
tan 5x
(c) lim =?
x→0 sin 4x
Solution: We try to transform the function into a product of quotients of the
form sinx x :
tan 5x 5x sin 5x 1 4x
lim = lim · ·
x→0 sin 4x x→0 5x cos 5x 4x sin 4x
sin 5x 1 4x 5
= lim · · ·
x→0 5x cos 5x sin 4x 4
sin 5x 1 4x 5
= lim · lim · lim · lim
x→0 5x x→0 cos 5x x→0 sin 4x x→0 4
1 5 5
= 1· ·1· =
1 4 4
This problem could have been solved using l’Hospital’s Rule.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2216

30 + 6x
(d) lim − =?
x→−5 |5 + x|
Solution: This is a limit as x → 5− ; to the left side of 5, |5 + x| = −(5 + x).
Accordingly
30 + 6x
lim − = lim− −6 = −6 .
x→−5 |5 + x| x→5
√ √
(e) lim ( x2 + x − x2 − 4x) =?
x→∞
Solution: This function is a difference of two functions, both of which become
infinite as x → ∞. We need to transform it into a function which does not
involve an undefined combination of functions which are becoming infinite.
The “standard”√way of attacking
√ this problem is to rationalize the surds, by
2 2
multiplying by x + x − x − 4x and dividing by the same quantity. We
obtain
(x2 + x) − (x2 − 4x) 5x
√ √ =√ √
x2 + x + x2 − 4x x2 + x + x2 − 4x
At this point we could, perhaps, use l’Hospital’s Rule. But a simpler attack
is to divide numerator and denominator by x; since x is positive, this is
equivalent to dividing the surds by x2 under the root signs. We obtain
5x 5
√ √ =q q
x2 + x + x2 − 4x 1+ 1
+ 1− 4
x x

5
which approaches 2
as x → ∞.
2 x
(f) lim x e =?
x→−∞
Solution: While some of the preceding problems could be solved by l’Hospital’s
Rule, but also by other — preferred — methods, this problem, for most stu-
dents, would need l’Hospital’s Rule.

x2 2x 2
lim x2 ex = lim −x
= lim −x
= lim −x = 0
x→−∞ x→−∞ e x→−∞ −e x→−∞ e

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Determine each of the following derivatives.
d sin t2
(a) e =?
dt
Solution: This function is the composition of three functions: first t 7→ t2 ; then
u 7→ sin u, finally v 7→ ev . To differentiate we begin with the last function:
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2217

the derivative of ev is ev ; here v = sin t2 . We multiply by the derivative with

respect to u of sinu; here u = t2 . Finally we multiply by the derivative of t2 .
The product is
2
esin t · cos t2 · 2t .

d
(b) ln(e4x ) =?
dx
Solution: We expect students to observe that, as the exponential and loga-
rithm functions are mutual inverses, this function is equal to 4x, so its deriva-
tive is 4. Students could fail to make this observation and still solve the
problem correctly, using the Chain Rule.
d 4
(c) |x | =?
dx
Solution: Since the exponent is even, |x4 | = x4 , so the derivative is simply
4x3 . Students who attempted to solve the problem from first principles would
likely fail to observe that it is differentiable at x = 0, but could still determine
the correct derivative elsewhere.
d √
(d) arcsin x =?
dx
Solution: This is a straight-forward Chain Rule problem:
d √ 1 1 1
arcsin x = p · √ = √
dx 1 − |x| 2 x 2 x − x2
and is defined only for 0 < x < 1.
(e) If y(x) satisfies the equation
5 2 4 ′
(y(x)) + x (y(x)) + 9x = 1 , then y (0) =?
Solution: It was intended that this problem be solved by implicit differentia-
tion with respect to x:
5y 4y ′ + 1y 2 + x · 2y · y ′ + 36x3 = 0
which can be solved for y ′ in terms of x and y.

x
(f) If g(x) = x6 2 , g ′(0) =?
Solution: We might be tempted to solve this problem by “logarithmic differ-
entiation”. In the latter we find the logarithm of g(x):
x x
ln g(x) = · ln(x6 ) = · 6 ln x = 3x ln x
2 2
g ′ (x)
whose derivative, g(x)
is 3(ln x + 1). Hence the derivative of g(x) is

3x3x · (ln x + 1) .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2218

However, this derivation applies only for x > 0, so it is not relevant for the
problem given. We do see, though, that as x → 0+ , this function approaches
−∞, suggesting that there is no derivative anyhow, as the slope is approaching
the vertical.
So how can we attack this problem? We will have to appeal to the definition
of the derivative, i.e.,
x3x − 1
lim .
x→0 x
In order to compute this limit, we will have to determine the two one-sided
limits separately. Since

x3x − 1 e3x ln x − 1
lim = lim+
x→0+ x x→0 x
and we can show by l’Hospital’s Rule that x ln x → 0 as x → 0+ , the nu-
merator approaches 0, as does the denominator, we may apply l’Hospital’s
Rule:
e3x ln x − 1
lim+ = lim+ 3(ln x + 1)x3x .
x→0 x x→0

Thus the earlier formula does apply in the limit, which is found to be −∞.
And, as x → 0− , we have

x3x − 1 −e3x ln(−x) − 1

lim− = lim− .
x→0 x x→0 x
An analysis similar to the case from the right shows that the limit here is +∞.
Our definition of derivative does not permit infinite values: this function is not
differentiable at 0. In fact, the graph has a cusp at the point (x, y) = (0, 1).

3. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH]

(a) Give equations for all of the vertical asymptotes of the graph of
x
f (x) = .
x2 + x − 2
If there is none, write “NONE”.
Solution: The denominator factorizes into (x + 2)(x − 1) which is zero at
x = −2 and x = 1. The numerator remains non-zero at these points, so the
quotient is undefined and approaches ±∞ as x → −2 and x → 1 from either
side. Hence x = −2 and x = 1 are both asymptotes of this graph.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2219

(b) Determine all values of the constant c that will make the function

−4x + c when x < 0
f (x) =
(x + c)2 when x ≥ 0
continuous from the right at x = 0. If there is none, write “NONE”.
Solution: Suppose first that the question had read “Determine all values of the
constant c that will make the function continuous at x = 0.” Then we could
proceed as follows. The functions that are being pieced together are both
polynomials, and have one-sided limits at all values. As x → 0− , f (x) →
−4(0) + c = c. As x → 0+ , f (x) → (0 + c)2 = c2 . For continuity these values
must be equal: c = c2 or c(c − 1) = 0, so c = 0 or 1. Both of these values
make the function continuous (not just continuous from one side).
But the problem asked that the function be “continuous from the right at
x = 0”. Since the second line of the definition of the function gives its value
as (x + c)2 whenever x ≥ 0, this function is continuous from the right for all
values of c.
(c) Determine all horizontal asymptotes to the following curve; if there is none,
write “NONE”.
y = arctan(x2 )
Solution: As x → ±∞, x2 → ∞, and its arctangent→ π2 . Thus there is just
one horizontal asymptote, y = π2 .
3
(d) If tanh x = , sinh x =?
5
Solution: This problem can be approached in a variety of ways. If a student
remembered the identity, tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1, he could then argue that
sech2 x = 25
16
. Then, observing that the hyperbolic secant is always positive,
he could conclude the correct value.
But we don’t expect you to memorize this identity. So, instead, solve the
equation
ex − e−x 3
x −x
=
e +e 5
x
to obtain e = ±2, where the + sign must be taken, because real exponentials
are never negative, so
1 1
ex − ex
2− 2 3
sinhx = = = .
2 2 4
4. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[4 MARKS EACH] The examiners are aware that you do not have a calculator.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2220

(a) Determine all points on the curve

y 3 − x2 = 4

where the tangent is horizontal. If there is none, write “NONE”.

Solution: By implicit differentiation with respect to x we see that 3y 2 ·y ′ −2x =
0. There is no point on the curve where y = 0, as this would entail that x2
be negative. Hence the only way in which y ′√= 0 is that x = 0. The point of
contact of this tangent with the curve is (0, 3 4).
(b) On the interval −2 < x < 0, determine the values of x at which the function
f has a local (=relative) minimum, if it is known that

f ′ (x) = (2x + 1)(x + 1)2 (x + 3) .

If there is no local minimum, write “NONE”.

Solution: The derivative vanishes at x = − 12 , x = −1, and x = −3. Of these
3 points, the last is outside the domain of the function. The other 2 yield
two critical points. To determine which — if either — of them yields a local
minimum, we must use either the First or the Second Derivative Test. Because
of the complication of the function, it is easiest to use the First Derivative
Test:
x 2x + 1 x + 1 (x + 1)2 x + 3 f ′ f
−2 ≤ x < −1 − − + + + decreasing
x = −1 critical point
−1 < x < − 12 − + + + − decreasing
x = − 12 critical point
− 12 < x ≤ 0 + + + + + increasing

At x = −1 the function does not change from increasing/decreasing to de-

creasing/increasing, so this is NOT a local maximum; at x = − 12 it changes
from decreasing to increasing, so the function has a local minimum.
(c) Find f (2) if it is known that
x2 − x + 1
f ′ (x) = , and
x
f (1) = 5 .

Solution: The general antiderivative of f is

x2
Z  
1
F (x) = x−1+ dx = − x + ln x + C.
x 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2221

1 11
Imposing the condition that f (1) = 5 yields 5 = 2
− 1 + C, so C = 2
. It
follows that
22 11 11
f (2) = − 2 + ln 2 + C = 2 − 2 + ln 2 + = ln 2 + .
2 2 2

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[3 MARKS EACH]
For each of the following descriptions of a function or functions, either

• give an example of functions with the properties stated, or

• name or state a theorem, law, or rule which can be used to show that no such
function or functions exist.

(a) f (3) = 0, f (1) = −4, f ′ (x) ≤ 1 for all x.

Solution: By the Mean Value Theorem there exists c such that 1 < c < 3 and
f ′ (c) = 0−(−4)
3−1
= 2 > 1, which contradicts the hypothesis that the value of the
derivative can never exceed 1. From this contradiction we conclude that no
such function f can exist.
(b) f is continuous on [−4, 4], f (−3) = −1, f (3) = 2, f (x) 6= 0 for all x.
Solution: A continuous function must, by the Intermediate Value Theorem,
assume all values between any two values it assumes. Thus there must be a
point where f takes on the value 0 that lies between the values of −1 and
2 that is is known to assume. From this contradiction we conclude that no
function f of this type exists.
 
(c) lim f (x) = 3, f lim x = 2 .
x→4 x→4
Solution: If f were continuous at 4, then, since lim x = 4, the two hypotheses
x→4
would be contradictory. We conclude that f cannot be continuous at 4. An
example of a function f of this type is

3 when x 6= 4
f (x) =
2 when x = 4

(d) f ′ (1) = 5 and f is not continuous at x = 1 .

Solution: We know that a function which has a derivative at x = 1 must be
continuous at x = 1. Thus the description is self-contradictory, and there
cannot exist any such function f .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2222

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[12 MARKS] A balloon leaves the ground 100 metres from an observer, and rises
vertically at the rate of 40 metres per minute. Determine the rate at which the
angle of inclination of the observer’s line of sight (the angle between the line of
sight and the horizontal) is increasing at the instant when the balloon is exactly
100 metres above the ground?
Solution: It appears that the examiners intended that the observer’s eye be at
ground level. Let’s place that eye at the origin, and the balloon on the x-axis
at position (100, 0) at time t = 0. The position of the balloon at time t will
be (100, 40t). The angle subtended at the observer’s eye at time t is, therefore,
2
40t
arctan 100 , whose derivative is 5
2 . The balloon will be at height 100 when
1+( 2t
5 )
t = 25 , at which time the value of the derivative is 15 radian/minute.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

√
Let f (x) = x x + 3 .
(a) [2 MARKS] State the domain of f .
(b) [4 MARKS] Find the intervals of increase and the intervals of decrease of f .
√
Solution: x + 3 is defined precisely when x ≥ −3; the product with x does
not restrict the domain. Thus the domain of f is x ≥ −3.
(c) [4 MARKS] Find the absolute (global) maximum and minimum values of f
— if any — and the points where they are attained.
Solution: Differentiation by the product rule, followed by algebraic simplifi-
cation, yields
3 x+2
f ′ (x) = · √ .
2 x+3
This function is 0 when x = −2, and is not defined when x = −3. For
−3 < x < −2 f ′ < 0 so f is decreasing; for −2 < x f ′ > 0 so f is increasing.
It follows that x = −2 is a global minimum of f . The global minimum value
of f is, therefore f (−2) = −2.
(d) [3 MARKS] Determine the intervals of concavity upwards and the intervals of
concavity downwards, and the inflection points, if any.
Solution: We find after another differentiation and simplification that
3 x+4
f ′′ (x) = · √ .
4 ( x + 3)3
This function is positive throughout the domain of f , so the graph is always
concave upward, and there are not inflection points.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2223

(e) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

Let t represents time measured in seconds, and let C be a constant that is to
be determined. A particle moves so that its position on the x axis at time t is
x(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t + C.

(a) [3 MARKS] Determine the acceleration of the particle as a function of time.

Solution:

v(t) = x′ (t) = 3t2 − 24t + 36

a(t) = v ′ (t) = x′′ = 6t − 24

(b) [6 MARKS] The speed of the particle is the absolute value of its velocity.
Determine the time intervals when the speed is increasing.
Solution: v(t) = 3(t − 2)(t − 6), while a(t) = 6(t − 4). The various signs will
change only at values t = 2, 4, 6. Let us tabulate the behavior of the velocity
and speed first:
d|v|
t t−2 t−6 v |v| dt
t<2 − − + v 6(t − 4)
2<t<6 − + − −v −6(t − 4)
t>6 + + + v 6(t − 4)

We see that the derivative of the speed will be changing sign at t = 4. We

have
d|v|
t dt
t<2 −
2<t<4 +
4<t<6 −
6<t +
Thus the speed is increasing in the intervals 2 < t < 4 and 6 < t.
(c) [3 MARKS] Determine the value of C if it is known that the particle is at the
origin the whenever the acceleration is 0.
Solution: The acceleration has already been determined to equal 6(t − 4), and
is 0 precisely at time t = 4. We are thus being told that

0 = x(4) = 43 − 12(42 ) + 36(4) + C = 16 + C

so C = −16.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2224

D.22.2 Sketch of Solutions to Problems on one of several versions of the

December, 2004 Final Examination
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:
• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!
• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.
“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”
1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH] Give the numeric value of each of the following limits if it exists;
if the limit is +∞ or −∞, write +∞ or −∞ respectively. In all other cases write
”NO FINITE OR INFINITE LIMIT”.
|y|
(a) lim =
y→−∞ y

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: For negative y, |y| = −y. It follows that

|y| −y
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1 ,
y→−∞ y y→−∞ y y→−∞

the limit of a constant function.

sin u
(b) lim =
u→−∞ u

ANSWER ONLY
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2225

Solution: Don’t confuse this question with the theorem that lim sinu u = 1. As
u→0
u → ∞ the numerator here oscillates between −1 and +1, but the denom-
inator is approaching −∞, so the quotient approaches 0. Here is a formal
proof:
Beginning with the inequalities
−1 ≤ sin u ≤ 1
we divide all members by u < 0, reversing the inequalities:
1 sin u 1
− ≥ ≥
u u u
and allow u → ∞. The extremes approach 0; hence, by the Squeeze Theorem,
sin u
lim = 0.
u→−∞ u
 2n
1
(c) lim 1 + =
n→∞ n
ANSWER ONLY

 n
1
Students should know the result [1, Theorem 6, p. 248] that lim 1 + =
n→∞ n
e; the present function is the square of that function, so the limit is e2 .
 
1 1
(d) lim − =
x→0 x sin x
ANSWER ONLY

Solution: This was [1, Exercise 45, p. 314]. It was a bad choice for a question
which requires no solutions, since we saw that some students solved it using
fallacious logic, and we still gave them the marks because I did not wish to
penalize them for proofs that were not required, even if they were very, very
wrong.
What was wrong was that some students reasoned that the two subtracted
terms both approached +∞, so the difference was 0. This is nonsense, but it
does happen to yield the correct answer in this case. Here is a correct solution:
   
1 1 sin x − x
lim − = lim
x→0 x sin x x→0 x sin x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2226

where numerator and denominator both approach 0. We apply l’Hospital’s

Rule:
 
sin x − x cos x − 1
lim = lim
x→0 x sin x x→0 sin x + x cos x

sin x
= lim
x→0 cos x + cos x − x sin x

after a second application of l’Hospital’s Rule. In this last fraction the de-
nominator approaches 2, but the numerator approaches 0. We may use the
0
Quotient Law, and conclude that the limit of the original function is = 0.
2
2 2


(e) lim ln(3t ) − ln(t + 7) =
t→∞

ANSWER ONLY

This problem resembles [1, Exercise 63, p. 314].

3t2
lim ln(3t2 ) − ln(t2 + 7) = lim ln 2


t→∞ t→∞ t +7
3
= lim ln
t→∞ 1 + t72
 
3
= ln lim = ln 3 .
t→∞ 1 + 72
t

Note that, contrary to the inference you might make from the location of the
problem in the textbook, you do not need to use l’Hospital’s Rule here.
√ √
x + 8 − 2x
(f) lim =
x→8 x2 − 8x
ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
√ √ ! √ √ √ √
x + 8 − 2x x + 8 − 2x x + 8 + 2x
lim = lim ·√ √
x→8 x2 − 8x x→8 x2 − 8x x + 8 + 2x
 
(x + 8) − 2x
= lim √ √
x→8 (x2 − 8x)( x + 8 + 2x)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2227

−1
= lim √ √ .
x→8 x( x + 8 + 2x)
The denominator approaches 8 × (4 + 4) = 64, while the numerator → −1, so
1
the function approaches − 64 as x → 8.

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH] Determine each of the following derivatives, and simplify your
answers as much as possible.
d x2 + 3x
 
(a) =
dx x

ANSWER ONLY

x2 + 3x
 
d d
Solution: = (x + 3) = 1 + 0 = 1.
dx x dx
d −3t

(b) t =
dt

ANSWER ONLY

d −3t
d ln t
−3t
t = e
dt dt
d −3t ln t
= e
dt
d
= e−3t ln t · (−3t ln t)
dt  
−3t ln t 1
= e · (−3) · (t) + ln t · 1
t
= e−3t ln t · (−3) · (1 + ln t)
= t−3t · (−3) · (1 + ln t) .
d
tan(e2s ) − e2 tan s =


(c)
ds
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2228

ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
d
tan(e2s ) − e2 tan s = sec2 (e2s ) · e2s · 2 − e2 tan s · 2 sec2 s .


ds
d
cosh2 (3y) =


(d)
dy

ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
d
cosh2 (3y) = 2 cosh(3y) · sinh(3y) · 3 .


dy
(This answer could be further simplified, as follows, but I didn’t expect stu-
dents to know the identity required for hyperbolic functions:

6 cosh(3y) · sinh(3y) = 3 sinh(6y) .)

d
cos2 X − cos(X 2 ) =


(e)
dX

ANSWER ONLY

d
cos2 X − cos(X 2 ) = 2 cos X · (− sin X) + sin X 2 · 2X



dX

3. BRIEF SOLUTIONS

(a) [5 MARKS] Find an equation for a line through the point (−2, 0) which is
tangent to the curve y = x2 and is not horizontal.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2229

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: On the curve y = x2 , the slope of the tangent at the point (x0 , x20 )
is 2x0 . An equation for the tangent line is, thus,

y − x20 = 2x0 (x − x0 )

or y = 2x0 x−x20 . For this tangent line to pass through (−2, 0), the coordinates
of that point must satisfy the equation of the tangent, i.e., 0 = 2x0 (−2) − x20 ,
implying that x0 = 0 or x0 = −4. The first of these alternatives gives a
horizontal tangent; hence x0 = −4, and the tangent line sought is

8x + y + 16 = 0 .

(Some students grabbed the only constant they could find in the problem —
−2 — and simply found the equation of the tangent line at the point on the
curve with x = −2. This tangent line does not pass through the point (−2, 0),
and is not the line that the question is looking for.)
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine values of the constants a and b that will make the
following function continuous at x = −6.
 √
 x + 31 if x < −6
f (x) = a+b if x = −6
a(x + 5) if x > −6


ANSWER ONLY

Solution: This function is pieced together from a root function, a constant,

and a linear function. The functions
√ a + b (a constant), and a(x + 5) are
continuous everywhere, and x + 31 is continuous on (−31, ∞); but there
could be discontinuities where the piecing together occurs, i.e., at x = −6.
The function is defined at that point. Thus all we need to check is that the
limit should exist at x = −6, i.e., that the limits from left and right separately
should exist and they should be equal; and that the common value of these
two one-sided limits should be the function value.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2230

√
The limit from the left will be lim−1 x + 31 = 5; the limit from the right will
x→−6
be lim + a(x + 5) = −a. Thus the equality a = −5 is required for continuity,
x→−6
and will ensure that the 2-sided limit of the function exists at x = −6. We
must now impose the condition that this limit, 5, be equal to the function
value, a + b, i.e., to −5 + b. It follows that b = 10.
(c) [5 MARKS] Determine values of the constants k and ℓ that will make the
following function differentiable at x = 1.

kx2 + ℓ if x ≤ 1

g(x) =
6x − 4 if x > 1

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: The functions being pieced together here are polynomials, which
we know to be differentiable everywhere. As in the preceding problem, the
only point where there could be a question is where they are pieced together,
at x = 1. At that point we know that differentiability implies continuity.
We will first make the function continuous there. The limit from the left is
lim−1 (kx2 + ℓ) = k + ℓ. The limit from the right is lim+ = 6 − 4 = 2; thus we
x→1 x→1
have
k +ℓ = 2.
The difference quotient from the right is (6x−4)−(k+ℓ)
x−1
= 6x−6
x−1
= 6 . Thus, if the
function is differentiable at x = 1, the value of the derivative will be 6. We
now look at the difference quotient from the left:
kx2 + ℓ − (k + ℓ)
= k(x + 1) .
x−1
As x → 1, this quotient approaches 2k, which must be equal to 6; hence k = 3
and ℓ = −1.

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [6 MARKS] Coffee is draining from a conical filter of depth 10 cm and diameter
10 cm (at the top) into a cylindrical coffee pot of diameter 12 cm, at the rate
of 100 cm3 /min. Determine how fast, in cm/min, the level of coffee in the pot
is rising when the coffee in the filter is 3 cm deep?
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2231

Solution: This was the easier part of a 2-part problem that had constituted a
written assignment for the students. This part of the problem did not depend
on the shape of the filter. If the coffee is h cm deep in the cylinder, the volume
V is π62 h, so the rate of change of volume with time t is
dV dh
100 = = 36π .
dt dt
100
The rate of increase of volume is, therefore the constant, .
36π
(b) [6 MARKS] You are given that y = y(t) is a function of t satisfying t3 y +ty 3 =
2. Assuming that y(1) = 1, determine the values of y ′(1) and y ′′ (1).
Solution: Differentiating the equation for y implicitly with respect to t yields
dy dy
3t2 y + t3 · + y 3 + t · 3y 2 · =0
dt dt
or
dy
t(t2 + 3y 2)
+ y(3t2 + y 2 ) = 0 .
dt
Setting t = 1 in the original equation yields y 3 + y −2 = 0; y 3 + y −2 factorizes
into (y − 1)(y 2 + 2y + 2) = 0, of which y = 1 is the only solution. Substituting
dy
t = 1, y = 1 in the equation for the derivative yields = −1. Finally we
dt
must differentiate, for example, the equation

y(3t2 + y 2 )
y′ = − .
t(t2 + 3y 2)

We obtain
′′ y ′ (3t2 + y 2 )(6ty + 2y 2 y ′ )(t3 + 3ty 2 ) − y(3t2 + y 2 )(3t2 + 3y 2 + 6tyy ′ )
y =−
t2 (t2 + 3y 2 )2

which vanishes when (t, y, y ′) = (1, 1, −1).

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [4 MARKS] Prove that the function x3 + 9x2 + 33x assumes the value −8 at
least once.
Solution: The function takes on the value 0 > −8 when x = 0. It takes on the
value −1+9−33 = −25 < −8 at x = −1. Since the function is continuous, we
may apply the Intermediate Value Theorem to infer that the function takes
on the value −8 somewhere in the interval −1 < x < 0.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2232

(b) [8 MARKS] Using the Mean Value Theorem or Rolle’s Theorem — no other
methods will be accepted — prove carefully that x3 + 9x2 + 33x takes on the
value −8 at most once.
Solution: Suppose the function took on the value −8 twice. Since the func-
tion is differentiable everywhere, it satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value
Theorem. There would have to be a point x = c in the interval −1 < x < 0
at which f ′ (c) = 0. But this is contradicted by

f ′ (x) = 3(x2 + 6x + 11) = 3(x + 3)2 + 6 ≥ 6 > 0

for all x. We conclude that our assumption of the existence of 2 roots is false
— the function attains the value −8 only once.

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[10 MARKS] Using the calculus carefully, determine how to express 8 as the sum
of 2 nonnegative real numbers such that the sum of the square of the first and the
cube of the second is as small as possible.
Solution: Denote the second number by b, so the first will be 8 − b. Then we wish
to minimize the sum f (b) = (8 − b)2 + b3 . We find that

f ′ (b) = 2(8 − b)(−1) + 3b2 = (3b + 8)(b − 2)

so the only critical point in the domain 0 ≤ b ≤ 8 is b = 2, at which f ′′ (b) = 6b + 2

evaluates to 14 > 0, so b = 2 is a local minimum, where the function value is
f (b) = 62 + 23 = 44. At the end points of the domain we have f (0) = 0 + 512 > 44
and f (8) = 64 + 0 > 44. Hence the sum is minimized globally when the second
summand is 2, and the first is 8 − 2 = 6.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

 2
x
Let f (x) = .
x+3
(a) [1 MARKS] State the domain of f .
Solution: The fraction is meaningful only where the denominator is non-zero.
Thus the domain of the fraction, and hence of its square f , is R − {−3}.
(b) [4 MARKS] Find the intervals of increase and the intervals of decrease of f .
Solution:    
′ x d 3 6x
f (x) = · 1− =
x+3 dt x−3 (x + 3)3

UPDATED TO December 1, 2006

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2233

which vanishes only at x = 0. Because the degree of the factor x − 0 is 1,

which is odd, the function changes sign at 0. It is decreasing for −3 < x < 0
and increasing for 0 < x. In the interval x < −3, the degree of the negative
factor x + 3 is odd, and the degree of the negative factor x is also odd, so the
derivative is positive for x < −3.
(c) [4 MARKS] Determine the intervals of concavity upwards and the intervals of
concavity downwards, and the inflection points, if any.
Solution: Another differentiation yields

′′ x − 32
f (x) = −12 .
(x + 3)4

The odd factor x − 32 changes sign at x = 32 , so x = 23 is an inflection point:

the graph is concave upward in both the intervals (−∞, −3) and −3, − 32 .

For x > 32 the graph is concave downwards.

(d) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of y = f (x), showing — clearly labelled — all
horizontal and all vertical asymptotes.
Solution: There is a vertical asymptote at x = −3, because the function
approaches ∞ from both sides of x = −3. As x → ±∞, f (x) → 1, so y = 1
is a horizontal asymptote: the graph is above the horizontal asymptote for
x, −3, and below it in the first quadrant. It crosses that asymptote from above
to below at x = − 32 .

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[6 MARKS] Consider the function f (x) = 5x + 9 near x = −1. Is it, or is it not
true that f is continuous at x = −1? If the statement is true, prove it carefully,
using the ǫ-δ definition. If it is false, prove that carefully.
Solution: This topic has been deleted from this year’s syllabus, and I will not
provide a solution here.

D.22.3 §4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching (conclusion)

I include one more long example.

4.6 Exercises (conclusion)

[1, Exercise 4.5.32, p. 323] To sketch the graph of f (x) = sin x − tan x.
Solution: (cf. Figure 20, page 2234 in these notes)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2234

0 y
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4
x

-2

-4

Figure 20: Portion of the graph of y = sin x − tan x, showing its vertical asymptotes

A. Domain: The sine function is defined for all real numbers; but the tangent
function is not defined at odd multiples of π2 ; hence the domain of f is R −
{(2n + 1) π2 |n = any integer}.
B. Intercepts: The y-intercept is f (0) = 0 − 0 = 0. The x-intercepts will be
those x for which sin x = tan x, equivalently, for which sin x(1 − sec x) = 0,
equivalently, for which either sin x = 0 or cos x = 1. sin x = 0 when x is an
integer multiple of π, while cos x = 1 when x is an integer multiple of 2π: thus
the second factor vanishes only when the first vanishes, and it suffices to look
only at the first. To summarize, the x-intercepts are the integer multiples of
π.
C. Symmetry: This function is odd , since f (−x) = sin(−x)−tan(−x) = − sin x+
tan x = −f (x). It is also periodic, since the sine function has period 2π and
the tangent function has period π: f has period 2π. Thus it suffices to study
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2235

the function over any interval of length 2π — the local extrema, inflection
points, etc, will be repeated periodically over the whole domain.
D. Asymptotes: We know that
lim +
f (x) = 0 − (−∞) = ∞
x→−( π2 )

lim − f (x) = 0 − (∞) = −∞

x→( π2 )

lim + f (x) = 0 − (−∞) = ∞

x→( π2 )

lim −
f (x) = 0 − (∞) = −∞
2 )
x→( 3π

and the pattern will repeat over the whole domain. There are thus vertical
asymptotes as all odd multiples of π2 ; in each case the asymptote occurs for
two reasons, because a single infinite one-sided limit is sufficient for a vertical
asymptote.
A function with a positive period cannot have a horizontal asymptote, since
the maximum distance of the graph from any horizontal line will be oscillating
as we pass to ±∞.
E. Intervals of increase or decrease:
cos3 x − 1 (cos x − 1)(cos2 x + cos x + 1)
f ′ (x) = cos x − sec2 x = = .
cos2 x cos2 x
The numerator is a product of two functions. Of these, the second function is
a quadratic function which cannot be zero, since its discriminant is 12 −4 < 0.
Thus the only way in which f ′ (x) = 0 is that cos x = 0, which, as mentioned
earlier, occurs when x = 2nπ, where n is any integer. These are the only
critical numbers, and they are infinitely many. The odd multiples of π2 are,
indeed, points where the derivative is not defined; but, as they are not in the
domain of the function, they are not critical numbers. More generally, we
need to determine where the derivative is positive and negative. It is never
positive, since the factor cos2 x + cos x + 1 always has the sign of the square
term of the quadratic, here +; and the denominator is a square, so it also is
positive; the factor cos x − 1 cannot be positive, but it can be 0 — when x is
an even
integer multiple

π 3πof
π. Thus the function is decreasing on the intervals
π π
− 2 , 0 , 0, + 2 , 2 , + 2 , and then the pattern repeats itself periodically:
two intervals of length π2 , and one interval of length π.
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: We found the critical numbers in
the preceding paragraph. As the function is decreasing on both sides of each
of these points, the function has no local extrema.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2236

G. Concavity and Points of Inflection: Differentiating, we find that

f ′′ (x) = − sin x − 2 sec2 x · tan x = − sin x 1 + 2 sec3 x .

Here the factor 1 + 2 sec3 x cannot be 0, but will alternate between positive
and negative as x passes over the discontinuities at the odd multiples of π2 .
The factor sin x can be 0, and will change sign at the mid point of each of the
intervals over which f is defined. Thus the sign of f ′′ will change at each of
those midpoints, so each of those mid points — the integer multiples of π —
will be an inflection point of the graph.

All of the foregoing could be suggesting that the function has branches that all
look the same. But, while the function is periodic with period 2π, there will be
2 branches in each interval of length 2π, and they will not have exactly the same
shape. The difference is that the curve will be tangent to the x-axis at points 0,
±2π, ±4π, . . ., but not at the intervening x-asymptotes. The tangency occurs at
the points separating the two shorter intervals of decrease.

D.22.4 §4.7 Optimization Problems

Here is a variation of the steps the textbook suggests for solving optimization problems.

Spend some time understanding the problem: What quantity is to be optimized? What
is the “independent” variable? In Calculus 1 we can consider only problems with a
single independent variable; if your formulation of the problem appears to involve
more than one variable, there must be a relationship between those variables, and
you will have to determine that before you can complete your solution. (In Calculus
3 you will consider functions of several independent variables.)

The textbook suggests that you sketch the geometry, if the problem has been stated
in geometric language. But remember that your sketch is not a formal part of a
mathematical proof: it will be very helpful to you, but you must not attempt to
base any of your reasoning on the sketch.

Introduce notation for the independent variable(s) and the function (=“dependent vari-
able”), and express the dependencies that hold between them. You may subse-
quently find that your formulation of the problem is not an easy one to solve, and
you may wish to return to this step to express the dependent quantity in a different
way. Don’t be stubborn to continue with a formulation that proves to be difficult
for you.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2237

In your formulation be careful to describe precisely the domain of the function that you
are optimizing. Remember that the domain may not be the entire natural domain
of the function, as there may be constraints in the problem that restrict certain
quantities.
It is usually the global extrema that are of interest in optimization problems. This
means that you will have to consider the end points of closed intervals. You may
also have to consider functions whose domains are not closed intervals.

4.7 Exercises
[1, Exercise 4.7.10, p. 337] “A box with a square base and open top must have a
volume of 32,000 cm3 . Find the dimensions of the box that minimize the amount
of material used.”
Solution: The box has three spatial dimensions, but two are the same. Is this a
problem with 2 independent variables? No. We can call the side of the base x,
and the height h; but these two variables are related, since x2 h = 32000. We can
use this last equation to express either of x and h in terms of the other. Let’s wait
before we decide which of them to take as our independent variable.
The area of the base is x2 , and the area of the sides is 4x · h, so the quantity we
wish to minimize is x2 + 4xh. If we were to take h as the independent variable,
this area expression would involve fractional powers of h, which would be slightly
unpleasant to work with; so I decide to express the area in terms of x, and to
eliminate h, even though the alternative approach could have been used, with a
bit more difficulty. Denote the area by
32000 128000
A(x) = x2 + 4xh = x2 + 4x · = x2
+ .
x2 x
The domain of the function is 0 < x < ∞. We determine the derivatives of A(x):
128000
A′ (x) = 2x −
x2
256000
A′′ (x) = 2 +
x3
The only critical point of A is at x = 40. Since A′′ (40) > 0, this is a local
minimum. Alternatively, we could have used the First Derivative Test. Indeed,
the First Derivative Test is better since the fact that A′ is decreasing for x < 40 and
increasing for x > 40 shows that this local minimum is, in fact, a global minimum
(cf. [1, First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme Values, p. 334]). Finally we
have to answer the question as stated: the dimensions of the box using the smallest
amount of material are
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2238

side of base = 40 cm.

height = 32000
1600
cm. = 20 cm.

(Note that the same method could be used for variants of this problem. For ex-
ample, the box could have a top, or the cost per unit area of the base could be
different from that cost for the sides, as in [1, Exercise 4.7.12, p. 337].)
[1, Exercise 4.7.22, p. 337] (This problem was discussed only very briefly at the lec-
ture.) “Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that has its base on
the x-axis and its other 2 vertices above the x-axis, and lying on the parabola
y = 8 − x2 .”
Solution: In this problem the author has prescribed a coordinate system, so you
don’t have to decide where to place it. He has not named the points, so you may
wish to do so; while this naming could be shown on your figure, a formal proof
should have the points named in the wording of the proof. For example, I will
assert that the vertices of the base are A(a, 0) and B(b, 0), and, without limiting
the generality, I will decide to let A be the leftmost of the two, so that a < b.
The vertices above them will then be C(a, 8 − a2 ) and D(b, 8 − b2 ). As this is to
be a rectangle, the side CD must be parallel to AB, which is on the x-axis; thus
8 − a2 = 8 − b2 , so b = ±a; since B is distinct from A, I will have to have b = −a.
Since I decided that B should be to the right of A, I will now specify that a < 0:
the vertices of the rectangle are now A(a, 0), B(−a, 0), C(a, 8 − a2 ), D(−a, 8 − a2 );
remember, a < 0. The base of this rectangle has length |2a| and the height is
8 − a2 , so the area — the function we wish to maximize — is
f (a) = (8 − a2 )|2a| .
And what is the domain
√ of f ? We
√ are told that C and D must lie above the x-axis,
2
√ − 8 ≤ a ≤ 8. Earlier we restricted a to be non-positive; thus
so 8 − a ≥ 0 and
the domain is − 8 ≤ a ≤ 0. We can simplify the formula we gave for f (a):
f (a) = 2a3 − 16a .
√
Hence f ′ (a)
q = 6a2
−16, for − 8 < a < 0. The critical points of this function would
8
be a = ± 3
if a could take any value. But our restricting a to be negative leaves
q
only one of these points in the domain: a = − 83 . To determine the extrema of
f we evaluate the function at the critical point and at the end point of the closedq
interval that is the domain, and find that f = 0 at the end points, and f = 64 3
2
3
at the critical
q point. We conclude that the dimensions of the largest rectangle are:
2 16
width is 4 3
, and height is 3
.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2239

In this solution I did not follow one of the pieces of advice I gave you: I persisted
with an awkward formulation of the problem (with my variable a restricted to be
negative) rather than going back to the drawing board and reformulating it in a
more intuitive way. While I did obtain the answer, it was not the simplest way of
attacking the problem.
[1, Exercise 4.7.54, p. 339] “A steel pipe is being carried down a hallway 9 feet wide.
At the end of the hall there is a right-angled turn into a narrower hallway 6 feet
wide. What is the length of the longest pipe that can be carried horizontally around
the corner?”
Solution: The textbook provides a figure. The figure shows an angle named θ
between the pipe and the outer wall of the 9-foot hallway, where it is touching the
inner corner of the hallway and tight against the two outer walls. In this way the
author has helped you by eliminating the doubts as to which independent variable
to use.
Let’s call the maximum length of the pipe f (θ); the permitted values for θ are
0 < θ < π2 : note that θ cannot equal either 0 or π2 . Call the length of pipe that can
fit tightly at angle θ f (θ); expressing it in terms of the widths of the two hallways
we find it is a sum,
f (θ) = 9 csc θ + 6 sec θ .
Its derivative, after simplification, is
6 sin3 θ − 9 cos3 θ (cos θ) · (6 tan3 θ − 9)
f ′ (θ) = = .
sin2 θ · cos2 θ sin3 θ
We need to determine the global minimum for f , in order to determine the longest
pipe that can turn the corner horizontally.
q The function has just one q critical
point in the interval, when tan θ = 3 96 , corresponding to θ = arctan 3 32 . For
q q q
tan θ < 3 96 f ′ < 0, and for tan θ > 3 96 f ′ > 0: thus θ = arctan 3 32 is a
local minimum of f . Since these inequalities on the sides of the critical number
occur throughout the domain, we can conclude that the point is, in fact, a global
minimum (cf. q “First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme Values” [1, p. 334]).
3
When tan θ = 3
2
,

f (θ) = 9 csc θ + 6 sec θ

p
= (6 + 9 cot θ) 1 + tan2 θ
r !s   23
3 2 3
= 6+9 1+
3 2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2240

and this is the longest length of pipe that can turn the corner.

Example D.51 (This problem was not discussed in the lecture.) Consider the following
problem from the Review Exercises: [1, Review Exercise 52 p. 363] “Find the point on
the hyperbola xy = 8 that is closest to the point (3, 0).”
Solution: As independent variable take the abscissa of a point x, x8 on the hyper-

bola; thus the domain will be the positive and negative coordinate axes, with the origin
removed. As a first attack on the problem we can try to minimize the function
s  2
8
f (x) = (x − 3)2 + −0 .
x

This will work, but will produce a computationally difficult problem. Instead we will
minimize the square of the distance:
 2
2 2 8
g(x) = f (x) = (x − 3) + −0 , (196)
x

since the square and square root functions are both increasing functions, so the minimum
distance occurs precisely where the minimum square distance occurs.
We compute the derivatives, and find that

g ′ (x) = 2(x − 3) − 128x−3

g ′′ (x) = 2 + 384x−4 > 0

which tells us, by the Second Derivative Test, that any local extremum is a local mini-
mum. Examining the first derivative more carefully, we find that

2(x4 − 3x3 − 64) 2(x − 4)(x3 + x2 + 4x + 16)

g ′(x) = = . (197)
x3 x3
Let’s examine the domain of g more carefully. The graph has two branches — one in
the first quadrant, and one in the third quadrant. The distance of (3, 0) from the 3rd
quadrant is surely at least 3, while its distance to the branch of the graph in the first
quadrant is no more than the vertical distance, 83 . Thus the closest point to the given
point will be on the branch in the first quadrant, and we need not even consider the other
branch. This observation has been made be examining the geometry. Another argument
would simply examine the sum in (196), and observe that the second summand is a
square, so it is positive; if x < 0, the first sum cannot be less than 32 . We see from
factorization (197) that one critical number is x = 4. There cannot be any more critical
numbers on the positive axis (0, ∞), since the polynomial factor x3 + x2 + 4x + 16 cannot
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2241

be zero for positive x. But there could be critical numbers on the negative coordinate
axis; in fact, there is one at approximately x = −1.344389236. By arguing that the
closest point we seek could not be on the negative branch of the graph, we avoid having
to deal with this second critical point.
As for the critical number x = 4, the derivative is negative to the left of it, and
positive to the right of it, so, by the First Derivative Test, x = 4 is a local minimum.
Indeed, x = 4 is a global minimum [1, First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme Values,
p. 334]. The y-coordinate is 48 = 2, so the closest point is (4, 2).
The point that we have ignored on the negative branch of the graph is of no interest
in this problem as stated; but a small change in the problem would make it relevant. We
could simply ask for the closest point on the negative branch of the graph to the point
(3, 0); or, equivalently, for the closest point on the given curve to the point (−3, 0).

D.22.5 §4.8 Applications to Business and Economics – OMIT

This section is not part of the syllabus of MATH 140.

4.8 Exercises

D.22.6 §4.9 Newton’s Method – OMIT

This section is not part of the syllabus of MATH 140.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2242

D.23 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of November 22nd,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, November 22nd, 2006
subject to correction

The First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme Values. In the discussion on
page 2237 of the solution of [1, Exercise 4.7.10, p. 337]. I drew a conclusion from the
facts that there was just one critical point, and that the derivative was always of one
sign on either side of the point, and that those signs were different. We were able to infer
that the critical point was a global extremum. Hitherto most of the problems in which
we considered global extrema were defined on a finite, closed interval. We had used this
type of reasoning previously in connection with the First Derivative Test, which is a test
to a local extremum. The textbook calls this reasoning the First Derivative Test for
Absolute Extreme Values [1, p. 334].

D.23.1 §4.10 Antiderivatives

Definition D.8 A function F is an antiderivative of a function f on an interval I if
F ′ = f on that interval.

The term antiderivative is a “calculus book term” rather than a “mathematician’s term”.
Mathematicians are more likely to use the traditional term indefinite integral . Textbooks
sometimes differentiate between the terms antiderivative and indefinite integral , but
these are likely to be rationalizations to justify the newer term. In practice the terms
are interchangeable. The traditional notation for an antiderivative of a function f (x) is
Z
f (x) dx .

We can reformulate Corollary D.35 to the Mean Value Theorem as

Corollary D.52 [to the Mean Value Theorem] If F is one antiderivative of f on an
interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f on I is

F (x) + C ,

where C is an arbitrary constant.

Where we wish to denote the family of all antiderivatives of f (x), we usually write
Z
f (x) dx + C ,
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2243

Function One antiderivative

f (x) F (x)
g(x) G(x)
f (x) + g(x) F (x) + G(x)
xn+1
xn (n 6= −1)
n+1
1
ln |x|
x
ex ex
cos x sin x
sin x − cos x
sec2 x tan x
sec x tan x sec x
csc x cot x − csc x
1
arctan x
1 + x2
1
−arccot x
1 + x2
1
√ arcsin x
1 − x2
1
√ − arccos x
1 − x2

Table 12: Some Antiderivatives

where C or some other symbol is understood to represent a constant of integration that

ranges over all real numbers, and will possibly be determined by additional information
that is yet to be supplied about the particular antiderivative that is sought. C is not the
only letter that is used to represent this constant.

Tables of Antiderivatives Much of the information we have been collecting about

derivatives can be recast into information about antiderivatives. For example, if we know
that F and G are antiderivatives of f and g, then we know the antiderivatives shown in
Table D.52 on page 2242. There are several observations to be made from this table:

1. There are several functions having two or more apparently different antiderivatives.
This is, in one sense, no surprise, as we saw above that a function with at least
one antiderivative has infinitely many. What may be surprising is that we are
seeing functions that we may not have observed earlier to be essentially the same
— differing only by an additive constant.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2244

2. While there is an antiderivative given for the sum of two functions with known
antiderivatives, there is none given for their product. There will be situations
when we will know the antiderivatives of two functions, but we will not have one
available for their product! This is not because an antiderivative “does not exist”,
but because we may not have constructed the elements out of which to describe
an antiderivative. We will return to this topic in MATH 141. One example will be
the functions
2 1
xex and
x
of which we know such antiderivatives as
2
ex
and ln |x|
2
2
respectively, but where we will not have available an antiderivative of ex .

3. A substantial portion of our time in MATH 141 will be spend in investigating pro-
cedures for determining antiderivatives for functions. While the tedious determina-
tion of antiderivatives is more and more being done by computers, the procedures
followed in those searches are very much the business of mathematicians and the
other users of mathematics.

The Geometry of Antiderivatives Read the textbook to see how a “derivative field”
enables one to sketch the graphs of antiderivatives. This subsection is intended to prepare
readers for parts of Chapter 9, which chapter is omitted from the syllabus of MATH 141
(because students at McGill meet the subject matter — “ordinary” differential equations
— in other courses, e.g., MATH 315). You should, however, understand that the graphs
of antiderivatives of any function form a family of parallel curves, separated by a constant
vertical distance.

Rectilinear Motion The theory in this section is a restatement of the material in [1,
§3.3, pp. 199-200]. To solve some of the problems you will need to know the acceleration
due to gravity, usually taken to be approximately 32 feet/sec−2 . I will illustrate with
some problems.

4.10 Exercises

[1, Exercise 10, p. 358] Find the most general antiderivative of the function

5 − 4x3 + 2x6
g(x) =
x6
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2245

and check your answer by differentiation.

Solution: The “trick” here is not to attempt to work with the given ratio, but
to transform the function into a sum: you know the antiderivatives of a sum of
functions with known antiderivatives, but you know little about the antiderivatives
of a quotient. Since
5 − 4x3 + 2x6 5 4 2
6
= 6− 3+
x x x 1
= 5x−6 − 4x−3 + 2x0 ,
one antiderivative is −x−5 + 2x−2 + 2x1 , and the most general antiderivative is
−x−5 + 2x−2 + 2x1 + C
where C is any real constant. We check by differentiation:
d
−x−5 + 2x−2 + 2x1 + C = −(−5)x−5−1 + 2(−2)x−2−1 + 2(1)x1−1 + 0


dx
which can be seen to equal the given function after the summands are taken to a
common denominator.
Note, however, that the given functions are not defined at x = 0, and can surely
not be continuous there. Thus there could be different constants of integration that
apply for the two intervals, (0, ∞) and (−∞, 0) where the functions are defined.
[1, Exercise 14, p. 358] Find the most general antiderivative of the function
sin θ
h(θ) =
cos2 θ
and check your answer by differentiation.
Solution: In MATH 141 we will see a general way of attacking problems of this
type. For now the solution depends upon observing, for example, that
d
sin θ = − cos θ .
dθ
Thus
d
sin θ cos θ d 1
= − dθ = = sec θ
2
cos θ 2
cos θ dθ cos θ
so one antiderivative is sec θ. This could also have been noticed if it had been
observed that
sin θ sin θ
h(θ) = = = tan θ · sec θ ,
2
cos θ 1
cos θ ·
sec θ
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2246

which, it may be recalled, is the derivative of sec θ. The most general antiderivative
is sec θ + C.
As in the previous problem solved, the functions are undefined at certain real num-
bers: the constants of integration could be different on the different intervals where
the functions are defined. In this case the singularities occur at the odd integer
multiples of π2 , so there are infinitely many intervals of length π for which a con-
stant of integration needs to be specified, and these could be combined arbitrarily,
depending on the other information known about the function.

[1, Exercise 26, p. 358] Find f , if it is known that f ′ (x) = 8x3 +12x+3, and f (1) = 6.
Solution: We have seen that we can find the antiderivative of a sum of powers by
d 4
taking the appropriate constant multiples of powers of x. Since dx x = 4x3 , an
antiderivative of 8x3 is 2x4 ; analogously we find antiderivatives of the other two
summands; hence the most general antiderivative of f ′ (x) is

f (x) = 2x4 + 6x2 + 3x + C ,

were C is a constant to be determined. Imposing the condition that f (1) = 6 yields

6 = f (1) = 2(1)4 + 6(1)2 + 3(1) + C = 11 + C

from which we conclude that C = −5, and that

f (x) = 2x4 + 6x2 + 3x − 5 .

3
[1, Exercise 36, p. 358] Find f , if it is known that f ′′ (t) = √
t
, f (4) = 20, f ′ (4) = 7.
Solution: The most general antiderivative of f ′′ is of the form
1
f ′ (t) = 3 (k) t− 2 +1 + C

where C is a constant of integration, and k is a constant that needs to be determined

by differentiation. Doing that, we find that
 
′′ 1 −1
f (t) = 3(k) t 2 +0
2
 
1
so 3 = 3(k) , k = 2 and
2
1
f ′ (t) = 6t 2 + C ; (198)
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2247

a second such operation gives

 
2 1 +1
f (t) = 6 t 2 + Ct + E (199)
3

where E is a second constant of integration. The constant C may be determined

in equation (198) by setting t = 4 there:
 1
7 = f ′ (4) = 6 4 2 + C = 12 + C ,

implying that C = 7 − 12 = −5. Substituting x = 4 in equation (199) yields

 3
20 = f (4) = 4 4 2 + (−5)(4) + E ,

implying that E = 20 − 4(8) − (−20) = 8, so

3
f (t) = 4t 2 − 5t + 8 .

[1, Exercise 4.10.42, p. 359] “Find f if it is known that f ′′′ (x) = sin x, f (0) =
f ′ (0) = f ′′ (0) = 1.”
Solution: What we will be finding is an antiderivative of an antiderivative of an
antiderivative of f , and we will impose the preceding 3 “initial” values on the
function to determine the values of the “constants of integration”. We begin by
interpreting the equation f ′′′ (x) = sin x as
′
(f ′′ ) (x) = sin x .

One antiderivative of sin x is − cos x, so the most general antiderivative is − cos x+

C, where C is a constant to be determined. Thus we know that

f ′′ (x) = − cos x + C

and hence
1 = f ′′ (0) = − cos 0 + C = −1 + C ,
from which we conclude that C = 2, so

f ′′ (x) = − cos x + 2 .

We interpret this last equation as

′
(f ′ ) (x) = − cos x + 2 .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2248

An antiderivative of − cos x is − sin x, and an antiderivative of 2 is 2x, so we infer

that
f ′ (x) = − sin x + 2x + K ,
where K is another constant of integration; use another letter to name that constant
so that it is not confused with the earlier constant. Imposing another of the initial
value conditions, we have

1 = f ′ (0) = − sin 0 + 2 · 0 + K = K ,

which determines this constant of integration:

f ′ (x) = − sin x + 2x + 1 .

Finally, an antiderivative of − sin x + 2x + 1 is cos x + x2 + x, so

f (x) = cos x + x2 + x + L ,

where L is a third constant of integration. The third initial condition gives

1 = f (0) = cos 0 + 02 + 0 + L

so L = 0, and f (x) = cos x + x2 + x.

(In some problems the information given will be such that the evaluation of the
constants may have to wait until the general antiderivative has been determined,
and then a set of equations will be determined, to be solved for the constants.)
[1, Exercise 4.10.44, p. 359] “Find a function f such that f ′ (x) = x3 and the line
x + y = 0 is tangent to the graph of f .”
x4
Solution: The candidates are all functions f (x) = +C, where C is some constant,
4
a4

to be determined. A general point on this curve is a, + C , at which the slope
4
of the tangent is f ′ (a) = a3 . (I am using the letter a to denote the abscissa of the
general point in order that I can comfortably talk about the equation of the tangent,
and have the letter x available for its traditional use.) An equation for the tangent
at this general point is
 4 
a
y− + C = a3 (x − a) .
4
For this to be the same line as x + y = 0, they must have the same slope, so

−1 = a3 ,
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2249

 
1
implying that a = −1, i.e., that the point of tangency is −1, + C . Thus the
4
tangent line is
 
1
y− +C = −(x + 1)
4
3
or x+y = C − .
4
We have imposed the condition that the tangent line have the desired slope, but the
given line passes through the origin; imposing that condition (that (x, y) = (0, 0)
satisfy the equation) here gives
3
0+0=C − ,
4
from which we conclude that C = 34 , so the desired function is

x4 + 3
f (x) = .
4
(This problem could be solved more elegantly by a more algebraic treatment; I have
avoided that route since not all students in the course are taking or have taken a
course in linear algebra.)

[1, Exercise 64, p. 360] (not discussed in the lecture) A particle is moving with the
following data; find the position of the particle:

a(t) = 10 + 3t − 3t2
s(0) = 0
s(2) = 10

Solution: We know that position at time t is given by the displacement function

s(t); that velocity is v(t) = s′ (t), and that acceleration is a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t).
Note that this is the first problem I have considered where the data are not the
initial values of the function and its derivatives, but are “boundary” values of the
function at different times.
The most general antiderivative of a(t) = s′′ (t) is
3
v(t) = s′ (t) = 10t + t2 − t3 + C1 ,
2
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2250

where C1 is a constant of integration. A second operation of antidifferentiation

gives
3 1 1
s(t) = 5t2 + · t3 − t4 + C1 t + C2 , (200)
2 3 4
where C2 is a second constant of integration. Imposing the boundary data gives
1 1
0 = s(0) = 5 · 0 + ·0− · 0 + C1 · 0 + C2
2 4
1 1
10 = s(2) = 5 · 4 + · 8 − · 16 + C1 · 2 + C2
2 4
implying that C1 = −5 and C2 = 0, so
1 1
s(t) = 5t2 + t3 − t4 − 5t + 0 ,
2 4

[1, Exercise 4.10.68, p. 360] (not discussed in the lecture) “Two balls are thrown
upward from the edge of a cliff (432 feet above the ground). The first is thrown
with a speed of 48 feet/s, and the other is thrown a second later with a speed
of 24 feet/s. Do the balls ever pass each other?” Assume that the acceleration is
dv
a(t) = = −32 feet/s2 .
dt
Solution: This problem is based on [1, Example 8, pp. 357-358].
Let’s set up a coordinate system for the moving balls. They will move along the
y-axis, and I will take the origin to be at the bottom of the cliff, with the positive
direction upward, and distance on the axis measured in feet. I will measure time
from the release of the first ball, and will denote the positions of the first and
second balls at time t respectively by y1 (t) and y2 (t).
The motion of the first ball is governed by the equation y1′′ (x) = −32. The most
general antiderivative of −32 is −32t + C1 — this is the velocity of the first ball.
If we impose the initial velocity condition for that ball, we obtain

48 = y1′ (0) = −32(0) + C1 ,

from which we conclude that C1 = 48, and that the velocity of the first ball is given
by
y1′ (t) = −32t + 48 .
From this we conclude that the position of the first ball is given by the equation

y1 (t) = −16t2 + 48t + K1 ,

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2251

where K is a constant of integration that must be determined. Imposing the

information we have about the initial position of the ball, we obtain

432 = y1 (0) = −16(02 ) + 48(0) + K1 ,

so K1 = 432, and the position of the first ball is given by

y1 (t) = −16t2 + 48t + 432 .

Proceeding to the second ball, its acceleration satisfies the equation y2′′(x) = −32,
so its velocity will be
y2′ (t) = −32t + C2 .
When we impose the initial velocity condition for the second ball — but be careful,
the release time is t = 1 here — we obtain

24 = y2′ (1) = −32(1) + C2 ,

so C2 = 56 and
y2′ (t) = −32t + 56
for t ≥ 1; the equation is not valid for t < 1. A second iteration of antidifferentia-
tion yields
y2 (t) = −16t2 + 56t + K2
and we impose the condition that the ball be at position y2 = 432 when t = 1:

432 = −16(12 ) + 56(1) + K2

so K2 = 392, and

y2 (t) = −16t2 + 56t + 392 (t ≥ 1) .

Finally we are ready to answer the question. The excess of height of the first ball
over the second at time t is

y1 (t) − y2 (t) = −8t + 40 .

Indeed, this difference is 0 once, when t = 5: the balls pass each other 4 seconds
after release of the second ball.
(If this exercise had yielded a value of t between 0 and 1 the answer would have been
NO, since the equation we are using for y2 applies only for t ≥ 1.
Some students observed that the wording is somewhat ambiguous, as it appears to permit
one ball to pass the other when the other is stationery, which was probably not the
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2252

intention. A more careful solution might proceed as follows: First determine the position
of the first ball:


 432 when t < 0 √
y1 (x) = −16t + 48t + 432 when 0 ≤ t ≤√3+32 13
2

when t > 3+32 13


 0

by solving to determine when the ball hits the ground. Then do the same calculations
for the 2nd ball:

 432 when t < 1
y2 (x) = −16t + 56t + 392 = −8(2t − 13)(t + 3) when 1 ≤ t ≤ 13
2
2
0 when t > 13

2

When we work with y1 − y2 we need to restrict t to the interval from

t=1

to √
t = the minimum of 32 (1 + 13) and 13
2 ,

i.e. 1 ≤ t ≤ 13
2 . The value of t = 5 which we found is in that interval, so it is the point
we seek; had it been outside of the interval it would have been irrelevant, and the balls
would not pass in midair.)

Example D.53 A Problem on the First Derivative Test for Global Extrema
[1, Review Exercise 50, p. 363]. “Find two positive integers such that the sum of the
first number and four times the second number is 1000, and the product of the numbers
is as large as possible.”
Solution: While the problem is phrased in terms of two numbers, we have to express it
as a single variable problem, since that is the only calculus machinery we have available
before MATH 222. Call the second number u, so the first number will be 1000 − 4u.
(Note that this definition is “cleaner” than one that would involve assigning a name to
the first number; but both approaches would lead to the same final answer.)
The function we wish to maximize is (1000 − 4u)u, and I propose to call it P (u).
The domain of P for the purpose of the problem is 0 ≤ u ≤ 250, since it would not be
meaningful to permit the function P (u) to be negative. Thus the domain is a closed
interval. We have

P (u) = (1000 − 4u)u = 4(250u − u2 ) ,

P ′ (u) = 4(250 − 2u) , and
P ′′ (u) = −8u .
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2253

The only critical number is u = 250

2
= 125. We apply the Closed Interval Method, and
tabulate the function values at the critical point and the end points of the domain:

u 125 0 250
P(u) 62,500 0 0

The global maximum occurs at u = 125, so the numbers must be 125 and 1, 000−4(125) =
500.
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2254

D.24 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of November 27th,

2006
Release Date: Monday, November 27nd, 2006
subject to correction

D.24.1 Sketch of Solutions to Problems on One Version of the December,

2005 Final Examination
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:

• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!

• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.

“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”

1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Give the numeric value of each of the following limits if it exists;
if the limit is +∞ or −∞, write +∞ or −∞ respectively. In all other cases write
“NO FINITE OR INFINITE LIMIT”.
p 
(a) lim y2 + y + y =
y→−∞

ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
!
p  p  py 2 + y − y
lim 2
y +y+y = lim y2 + y + y · p
y→−∞ y→−∞ y2 + y − y
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2255

!
(y 2 + y) − y 2
= lim p
y→−∞ y2 + y − y
 
 (y 2 + y) − y 2 
= lim  r  
y→−∞   
y 2 1 + y1 − y
 
2 2
(y + y) − y 
= lim  p q
y→−∞
y 2 1 + y1 − y
 
2 2
(y + y) − y 
= lim  q
y→−∞
|y| 1 + y1 − y
(the square root is always non-negative)
 
y
= lim  q 
y→−∞ 1
−y 1 + y − y
as y < 0
 
1
= lim  q 
y→−∞ 1
− 1+ y
−1
1 1
= =− .
−1 − 1 2

(b) lim e−x sinh x =

x→∞

ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
ex − e−x
lim e−x sinh x = lim e−x ·


x→∞ x→∞ 2
−2x
1−e 1−0 1
= lim = = .
x→∞ 2 2 2
√ √
x + 8 + 2x
(c) lim =
x→8 x2 + 8x
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2256

ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
√ √ √ √
x + 8 + 2x 8+8+ 2·8
lim =
x→8 x2 + 8x 82 + 8 · 8
4+4 1
= = .
64 + 64 16
 
1 1
(d) lim + =
x→1 1 − x ln x

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: We cannot use the Difference Law because neither summand has a
limit as x → ∞. Accordingly we transform the function into one that may be
more amenable; we begin by taking the fractions to a common denominator.
 
1 1 ln x − (x − 1)
lim + = lim .
x→1 1 − x ln x x→1 (1 − x) ln x

Next we apply l’Hospital’s Rule, since numerator and denominator both ap-
proach 0:
1
ln x − (x − 1) x
−1
lim = lim
x→1 (1 − x) ln x x→1 − ln x + 1−x
x
1−x
= lim
x→1 −x ln x + 1 − x
−1
= lim
x→1 −1 ln x − x − 1
x
by a second application of the 0/0 form of L’Hospital’s Rule .
−1 1
= lim = .
x→1 −1 · 0 − 1 − 1 2

sin ex
(e) lim =
x→∞ cos ex
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2257

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: The quotient is equal to tan ex . As x → ∞, ex → ∞. The tangent

has no limit as its argument becomes large, but takes on all real values as ex
passes through values in an interval of length π.
2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Evaluate each of the following, and simplify your answers as
much as possible.
d x2 + 3x
 
(a) =
dx x

ANSWER ONLY

Solution:
x2 + 3x
 
d d
= (x + 3) for x 6= 0
dx x dx
= 1 + 0 = 1.

(The function is not defined for x = 0.)

d u
(b) (u ) =
du

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: This problem can be solved in different ways. For example,

d u d
u

(u ) = eln u
du du
since logarithm and exponential are mutual inverses
d u ln u

= e
du
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2258

by the exponent rules

d
= eu ln u · (u ln u)
du
by the Chain Rule
u
 u
= u · 1 · ln u +
u
= uu · (ln u + 1) .

Equivalently, one could use the method of “logarithmic differentiation”: De-

fine y = uu , and take logarithms, to obtain ln y = u ln u; then differentiate
both sides of the equation with respect to u (the left side implicitly), and solve
d
the resulting equation to obtain du y in terms of u alone.
(c) An antiderivative F (x) of f (x) = 5x4 + 2x5 such that F (0) = 3 is

ANSWER ONLY

Solution: All antiderivatives of this polynomial have the form F (x) = x5 +

2 6
6
x + C, where C is a constant of integration. Imposing the initial condition
that F (0) = 3 yields 3 = 0 + 0 + C; hence the antiderivative sought is
1
F (x) = x5 + x6 + 3 .
3

(d) If f (x) = x3 + 7, its inverse function f −1 (x) =

ANSWER ONLY

√
Solution: Solving
√ the equation y = x3 +7 yields a unique solution, x = 3 y − 7.
Thus f −1 (y) = 3 y − 7. But the problem asked that the inverse function be
expressed in terms of an independent variable named x, not y; hence
√
f −1 (x) = 3 x − 7 .

d
|x|4 =


(e)
dx
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2259

ANSWER ONLY

We cannot differentiate the absolute value function at x = 0. However, |x|2 =

x2 , so
d d
|x|4 = x4 = 4x3 .



dx dx
3. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [6 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine values of the constants a and
b that will make the following function continuous everywhere.
 1


 (1 + x) x if x > 0
f (x) = a + bx if −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
 sin(x + 1)

 if x < −1
x+1

Solution: The three pieces of the function are, indeed, continuous everywhere;
but we need to ensure continuity where the pieces are combined, i.e., at the
points x = −1 and x = 0. We know that lim − sin(x+1) x+1
= 1, and that
x→−1
lim + (a + bx) = a − b. The two-sided limit will exist if and only if these two
x→−1
one-sided limits are equal, i.e., if and only if

a− b = 1.
1
As x → 0+ , (1 + x) x → e; as x → 0− , a + bx → a. For the limit as x → 0 to
exist we must thus impose the condition that

a = e.

We can now solve the two equations, to conclude that b = e − 1.

(b) [4 MARKS] Determine whether f is differentiable at x = −1. (For the purpose
of this question you may assume that e is approximately 2.72.)
Solution: We must consider the limit as x → −1 of the difference quotient
( (a+bx)−(a−b)
f (x) − f (−1) x+1
= b = e − 1 if 0 > x > −1
= sin(x+1)
−(a−b)
sin(x+1)
−1
x+1 x+1
= x+1
if x < −1
x+1 x+1
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2260

We may apply l’Hospital’s Rule to the lower ratio, obtaining

sin(x+1)
−1
x+1 sin(x + 1) − (x + 1)
lim − = lim −
x→−1 x+1 x→−1 (x + 1)2
cos(x + 1) − 1
= lim −
x→−1 2(x + 1)
− sin(x + 1)
= lim − = 0 6= e − 1 .
x→−1 2x
Since the limit from the left is different from the limit from the right, the
2-sided limit does not exist; the derivative is defined to be that 2-sided limit
— consequently the function is not differentiable at x = −1.

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[5 MARKS] Let f (x) = x2 ex . Prove carefully by mathematical induction that
dn f 2

x
(x) = x + 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dxn
for all positive integers n.
Solution: Let S(n) denote the nth case of the preceding alleged equality. S(0)
states that
f (x) = x2 + 0x + 0) ,

which is known to be true, as it is our definition of f . Suppose that it is known

that
dn f
(x) = x2 + 2nx + (n − 1)n · ex .


dx n

Then, differentiating with respect to x, we obtain

d dn f
 
x 2

x
(x) = (2x + 2n) · e + x + 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dx dxn
= x2 + 2(n + 1)x + n(n + 1) · ex

which is precisely S(n + 1). We may conclude, by the Principle of Mathematical

Induction, that S(n) is true for all non-negative integers n.
(This topic was not included in the syllabus of MATH 140 2006 09.)

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[5 MARKS] Let g(x) = 2x − 3 + cos x. Use Rolle’s Theorem or the Mean Value
Theorem, to prove carefully that there exists exactly one real number x such that
g(x) = 0. (π may be taken to be approximately 3.14.)
Solution:
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2261

(a) Since g(0) = 2(0)−3 + 1 = −2 < 0, and g(π) = 2π −3 −1 > 6 −3 −1 = 2 > 0,

and since the function g is continuous (being a sum of functions known to be
continuous), we may conclude by the Intermediate Value Theorem that there
is a point x such that 0 < x < π at which g(x) = 0.
(b) Suppose that there were two such zeros for the function g. Then, by Rolle’s
Theorem applied to the interval bounded by those zeros, we could conclude
that g ′ = 0 at some point. But g ′(x) = 2 − sin x, and this function ranges
in value between 1 and 3 — it cannot be zero! From this contradiction we
infer that the assumed existence of two zeros for the function is false — the
function cannot equal zero more than once.
(c) Thus the number of zeros is not less than 1, and not more than 1: we conclude
that there is a unique zero.

TO BE COMPLETED AT WEDNESDAY’S LECTURE

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2262

D.25 Supplementary Notes for the Lecture of November 29th,

2006
Release Date: Wednesday, November 29nd, 2006
subject to correction

D.25.1 Sketch of Solutions to Problems on One Version of the December,

2005 Final Examination (conclusion)
6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
[10 MARKS] A rectangular poster is to be printed on a rectangular board of min-
imum area, leaving margins at the 4 sides. The top and bottom margins are each
10 cm, and the side margins are each 4 cm. If the printed area on the poster is
fixed at 1,000 cm2 , find the best dimensions for the board. Show all of your work,
and justify all of your statements. In your solution, you are expected to carefully
apply either the First or the Second Derivative Test, naming the test as you apply
it.
Solution: Denote the width and height of the board by w, h, measured in centime-
tres; these functions will be assumed to be positive, but we cannot assume any
upper bound for either of them. Then the width and height of the printed area
are, respectively, w − 8 and h − 20, and the constraint on the printed area is that

(w − 8)(h − 20) = 1000 ,

1000
which implies that w = + 8 . The area of the board, which is to be minimized,
h−20
is
8(h2 + 105h)
 
1000
f (h) = wh = +8 ·h= .
h − 20 h − 20
Differentiating f yields, after reduction

8(h − 70)(h + 30)

f ′ (h) = ,
(h − 20)2

hence the only internal extremum is h = 70; (the value h = −30 does not lie in the
domain). For 0 < h < 70 f ′ (h) < 0; and for 70 < h f ′ (h) > 0. Hence h attains its
only local minimum at this point, and h = 70 is the global maximum point. The
minimum use of board will occur uniquely when h = 70 and
1000
w= + 8 = 28 .
70 − 20
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2263

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

√
Let f (x) = x2 − 1 .
(a) [1 MARK] State the domain of f .
Solution: The function is defined wherever the argument of the square root is
non-negative; i.e., where |x| ≥ 1.
(b) [1 MARK] State precisely where f is differentiable.
Solution: This function is differentiable everywhere except where x = ±1.
While the function is, indeed, defined at those points, it is not differentiable
for two different reasons. First, differentiability requires that the function be
defined on both sides of the point, and f is not defined for x in the interval
−1 < x < 1. Secondly, the one-sided limits of the difference quotient on the
side where the limit is defined is infinite, as the tangents are approaching the
vertical. We do not admit a value of ∞ or −∞ when we speak of a function
as being defined .
(c) [2 MARKS] Define when a line x = a is a vertical asymptote to the graph of
f.
Solution: A line x = a is a vertical asymptote if the either of the one-sided
limits of the function is ±∞.
(d) [2 MARKS] Either
i. Find all vertical asymptotes; or
ii. Explain why the graph has no vertical asymptotes.
Solution: This function does not approach infinity, even though the tangent
lines to the curve are approaching the vertical.
(e) [2 MARKS] Determine the global maximum value of f , or explain why there
is none.
Solution: As x → ∞, and also as x → −∞, f (x) → ∞. Thus the function
has no global maximum.
(f) [2 MARKS] Determine the global minimum value of f , or explain why there
is none.
Solution: This function is a square root, and cannot be negative. Since it is
equal to 0 at two places — x = ±1 — it attains a global minimum there.
8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
A function f (t) satisfies, for all real numbers t, the equation

t3 + f (t)3 + 6t2 · f (t) = 8 .

Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2264

(a) [5 MARKS] Find an equation for the tangent to the graph y = f (t) at the
point (t, y) = (2, 0).
Solution: Differentiating the given equation implicitly with respect to t yields

3t2 + 3f (t)2 · f ′ (t) + 12t · f (t) + 6t2 · f ′ (t) = 0 ,

which can be solved to yield

t2 + 4tf (t)
f′ = − .
(f (t))2 + 2t2
1
When t = 2 and f (t) = 0, this yields f ′ (2) = − . An equation of the tangent
2
is y − 0 = − 12 (t − 2), or t + 2y = 2.
(b) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the value of f ′′ (2).
Solution: Differentiating the ratio obtained for f ′ (t) yields

(2t + 4f (t) + 4tf ′ (t)) ((f (t))2 + 2t2 ) − t(t + 4f (t))(2f (t)f ′(t) + 4t)
f ′′ = −
((f (t))2 + 2t2 )2

which yields
1


′′ (4 − 4) 4
+ 8 − 2(2)(8) 1
f (2) = − = .
(0 + 8)2 2

Additional Exercises One student asked about a WeBWorK problem involving

a ladder passing over a fence to touch a wall. The problem was essentially like [1,
Exercise 34, p. 338]. I sketched the situation, and stated that there could be several
equivalent approaches. One of them might involve taking the variable to be some angle
in the configuration; another — the approach I took — could take the distance from the
foot of the ladder to the fence as the variable. I called that distance x, and obtained
a rather complicated function; when we evaluated the derivative, we obtained a ratio
whose numerator was of the form c(x3 − a3 ), whose only zero was obvious. Then it was
a matter of applying the First Derivative Test for Global Extrema [1, p. 334]. The use
of an angle as the variable would have made the calculations easier: see my solution of
[1, Exercise 54, p. 339] beginning on page 2239 of these notes.
Following are some other worked solutions I found in my notes file from last year;
they were not discussed at your lecture.

[1, Review Exercise 54, p. 363] “Find the volume of the largest (right) circular cone
that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius r.”
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2265

Solution: A right circular cone is a cone constructed from a disk by erecting a line
perpendicular to the plane of the disk, at the centre thereof, and joining a point on
that line — the apex of the cone to all points in the boundary of the disk. Suppose
that the sphere is formed from the circle x2 + y 2 = r 2 by revolving the circle about
the y-axis. Think of the base of the cone as cutting the xy-plane in a line parallel
to the x-axis — say the line y = a, where −r√≤ a ≤ +a; denote the √ points of
intersection of this line with the circle by A(− r − a , a) and B(− r 2 − a2 , a);
2 2

the apex of the cone will be the point (0, r) in the xy-plane. The mid-point of AB
is the point (0, a), which is the centre of the circular base of the cone. We are now
ready to describe the function to be optimized.
The volume of the cone is
1
× (area of base) × (height) .
3
√
The base is a disk of radius r 2 − a2 , so its area is π(r 2 − a2 ); the height of the
cone is the distance from the apex C(0, r) to the centre (0, a) of the base, i.e., r −a.
Thus we wish to maximize the function
1 π
f (a) = · π(r 2 − a2 )(r − a) = (r − a)2 (r + a)
3 3
over the domain − r ≤ a ≤ +r . Differentiation yields
π
f ′ (a) = 2(r − a)(−1)(r + a) + (r − a)2


3
π π
= − (r − a)(r + 3a) = − r 2 + 2ar − 3a2


3 3
2π
f ′′ (a) = − (r + a) .
3
The only points of the domain that could be critical points of the function are
r
a = r and a = − , and the value a = r is excluded because it is an end-point of
3
the domain. By the Second Derivative Test, the fact that
 r 4πr
f ′′ − =− <0
3 9
tells us that the point is a local maximum. At the end points of the domain f = 0,
r
so the global maximum is at the unique critical point, a = − . The problem asks
3
for the maximum value of the volume; it is
 r  32
f − = πr 3 .
3 81
Notes for Lecture Section 002, MATH 140 2006 09 2266

[1, Review Exercise 58, p. 363] “A metal storage tank with volume V is to be con-
structed in the shape of a right circular cylinder surmounted by a hemisphere.
What dimensions will require the least amount of metal.”
Solution: Let r be the radius of the hemisphere and the base of the cylinder, and
let h be the height of the cylinder. Then the volume is
1 4π 3
V = · r + πr 2 h
2 3
and so we may solve to obtain h in terms of r:
V 2r
h= 2
− .
πr 3
The area of sheet metal used (including the base) is

1 5π 2 2V
· 4πr 2 + 2πr · h + πr 2 = ·r +
2 3 r
which we shall denote by A(r). The domain of function A is 0 < r < ∞ — not a
closed interval!
The derivatives are
10π 2V 2(5πr 3 − 3V )
A′ (v) = ·r− 2 = ,
3 r 3r 2
10π 4V
A′′ (v) = + 3 > 0.
3 r
  13
3V
The first derivative vanishes only at ; from the second derivative we see
5π
that this is a local minimum point of A. Moreover, if we factorize the formula for
A′ as   13 !   13   23 !
10π 3V 3V 3V
A′ (r) = 2 r − r2 + r+
3r 5π 5π 5π
we see that the last factor is always positive (because it is a quadratic factor without
real factors, so its sign is always that of the square term); consequently the deriva-
tive changes sign from negative to positive as r passes from left to right through

13
the value r = 3V 5π
. It follows that the function attains its global minimum at
1
r = 3V


5π
3
.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3001

E Assignments from Previous Years

E.1 Fall 1998 Problem Assignments
(For most of these problems the answer was in the back of the (then) text-book [25][27],
but the full solution was not in the Student Solution Manual [26][28].)

Assignment Due Exercise Numbers

Number Date
1 25 Sept./98 Chapter 2 Miscellaneous Problems: 2,
5, 9, 12, 17, 21, 26, 28, 32, 35, 38, 40,
50, 56, 57, 59, 61
2 9 Oct./98 §3.1: 11, 17, 20, 36, 41
§3.2: 2, 5, 9, 15, 21, 33, 45, 48, 53
§3.3: 14, 15, 17, 44, 50, 53
3 23 Oct./98 §3.4: 45, 50
§3.5: 2, 6, 9, 21, 27, 45
§3.6: 21, 26, 32
§3.7: 62, 68, 74
4 6 Nov./98 §3.8: 17, 21, 26, 29, 35, 47
(deferred to §3.9: 3, 8, 11, 23, 27, 50, 51, 59
9 Nov.) Chapter 7 Miscellaneous Problems: 3,
11, 17, 21
Chapter 8 Miscellaneous Problems: 5, 9
5 23 Nov./98 §4.2: 3, 8, 13, 20, 26, 40, 41, 42
§4.3: 15, 23, 29, 33
§4.4: 5, 11, 15, 30
§4.5: 21, 32
§4.6: 31, 49
§4.7: 2, 6, 9, 15, 29, 47

Table 13: 1998 Problem Assignments

E.2 Fall 1999 Problem Assignments

E.2.1 First Fall 1999 Problem Assignment, with Solutions
Students were advised as follows in the problem set and its solutions:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3002

• This assignment is intended to help you determine gaps in your background. It

will not be graded, but the solutions will be made available on the Web. If you
have difficulty with the problems or the solutions which will be posted, you should
discuss these with one of the tutors.

• Do not use a calculator when solving these problems, even for simple arithmetic.
(You may, however, wish to use a calculator afterwards to verify whether your
answers are ‘reasonable’.)

• Do not attempt to approximate square roots, or π. Where possible, however,

formulæ should always be simplified .

• Unless specifically stated in degrees, all angles should be assumed to be expressed

in radians. (Remember that the straight angle, 180◦ is equal to π radians, so an
π πd
angle of 1◦ is equal to 180 radians, and d◦ is equal to 180 radians.)

• Caveat lector! As in any duplicated materials, there could be misprints or errors.

1. (a) Give a right-angled triangle in which one angle is α = π3 , and use the triangle
to determine the values of sin α, cos α, tan α.
(b) Give a right-angled triangle in which one angle is β = π4 , and use the triangle
to determine the values of sin β, cos β, cot β, sec β.
It is not sufficient to state the values: you should explain how you determine them
in terms of the lengths of the sides of your triangle.
Solution:

(a) We take the right half of an equilateral triangle, each of whose sides has length
2. In ∆DBC ∠C = π3 = α. DB bisects ∠ADC and meets AC in its midpoint,
B. Then
√
|BD| 3
sin α = =
|CD| 2
|BC| 1
cos α = =
|CD| 2
√
|BD| 3 √
tan α = = = 3
|BC| 1

(b) Here we take an isosceles ∆EF G, in which EF = EG = 1, and ∠F = 45◦ = β.

|EG| 1
sin β = =√
|F G| 2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3003

D

 TT

 TT


TT
 √ TT F 
2 

3
T2

 TT  √
 T  2
TT
1

 

 TT 
 1 90◦ 1 60◦ T 90◦ 1 45◦ 
A B C E G

|EF | 1
cos β = =√
|F G| 2
|EF |
cot β = =1
|EG|
√
|F G| 2 √
sec β = = = 2
|EF | 1

(Note: Some students may have been taught never to leave a surd in the
denominator, as in the fraction √12 above. This convention derives from the
√
difficulties, in the days before calculators, of working with numbers like 2.
While it still is useful, for hand calculations, to confine surds to the numerator,
you may work with fractions like √12 if you are happy with them.)

2. State, without proof,

(a) a formula which expresses sin(x + y) in terms of the sines and cosines of x
and y.
(b) a relationship between sin x and sin(−x), and another between cos x and
cos(−x).
(c) By applying the results of parts 2b, 2a above, determine a formula that ex-
presses sin(x − y) in terms of the sines and cosines of x and y.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3004

The formulæ you state should be valid for all values of x and y.
Solution:

(a)
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y (201)
[25, A-15 (6)]
(b) sin(−x) = − sin x; cos(−x) = − cos x [25, A-15 (4)]
(c) Replacing y by −y throughout (201), one obtains

sin(x − y) = sin x cos(−y) + cos x sin(−y)

= sin x cos y + cos x(− sin y)
= sin x cos y − cos x sin y (202)

π π
3. (a) By substituting x = α = 3
and y = β = 4
in the formula in 2c, determine
the value of sin 15◦ .
π
(b) Using the result of 3a, determine the value of cos 12 .
Solution:

(a)
 
π π
sin = sin − i4
12 3 p
π π π π
= sin cos − cos sin
3 4 3 4
√ !      
3 1 1 1
= · √ − · √
2 2 2 2
√ √ √
3−1 6− 2
= √ = .
2 2 4
√ √ √
π ( 3−1)2
(b) cos2 12=1− 8
= 2+4 3 ; hence cos 12
π
is one of the square roots of 2+4 3 .
Since theq
angle is in the first quadrant, the sign is positive. It follows that
√
π 2+ 3
cos 12 = 4
. This can be seen — you were not expected to see this —
√
3+1
that the square root is √
2 2
.

4. State, without proof, formulæ which express cos(x + y) and cos(x − y) in terms of
the sines and cosines of x and y.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3005

Solution:

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y (203)

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y (204)

[25, A-15 (7)]

5. (a) Specialize the formula in Problem 4 (by making a suitable choice for y in
terms of x) to express cos 2x in terms of sin x and cos x.
(b) Use the identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 to express cos 2x in terms of cos x alone;
and in terms of sin x alone.
(c) Apply your formulæ in 5b to determine the values of cos π6 and cos π2 from the
π
sines of 12 and π4 .
Solution:

(a) Taking y := x in (203) yields

cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x (205)

(b)

cos 2x = cos2 x − (1 − cos2 x) = 2 cos2 x − 1 (206)

= (1 − sin2 x) − sin2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x (207)

(c)
π π
2
π
cos = cos 2 = 1 − 2 sin
6 12√ 12 √ √
( 3 − 1)2 1+3−2 3 3
= 1−2· = 1−2· =
8 8 2
 2
π π 1
cos = 1 − 2 sin2 = 1 − 2 √ =0
2 4 2

6. Find an equation for each of the following lines in the plane:

(a) The line through the points (−1, 4) and (−2, 1).
(b) The line through the point (4, −1) which is perpendicular to the line

2x + y = −7 . (208)

Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.)

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3006

1−4
(a) The slope of the line will be (−2)−(−1)
= 3, so an equation is y−4 = 3(x−(−1))
or y = 3x + 7.
(b) The slope of the line we seek will be the negative reciprocal of the line y =
−2x − 7, which has slope −2; thus the line will have slope 21 . One equation
will be y − (−1) = 12 (x − 4), or x − 2y = 6.
7. (a) It is claimed that the equation (2x + y + 7)2 = 0 represents the same points
as the equation 2x + y + 7 = 0. Determine whether the claim is correct.
(b) Determine what is represented by the equation (2x + y)2 = (−7)2 , i.e. by the
equation obtained by squaring both sides of equation (208).
Solution:
(a) The equation of a line is a constraint satisfied by the coordinates of its points,
and satisfied by the coordinates of no other points. As (2x + y + 7)2 may
be zero if and only if 2x + y + 7 = 0, this is another equation for the same
line. (Some authors would, however, say that this is “the equation of two
coincident lines”.)
(b) (The symbol ⇔ means that the statements which it connects are logically
equivalent.)
(2x + y)2 = (−7)2 ⇔ (2x + y)2 − (−7)2 = 0
⇔ (2x + y − 7)(2x − y + 7) = 0
⇔ 2x + y − 7 = 0 or 2x + y + 7 = 0
Thus the given equation is satisfied by the coordinates of the points on either
of the parallel lines 2x + y − 7 = 0 and 2x + y + 7 = 0; the equation represents
the union of the sets of points on the two lines.
8. Determine the centre and radius of the circle x2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y + 3 = 0.
Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.) We
complete the squares separately.
x2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y + 3 = 0
⇔ (x2 + 4x) + (y 2 − 6y) + 3 = 0
 2 !  2  2 !  2
4 4 −6 −6
⇔ x2 + 4x + − + 2
y − 6y + − +3=0
2 2 2 2
⇔ (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 4 + 9 − 3 = 10
√
⇔ (x − (−2))2 + (y − 3)2 = 4 + 9 − 3 = ( 10)2
√
Hence the centre of the circle is (−2, 3), and its radius is 10.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3007

9. Simplify completely the following formula,

!−1 leaving your answer free of negative
√
√6
3
a3 b2
exponents or radicals: b· √ .
a6 b3
Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.)
√ !−1 √
√
6
3
a3 b2 √
6 a6 b3
b· √ = b· √
3
a6 b3 a3 b2
1 3 1 3 5
b 6 a3 b 2 a3 b 6 + 2 a3 b 3
= 2 = 2 = 2
a1 b 3 ab 3 ab 3
5 2
= a3−1 b 3 − 3 = a2 b

10. Solve the equation

1 1 4
+ = . (209)
x x−2 3
Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.) If we
multiply both sides of the equation90 by 3x(x − 2), we obtain the polynomial
equation 3(x − 2) + 3x = 4x(x − 2), which reduces to 4x2 − 14x + 6 = 0, then to
2x2 − 7x + 3 = 0, which is equivalent to (2x − 1)(x − 3) = 0. The product on the
left can be zero only with at least one of the factors is zero, i.e. when either x = 12
or x = 3. These are the only solutions to (209).
11. Determine the “natural” (i.e. largest possible) domain of definition of each of the
following functions. Explain your results.
√
x
(a) f (x) = .
2 − sin x
1
(b) .
log3 (x + 1)
Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.)
90
We should verify, when we have found the alleged solutions to the equation, that this operation of
multiplying both sides by the same quantity did not entail the introduction of any values which were
not solutions. For example, if we had multiplied by 3x2 (x − 2), the subsequent computations would have
produced a 3rd degree equation whose solutions would be 0, 12 and 3 — but x = 0 is evidently not a
solution, since the left side is not even defined there. Similarly, if we had multiplied by 3x(x − 2)(x + 11),
we would have obtained x = 11 as one of the solutions of the polynomial equation, but it is certainly
not a solution of the original equation. While the procedure could be made more rigorous, the safest
policy is to verify that all claimed solutions are indeed solutions of the original equation — particularly
when, in the course of your solution, you have multiplied both sides of an equation by an expression
that could be 0.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3008

(a) The denominator is defined for all x. The numerator is defined for all non-
negative x. The ratio function is defined only for non-zero denominators,
so we must ensure that 2 − sin x is not zero; but this can never happen, as
| sin x| ≤ 1. Thus the largest possible domain for this function is the set of all
non-negative real numbers.
(b) Logarithms are defined only for positive numbers, so we must require that x+
1 > 0, i.e. that x > −1. But the logarithm here appears in the denominator,
which can assume any value except 0. log3 (x+1) = 0 precisely when x+1 = 1,
i.e. x = 0. Thus the largest possible domain for this function is the union of
the set −1 < x < 0 with the set x > 0 of positive real numbers.

12. Factorize the following polynomial completely:

(x2 + 4xy + 4y 2) − (3x + 6y)

Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.) Students
were expected to observe that the first summand is a perfect square.

(x2 + 4xy + 4y 2) − (3x + 6y) = (x + 2y)2 − 3(x + 2y)

= (x + 2y)(x + 2y − 3)

is the desired factorization.

13. Solve the system of equations:

3x − 7y = 1
4x + 3y = 5

Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.) Students
will study the systematic solution of systems of linear equations in courses on
linear algebra and matrices. This problem is simply to detect whether you are
able to solve a routine small system, even if your methods are not systematic.
Subtracting 3 times the second equation from 4 times the first equation yields
11
−37y = −11, implying that, if there is a solution, y = 37 ; this, substituted into
the first equation, yields x = 38 37
. (This solution can be verified by substituting
in the second equation. While that is hardly necessary in the present problem,
substitution should be undertaken in large linear systems, unless care has been
taken to avoid the possibility that some constraint has been lost. This is beyond
the present course, but will be studied in courses in linear algebra. What is at
issue is the possibility that a system of equations may have no solutions at all, or
may have infinitely many solutions.)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3009

14. Find all solutions to the equation

log2 (3x + 2) + log2 (x + 1) = 2 (210)

Solution: (This problem is from the 1998 Final examination in 189-112A.)

log2 (3x + 2) + log2 (x + 1) = 2

⇒ log2 ((3x + 2)(x + 1)) = 2 = log2 22
⇔ 3x2 + 5x + 2 = 4
⇔ 3x2 + 5x − 2 = 0
⇔ (3x − 1)(x + 2) = 0
1
⇔ x= or x = −2
3
But the value x = −2 is extraneous, as the logarithm is not defined at −2 + 1 =
−1 < 0, or at 3 · (−2) + 2 = −4 < 0. We conclude that the only possible
solution to (210) is x = 13 , and verify that it does indeed satisfy the equation, as
log2 3 + log2 34 = log2 4 = log2 22 = 2.

15. Determine all real numbers x such that

(a) 5 tan2 x − sec2 x = 11

5
(b) cos x + sec x = 2

Solution:

(a)

5 tan2 x − sec2 x = 11 ⇔ 5 tan2 x − (tan2 x + 1) = 11

⇔ 4 tan2 x = 12
√
⇔ tan x = ± 3

The smallest solutions in absolute value are x = ± π3 . From the period-

icity of the tangent
function we conclude that the set of all solutions is
1

(n ± 3 )π : n ∈ Z where Z is the set of all integers.
(b)
5 1 5
cos x + sec x = ⇔ cos x + =
2 cos x 2
2
⇔ 2 cos x − 5 cos x + 2 = 0
⇔ (2 cos x − 1)(cos x − 2) = 0
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3010

1
⇔ cos x = or cos x = 2
2
1
⇒ cos x = as | cos x| ≤ 1
 2 
1
⇔ x = 2n ± π
3

16. Show that

1 x2 − x + 1
≤ 2 ≤3 (211)
3 x +x+1
for any real number x.
Solution: Let us first prove the inequalities
x2 + x + 1
≤ x2 − x + 1 ≤ 3(x2 + x + 1)
3
i.e. equivalently, the two inequalities

x2 + x + 1 ≤ 3(x2 − x + 1)
x2 − x + 1 ≤ 3(x2 + x + 1)

The first of these is equivalent to 2(x − 1)2 ≥ 0, which is true because the left side
is a square, hence non-negative; the second is equivalent to 2(x + 1)2 ≥ 0, which is
non-negative for the same reason. In order to pass from these two inequalities to
(211) we need to divide by x2 + x + 1. This is a quadratic polynomial, having no
real roots; its sign is that of the leading coefficient x2 , i.e. it is positive; this can
be shown by observing that x2 + x + 1 = (x + 12 )2 + 34 ≥ 0 + 34 > 0. So dividing
the members of an inequality by this positive quantity preserves the inequalities,
thereby yielding the desired pair of inequalities.
2
A more elegant solution can be found if we define z = xx2 −x+1
+x+1
, and transform this
equation to yield a quadratic equation for x in terms of z:

x2 − x + 1 − z(x2 + x + 1) = 0
⇔ (1 − z)x2 − (1 + z)x + (1 − z) = 0

For this equation to admit a solution for every x, the discriminant must be non-
negative, i.e.
(1 + z)2 − 4(1 − z)2 ≥ 0
This is equivalent to

[(1 + z) − 2(1 − z)][(1 + z) + 2(1 − z)] ≥ 0

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3011

which is equivalent to − z − 13 (z − 3) ≥ 0. For the product z − 31 (z − 3) to

be non-positive, z must lie between the roots, i.e. z must be such as to make one
of the factors negative and the other positive. This can be achieved only with
1
3
≤ z ≤ 3, as required.

E.2.2 Second Fall 1999 Problem Assignment

1. Determine if lim f (x), lim f (x), and/or lim f (x) exist for each of the following
x→1+ x→1− x→1
functions, and evaluate those that do exist.
√
(a) f (x) = x2 + x − 2
 2
x − 3 for x ≤ 1
(b) f (x) =
2 − x for x > 1
 √
2 − x for x < −3
(c) f (x) = 3
x − x for 2 > x ≥ −3
2. In each of the following cases, evaluate the limit, or show that it does not exist.
 
1 1
(a) lim −
x→3 x2 − x − 6 x−3
 
5 1
(b) lim −
x→3 x2 − x − 6 x−3
91
3. In each of the following cases, evaluate the limit, or show that it does not exist.
√
3x + 2 x
(a) lim
x→∞ 1−x
|2x − 3|
(b) lim
x→−∞ x + 2

1
x+
4. Evaluate lim x2
x→0 2
− 3x2
x2
92
5. Find a value for a so that
x2 + 1
 
lim 3x + 1 − a
x→∞ x+1
exists as a finite limit, and evaluate that limit.
91
Added 21.09.99: This problem should be omitted. It is based upon [25, §§4.5,4.7], which material
may not have been discussed in the lectures before the due date of the assignment.
92
See footnote 91.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3012


 2 when x ≤ −2
6. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x + 4 when −2 < x < 4 .
20 − x2 when 4≤x

Find the values of x for which f (x) is not continuous.
7. Find values of a and b which will make the following function continuous:
 2
 x + 2a when 0 < x < 1

f (x) = bx + a when 1 ≤ x < 2 .
 2b − 3 when

2≤x
x
x2 − 2x − 3
8. Let f (x) = . Determine where f (x) is not continuous, and where
4 − x2
x2 − 2x − 3
f (x) = 0. Then solve the inequality ≥ 0. [Hint: One method to solve
4 − x2
this problem uses the Intermediate Value Theorem.]
3 1 − 4x
9. Solve the inequality ≤ . [Hint: Bring everything to one side of the
x+1 x−1
equation and simplify first.]

E.2.3 Third Fall 1999 Problem Assignment, with Solutions

Caveat lector! There could be misprints and other errors in these draft solutions.
1. (a) Apply the
r definition of the derivative as a limit to determine the derivative of
7x − 1
f (x) = for any x in the domain.
3
Solution:
q q
7(x+h)−1 7x−1
3
− 3
′
f (x) = lim
h→0
q h q
q q
7(x+h)−1 7x−1 7(x+h)−1 7x−1
3
− 3 3
+ 3
= lim ·q
h
q
h→0 7(x+h)−1
3
+ 7x−13
7(x+h)−1 7x−1
3
− 3 1
= lim ·q
h
q
h→0 7(x+h)−1 7x−1
3
+ 3
7h
3 1
= lim ·q
h
q
h→0 7(x+h)−1 7x−1
3
+ 3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3013

7 1
= lim ·q
h→0 3
q
7(x+h)−1 7x−1
3
+ 3
7 1
= lim q
3 h→0 7(x+h)−1
q
7x−1
3
+ 3
7 1
= q
6 7x−1
3

(b) Determine the value of f ′ (7) from the result of 1a.

Solution: √ 749−1 = 7
24
6 3

2. You will find below the definitions for a number of functions. If the domain of
definition is not stated, then you are to assume the domain to be as large as
possible.

• Determine the derivative of each function wherever it is defined in the domain.

• List any points in the domain where the function does not possess a derivative,
and explain precisely why there fails to be a derivative.
• If possible, determine, for those functions where requested, the equation of
the tangent or the normal to the graph of the function at the given point.
x
(a) f1 (x) = ; tangent at (1, f1 (1)).
5 − 8x
Solution: The domain of f1 is R − { 58 }, the set of all non-zero real numbers x
for which the denominator is non-zero; the function is continuous and differ-
entiable at every point of the domain. f1′ (x) = 1(5−8x)−x(−8)
(5−8x)2
5
= (5−8x) 2 , at every

point x in the domain, i.e. at all real numbers except x = 8 . As f1′ (1) = 95 ,
5

the equation of the tangent at (1, − 13 ) is y − (− 13 ) = 95 (x − 1), i.e. 5x − 9y = 8.

(b) f2 (x) = (5 + 6x2 + x4 ) − (1 + 2x + x2 )2 + 4x(1 + x); normal at (5, f2 (5)).
Solution: As f2 is a polynomial, its domain is the entire real line; it is dif-
ferentiable (hence continuous) at all points of R also. f2′ (x) = (12x + 4x3 ) −
2(1 + 2x + x2 )(2 + 2x) + (4 + 8x) = −12x2 + 8x; hence f2′ (5) = −260, and the
1
slope of the normal at the point (x, y) = (5, f2 (5)) is 260 . The equation of the
1
normal is y − (−396) = 260 (x − 5).
(c) f3 (x) = (1 − x)2 .
Solution: f3 is a polynomial, and is both defined and differentiable at all real
numbers. f3′ (x) = −2(1 − x).
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3014

√
(d) f4 (x) = − 10x − x2 ; tangent at (1, −3).
Solution: The domain of f4 consists of all real numbers x such that 10x−x2 ≥
0, i.e. where the product x(x−10) is non-positive: that is, all x in the interval
0 ≤ x ≤ 10. The derivative will be defined at every point in the domain except
at the end-points of the interval, at one of which the tangent approaches the
1
x−5
vertical; f4′ (x) = − 12 (10x − x2 )− 2 (10 − 2x) = √10x−x 2 . At the point x = 1,

f ′ = − 12 · 31 ·8 = − 43 . The equation of the tangent there is y−(−3) = − 34 (x−1),

i.e. 4x + 3y + 5 = 0.
3
(e) f5 (x) = |3 − 2x|; tangent at x = .
2
Solution: The function is defined for all real x. As

3 − 2x 3 − 2x ≥ 0
f5 (x) = ,
2x − 3 3 − 2x < 0
−2 x < 32

f5 (x) = .
2 x > 32
The derivative does not exist at the point x = 32 , since the difference quotient
approaches +2 on one side of this point, and −2 on the other, so there is no
2-sided limit to the difference quotient.
 3 
 x
when x 6= 0

(f) f6 (x) = |x| ; tangent and normal at (0, 0).
0 when x = 0
 
Solution: The function has all real numbers in its domain; the only point that
might have caused difficulty would have been 0, as the given quotient is not
defined there; however, the value at x = 0 is given separately. Differentiating
f within each of the defining half-lines gives

′ 2x when x > 0
f6 (x) =
−2x when x < 0
To determine the value of the derivative at x = 0 we have to appeal to first
h3 h3
−0 −0 h2 −0
principles. f6′ (0) = limh→0 |h|
h
. Since lim+ |h|
h
= lim+ h
= lim+ h = 0,
h→0 h→0 h→0
and the limit from the left is also equal to 0, we can assert that the 2-sided
limit exists, so f6′ (0) = 0. The line through the origin with slope 0 is the
x-axis, which is tangent to the curve at that point.
 2
x − 6x when x < 1
(g) f7 (x) = ; tangent at (1, −5).
−1 − 4x when x ≥ 1
Solution: f7 is defined for all x. The function was created by piecing together
a branch of a parabola for x < 1, and a ray of a straight line for x ≥ 1.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3015

Strictly within each of the constituent half-lines the function is obviously

differentiable: for x < 1, f7′ (x) = 2x − 6; while, for x > 1, f7′ (x) = −4; note
that we were unable to make any assertion about x = 1. Indeed, at x = 1
the limit from the right of the difference quotient is again seen to be −4. The
limit from the left is the value 2(1) − 6 = −4, which can be seen from first
principles. As here again the limits from left and right are equal, the limit
exists, and the function is differentiable at x = 1. The line through (1, −5)
with slope 4 has equation y + 5 = 4(x − 1), or 4x − y = 9.
 2
 x − 6x when x < 1
(h) f8 (x) = 0 when x = 1 ; normal at (1, −5).
−1 − 4x when x > 1

Solution: f8 is similar to f7 , except for the definition of the function at x = 1.
This time, when we attempt to determine the derivative at x = 1 by first
principles, we find that the quotient f (1+h)−f
h
(1)
= f (1+h)
h
has infinite limits —
i.e. does not have a (real) limit from the two sides. As the limit does not
exist, the function is not differentiable at x = 1, and there can be no normal.

3. (The functions referred to below were defined in Problem 2 above.)

(a) Determine the value of the function f7 ◦ f7 at any point x in its domain. [This
problem is technically difficult. Try to understand what makes the problem
difficult. Your solution to this problem will not be graded.]
Solution:


 (x2 − 6x)2 − (x2 − 6x) if x2 − 6x < 1 and x<1
(−1 − 4x)2 − (−1 − 4x) if x≥1 and −1 − 4x < 1

f7 ◦f7 (x) =

 −1 − 4(x2 − 6x) if x<1 and x2 − 6x ≥ 1
−1 − 4(−1 − 4x) if x≥1 and −1 − 4x ≥ 1


To study the four combinations of inequalities we observe that x2 − 6x =

(x − 3)2 − 9. The inequalities simplify to
 2 2 2
√

 (x − 6x) − (x − 6x) if 3 − 10 < x < 1
(−1 − 4x)2 − (−1 − 4x) if x ≥ 1√

f7 ◦ f7 (x) =

 −1 − 4(x2 − 6x) if x ≤ 3 − 10
−1 − 4(−1 − 4x) never.


i.e.
 2 √
 (x − 6x)(x2 − 6x − 1) if 3− 10 < x < 1
f7 ◦ f7 (x) = 2(8x2 + 6x + 1) if x ≥ 1√
−4x2 + 24x − 1 if x ≤ 3 − 10

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3016

(b) Determine the value of the functions f1 ◦ f4 and f4 ◦ f1 at all points in their
domains. Find the derivatives of these functions in two ways:
i. by differentiation of the formulæ you have determined
ii. by applying the chain rule
and show that the results are the same.
Solution:
√
− 10x − x2
(f1 ◦ f4 )(x) = √
5 − 8(− 10x − x2 )
1
= − 1
8 + 5(10x − x2 )− 2
s    2
x x
(f4 ◦ f1 )(x) = − 10 −
5 − 8x 5 − 8x
s
x(50 − 81x)
= −
(5 − 8x)2
Both methods of differentiation should lead to the same results:
5(x − 5)
(f1 ◦ f4 )′ (x) = √
5 + 8 10x − x2
205x − 125
(f4 ◦ f1 )′ (x) = p
(5 − 8x)2 x(50 − 81x)
Don’t panic! These computations are much to difficult for an examination!
The purpose was to test your perseverence, under conditions where two meth-
ods had to lead to the same answer, so you could verify your work.
1+s 1 √ dy
(c) Suppose that y = , s = t − , t = x. Determine the value of at
1−s t dx
x = 2.
Solution:
dy dy ds dt
= · ·
dx ds dt dx  
2 1 1
= 2
· 1− 2 · √
(1 − s) t 2 x
√
When x = 2, t = 2, s = √1 .
Hence
2
  √
dy 2 1 1 3 2+4
= 2 · 1 − · √ = .
dx 1 2 2 2 2
1 − √2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3017

4. For each of the following functions, and for the given closed interval,
• find all critical points;
• find all local maxima and local minima;93
• find all global maxima and global minima, or explain why none of either exists.
All claims should be supported by careful reasoning; show all your work.
(a) g1 (x) = (x − 3)5 ; interval [2, 4]
Solution: g1′ (x) = 5(x − 3)4 for 2 < x < 4. The derivative is thus defined
at all points in the interior of the interval; we cannot speak of a derivative
at the end points, since the behavior of the function must be known on both
sides of a point where a derivative is to be determined; (we could speak of
1-sided derivatives, but have not done so in this course). The critical points
will be those points where the derivative is zero, i.e. only the point x = 3. To
determine local and global extrema we must consider the value of the function
at the critical point and also at the end-points of the interval. Since g1 (3) = 0,
g1 (2) = −1, and g1 (4) = 1, we see that the global maximum, of value 1, occurs
at x = 4, and that the global minimum, of value −1, occurs at x = 2. The
point x = 3 is neither a local minimum nor a local maximum: for x < 3 the
function value is less than g1 (3), while, for x > 3, the function value is greater
than g1 (3).
 
2 3 5
(b) g2 (x) = 6 − 36x + 15x − 2x ; interval ,5
2
Solution: The function g2 , being a polynomial,
5  is defined at all points. As the
definition of g2 has been specified
as 2 , 5 , the function will have a derivative
at all points in the interval 52 , 5 ; we have no information about g2 for x < 52 ,
nor for x > 5, so we do not have a derivative at either of those end-points.
Where it is defined, g2′ (x) = −36 + 30x − 6x2 = −6(x − 2)(x − 3), which
vanishes at x = 2 and x = 3. But x = 2 is not in the domain of definition
of the function, so this point is irrelevant. We thus have just one critical
point, x = 3; there g2 (3) = 6 − 108 + 135 − 54 = −21. At the end-points,
g2 ( 52 ) = − 33
2
, g2 (5) = −49. As g2 ( 52 ) > g2 (3) > g2 (5), the global maximum is
5
at 2 , and the global minimum at 5.

 −1

when −1 ≤ x < 0
(c) Solution: g3′ (x) = x2 . For h 6= 0, the value of
1
 −
 when 0 < x ≤ 1
x2
93
THIS PROBLEM WAS NOT TO BE GRADED: It was announced in the lectures that this topic
would not be discussed until [25, Chapter 4]; accordingly this part of the question was to be omitted.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3018

the difference quotient g3 (h)−0

h
is h12 , which has no finite limit as h → 0; hence
the function is not differentiable at x = 0. The derivative is not zero anywhere
in the domain; thus the only critical point is x = 0. Evaluating the function
at this critical point, and at the two end-points, we obtain g3 (−1) = −1,
g3 (0) = 0, g(1) = 1. We may not apply [27, Theorem 3, p. 144] here, because
this function is not continuous throughout the domain of definition. In fact,
it is discontinuous at x = 0. As x → 0− , g3 (x) → −∞; and, as x → 0+ ,
g3 (x) → ∞; these one-sided limits are not equal real numbers, so no limit
exists; for continuity they must be equal, and must equal the function value,
here 0. Because the function becomes positively and negatively infinite inside
the domain of definition, it can have neither a global maximum nor a global
minimum. There is no need to evaluate it at the critical point, nor at the
end-points of the interval of definition.
(d) Solution: This problem differs from the preceding problem in that the limit
as x → 0, while still not existing as a real number, is ∞. In this case there
can be no global maximum. The cited theorem still does not apply, as there is
still a discontinuity at x = 0. The function values at x = ±1 are both 1, and,
from examination of the behavior of the function near these points, might be
suspected of being global minima. However, the value at x = 0 is lower. The
global minimum is thus 0, assumed only at the point x = 0; everywhere else
the function value is strictly larger.
(e) Solution:
√ The domain of definition of g5 is the whole√real line. The derivative
of x for x > 0 is 2√1 x ; similarly, the derivative of −x for x < 0 is − 2√1−x .
Investigation of the difference quotient g5 (h)−0
h
as h → 0, shows that the limit
does not exist as a finite number; in fact is it ∞, and the function may be
said to have a vertical tangent. Thus x = 0 is a critical point, because the
function lacks a derivative there. The function is, however, continuous, so we
may determine the global extrema by studying its behavior at the end-points
and the critical point: g5 (−4) = 2, g5 (0) = 0, g5 (9) = 3. The global maximum
is thus at x = 9, and the global minimum is at x = 0.

5. [29, Examples XLVI.17] (Cambridge Math. Tripos 1930) The graph of the function
ax + b
h(x) = has (2, −1) as a critical point. Determine a and b, and show
(x − 1)(x − 4)
that the critical point is a local maximum. (Note: It is intended that this problem
be solved without using concepts from Chapter 4 of your textbook (involving higher
derivatives.))
2
Solution: For x different from 1 and 4, h′ (x) = a(x −5x+4)−(ax+b)(2x−5)
(x−1)2 (x−4)2
. As the
derivative exists at x = 2, it can be a critical point only because the derivative is
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3019

zero; this implies that a(22 −5·2+4)−(a·2+b)(2·2−5) = 0, i.e. b = 0. We are also

2a+0 x
told that h(2) = −1, hence (2−1)(2−4) = −1, so a = 1. Thus h(x) = (x−1)(x−4) . As
(x−2) 2
h(2) − h(x) = − (x−1)(x−4) , this difference is non-negative in an interval surrounding
x = 2 (since the numerator is non-negative, and the denominator is negative). Thus
h(x) ≤ h(2), so 2 is a local maximum.

6. Determine values of the constants a, b, c which will cause the curve y = ax3 + bx2 +
cx + d to pass through the points (2, 6) and (−1, 6) and to be tangent to the line
y = 3x + 1 at the point (1, 4).
Solution: We are given four kinds of information: three points through which the
curve passes, and the equation of the tangent at one of these points. Imposing the
condition that the curve pass through the points (2, 6), (−1, 6), and (1, 4) yields
three linear equations:

8a + 4b + 2c + d = 6
−a + b − c + d = 6
a+b+c+d = 4

Finally, as the tangent at x = 1 has slope 3, we know that 3ax2 + 2bx + c|x=1 = 3,
i.e. 3a+2b+c = 3. Solving the 4 linear equations simultaneously yields (a, b, c, d) =
(−1, 3, 0, 2).

7. Find all lines with slope −3 which are normal to the curve 64y = x3 .
1 3 3 2
Solution: At the point (x, 64 x ) on the curve the slope of the tangent is 64 x , so
64
the slope of the normal is − 3x2 . Imposing the condition that this equal −3, we
obtain that x = ± 83 . Through 8 8


the point ± 3
, ± 27
the equation of the line with
8 8 8·28


slope 3 is y ∓ 27 = −3 x ∓ 3 , i.e. 3x + y = ± 27 .

8. Find the volume of the uncovered box of greatest volume that can be made by
cutting equal squares out of the corners of a piece of sheet metal which is 21 cm.
× 5 cm., and turning up the sides.
Solution: If the side of the square cut from each corner is of lengh x, where 0 ≤ x ≤
5
2
, then the volume obtained after the sides are folded up is x · (21 − 2x)(5 − 2x) =
4x3 − 52x2 + 105x. Setting the derivative, 12x2 − 104x + 105 (i.e. (2x − 15)(6x − 7))
equal to zero, we find that x = 15 2
or x = 76 . The second of these is the only critical
point; the first is not in the interval of definition of the function. To determine the
maximum we compare the value of the volume at x = 76 with the volume at the
end-points, both of which give volume 0. At x = 76 the volume is 76 · 56 3
· 83 = 1568
27
3
cm. , which exceeds the value of 0 at the end-points. This is the largest volume.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3020

9. Show that, among all right-angled triangles whose hypotenuse is 10 units long, the
triangle whose area is maximum is isosceles.
Solution: Denote the lengths of the non-hypotenuse sides by a and b. As √ these are
2 2 2 2
constrained by the equation
√ x + b = 10 = 100, we know that b = 100 − a .
1
The area is therefore 2 a 100 − a2 . We may take the domain to be 0 ≤ a ≤ 10.
2
The derivative of the area function is, after reduction, √50−a 2 , which is zero when
√ 100−a
a = ±5 2. Of these two values, only the positive one is in the domain of definition
of the function. At the end-points of the domain the function is zero; while, at
the critical point we have found, the function value is positive; this, then, is the
maximum point. For this value of a, b = a, which was to be proved.

E.2.4 Fourth Fall 1999 Problem Assignment

dy
1. Find if
dx
(a) y = ln 1 + x2


2
(b) y = e−x
√
x
(c) y = x

2. Find an equation for the tangent line at x=0 to the graph of y = ex − e−x .
1
3. Find the greatest value of f (x) = ln x .
x2
4. If f (x) = e−x sin x , find the values of x where

(a) f ′ (x) = 0 ;
(b) f ′′ (x) = 0 .
dy sin−1 2x
5. (a) Find if y= .
dx sin−1 x
 
−1 x+1 dz
(b) Show that if z = tan + tan−1 x , then =0.
x−1 dx
6. A picture a metres high is placed on a wall with its base b metres above
an observer’s eye. If the observer stands x metres away from the wall, find

(a) the angle α subtended by the picture at the observer’s eye; and
(b) the distance x which will give the maximum value for α.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3021

7. Use the tangent line approximation to find an approximate value for

(a) ln(0.94) ;
(b) cos−1 (0.47) .

8. Find an equation for the line tangent to the curve x4 + x2 y 2 + y 4 = 21 at the

point (1, 2) .
d2 y
9. If x3 + y 3 + 6xy = −5 , find at the point (−1, 2) .
dx2
ln x
10. Evaluate lim . [Hint: Write down the limit definition of f ′ (1) , where
x→1 x − 1
f (x) = ln x .]

E.2.5 Fifth Fall 1999 Problem Assignment

1. For each of the functions,

(x2 − 1)2 1 − sin x

f (x) = g(x) =
4x2 √ cos x
−x2
h(x) = xe k(x) = ln x

determine all of the information requested below, and sketch a graph of the func-
tion. Show all your work.

(a) For any discontinuities, determine whether they are removable.

(b) Where is the function increasing? Where is it decreasing?
(c) Where is the graph concave upwards? Where is it concave downwards?
(d) Where, if any, are the local extrema? In each case you should indicate whether
the extremum is a local maximum or a local minimum, and provide justifica-
tion for your choice.
(e) Where, if any, are the global extrema? Again, justification is expected.
(f) Where, if any, are the intercepts (with the coordinate axes)?
(g) Where, if any, are the inflection points?
(h) Is the graph symmetric about any vertical line x = a? (The graph of F is
symmetric about x = a if the equation remains unchanged under the trans-
formation x − a → a − x; i.e. if F (x) = F (2a − x). In particular, the graph
is symmetric about the y-axis if F (x) = F (−x). Such a function is said to be
even.)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3022

(i) Is the graph symmetric under rotation about the origin? (The graph of F is
symmetric under rotation about the origin if the equation remains unchanged
under the transformation (x, y) → (−x, −y); i.e. if F (−x) = −F (x). Such a
function is said to be odd .)
(j) Determine all horizontal and all vertical asymptotes to the graph.
2. (a) Show that at least one of the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem fails to
hold for the following functions; show also that the conclusion of the theorem
fails to hold for each function, where the interval is [a, b] = [−1, 1].
 1
x
when x 6= 0
i. f1 (x) = .
0 when x = 0
2
ii. f2 (x) = x 3 .
(b) [25, Problem 4.3.48] [27, Problem 4.3.48] Show that the function f2 (x) de-
fined in Problem 2(a)ii above does satisfy the conclusion of the Mean Value
Theorem on the interval [−1, 27].
(c) Using the Mean Value Theorem, show carefully that the equation x7 + x − 12
has exactly one real solution. Then show — without using a calculator —
that this solution lies between x = 1 and x = 2.
3. Consider the function f3 (x) = x cos x.
(a) Determine the intercepts of the graph of f3 on the coordinate axes.
(b) Show that the critical points of f3 occur at points of intersection of y = tan x
1
with the curve y = .
x
1
(c) Show that, wherever it is defined, the function tan x − is increasing. Use
x
this fact to show that there
  is exactly one critical point of f3 in each interval
(2n − 1)π (2n + 1)π
, , where n is any integer. [Hint: Use a Corollary to
2 2
the Mean Value Theorem.]
(d) Sketch the graph of f3 .
1
4. Use the Second Derivative Test in finding all points on the curve y = 2 which
2x
are closest to the origin.
94
5. In each of the following cases, evaluate the limit, or show that it does not exist.
94
This problem and the next were originally included in Assignment 2, but were subsequently omitted,
because they are based upon [25, §§4.5,4.7], which material had not been discussed in the lectures before
the due date of Assignment 2.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3023

√
3x + 2 x
(a) lim
x→∞ 1−x
|2x − 3|
(b) lim
x→−∞ x + 2

6. Find a value for a so that

x2 + 1
 
lim 3x + 1 − a
x→∞ x+1

exists as a finite limit, and evaluate that limit.

E.3 2000/2001 Problem Assignments, with Solutions

E.3.1 First 2000/2001 Problem Assignment, with Solutions
Instructions

• The basic principle you should follow in any mathematics course is that every statement
should be justified. While it may be that in some cases you are not able to provide a
flawless logical argument, that should always be your goal. Getting the right answer is
always desirable, but will usually not be enough.

• Notwithstanding the preceding comment, you should not spend disproportionately long
amounts of time on any one question. Solutions will be posted on the Web.

• While the textbook in [11, 1.1] describes four different ways in which to represent a func-
tion, we usually regard the representation by an explicit formula as the most desirable.
In particular, graphical representation should be used only to assist you in visualizing a
solution, not as the final solution; it will normally not be acceptable to explain a step in
a proof by reference to a graph — but it is a good policy to make a quick sketch of the
graph of any function you have to work with.

• You should always attempt, in an algebraic representation, to make your functions as

“simple” as possible; there may be different “simple” ways of representing the function.
Use your good judgment: the simplification is intended to help you!

• Do not approximate numbers unless you are asked to do so. Thus, π should not be
replaced by 3.1415926...; of course, you should know the values of the standard trigono-
metric functions at familiar multiples and submultiples of π, and use this information√to
simplify your answers, where applicable. For example, you should replace sin π3 by 23 ,
but not by 0.8660....
It is usually preferable to leave fractions in the form m
n , rather than rewriting as decimal
fractions. This preference applies even when the decimal expansion is finite, as in, for
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3024

example, 34 = 0.75. One reason for this preference is that decimal fractions are often
interpreted as approximations, rather than as the exact value; so by writing 0.75 instead
of 34 you could be obscuring the fact that your datum is exact.

• You may assume that, over an interval [c, d], the maximum and minimum values of a
linear function — that is a function of the form f (x) = ax+b, where a and b are constants
— are attained at the end points of the interval.

1. Let a function f be defined by f (x) = |2x| + |2x + 3|.

(a) Find algebraic formulæ which give the value of f (x) without using the absolute
value function. For this purpose it will be necessary to break the domain up
into several parts, as the formula will be different in different subintervals.
(b) Showing all your work, determine the domain and the range95 of f .
(c) Determine whether or not f has an inverse function. If it does, determine a
formula for f −1 (x).

Solution:

(a)

−2x when x<0
Since |2x| =
2x when x≥0

−2x − 3 when 2x + 3 < 0
and |2x + 3| =
2x + 3 when 2x + 3 ≥ 0
x < − 32
(
−2x − 3 when
or, equivalently |2x + 3| = ,
2x + 3 when x ≥ − 32

we may add the inequalities to obtain

 −2x − 2x − 3 when x < − 23



|2x| + |2x + 3| = −2x + 2x + 3 when − 32 ≤ x < 0

2x + 2x + 3 when x ≥ 0


 −4x − 3 when x < − 32



= 3 when − 32 ≤ x < 0
4x + 3 when x ≥ 0


95
Many mathematicians prefer to use the term image instead of range.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3025

(b) While the description of the function changes as one moves from one interval
to the next, the function is defined for all x — i.e. the domain is the whole
real line.
For the interval −∞ < x ≤ − 32 , the function value ranges between +∞ and
3; it remains at 3 through the middle interval; and, for − 23 < x < ∞, again
takes on all values which are ≥ 3. Thus the range is [3, ∞).
[How could one prove, rigorously, that the stated intervals do indeed constitute the
range of the function? For example, when x < − 32 , we reverse the inequality when
we multiply by −4, to obtain −4x > 6; adding −3 to both sides of the inequality
yields −4x − 3 > 3, showing that the portion of the range of the function for this
part of the domain is contained in the interval (3, ∞). And, if y is any real number
such that 3 < y, then 6 < y + 3; so, multiplying both sides of the inequality by − 14 ,
y+3 3
and
 thereby
 reversing
 the inequality, we obtain − 4 < − 2 . But this tells us that
f − y+34 = −4 y+3 4 − 3 = y. We have thus shown that every number y in the
interval (3, ∞) is in the range: thus the range of the function corresponding to this
portion of the domain is precisely the interval (3, ∞).]
(c) This function is not invertible, since there are values which are attained at
more than one point in the domain. For example, the function takes on the
same value for all x such that − 32 ≤ x ≤ 0.
2. Let a function g be defined by
√
g(x) = 2x − 5 . (212)
Showing your work, answer each of the following questions for g.
(a) Determine the domain.
(b) Determine the range.
(c) Determine whether the function has an inverse function. If it does, find a
formula for g −1(x), and determine the domain and range.
Solution:
(a) g is the composition of two functions. In the first phase x is mapped on
to 2x − 5. The second function applied is the square root. The mapping
x 7→ 2x − 5 is defined for all x; that is, its domain is the whole real line.
However, the mapping to the square root is not defined for negative numbers.
Thus we cannot proceed unless 2x − 5 ≥ 0, i.e. unless
5
x≥ . (213)
2
Inequality (213) gives the domain of g.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3026

(b) Any non-negative 2 real number r is attained as a value of the function g;

r +5
specifically, g = r. Thus the range of g is the interval [0, ∞).
2
(c) We may square both sides96 of (212) to obtain (g(x))2 = 2x − 5, so x =
(g(x))2 + 5
, showing that x is determined as soon as g(x) is known. Thus g
2
x2 + 5 97
is invertible, and its inverse is given by x 7→ .
2
3. A curve is symmetric about the y-axis if the presence of any point (x0 , y0 ) on the
curve implies the presence of (−x0 , y0 ); a curve is symmetric about the x-axis if
the presence of any point (x0 , y0 ) on the curve implies the presence of (x0 , −y0 );
a curve is symmetric about the origin if the presence of any point (x0 , y0) on the
curve implies the presence of (−x0 , −y0 ). A function F is odd if its graph is
symmetric about the origin, i.e. for any x in the domain, F (−x) = −F (x) (which
is equivalent to saying that if (x, F (x)) is on the graph, then so is (−x, −F (x))).
F is even if its graph is symmetric about the y-axis; i.e., for any x in the domain,
F (−x) = F (x) (which is equivalent to saying that if (x, F (x)) is on the graph, then
so is (−x, F (x))).
For each of the following functions F , determine whether

• F is odd.
• F is even.
• the graph of F is symmetric about the x-axis.
• the graph of F is symmetric about the y-axis.

(a) F (x) = | sin x|

(b) F (x) = cos x
 π
(c) F (x) = cos x −
2
(d) F (x) = 0
1
(e) F (x) = x3 +
x
96
√ √
More precisely, we can multiply both sides of the equation g(x) − 2x − 5 = 0 by g(x) + 2x − 5.
97
Note that, while this formula is meaningful even when x < 0, we are specifically restricting the
domain of this inverse function to be the range of the function g. With that proviso we find that the
pair of functions g and g −1 have the property that the domain of each
is the range of the other, and
vice-versa. Thus the domain of g −1 is [0, ∞), and the range is 25 , ∞
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3027

1
(f) F (x) = x3 −
x
2
(g) F (x) = G(x ), where G is any function.

Solution:
Before beginning our solution, we make the following observations:

• The graph of F is symmetric about the y-axis ⇔ F is even.

• If the graph of F is symmetric about the x-axis, then, for any x0 in the
domain, both points (x0 , F (x0 )) and (x0 , −F (x0 )) will lie on the graph. But
the graph of a function can never meet two distinct points on the same vertical
line x = x0 . It follows that these points cannot be distinct, i.e. that F (x0 ) =
−F (x0 ), i.e. that F (x0 ) = 0 for all points x0 in the domain. Thus only the
0 function, or restrictions of this function to subsets of the real line can have
this symmetry property.
• The only function which is both even and odd is the 0 function (or restrictions
of this function to subsets of the real line). For both conditions F (−x) = F (x)
and F (−x) = −F (x) must hold for all x, implying that F (x) = 0 for all x.

(a) | sin(−x)| = |−sin x| = | sin x|, so this function is even; (hence, it not being the
0 function, it is not odd). By the preceding comments, its graph is symmetric
about the y-axis, but not about the x-axis.
(b) cos(−x)
= cos x for all x, so this function is even. It is not odd; for example,
cos − π4 = √12 6= − √12 = − cos π4 .
(c) By a well-known property of the cosine function, cos x − π2 = cos x cos
π2 +

sin x sin π2 = (cos x) · 0 + (sin x) ·
1 = sin x for all x. Hence cos −x − π2 =

sin(−x) = − sin x = − cos x − π2 , so this function is odd. As the function
is not identically 0, it is not even; its graph is not symmetric about either
coordinate axis.
(d) The 0 function is both even and odd, and its graph is symmetric about both
coordinate axes.
 
3 1 3 1
(e) (−x) + =− x + , so this function is odd. It is not even, and its
−x x
graph is symmetric about neither coordinate axis.
1
(f) The function x3 − has the same symmetry properties as the preceding
x
function.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3028

(g) G((−x)2 ) = G(x2 ), so this function is even, and its graph is symmetric about
the y-axis. The function is not odd, and the graph is not symmetric about
the x-axis.

4. Let
x2 − 4
f (x) =
x−1
1
g(x) =
f (x − 1)
 π
h(x) = sin x −
4
1
k(x) =  π
h x−
4
(a) Determine an explicit formula for (f ◦ g)(x).
(b) Describe the domains of the functions f , g, f ◦ g, h and k.
(c) [BONUS QUESTION] Describe the domain of g ◦ f .

Wherever possible in this problem, algebraic expressions should be simplified.

Solution:

(b) f . Since f is defined as a ratio of polynomials, its domain is the set if all real
numbers where the denominator is not zero; as the denominator is x − 1,
the domain of f is all real numbers except 1.
g.
1 1 1 x−2
g(x) = = 2 = 2 = 2
f (x − 1) (x − 1) − 4 x − 2x − 3 x − 2x − 3
(x − 1) − 1 x−2
The preceding statement is valid wherever g is defined. That will be the
intersection of the set of x such that f (x − 1) is defined, and the set
where the fraction 1f (x − 1) is defined; i.e., it will be the set of x where
f (x − 1) is defined, from which we must remove all points x such that
f (x − 1) = 0. Since f (x) is defined for x 6= 1, f (x − 1) is defined for all
x such that x − 1 6= 1, i.e. such that x 6= 2. And f (x − 1) = 0 precisely
when (x − 1)2 − 4 = 0, equivalently when x − 1 = ±2, i.e. when x = −1
or x = 3. Therefore the domain of g is the set R − {−1, 2, 3}.
f ◦ g. The first function to be applied is g. Its domain consists of R −
{−1, 2, 3}. But the application of f requires, further, that we exclude
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3029

points x where g(x) = 1, since 1 is not in the domain√ of f . Thus we

3 ± 13
exclude points x such that x2 − 3x − 1 = 0, i.e. . The domain is,
2
therefore, ( √ √ )
3 + 13 3 − 13
R − −1, 2, 3, ,
2 2
(We could also have determined this by excluding from R the roots of the
denominator of the ratio of polynomials that we have determined above
for f ◦ g.)
h. h(x) is defined for all real numbers x.
g. k(x) is not defined at points where sin x − π2 is zero, i.e. where x − π2 is

an integer multiple of π. Thus the points that have to be excluded from

2n + 1
R are all numbers of the form π, where n is any integer.
2
(a)
 2
x−2
−4
x2 − 2x − 3
(f ◦ g)(x) =
x−2
2
−1
x − 2x − 3
(x − 2)2 − 4(x2 − 2x − 3) 1
= 2 2
· 2
(x − 2) − (x − 2x − 3) x − 2x − 3
4 3 2
4x − 16x − 9x + 52x + 32
=
(x2 − 3x − 1)(x2 − 2x − 3)

(c) We can also express (g ◦ f )(x) as a ratio of polynomials in x:

f (x) − 2
(g ◦ f )(x) =
f (x)2
− 2f (x) − 3
x2 − 4
−2
=  2 x − 1
2
x −4 x2 − 4
−2 −3
x−1 x−1
((x2 − 4) − 2(x − 1)) (x − 1)
=
(x2 − 4)2 − 2(x2 − 4)(x − 1) − 3(x − 1)2
(x2 − 2x − 2)(x − 1)
= 4
x − 2x3 − 9x2 + 14x + 5
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3030

This ratio is not defined at points where the denominator is zero. However,
that denominator is a quartic function of x, and its roots are not obvious.98
Instead, let us attack this problem the same way we dealt with f ◦ g above.
First we have to exclude the points where f is not defined, i.e., the point x = 1.
Next we have to exclude points x such that f (x) is not in the domain of g:
x2 − 4 x2 − 4
these are the solutions to each of the equations = 3, = 2, and
x−1 x−1
x2 − 4
= −1, i.e., the roots of the three quadratic polynomials, x2 − 3x − 1,
x−1
x2 − 2x − 2, and x2 + x − 5. It follows that the domain of g ◦ f is
( √ √ √ √ )
3 + 13 3 − 13 −1 + 21 −1 − 21 √ √
R − 1, , , , , 1 + 3, 1 − 3
2 2 2 2

5. (a) Showing all your work, and without using tables, computers, slide rules, or a
calculator , determine the value of log16 2.
(b) Showing all your work, determine all values of x for which
 x
x 1
2 = . (214)
2

(c) Showing all your work, determine all values of x for which log2 (ln x) = 1.
(d) Showing all your work, simplify cos(x + y) cos(x − y) − cos2 x − cos2 y, where
x and y are any real numbers.
Solution:
(a) By [11, p. 70]
ln 2 1 1 1 1
log16 2 = = = = =
ln 16 ln 16 log2 16 log2 2 4 4
ln 2
(b) By the Laws of Exponents [11, p. 58]
 x  x
x 1 x 1
1=1 = 2· =2 · ,
2 2
hence  x
1 1 20
= x = x = 2−x .
2 2 2
98
Although, in fact, this quartic polynomial does factorize into the product of two quadratic polyno-
mials, x2 − 3x − 1 and x2 + x − 5, whose roots can be found in the usual way.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3031

Thus (214)⇔ 2x = 2−x . Applying the inverse function log2 to both sides
of this equation yields the equivalent statement x = −x, which is, in turn,
equivalent to x = 0.
(c) Applying the exponential function (to base 2) to both sides of the hypothesis
log2 (ln x) = 1 yields ln x = 21 = 2. Now apply the exponential function, this
time to base e, to obtain the equivalent statement x = e2 .
6. (a) [11, Exercise 14, p. A34] A circle has radius 10 cm. Showing all your work,
determine the length of the arc subtended by a central angle of 72◦ .
(b) [11, Exercise 34, p. A35] Showing all your work, find the remaining 5 trigono-
4 3π
metric ratios for the angle θ, if it is known that csc θ = − , and < θ < 2π.
3 2
(c) (Adapted from [11, Exercise 70, p. A35]) Find all values of x that satisfy the
equation cos x + sin 2x = 0.
(d) Determine the value of cos(x + y) cos(x − y) − cos2 x − cos2 y, as x and y range
over the real numbers.
Solution:
72
(a) The entire circle has circumference 2π · 10 cm. The angle of 72◦ is 360 = 15
of the central angle subtending the entire circle. Hence the arc has length
1
5
× 20π = 4π cm.
1 3
(b) First observe that sin θ = =− .
csc θ 4
Now, since θ is in the 4th quadrant, the cosine is positive. This resolves the
2 2
sign choice when
r we solve for
√ cos θ in the equation sin θ + cos θ = 1, so we
9 7
have cos θ = + 1 − = . The remaining ratios can now be computed
16 4
without ambiguity:
−3
sin θ 4 3
tan θ = = √ = −√
cos θ 7 7
4
√ √
7 −4 7
cot θ = cos θ · csc θ = · =−
4 3 3
1 4
sec θ = =√
cos θ 7
(c) (There are many ways of approaching problems of this type, so the following
is only one possibility. Of course, all methods lead to the same answers.)
cos x + sin 2x = 0 ⇔ cos x + 2 sin x cos x = 0 (double-angle formula)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3032

⇔ cos x(1 + 2 sin x) = 0

1
⇔ cos x = 0 or sin x = −
2
The solution set will, therefore, be the union of the solution sets for the two
equations shown.
π
cos x = 0. The solutions to this equation are all x of the form x = + nπ,
2
where n is any integer.
sin x = − 12 . One solution is x = − π6 ; another solution is x = − 5π
6
; remember
that the graph of the sine function is symmetric about the line x = 3π 2
(as it is about all odd integer multiples of π2 ): any value which is realized
between 3π 2
and 2π will also be attained at a mirror-image point between
3π
π and 2 . These two solutions each give rise to an infinite set of solutions,
2π units apart. The

full set of solutions is all real numbers of either of the
forms −
16 + 2m π,
− 56 + 2m π or, equivalently of either of the forms


11
6
+ 2m π, 67 + 2m π where m is any integer.
The set of solutions to the original equation is, therefore, the union of the two
lists above:
       
1 7 11 
+ m π, + 2m π, + 2m π  m any integer

2 6 6

(d) (There are several possible approaches to this problem. The following may
not be the simplest.)
cos(x + y) cos(x − y) − cos2 x − cos2 y
= (cos x cos y − sin x sin y)(cos x cos y + sin x sin y) − cos2 x − cos2 y
= cos2 x cos2 y − sin2 x sin2 y − cos2 x − cos2 y
= cos2 x cos2 y − (1 − cos2 x)(1 − cos2 y) − cos2 x − cos2 y
= cos2 x cos2 y − (1 − cos2 x − cos2 y + cos2 x cos2 y) − cos2 x − cos2 y = −1
for all x and for all y.
7. (a) [11, Exercise 8, p. A-23] Show that the following equation represents a circle,
and determine its centre and radius:
16x2 + 16y 2 + 8x + 32y + 1 = 0

(b) [11, Exercise 36, p. A-15] Find an equation of the line through the point
1 2


2
, − 3
which is perpendicular to the line 4x − 8y = 1.
Solution:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3033

(a) We first group the terms in x and y separately, as quadratic functions. Then
we scale to arrange for the coefficients of x2 and of y 2 to be 1, and complete
the square in each of these:

16x2 + 16y 2 + 8x + 32y + 1 = 0

⇔ (16x2 + 8x) + (16y 2 + 32y) = −1
 
1 1
⇔ x + x + (y 2 + 2y) = −
2
2 16
 2 !  2 !
1 1 1 1
⇔ x2 + x + · + y 2 + 2y + ·2
2 2 2 2
 2  2
1 1 1 1
=− + · + ·2
16 2 2 2
 2
1 1 1
⇔ x+ + (y + 1)2 = − + +1=1
4 16 16

which is the equation of the circle with centre − 14 , −1 and radius 1.

(b) The slope of the line 4x − 8y = 1 is 21 ; so the line we seek, being perpendicular
to that line, must have slope − 11 = −2. The line through the given point,
2
with slope −2, has equation
   
2 1
y− − = −2 x −
3 2

which simplifies to 2x + y = 13 .

8. (a) [11, Exercise 84(a), p. A36] Showing all your work, determine the exact value
of arctan(−1).
(b) [11, Exercise 86(b), p. A36] Showing all your work, determine the exact value
of arcsin 1.
(c) [11, Exercise 92, p. A36]

Showing all your work, determine the exact value of
sin arcsin 31 + sin−1 23 .
(d) (Adapted from [11, Exercise 96, p. A36]) Simplify sin (−2 cos−1 x).
Solution:

(a) The inverse tangent function inverts the restriction of the tangent function to
π π


the interval − 2 , + 2 . In that interval the only x such that tan x = −1 is
− π4 . Hence arctan −1 = − π4 .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3034

(b) The inverse

 π sineπ function inverts the restriction of the sine function to the
π
interval − 2 , + 2 . In that interval the only x such that sin x = 1 is 2 . Hence
arcsin 1 = π2 .
(c) Let’s apply the formula for the sine of a sum:
 
1 −1 2
sin arcsin + sin
3 3
       
1 −1 2 1 −1 2
= sin arcsin · cos sin + cos arcsin · sin sin
3 3 3 3
   
1 2 1 2
= · cos sin−1 + cos arcsin ·
3 3 3 3

Now sin−1 23 is in the first quadrant, so its cosine is positive, and equal to
q √
+ 1 − 49 = 35 ; arcsin 13 is also in the first quadrant, so its cosine is also
√
2 2
positive, and is equal to 3
. Substituting these values gives
    √ √
1 −1 2 1 2 5+4 2
· cos sin + cos arcsin · = .
3 3 3 3 9

(d)

sin −2 cos−1 x = − sin 2 cos−1 x

= −2 sin cos−1 x · cos cos−1 x

We know that, for all x, cos cos−1x =x. Also, since the inverse cosine function
takes its values in the interval 0, π2 , and the sine function is non-negative
√
throughout that interval, we also know that sin cos−1 x = + 1 − x2 . It follows
that √
sin −2 cos−1 x = −2x 1 − x2 .

E.3.2 Second 2000/2001 Problem Assignment, with Solutions

In all of these problems you were expected to justify every statement you made, and to
show all your work.

1. For the curve y = 2x3 , find the slope MP Q of the secant line through the points
P = (1, 2) and Q = (2, 16), i.e. the points with x = 1 and x = 2.
2·23 −2·13
Solution: The slope of the line joining P and Q is 2−1
= 14.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3035

2. Given 
 x3 + 2 if x ≤ −1
2
f (x) = x + x + 1 if −1 < x < 1
x4 + 2 if x≥1


find the following limits, if they exist; or explain why the limit does not exist.
Justify your answers.

(a) lim f (x)

x→−1+

(b) lim f (x)

x→−1−

(c) lim f (x)

x→−1

(d) lim+ f (x)

x→1

(e) lim− f (x)

x→1

(f) lim f (x)

x→1

Solution:

(a) For x to the right of −1 (but to the left of +1) f (x) = x2 + x + 1; hence
lim + f (x) = (−1)2 + (−1) + 1 = 1.
x→−1

(b) For x to the left of −1, f (x) = x3 + 2; hence lim − f (x) = −13 + 2 = 1
x→−1

(c) Since the one-sided limits from both left and right exist at −1 and have the
same value, lim f (x) exists, and its value is the common value of the one-
x→−1
sided limits, i.e. 1.
(d) For x to the right of 1, f (x) = x4 + 2; hence lim+ f (x) = 14 + 2 = 3.
x→1

(e) For x to the left of 1 (but to the right of −1) f (x) = x2 + x + 1; hence
lim− f (x) = 12 + 1 + 1 = 3.
x→1

(f) Since the one-sided limits from both left and right exist at 1 and have the
same value, lim f (x) exists, and its value is the common value of the one-
x→1
sided limits, i.e. 3.

3. Given that lim f (x) = 5, lim g(x) = 0, and lim h(x) = −8, find the following
x→3 x→3 x→3
limits, if they exist. If a limit does not exist, explain why.

(a) lim (f (x) + h(x))

x→3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3036

(b) lim (x2 f (x))

x→3

(c) lim (f (x))2

x→3
f (x)
(d) lim
x→3 2h(x)
g(x)
(e) lim
x→3 (x)
f

f (x)
(f) lim
x→3 g(x)
2h(x)
(g) lim f (x)−h(x)
x→3
p
3
(h) lim h(x)
x→3

Solution:

(a) lim (f (x) + h(x)) = lim f (x) + lim h(x) = 5 + (−8) = −3. (We have used the
x→3 x→3 x→3
Sum Law.)
(b) Since we know that the limit of x as x → 3 is 3, we can use the Product Law:
 2
lim (x f (x)) = lim x · lim f (x) = 32 · 5 = 45.
2
x→3 x→3 x→3

(c) Again by the Product Law, the limit of a square is the square of the limit:
 2
lim (f (x)) = lim f (x) = 52 = 25.
2
x→3 x→3

(d) First we use the Constant Multiple Law to determine the limit of the de-
nominator. Then we use the Quotient Law, since the limit of the denom-
inator exists, and is not zero, and the limit of the numerator also exists:
f (x) 5 5
lim = =− .
x→3 2h(x) 2(−8) 16
g(x) 0
(e) Again by the Quotient Law, lim = = 0.
x→3 f (x) 5

(f) But, in this case, the limit of the denominator is 0. Since the limit of the
numerator exists and is non-zero, the limit of the quotient does not exist.
(g) The Difference Law is used for the denominator; then the Constant Multiple
2h(x) 2(−8) 16
Law and the Quotient Law: lim f (x)−h(x) = 5−(−8) = − 13 .
x→3
p √
(h) By the Root Law, lim 3 h(x) = 3 −8 = −2.
x→3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3037

4. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a solution to the equation
x3 + 2x2 − 42 = 0 in the interval (0, 3).
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 42. This function is continuous everywhere on
R. Since f (0) = −42, and f (3) = 33 + 2(9) − 42 = 3, and since −42 < 0 < +3,
the function must assume the intermediate value 0 at a point in the open interval
0 < x < 3.

5. Given 
 2x3 + 16 if x ≤ −2
2
f (x) = x + bx + c if −2 < x < 2
3x4 − 48 if x≥2


determine values for b and c so that f is continuous everywhere. Justify your

answer.
Solution: In each of the intervals (−∞, −2], (−2, 2), [2, ∞) the function is a poly-
nomial, and is therefore continuous at all points. The only possibly problematic
points are x = −2 and x = +2. We will determine limits from the left and right at
each of these two points; then we equate the two one-sided values, and obtain con-
ditions on b and c which we attempt to satisfy. lim − 2x3 + 16 = 2(−2)3 + 16 = 0,
x→−2
lim + x2 + bx + c = (−2)2 + b(−2) + c = 4 − 2b + c; lim− x2 + bx + c = 22 + b(2) + c =
x→−2 x→2
4 4
4 + 2b + c, lim+ 3x − 48 = 3(2) − 48 = 0. We solve the equations 0 = 4 − 2b + c
x→2
and 4 + 2b + c = 0, to obtain b = 0, c = −4. With this pair of values — and only
these values — f is continuous everywhere.

6. The displacement in meters of a particle moving in a straight line is given by

s = t3 + sin tπ, where t is measured in seconds. Find the average velocity in meters
per second over the time period [1, 5].
53 + 0 − 13 − 0
Solution: Average velocity = = 31 meters per second.
5−1
x−5
7. Find the value of lim+ .
x→5 |x − 5|
x−5
Solution: For all x > 5, |x−5|
= 1. Hence the limit, as x approaches 5 from the
right is 1.
3x
8. Find the value of x at which the curve y = x+7
has a vertical asymptote.
Solution: The domain of the function is R − {−7}: at all points except for −7
the function is a ratio of polynomials, each having a limit, where the limit of the
denominator is non-zero. Hence, by the Quotient Law, the limit of the function
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3038

exists (as a real number). However, as x → −7− , the denominator approaches 0

from the left, while the numerator approaches −21; so the ratio becomes infinitely
3x
large positively; this is what we mean when we write lim − x+7 = +∞. Similarly,
x→−7
as x → −7+ , the denominator approaches 0 from the right, while the numerator
approaches −21; so the ratio becomes infinitely large negatively; this is what we
3x
mean when we write lim + x+7 = −∞. It is in cases like these, where the one-sided
x→−7
limits are infinite positively or negatively, that we say that the curve has a vertical
asymptote.
x3 +8
9. Find the value of the limit lim .
x→2 x+2

x3 + 8 lim (x3 + 8) 23 + 8
x→2
Solution: lim = = = 16. (Problem: Find the limit
x→2 x + 2 lim (x + 2) 2+2
x→2
3
of the given quotient as x → −2. Solution: lim x +8 = lim x2 − 2x + 4 =
x→−2 x+2 x→−2
22 + 2 · 2 + 4 = 12.)
1 4


10. Find the value of lim x+2
+ x2 −4
.
x→−2
1 4 x+2 1 1
= − 14 .


Solution: lim x+2
+ x2 −4
= lim = lim =
x→−2 x→−2 (x+2)(x−2) x→−2 x−2 −2−2

11. Find the value of lim √x−4 .

x→4 x−2
√ √
( x−2)( x+2) √
Solution: For positive x, different from 4, √x−4 = √ = x + 2. Hence
√ x−2 x−2
the limit, as x → 4 is 4 + 2 = 4.
1
12. How close to 4 do we have to take x so that 4x + 10 is within of 26?
100
Solution:
1
|4x + 10 − 26| < 0.01 ⇔ |4(x − 4)| <
100
1
⇔ |x − 4| <
400

(x+1)2
13. At what value of x does the function x2 −1
have a removable discontinuity?
(x+1)2 x+1
Solution: x2 −1 = x−1 for all x except x = −1, where the ratio is not defined
because both numerator and denominator of the fraction become 0 there. Every-
where except at x = 1 this is a ratio of continuous functions, and the denominator
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3039

is non-zero. Only at x = 1 or at x = −1 can this function have any type of

discontinuity.
As x → 1− , the function approaches −∞; and, as x → 1+ , the function approaches
+∞. Thus x = 1 is an infinite discontinuity: it cannot be “removed” by the device
of defining the function at the point, since no matter what value we would choose
to give the function there, it could still not be continuous.
But a different situation holds at x = −1. Since the function is equal to x+1 x−1
near (but not at) x = −1, its one-sided limit from either side of −1 is 0, so the
limit exists at the point. However, the function is not defined at the point, since
our definition was expressed as a ratio that becomes meaningless there. We can
“remove” the discontinuity by extending the function to the domain R − {1} —
we simply define the value of the newly extended function to be 0 there. Now the
new function is continuous at every point except −1.
(x+1)2
14. At what value of x does the function x2 −1
have an infinite discontinuity?
Solution: See the solution to Problem 13.
|x−2|
15. At what value of x does the function x−2
have a jump discontinuity?
Solution: This function is equal to +1 when x > 2, and to −1 when x < 2; it is
not defined at x = 2. The limits from the left and right are different at x = 2,
so the function has no limit there, and is said to be discontinuous. But, as both
one-sided limits exist, the discontinuity is a jump discontinuity.
1
16. Find the distance between the two values of x at which the function x2 −3x+2
is
discontinuous.
1 1
Solution: x2 −3x+2 = (x−1)(x−2) . Expressed as a ratio of two polynomials — which
are continuous everywhere — this function is also continuous everywhere, except
possibly at points where the denominator is zero. That happens precisely at x = 1
and x = 2. At either of these points the function is not even defined — hence it is
discontinuous at both of these points. The distance between the two discontinuities
is, therefore, |2 − 1| = 1.
(x2 −1)(x2 +3x+2)
17. Find the values of x where the function f (x) = (x2 −1)2 (x+2)(x−3)
has a removable
discontinuity.
Solution: This function is a ratio of polynomials, and polynomials are continuous
everywhere. This function will also be continuous everywhere, except where it is not
defined. That can happen only when the denominator is zero. So the discontinuities
of the function are at x = −1, 1, −2, 3. We arrived at this information without even
considering the factorization of the numerator.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3040

Let us now factorize both numerator and denominator:

(x2 − 1)(x2 + 3x + 2) (x − 1)(x + 1)2
= .
(x2 − 1)2 (x + 2)(x − 3) (x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 (x − 3)

We can cancel equal non-zero factors in numerator and denominator. Thus

1
f (x) =
(x − 1)(x + 3)

provided x is distinct from 1, −1, and −2. As x → 1, and also as x → −3, this
ratio becomes infinite; so the limits as we approach these two points are infinite;
in fact the function approaches +∞ from one side of each of these points, and −∞
from the other side. So 1 and −3 are infinite discontinuities. But, as x → −2, the
ratio does not become infinite: the limit is 13 from either side. Nor, as x → −1,
does the ratio become infinite: the limit is 41 from either side; but the function is
not defined at either x = 2 or x = −1. We can “remove” these discontinuities by
defining a new function which takes on the values 13 at x = −2, 41 at x = −1, and,
elsewhere, behaves like f (x).

−3x if x ≤ 1
18. Find the real number(s) c for which the function f (x) =
(x − c)(x + c) if x > 1
is continuous on (−∞, +∞).
Solution: For x < 1 the function is defined by the upper line of the array; as
x → 1− , f (x) approaches the value (−3) · 1 = −3. For x > 1 it is the second
line of the array which defines the function. Here, as x → 1+ , (x − c)(x + c) →
(1 − c)(1 + c). To make the function continuous at x = 1 it is necessary and
sufficient that −3 = (1 − c)(1 + c), i.e. that c = 2 or c = −2.
r
8x + 3x2
19. Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 13x2 − 9
Solution:
s
1
r
8x + 3x 2 8x + 3x2
x2
lim = lim 1 ·
x→∞ 13x2 − 9 x→∞
x2
13x2 − 9
s
1
x2
(8x + 3x2 )
= lim 1
x→∞
x2
(13x2 − 9)
s
8
x
+3
= lim
x→∞ 13 − x92
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3041

q
8
x
+3
= lim q
x→∞
13 − x92
q
lim x8 + 3
x→∞
= q (Quotient Law)
lim 13 − x92
x→∞
q
lim x8 + 3


x→∞
= q (Root Law)
lim 13 − x92


x→∞
√
0+3
= √ (Sum Law)
13 − 0
√ r
3 3
= √ =
13 13

20. Determine whether there exists a real number x which is exactly 10 more than its
5th power.
Solution: (cf. [13, Solution to Exercise 2.6.59]). The problem may be paraphrased
as asking whether there exists a solution x to the equation x5 + 10 = x; or, equiv-
alently, whether the function f (x) = x5 − x + 10 is ever zero. Now f is continuous
everywhere; f (0) = 10 > 0, and f (−2) = −32 + 2 + 10 < 0. By the Intermediate
Value Theorem there will exist a point in the interval (−2, 0) at which f (x) = 0.

E.3.3 Third 2000/2001 Problem Assignment, with Solutions

1. Let f and g be functions whose domain is R, and which possess derivatives at every
point in R. Suppose also that the following data are given about f , g and their
derivatives.
x f (x) g(x) f ′ (x) g ′ (x)
1 1 −1 4 −2
2 −2 3 0 2
3 5 0 5 6
Showing all your work, determine each of the following, or explain why either
• it does not exist; or
• you do not have enough information to find the value.
 
d f (x) 
(a)
dx g(x) x=1
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3042


d 
(b) (f (t) + g(t))
dt t=2
 
d 1 
(c) 
dx g(x) x=3
 
d ′
(d) (f (x) + g (x)) (2)
dx
 x 
d e 
(e)  (Do not attempt to approximate e.)
dx f (x) x=1
 
d f (x) 
(f)
dx f (x)  x=2

Solution:

(a) By the Quotient Rule,

f ′ (1) · g(1) − f (1) · g ′(1)

 
d f (x)  4 · (−1) − 1 · (−2)
= 2
= = −2 .
dx g(x) x=1 g(1) (−1)2

(b) By the Sum Rule,

d
(f (x) + g(x)) (2) = f ′ (2) + g ′ (2) = 0 + 2 = 2 .
dx
1
(c) Since g(3) = 0, the function is not defined at x = 3. The derivative of
g(x)
g at x = 3 is defined in terms of g(3); so, if g is not defined there, it cannot
have a derivative there either.
(d) We do not know whether the function g ′ has a derivative at x = 2 — equiv-
alently, whether the function g has a second derivative at x = 2. Without
this information, and the actual value of that derivative if it exists, we cannot
evaluate the derivative of the sum.
(e) By the Quotient Rule,
d x

ex  e x=1· f (1) − e1 · f ′ (1)
 
d dx
=
dx f (x) x=1 f (1)2
e1 (f (1) − f ′ (1))
= = e(1 − 4) = −3e
f (1)2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3043

(f) This case can also be attacked using the Quotient Rule, and we find that

f ′ (2) · f (2) − f (2) · f ′ (2)

 
d f (x) 4·1−1·4
(2) = 2
= = 0.
dx f (x) f (2) 12

f (x)
Alternatively, one can observe that the function is defined wherever
f (x)
f (x) 6= 0; in particular, it is defined at x = 2; wherever it is defined, its value
is 1. Thus this is a constant function! The derivative of any constant function
is zero.

2. Suppose that a particle moves in a straight line with its position at time t given
by the formula f (t) = et (sin t + cos t).

(a) Find the velocity, the speed, and the acceleration of the particle at time t.
(b) Determine the average velocity during the time interval from t = 0 to t = 2π.
(c) Determine the smallest positive value of t — if any — when the particle
returns to the origin.
(d) Determine the smallest positive value of t — if any — when the particle is
stationary — i.e. the velocity is 0.
(e) Determine whether there is a maximum distance that the particle attains
away from the origin. If there is a maximum distance, determine what it is.

[The velocity is given by the derivative of f (t) (which is called the displacement;
the speed is the magnitude of the velocity. The acceleration is the derivative of the
velocity with respect to time.]
Hints: You may wish to use the identities:
 π 1
sin x + = √ (sin x + cos x)
4 2
 π 1
cos x + = √ (− sin x + cos x)
4 2
which are consequences of the addition formulæ and the known values for the sine
and cosine of π4 . Do not attempt to simplify complicated formulæ involving π.
Solution:

(a) The velocity at time t is f ′ (t) = et (cos t − sin t) + et (sin t + cos t) = 2et cos t.
The speed is the magnitude of the velocity, i.e., 2et | cos t|. (We may remove
the exponential factor outside the absolute signs since exponentials are always
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3044

d ′
positive.) The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity, i.e. f (t) =
dt
2 et (− sin t) + et cos t = 2et (− sin t + cos t).


√
(b) Using one of the given identities, we see that f (t) = 2 · et · sin x + π4 . The

average velocity from t = 0 to t = 2π is

f (2π) − f (0)
2π − 0
1 √ 2π  π √  π 
= 2e · sin 2π + − 2 · e0 · sin
2π 4 4
1 √ π e2π
− 1
2 e2π − 1 sin =


=
2π 4 2π
√
(c) We seek the smallest positive value t when f (t) = 0, i.e. when et 2
sin t + π4 =

0. Since et is never zero, this equation is equivalent to sin t + π4 = 0, whose

solutions are t + π4 = nπ, where n is any integer. The smallest positive value
will then be 34 π.
(d) 2et cos t will be zero precisely when the cosine is zero, i.e. when t is an odd
integer multiple of π2 .
t
(e) We have
√ seen above that f (t) is πa
product of e (which is never 0), the con-
stant 2, and the factor sin t + 4 , which oscillates in value between +1 and
−1. Because of the exponential factor et the amplitude of the oscillations is
increasing as t becomes large. The limit lim f (t) does not exist. We can see
t→∞
this by exhibiting values of t where the function is arbitrarily large positively,
and others where it is arbitrarily large negatively. For example, if we take
π
t = 2nπ + , we find the values oscillating between et and −et , and we know
4
that the exponential function approaches infinity.

3. Determine the derivative of each of the following functions. You may not use the
Chain Rule, but you may use any of the Rules and Theorems in [11, §§3.1–3.4],
including the General Power Rule.
 
1 1
(a) 2 ex + x
e
1
(b) 2
(ex − e−x )
x4 + 2x2 − x − 5
(c) √
x
(d) xe − ex
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3045

Solution:
(a)
    
d 1 x 1 1 d x 1
e + x = e + x Constant Multiple Rule
dx 2 e 2 dx e
1 dex 0 · ex − 1 · ex
 
= + Quotient Rule
2 dx e2x
ex − e−x
=
2
ex + e−x
(b) Analogously to the preceding, .
2
(c)
x4 + 2x2 − x − 5 7 3 1 1
√ = x 2 + 2x 2 − x 2 − 5x− 2
x
 4 2

d x + 2x − x − 5 d  7 3 1 1

⇒ √ = x 2 + 2x 2 − x 2 − 5x− 2
dx x dx
 
7 5 3 1 1 −1 1 3
= x 2 + · 2x 2 − x 2 − − 5x− 2
2 2 2 2
7 5 1 1 1 5 3
= x 2 + 3x 2 − x− 2 + x− 2
2 2 2
d e
(d) (x − ex ) = e · xe−1 − ex , by the Generalized Power Rule and properties of
dx
the exponential.
4. Showing all your work, determine the derivative of each of the following functions
from first principles: that is, you are to evaluate a limit in each case, and are not
to use any of the “Rules” for evaluating derivatives.
(a) f (x) = 4x − 6
√
(b) g(x) = 2x + 3
1
(c) h(x) = 3 . [Hint: Remember the factorization a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ).]
x
Solution:
(a) For all x,
(4(x + h) − 6) − (4x − 6) 4h
f ′ (x) = lim = lim =4
h→0 h h→0 h
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3046

(b) For all x,

p √
2(x + h) + 3 − 2x + 3
g ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
p √ p √
2(x + h) + 3 − 2x + 3 2(x + h) + 3 + 2x + 3
= lim ·p √
h→0 h 2(x + h) + 3 − 2x + 3
(2(x + h) + 3) − (2x + 3)
= lim p √
h→0 h( 2(x + h) + 3 + 2x + 3)
2
= lim p √
h→0 2(x + h) + 3 + 2x + 3
1
= √
2x + 3

(c) For all x,

1 1
3
− 3
(x + h) x
h′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
x3 − (x + h)3 −3x2 h − 3xh2 − h3
= lim = lim
h→0 hx3 (x + h)3 h→0 hx3 (x + h)3
−3x2 − 3xh − h2
= lim
h→0 x3 (x + h)3
lim (−3x2 − 3xh − h2 ) −3x2
h→0
= = = −3x−4
lim (x3 (x + h)3 ) x6
h→0

5. Determine precisely where the function f , defined below, is differentiable.



 −x − 2 if x ≤ −1
 −x2 if −1 < x < 0


f (x) = 1 if x=0
−x2 if 0 < x ≤ +2




4 − 4x if x > +2


Solution: The function is a polynomial in each of the intervals (−∞, −1], (−1, 0),
(0, 2), and (2, ∞). As polynomials are differentiable [11, §3.1], the only places
where differentiability can fail is at the points x = −1, 0, 2. We check each of them
separately.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3047

f (x) − f (−1)
x = −1: We have to determine whether the limit lim exists. By
x→−1 x − (−1)
[11, Theorem 2.3.1, p. 107], the two one-sided limits must exist and be equal.
But
f (x) − f (−1) (−x − 2) − (1 − 2)
lim − = lim −
x→−1 x − (−1) x→−1 x − (−1)
−x − 1
= lim − = −1 while
x→−1 x+1
f (x) − f (−1) −x2 − (1 − 2)
lim + = lim +
x→−1 x − (−1) x→−1 x − (−1)
−x2 + 1
= lim + = lim + (−x + 1) = 2 6= −1
x→−1 x+1 x→−1

As the one-sided limits are not equal, the function is not differentiable at this
point.
2
x = 0: Here we have to consider the existence of lim f (x)−fx
(0)
, that is lim −xx−1 .
x→0 x→0
But this limit cannot exist, since the ratio becomes infinitely large close to
0, as the numerator approaches −1, but is divided by an arbitrarily small
denominator. Thus the limit does not exist, and the function fails to be
differentiable at x = 0.
We could have argued this alternatively by appealing to [11, Theorem 2.9.4,
p. 169], since the function is discontinuous at x = 0, so it cannot possibly be
differentiable there.
f (x)−f (2)
x = 2: This time we have to consider the existence of lim x−2
. We observe
x→2
2
from the definition that f (2) is defined to be −2 = −4. Then

f (x) − f (2) −x2 − (−4)

lim− = lim−
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
= lim− (−x − 2) = −4 ; and
x→2
f (x) − f (2) (4 − 4x) − (−4)
lim+ = lim+
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
= lim+ −4 = −4
x→2

As the limits from the left and right are equal, the function is, indeed, differ-
entiable at the point x = 2.

6. The curve y = 3x5 − 20x3 − 675x + 12 has some points with horizontal tangents.
Showing all your work, find all such points.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3048

d
3x5 − 20x3 − 675x + 12 equal to zero, we find that 15x4 −


Solution: Setting
dx
60x2 − 675 = 0, or, equivalently, (x2 )2 − 4x2 − 45 = 0. This is a quadratic equation
(in x2 ), and its solutions are x2 = −5 and x2 = 9. There are no real solutions to
x2 = −5, so we may confine ourselves to the second equation, whose solutions are
x = ±3. Thus there are exactly 2 points with horizontal tangents: (3, −1824) and
(−3, 1848).
7. Determine the value of each of the following limits, or explain why they do not
exist. Do not use l’Hôpital’s Rule.
tan3 πx
(a) lim
x→0 x3
(b) lim(cot 5θ)2 · (sin 3θ) · tan(−2θ)
θ→0

Solution:
(a)
3  !
tan3 πx

sin πx π 3
lim = lim ·
x→0 x3 x→0 πx cos πx
 3 
sin πx π 3
= lim lim (Product Rule)
x→0 πx x→0 cos πx
 3  3
sin πx limx→0 π
= lim (Quotient Rule)
x→0 πx limx→0 cos πx
 3  3
sin y limx→0 π
= lim (where y = πx)
y→0 y limx→0 cos πx
 π 3
3
= 1 · = π3
1
(b)
lim (cot 5θ)2 · (sin 3θ) · tan(−2θ)


θ→0
 2     !
1 5θ sin 3θ tan(−2θ)
= lim cos2 5θ · · · · 3θ · · 2θ
θ→0 25θ2 sin 5θ 3θ −2θ
 2    !
6 5θ sin 3θ sin(−2θ) 1
= − lim cos2 5θ · lim · · · lim
25 θ→0 θ→0 sin 5θ 3θ −2θ θ→0 cos(−2θ)

6 6
= − · 1 · 12 · 1 · 1 · 1 = −
25 25
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3049

8. Determine all points (x, cos2 x) on the graph of the function cos2 x (i.e. cos x · cos x)
at which
(a) the tangent to the curve is parallel to the line y = x + 1.
(b) the tangent to the curve is horizontal
(c) the tangent to the curve is vertical
(d) the tangent to the curve is parallel to the line y = 2x − 3
(e) the normal to the curve passes through the origin, and |x| > 1.
[Hints: The first and last parts of the problem are more difficult than the others.
Remember the identities involving sin 2x and cos 2x. The normal to the curve at
a point is the line through the point which is perpendicular to the tangent.]
Solution:
(a) The derivative of (cos x)2 is cos x·(− sin x)+(− sin x)·cos x = −2 sin x·cos x.99
We impose the condition that this be equal to the slope of the line y = x + 1,
i.e., that
−2 sin x · cos x = 1 (215)
The points we seek will be the solutions to equation (215). A simple attack
is to observe that this equation is equivalent to
sin 2x = −1 . (216)
3


The general solution to the
last equation is 2x = 2 + 2n π, where n is any
3
integer; hence x = 4 + n π, where n is any integer. Thus there are infinitely
many points where the tangent has
slope11: the x-coordinates are as indicated;
the y-coordinates are cos 4 + n π = 2 . But note that the line y = 21 cuts
2 3

the curve also in infinitely many points where the tangent has slope −1.
(b) We have to solve the equation −2 sin x·cos x = 0, or, equivalently, −2 sin 2x =
0. The solutions to this equation are 2x = nπ, i.e. x = nπ 2
, where n is any
integer.
(c) The function is differentiable everywhere; that means that the derivative has
a (finite) value at every point, and so the tangent cannot be vertical. There
are no such points on the curve.
(d) The value of the derivative is −2 sin x · cos x, or − sin 2x. As a sine cannot
have magnitude exceeding 1, the slopes of tangents to this curve can never
equal 2. There are no points of this type!
99
We are avoiding using the Chain Rule, as the assignment was due before the Rule had been fully
discussed in the lectures.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3050

1
(e) The slope of the normal at the point (t, cos2 t) is − . The equation of
− sin 2t
the normal is
1
y − cos2 t = (x − t)
sin 2t
The normal will pass through the origin if the coordinates of the origin satisfy
the equation, that is if t = cos2 t sin 2t. But this implies that t is the product
of two factors, neither of which can exceed 1 in magnitude, so there are no
points with this property outside the interval −1 ≤ t ≤ 1.

E.3.4 Fourth 2000/2001 Problem Assignment, with Solutions

Solutions to most of the problems can be found in the Student Solutions Manual [13].
1. (a) [11, Exercise 3.5.3, p. 221] Write the composite function cos(tan x) in the form
f (g(x)). [Identify the “inner” function u = g(x), and the “outer” function
dy
y = f (u).] Then find the derivative .
dx
(b) Find an equation for the tangent to the curve y = cos(tan x) at the point
π
x= .
4
(c) Find an equation for the normal to the curve y = cos(tan x) at the point
5π
x= .
4
Solution:

(a) In [13, Exercise 3.5.3, p. 82] the derivative is shown to have value − sin tan x ·
sec2 x. π  √ 2
(b) The slope of the tangent at , cos 1 is − sin 1 · 2 . Hence an equation of
4
the tangent is  π
y − cos 1 = −2 sin 1 · x − .
4
√
 
5π
(c) The slope of the tangent at , cos(1) is − sin(1) · (− 2)2 = −2 sin 1;
4
1
hence the slope of the normal is . An equation of the tangent is
2 sin 1
 
1 5π
y − cos 1 = · x− .
2 sin 1 4
5π
or x − 2 sin 1 · y = − sin 2 + .
4
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3051

2. Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

(a) [11, Exercise 3.5.19, p. 222] (2x − 5)4 (8x2 − 5)−3

2
(b) [11, Exercise 3.5.21, p. 222] xe−x
1
(c) [11, Exercise 3.5.29, p. 222] 5− x

Solution:

(a) [13, Exercise 3.5.19, p. 82]

(b) [13, Exercise 3.5.21, p. 82] Note that the original function is odd ; and the
derivative is even. This is an instance of [11, Exercise 3.5.73, p. 224].
(c) [13, Exercise 3.5.29, p. 82]. (This problem could be solved from first princi-
ples. Simply observe that 5 = eln 5 , apply the usual rules for exponents, and
differentiate an exponential [now to base e] using the Chain Rule.)

3. [11, Exercise 3.5.56, p. 222] A table of values for f , g, f ′ , g ′ is given:

x f (x) g(x) f ′ (x) g ′ (x)

1 3 2 4 6
2 1 8 5 7
3 7 2 7 9

(a) If F (x) = (f ◦ f )(x), determine F ′ (2).

(b) If G(x) = (g ◦ g)(x), determine G′ (3).

Solution:

(a) F ′ (2) = f ′ (f (2)) · f ′ (2) = f ′ (1) · f ′ (2) = 4 · 5 = 20.

(b) G′ (3) = g ′ (g(3)) · g ′ (3) = g ′(2) · g ′ (3) = 7 · 9 = 63.
dy
4. In each of the following cases, find by implicit differentiation.
dx
y
(a) [11, Exercise 3.6.11, p. 230] = x2 + 1
x−y
√
(b) [11, Exercise 3.6.13, p. 230] xy = 1 + x2 y
(c) [11, Exercise 3.6.17, p. 230] cos x − y = xex

Solution:

(a) Two different approaches are given in [13, Exercise 3.6.11, p. 86].
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3052

(b) [13, Exercise 3.6.13, p. 86]

(c) [13, Exercise 3.6.18, p. 86]
5. (a) [11, Exercise 3.6.23, p. 230] Regarding y as the “independent” variable, and x
as the “dependent” variable (i.e. regarding x as a function of y) apply implicit
differentiation to the equation
y 4 + x2 y 2 + yx4 = y + 1
dx
to determine .
dy
dy dy dx
(b) Use the same equation to determine , and verify that · = 1 (a fact
dx dx dy
which follows from the Chain Rule by interpreting y as a function of x which,
in turn, is a function of y, i.e. taking the point of view y = y(x(y))).
Solution:
(a) [13, Exercise 3.6.23, p. 86]
(b) Differentiating both sides of the given equation with respect to x yields
4y 3 · y ′ + 2xy 2 + x2 · 2yy ′ + y ′x4 + y · 4x3 = y ′ + 0

⇒ 4y 3 + 2x2 y + x4 − 1 y ′ = −2xy 2 − 4yx3

2xy 2 + 4yx3
⇒ y′ =
1 − 4y 3 − 2x2 y − x4
 √ 
6. (a) Determine the derivative of cot−1 x − 1 + x2
(b) [11, Exercise 3.6.41, p. 231] Determine the derivative of arcsin(x2 ).
Solution:
(a)
d  −1  √ 
cot x − 1 + x2
dx
1 d  √ 
= − · x − 1 + x2
√
2
1 + x − 1 + x2 dx
 
1 x
= − √
· 1− √
1 2 + 2x2 − 2x 1 + x2 1 + x2
√
1 1 + x2 − x 1
= − √ √
· √ =−
2 1+x 2 2
1+x −x 1+x 2 2(1 + x2 )
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3053

(b) [13, Exercise 3.6.41, p. 88]

7. (a) [11, Exercise 3.6.35] Find all points on the curve 2(x2 + y 2 )2 = 25(x2 − y 2)
where the tangent is horizontal. (You may assume that the origin is not one
of these points.)
dx
(b) For the same curve, determine all points where = 0, i.e. where the tangent
dy
is vertical. (You may assume that the origin is not one of these points.)
Solution:
(a) [13, Exercise 3.6.35, p. 88] (It is shown that the four points with horizontal
tangents lie on a certain circle centred at the origin. To determine the points
one must solve the equation of this circle with the equation of the given curve.)
(b) One finds by implicit differentiation that
dx 25y + 4y(x2 + y 2)
=
dy 25x − 4x(x2 + y 2 )
This derivative vanishes when y = 0 or 4(x2 + y 2 ) = −25. The latter situation
cannot occur, as a sum of squares cannot be negative; hence y = 0. That
is, the points with vertical tangents are at points where the curve meets the
5
x-axis: these are the points where x = 0 or x = ± √ . But being on the x-axis
2
is a necessary condition for having a vertical tangent, and is not sufficient. At
the origin there are two tangents, and neither
 of them is vertical. The only
5
points with vertical tangents are ± √2 , 0 .

8. (cf. [11, Exercise 3.7.53, p. 239]) Find constants ci (i = 0, 1, 2) such that the
function f ( t) = c2 t2 + c1 t1 + c0 has the properties that f (−1) = 0, f ′ (−1) = 7,
f ′′ (−1) = 10.
Solution: Imposing the given conditions yields the three equations
c2 − c1 + c0 = 0
−2c2 + c1 = 7
2c2 = 10
from which we conclude that c0 = 22, c1 = 27, c2 = 5.
9. [11, Exercise 3.8.27, p. 246] Find the domain of the function f , and determine its
derivative, where f (x) = x2 ln(1 − x2 ).
Solution: [13, Exercise 3.8.27, p. 94]
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3054

10. Determine the first and second derivatives of the function f (x) = | ln(sec x+tan x)|.
Solution:
d 1 d
ln(sec x + tan x) = · (sec x + tan x)
dx sec x + tan x dx
1
= · (sec x · tan x + sec2 x) = sec x
sec x + tan x
d2 d
2
ln(sec x + tan x) = sec x = sec x · tan x
dx dx
The problem referred to the derivatives of f (x) = | ln(sec x + tan x)|; the logarithm
will be negative precisely when sec x+tan x < 1; this last inequality may be shown,
using trigonometric identities, to be equivalent to
x π  x
cos + · sin < 0.
2 4 2
For the range 0 < x < 4π, we find, examining the signs of the two factors as
0 < x2 < π4 , ... 7π
4
< x2 < 2π, that the product is negative except when 0 < x2 < π

4
x 5π 1
or π < 2 < 4 . Thus, if we define s(x) to be +1 when 2nπ < x < 2n + 2 π,
where n is any integer, and −1 everywhere else, f ′ (x) = s(x) · sec x, and f ′′ (x) =
s(x) · sec x tan x; neither function is defined at odd integer multiples of π2 .
11. Using “logarithmic differentiation”, or otherwise, determine the derivative of
sin2 x · tan4 x
(a) [11, Exercise 3.8.37, p. 246] y = .
(x2 + 1)2
(b) y = xln x
Solution:
(a) [13, Exercise 3.8.37, p. 95]
1 1
(b) Since ln y = (ln x)2 , · y ′ = 2 ln x · . Hence y ′ = 2x(ln x)−1 ln x.
y x
12. (a) [11, Exercise 3.7.19, p. 238] Find the first, second, and third derivatives of
g(t) = t3 e5t .
(b) [11, Exercise 3.7.13, p. 238] Find the second, third, and fourth derivatives of
x
.
1−x
(c) [11, Exercise 3.7.29, p. 238] Find y ′′ where y is defined implicitly by the
equation x3 + y 3 = 1. Simplify your answer as much as possible.
Solution:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3055

(a) [13, Exercise 3.7.19, p. 90]

d
g ′′′ (t) = (25t3 + 30t2 + 6t)e5t


dt
= 75t2 + 60t1 + 6t0 e5t + 5 25t3 + 30t2 + 6t e5t

= 125t3 + 225t2 + 90t1 + 6t0 e5t

(b) [13, Exercise 3.7.13, p. 90] This problem can be attacked naı̈vely, with re-
peated applications of the Quotient Rule. Another approach is to observe
x 1
that = −1 + . Hence
1−x 1−x
d x d
(1 − x)−1


= 0+
dx 1 − x dx
d
= (−1) · (1 − x)−2 · (1 − x) = (1 − x)−2
dx
2
d x d
(1 − x)−2 = (−2) · (1 − x)−3 · (−1) = 2 · (1 − x)−3


2
=
dx 1 − x dx
d3 x d −3
= 2(−3) · (1 − x)−4 · (−1) = 3 · 2 · (1 − x)−4


= 2 (1 − x)
dx3 1 − x dx
d4 x d
(1 − x)−4 = 3 · 2 · (−4) · (1 − x)−5 · (−1)


4
= 3·2
dx 1 − x dx
= 4 · 3 · 2 · (1 − x)−5

(c) [13, Exercise 3.7.29, p. 91]

 x n
13. Evaluate the following limits, if possible; you may assume that lim 1 + = ex .
n→∞ n
In each case it is suggested that you make a substitution of the form m = kn, where
k is a constant that you choose, and then replace lim by lim when k > 0, or by
n→∞ m→∞
lim when k < 0.
m→−∞
 n
2
(a) lim 1 + .
n→∞ n
 x n
(b) lim 1 − .
n→∞ 3n
Solution:
n
(a) Define m = , so n = 2m. Then
2
 n  2m
2 1
lim 1 + = lim 1 +
n→∞ n m→∞ m
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3056

 m 2 !
1
= lim 1+
m→∞ m
  m 2
1
= lim 1 + Product Law
m→∞ m
= e2
m
(b) Define m = −3n, so n = − . Then
3
 n r
1 x m
lim 1− = lim 3 1 −
n→∞ 3n m→−∞ m
r
3
 x m
= lim 1 − Root Law
m→−∞ m
r
3
 x −t
= lim 1 + (t = −m)
t→∞ t
s
1
= 3 lim
t→∞ 1 + x t


t
1 1 x
= r = √3 x
= e− 3
3
 x t e
lim 1 +
t→∞ t

E.3.5 Fifth 2000/2001 Problem Assignment, with Solutions

1. [11, Exercise 3.9.12, p. 251] Prove the following identity about hyperbolic functions,
using only the definitions of these functions in terms of exponentials:

cosh(x + y) = cosh x · cosh y + sinh x · sinh y

Solution:

cosh x · cosh y + sinh x · sinh y

ex + e−x ey + e−y ex − e−x ey − e−y
= · + ·
2 2 2 2
(ex+y + ex−y + e−x+y + e−x−y ) + (ex+y − ex−y − e−x+y + e−x−y )
=
4
2ex+y + 2e−x−y
= = cosh(x + y)
4
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3057

4
2. [11, Exercise 3.9.21, p. 251] If tanh x = , find the values of the other 5 hyperbolic
5
functions at x.
Solution: [13, Exercise 3.9.21, p. 96]. (The problem could also be solved by using
the given information to show that e2x = 9, hence ex = +3, and thence determining
the values of the other functions.)
3. Use the definitions of the hyperbolic functions to find the following limits:
(a) [11, Exercise 3.9.23(b), p. 252] lim tanh x
x→−∞

(b) [11, Exercise 3.9.23(c), p. 252] lim sinh x

x→∞
(c) [11, Exercise 3.9.23(e), p. 252] lim sechx
x→∞
sinh x
(d) [11, Exercise 3.9.52, p. 252] lim
x→∞ ex
Solution:
(a) [13, Exercise 3.9.23(b), p. 96]
(b) [13, Exercise 3.9.23(c), p. 96]
(c) [13, Exercise 3.9.23(e), p. 96]
sinh x 1 −2x 1
, and lim e−x = 0, the limit as x → ∞ is .


(d) Since x
= 1 − e
e 2 x→∞ 2
4. Determine the derivative of each of the following functions:
(a) [11, Exercise 3.9.32, p. 252] g(x) = sinh2 x
(b) [11, Exercise 3.9.38, p. 252] f (t) = ln(sinh t)
x √
(c) [11, Exercise 3.9.45, p. 252] x sinh−1 − 9 + x2
3
Solution:
(a) g ′ (x) = 2 sinh x·cosh x, which could be expressed more compactly as sinh(2x).
d 1
(b) f (t) = · cosh t = coth t
dt sinh t
(c) [13, Exercise 3.9.45, p. 98]
5. (a) [11, Exercise 3.10.7, p. 257] A street light is mounted at the top of a 15-
foot-tall pole. A man 6 feet tall walks away from the pole with a speed of 5
feet/second along a straight path. How fast is the tip of his shadow moving
when he is 40 feet from the base of the pole?
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3058

(b) The man extends his arms horizontally so that the distance between his fin-
gertips is 6 feet. What is the rate of increase of the shadow of his extended
arms on the ground when his feet are 40 feet from the base of the pole? You
may assume that his shoulders are 5 feet above the ground.
Solution:
(a) [13, Exercise 3.10.7, p. 99]
(b) We can consider two sets of similar triangles similar to the triangles considered
in part (a). Let A denote the top of the lamppost, and B its foot; let C be
a point on the man, at shoulder-height, and let D be a point on the man’s
feet; let G be the point where the line through A and C meets the ground.
15 |AB| |AG| |BG|
Then triangles ABG and CDG are similar, so = = = ,
5 |CD| |CG| |DG|
so |BG| = 3|DG|, |AG| = 3|CG|, and |BD| = 2|DG|.
Now let E be the end of the man’s horizontally-extended left arm, and let F
be the end of the shadow cast by that arm on the ground. Here triangles AGF
|AG| |GF | |GF | 3
and ACE are similar, so = , so, since |AG| = 3|CG|, = ;
|AC| |CE| |CE| 2
9
since |CE| = 3, |GF | = . The shadow of the extended arms is 2 × 92 = 9
2
feet long. As this shadow is of constant length, its rate of change is 0.
6. [11, Exercise 3.10.25, p. 258] Boyle’s Law states that, when a sample of gas is
compressed at a constant temperature, the pressure P , and volume V satisfy the
equation P V = C, where C is a constant depending on the sample. Suppose that,
at a certain instant, the volume is 600 cm3 , the pressure is 150kPa, and the pressure
is increasing at a rate of 20 kPa/minute. At what rate is the volume decreasing at
this instant?
Solution: [13, Exercise 3.10.25, p. 100]
7. Use differentials (or, equivalently, a linear approximation) to estimate the following
numbers:
(a) [11, Exercise 3.11.34, p. 265]
(b) [11, Exercise 3.11.35, p. 265]
(c) [11, Exericse 3.11.36, p. 265]
Solution:
(a) Let y = f (x) = x6 , so dy = 6x5 dx. (1.97)6 = (2 − 0.03)6 = f (2 − 0.03) ≈
f (2) + f ′ (2) · (−0.03) = 26 + 6 · 25 · (−0.03) = 58.24.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3059

(b) [13, Exercise 3.11.35, p. 104]

dx
(c) Let y = g(x) = ln x. Then dy = g ′(x) dx = . Then ln(1.07) = g(1+0.07) ≈
x
0.07
g(1) + g ′ (1) · 0.07 = ln 1 + = 0.07.
1
8. [11, Exercise 4.2.32, p. 294] Prove the identity

2 arcsin x = arccos(1 − 2x2 ) (x ≥ 0)

by using the method of [11, Example 6, p. 2902].

1
Solution: Define f (x) = 2 arcsin x − arccos(1 − 2x2 ). Then f ′ (x) = √ −
1 − x2
−1 1 4x 1 4x
p ·(0−4x) = 2 √ −p = 2√ − √ =
1 − (1 − 2x2 )2 1−x2 22 |x|2 (1 − x2 ) 1 − x 2x 1 − x2
2

0; note that we have used the hypothesis that x > 0. Hence, by [11, Theorem 4.2.5,
p. 291], f (x) =constant. We can determine the value of the constant by select-
π
ing a “convenient” value; for example, take x = 1: then, since arcsin 1 = , and
2
arccos(−1) = π, we find that the constant is equal to 0.
Note that this argument does not hold for x = 0. There, however, we can simply
observe that f (0) = 2 arcsin 0 − arccos 1 = 2 · 0 − 0 = 0.

9. [11, Exercise 4.2.6] Let f (x) = (x − 1)−2 . Show that f (0) = f (2), but there is no
number c such that 0 < c < 2 and f ′ (c) = 0. Why does this not contradict Rolle’s
Theorem?
Solution: f (0) = (−1)−2 = 1; f (2) = 1−2 = 1. Since f ′ (x) = −2(x − 1)−3 ,
wherever it is defined, the value of the derivative ranges, as 0 ≤ x < 1, from 2 to
∞; similarly, as 1 < x ≤ 2, the derivative ranges between −∞ and −2. Thus the
derivative never takes values between −2 and 2.
This is not a counterexample to Rolle’s Theorem, since that theorem requires
that the function be differentiable throughout the open interval, and the present
function fails to be differentiable at one point in the interval — namely the point
x = 1. That failure to be differentiable, even though it is only at a single point,
renders Rolle’s Theorem inapplicable.

10. [11, Exercise 4.2.17, p. 293] Show that the polynomial x5 + 10x + 3 has exactly one
real root.
Solution: f (0) = 3 > 0, but f (−1) = −12 < 0; by the Intermediate Value Theorem
this function — which, being a polynomial, is continuous everywhere, in particular
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3060

in the interval −1 < x < 0 — must take on the value 0 at least once between −1
and 0. However, the Intermediate Value Theorem does not exclude the possibility
that there is more than one place where f = 0. If, however, f were to vanish at
distinct points x1 and x2 , then, by Rolle’s theorem, f ′ would be zero somewhere
between x1 and x2 . But f ′ (x) = 5x4 + 10; being the sum of a square and a positive
number, this cannot be zero.

11. For each of the following functions

• find the “critical numbers”;

• find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes;
• find the intervals of increase or decrease;
• find the local maximum and minimum values;
• find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points;
• use the information you have determined above to sketh the graph.

(A “critical number” of a function is a point in the domain of the function where

either the derivative is not defined, or the derivative is defined and equal to zero.
This term is sometimes used (by other authors) with a slightly different definition.)
√
(a) (cf. [11, Exercise 4.3.39, p. 304]) f1 (x) = x2 + 1 − x
1 + x2
(b) [11, Exercise 4.3.43, p. 304] f2 (x) =
1 − x2
√
(c) [11, Exercise 4.3.45, p. 304] f3 (x) = x2 + 1 − x
(d) [11, Exercise 4.3.47, p. 304] f4 (x) = ln(1 − ln x)
1
(e) [11, Exercise 4.3.49, p. 304] f5 (x) = e− x+1

Solution:
   
3 3
(a) (cf. [13, Exercise 4.3.39, p. 132]) Since f1 (x) = x 1 + , and since 1 + →
x x
1 as either x → ∞ or x → −∞, lim f1 (x) = ±∞, so there are no horizontal
x→±∞
asymptotes. All limits of f1 (x) as x approaches any (finite) point are finite,
so there are no vertical asymptotes either. (However, the graph of f1 does
have a vertical tangent at x = −3.)
(b) [13, Exercise 4.3.43, p. 133]. The derivative is defined everywhere in the
domain of the function, and vanishes when x = 0, so x = 0 is the unique
“critical number”.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3061

(c) [13, Exercise 4.3.45, p. 134]. The derivative is defined everywhere, and never
vanishes, so there are no “critical numbers”.
(d) [13, Exercise 4.3.47, p. 134]. The derivative is defined everywhere in the
domain of the function, and never vanishes, so there are no “critical numbers”.
(e) [13, Exercise 4.3.49, p. 134]. The derivative is defined everywhere in the
domain of the function, and never vanishes, so there are no “critical numbers”.

E.3.6 Sixth 2000/2001 Problem Assignment, with Solutions

1. In each of the following cases you are to find the limit, if it exists. Since the subject
of [11, §4.4] is l’Hôpital’s Rule, you should try to use that rule, if it is possible.
However, if l’Hôpital’s Rule cannot be applied, explain why. Mathematicians usu-
ally regard the avoidance of l’Hôpital’s Rule as a challenge; try to find another way
to evaluate those limits where you use the Rule.
ex − 1
(a) [11, Exercise 4.4.9, p. 312] lim
x→0 sin x
ln x
(b) [11, Exercise 4.4.15, p. 312] lim
x→∞ x
ln x
(c) [11, Exercise 4.4.17, p. 312] lim+
x→0 x
1 − cos x
(d) [11, Exercise 4.4.27, p. 312] lim
x→0 x2
2x − arcsin x
(e) [11, Exercise 4.4.37, p. 312] lim
x→0 2x + arccos x
2x − arcsin x
(f) [11, Exercise 4.4.38, p. 312] lim
x→0 2x + arctan x
 √ 
(g) [11, Exercise 4.4.51, p. 312] lim x − x2 − 1
x→∞
 1

(h) [11, Exercise 4.4.57, p. 312] lim (1 − 2x) x
x→0

Solution: We shall follow the notation of the Student Solution Manual [13], and
H
write = when we are applying l’Hôpital’s Rule.

(a) [13, Exercise 4.4.9, p. 138]

ex − 1 H ex
lim = lim
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3062

lim ex e0
x→0
= = =1
lim cos x cos 0
x→0
ex − 1 ex − 1 x
lim = lim ·
x→0 sin x x→0 x sin x
ex − e0 x
= lim · lim (Product Law)
x→0 x x→0 sin x

d x 
= e ·1
dx x=0

= e0 = 1

(b) [13, Exercise 4.4.15, p. 138].

(c) L’Hôpital’s rule cannot be used, since the limit of the numerator is (negatively)
infinite, while the limit of the denominator is 0. As x → 0+ , ln x → −∞,
1 1
while → +∞, so the product ln x · approaches −∞.
x x
(d) [13, Exercise 4.4.27, p. 138]. Here is one way to avoid using l’Hôpital’s Rule:
 
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
lim = lim ·
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 1 + cos x
2 !
1 − cos2 x
  
1 sin x 1
= lim · = lim ·
x→0 x2 1 + cos x x→0 x 1 + cos x
  2
sin x 1
= lim ·
x→0 x lim (1 + cos x)
x→0
1 1
= 12 · =
1+1 2
(e) [13, Exercise 4.4.37, p. 138].
(f)
1
2− √
2x − arcsin x H 1 − x2
lim = lim
x→0 2x + arctan x x→0 1
2+
1 + x2
√
2 − lim 1 1 − x2
x→0
=
1
2 + lim
x→0 1 + x2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3063

2−1 1
= =
2+1 3
It is possible to avoid the Rule, but the result looks very much like what we
have proved above:
arcsin x − arcsin 0
2x − arcsin x 2−
lim = lim x−0
x→0 2x + arctan x x→0 arctan x − arctan 0
2+
x−0
arcsin x − arcsin 0
2 − lim
=
x→0 x−0
arctan x − arctan 0
2 + lim
x→0 x−0

d 
2− arcsin x
dx
=  x=0
d 
2+ arctan
dx x=0

1
2− √
1 − 02 1
= =
1 3
2+
1 + 12

(g) [13, Exercise 4.4.51, p. 139].

(h) [13, Exercise 4.4.57, p. 139].

2. Discuss each of these functions under the following headings, using the guidelines
of the same names in [11, pp. 315–316]

A. Domain
B. Intercepts
C. Symmetry
D. Horizontal or Vertical Asymptotes. (Do not attempt to investigate slant
asymptotes.)
E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3064

Then sketch the graph of the function.

(a) [11, Exercise 4.5.5, p. 321] f1 (x) = x4 + 4x3

1
(b) [11, Exercise 4.5.17, p. 321] f2 (x) = 3
x −x
p
(c) [11, Exercise 4.5.29, p. 321] f3 (x) = x + |x|
(d) [11, Exercise 4.5.47, p. 322] f4 (x) = ln(x2 − x)
(e) [11, Exercise 4.5.39, p. 322] f5 (x) = sin(2x) − 2 sin x

Solution:

(a) [13, Exercise 4.5.5, p. 142]

(b) [13, Exercise 4.5.17, p. 145]
(c) [13, Exercise 4.5.29, p. 147]
(d) [13, Exercise 4.5.47, p. 150]
(e) [13, Exercise 4.5.39, p. 148]

3. Before attempting these problems, try [11, Exercise 4.7.7, p. 335]; then compare
your solution with that in [13, Exercise 4.7.7, p. 162].

(a) [11, Exercise 4.7.11, p. 335] If 1200 cm2 of material is available to make a box
with a square base and an open top, find the largest possible volume of the
box.
(b) [11, Exercise 4.7.15, p. 335] Showing all your work, use the calculus to find
the point on the line y = 4x + 7 that is closest to the origin. (Use the calculus,
even though you may know methods for solving this problem that require no
calculus.)
(c) [13, Exercises 4.7.25 and 4.7.27, p. 162] A right circular cylinder is inscribed in
a sphere of radius r. Showing all your work, find the largest possible volume
and the largest possible surface area of such a cylinder. (You may assume
that the cylinder has been inscribed so that its axis passes through the centre
of the sphere.)

Solution:

(a) [13, Exercise 4.7.11, p. 162]

(b) [13, Exercise 4.7.15, p. 163]
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3065

(c) The solutions in [13, Exercises 4.7.25 and 4.7.27, p. 164] use, as the variable,
either the half-height or the radius of the base of the inscribed cylinder. You
might wish to try to solve the problem another way, using, as your variable,
the angle subtended at the centre of the sphere by the radius of the base.

4. Showing all your work, find the most general antiderivative of the following func-
tions. Check your answer by differentiation.

(a) [11, Exercise 4.10.3, p. 356] g1 (x) = 1 − x3 + 5x5 − 3x7

√ √
(b) [11, Exercise 4.10.7, p. 356] g2 (x) = x + 3 x
− 12
(c) [11, Exercise 4.10.15, p. 356] g3 (x) = 2x + 5 (1 − x2 )

Solution:

(a) [13, Exercise 4.10.3, p. 175]

(b) [13, Exercise 4.10.7, p. 175]
(c) [13, Exercise 4.10.15, p. 175]

5. Showing all your work, find the functions that have the listed properties. Check
your answers by differentiation and substitution in the differential equation.

(a) [11, Exercise 4.10.19, p. 356] h′′1 (x) = 6x + 12x2

√ 1
(b) [11, Exercise 4.10.27, p. 356] h′2 (x) = 3 x − √ , h2 (1) = 2.
x
1
(c) [11, Exercise 4.10.39, p. 357] h′′3 (x) = 3 , x > 0, h3 (1) = 0 = h3 (2).
x
Solution:

(a) [13, Exercise 4.10.19, p. 175]

(b) [13, Exercise 4.10.27, p. 176]
(c) [13, Exercise 4.10.39, p. 176]

F Some Tests and Quizzes from Previous Years

F.1 Fall 1998 Class Quiz, with Solutions
(This quiz was given to both sections of 189-140A in the middle of October, 1998. No
grades were recorded. The solutions were posted on the Web.)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3066

1. Determine the global maxima and global minima of the function

f (x) = 5x2/3 − x5/3 on the interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 4. (You may take 1.6 as an ap-
1
proximation to 4 3 . You may find it helpful to make a rough sketch, but your
solutions must not depend on that sketch.)
Solution:
2 −1 5 2
f ′ (x) = 5 · · x 3 − · x3
3 3
5(2 − x)
= 1 ,
3x 3
provided x 6= 0. When x = 0, the function lacks a derivative. The derivative
vanishes (i.e. is equal to zero) if and only if x = 2. Thus the list of critical points100
for this function, whose domain is the closed interval [−2, 4], is
Points where there is no derivative:
(0, f (0)) = (0, 0)

Points where the derivative vanishes:

2
(2, f (2)) = (2, 3 · 2 3 )

End-points of the domain of definition:

1
(−2, f (−2)) = (−2, 7 · 4 3 )
2
(4, f (4)) = (4, 1 · 4 3 )
Both the global maximum and the global minimum must be attained at points
among these 4. Comparing the function values — if necessary students could have
1
used the approximation of 1.6 for 4 3 — shows that the maximum occurs at the
1
point (−2, 7 · 4 3 ), and the minimum at the point (0, 0).
(A graph of this function may be found in [25, Example 6 of §3.5].)
2. A rectangle, with its base on the x-axis, is constructed so that its upper two vertices
are on the semi-circle x2 + y 2 = 4, y ≥ 0. Determine the maximum possible area
for such a rectangle, and determine where the maximum value is attained.
Solution: There are several ways of approaching this problem; we present two.
100
The definition [25, p. 144] of critical point in the text-book is unclear as to whether or not the
end-points of the interval of definition are to be considered critical . If you choose to consider end-points
as not being included in this definition, then you must include them with the (other) critical points in
your list of candidates for extrema.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3067

(a) A rectangle inscribed in the semicircle must have its upper side parallel to the
x-axis, so the coordinates of the upper vertices
√ may be taken to be (±x, y);
as x2 + y 2 = 4, and y √
is non-negative, y = 4 − x2 . Thus the vertices of the
rectangle will be (±x, 4 − x2 ) and (±x, 0). The area, which we may denote
by A(x) is then given by
√
A(x) = |(2x) · 4 − x2 | .

(The absolute signs are needed since the intention of the problem is that
the area should be non-negative.) We can now approach the problem in two
equivalent ways.
i. We may√ take the domain of A(x) to be −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, since the circle has
radius 4 = 2. Differentiating yields
√ 1 1
A′ (x) = 2 4 − x2 + 2x · √ · (−2x)
2 4 − x2
4 − 2x2
= √
4 − x2
However, this is valid only for x > 0, because of the absolute signs; for
x<0
2x2 − 4
A′ (x) = √ .
4 − x2
Note that there is no derivative at x = 0.
Thus the critical points are

(0, A(0)) = (0, 0)

√ √ √
(− 2, A(− 2)) = (− 2, 4)
√ √ √
( 2, A( 2)) = ( 2, 4)
and the end points,
(−2, f (−2)) = (−2, 0)
(2, f (2)) = (2, 0)

Comparing the values, we√find the maximum of A = 2 to be attained at

both of the points x = ± 2. The minimum value of 0 is attained at 3
points: x = ±2 and x = 0.
ii. The preceding approach can be modified, in that we can restrict the
domain to be 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, by the symmetry of the function. In this
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3068

approach the only critical points are

√ √ √
( 2, A( 2)) = ( 2, 4)
and the end points,
(0, A(0)) = (0, 0)
(2, A(2)) = (2, 0)

and we obtain the same extreme values.

(b) A more elegant approach would observe that all points on the semi-circle have
coordinates of the form (2 cos t, 2 sin t), where 0 ≤ t ≤ π. Here again we could
treat two cases, according as we permit the domain to be the full interval
stated, or only 0 ≤ t ≤ π2 . In either case the area is α(t) = |4 cos t · 2 sin t| =
|4 sin 2t|. For convenience we will take the domain to be 0 ≤ t ≤ π2 . Then,
observing that α(t) = 4 sin 2t, we have α′ (t) = 4(cos 2t) · 2, which vanishes
only where 2t = π2 , so t = π4 . Other than the end-points of the interval, this
is the only critical point, and the area there is α( π4 ) = 4 sin π2 = 4. At the
end-points we have α(0) = sin 0 = 0, and α( π2 ) = 0. Thus the maximum value
of 4 occurs only at t = π4 , and the minimum value of 0 occurs at t = 0 and
t = π2 .

F.2 Last Three Tutorial Quizzes in 2000/2001 (many versions)

F.2.1 Fourth 2000/2001 Tutorial Quizzes
T01

Distribution Date: Monday, October 23rd, 2000 — 13:30 to 14:30 h.

1. Evaluate the following limit, but do not use L’Hôpital’s rule:

sin(x2 − 1)
lim .
x→1 (x − 1)

dy 2
2. Find if y = 3x .
dx
1
3. 101
Find an equation for the tangent line to the graph of exy = x − +e at the
y
e, 1e .


point
101
corrected, 7 November 2000
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3069

T02, T03, T05

Distribution Date: Monday, October 23rd, 2000 — 14:30 to 15:30 h.

1. Evaluate the following limit, but do not use L’Hôpital’s rule:

x + tan x
lim .
x→0 sin x
dy
2. Find if y = tan(3x ).
dx
3. Find an equation  for the tangent line to the graph of x2 (x2 + y 2) = y 2 at the
1 1
point √ , √
2 2
.

T04, T06
Distribution Date: Monday, October 23rd, 2000 — 15:30 to 16:30 h.

1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (0) for

x sin x1 for x 6= 0
 2

f (x) = .
0 for x = 0

dy 2
2. Find if y = sec(5x ) .
dx
3. If the line y = 3x − 1 is tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at the point
with x = 1 , find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = [f (x)]2
at the point with x = 1 .

T07
Distribution Date: Wednesday, October 25th, 2000 — 13:30 to 14:30 h.

1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (0) for

1 − cos x
(
when x = 6 0
f (x) = x .
0 when x = 0

dy 1
2. Find if y = 2 2x .
dx
3. If g(x) = 2x · f (x2 − 2x + 2) and f (1) = 3 , find g ′ (1) .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3070

T08, T09, T11

Distribution Date: Wednesday, October 25th, 2000 — 14:30 to 15:30 h.
1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (8) for f (x) = x1/3 .
 
dy 1
2. Find if y = x tan .
dx 3x

3. If f (x) = ex·g(x) and g(0) = 5 , find f ′ (0) .

T10, T12, T15

Distribution Date: Wednesday, October 25th, 2000 — 15:30 to 16:30 h.
1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (1) for f (x) = x−1/3 .
dy 1


2. Find if y = x sec−1 2x
.
dx
3. Find the equation(s) of the line(s) through the origin, tangent to the graph of
y = ex .

T16
Distribution Date: Wednesday, October 25th, 2000 — 16:30 to 17:30 h.
1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (0) for f (x) = sec x .
 
dy −1 2x
2. Find if y = tan .
dx 1 − x2
3. Find equations(s) of the line(s) through the origin, tangent to the graph of
y = x2 + 9 .

T13
Distribution Date: Thursday, October 26th, 2000 — 16:00 to 17:00 h.
1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (0) for f (x) = ex sin x .
 x
e − e−x

dy −1
2. Find if y = tan .x
dx 2
3. Find the equations(s) of the line(s) through the origin, tangent to the graph of
2
y = ex .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3071

T14

Distribution Date: Thursday, October 26th, 2000 — 17:00 to 18:00 h.

1. Use the limit definition of the derivative to find f ′ (0) for

f (x) = e3x (1 − cos x) .

 
dy −1 x
2. Find if y = sin √ .
dx 1 + x2
3. Find equations(s) of the line(s) through the origin, tangent to the graph of

y = e2x .

F.2.2 Fifth 2000/2001 Tutorial Quizzes

T01

Distribution Date: Monday, November 13th, 2000 — 13:30 to 14:30 h.

dy x
1. Find dx if y = x x−1 .
2. Water is pouring into a leaky tank at the rate of 10m3/h. The tank
is a cone with the vertex down, 9m deep and 6m in diameter at the
top. The surface of the water is rising at a rate of 0.2m/h when the
depth is 6m. How fast is the water leaking out at that time?

T02, T03, T05

Distribution Date: Monday, November 13th, 2000 — 14:30 to 15:30 h.

√
x
dy
1. Find dx if y = x x−1 .
2. How fast must you let out the line if the kite you are flying is 30m
high, 40m horizontally away from you, and moving horizontally away
from you at 10m/min?
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3072

T04, T06
Distribution Date: Monday, November 13th, 2000 — 15:30 to 16:30 h.
dy √
1. Find dx if y = ( x + 1)x.
2. A ferris wheel you are riding has diameter 20m and is rotating at 1
revolution per minute. How fast are you rising or falling when you
are 6m horizontally away from the vertical line through the centre of
the wheel?

T07
Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 13th, 2000 — 13:30 to 14:30 h.
dy
1. Find dx if y = (x2 + 1)1/x.
2. A policeman stationed at a fixed distance from a highway aims a
radar gun at a car. When the gun is pointing at an angle of 45◦ to
the highway, the radar gun records the rate at which the distance of
the car from the gun is increasing at 100km/h. How fast is the car
travelling?

T08, T09, T11

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 13th, 2000 — 14:30 to 15:30 h.
dy
1. Find dx if y = (xx + 1)1/2.
2. [CORRECTED] A balloon is released and rises vertically from point
A and is tracked from point B, 100m horizontally away. If the balloon
is rising at the rate of k m/sec., how fast is the angle of elevation of
the balloon, as observed at point B, increasing when it is 200m above
A?

T10, T12, T15

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 13th, 2000 — 15:30 to 16:30 h.
dy
1. Find dx if y = xln x.
2. A man 6ft tall walks towards a building at the rate of 5ft/sec. If
there is a light on the ground 50ft away from the building, how fast
is the man’s shadow shrinking when he is 30ft from the building?
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3073

T16

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 13th, 2000 — 16:30 to 17:30 h.

1
dy
1. Find dx if y = x 2x .
2. A spherical balloon is being inflated so that its volume is increasing
at the rate of 5m3/min. At what rate is the surface area increasing
when the radius is 6m?
(Volume = 43 πr3 , Area = 4πr2 , where r is the radius.)

T13

Distribution Date: Thursday, November 14th, 2000 — 16:00 to 17:00 h.

dy
1. Find dx if y = (x2x + 1)1/3.
2. A 10m long ladder has one end on the ground, and is supported part
way along its length by a fence 3m high, so that part of the ladder
projects past the fence. If the end on the ground is 4m from the base
of the fence and is being dragged away at 0.2m/sec, how fast is the
vertical height of the other end of the ladder changing?

T14

Distribution Date: Thursday, November 14th, 2000 — 17:00 to 18:00 h.

dy 1 x


1. Find dx if y = 2x .

2. A light shines from a pole 50ft high. A ball is dropped from the same
height from a point 30ft away from the light. In t secs the ball falls
16t2 ft. How fast is the shadow of the ball moving along the ground
after 0.5 secs?
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3074

F.2.3 Sixth 2000/2001 Tutorial Quizzes

T01

Distribution Date: Monday, November 27th, 2000 — 13:30 to 14:30 h.

Let f (x) = (2x2 + x + 1)ex .

1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

xa
(You may use, without proof, the fact that lim = 0 for any real number a.)
x→∞ ex

T02, T03, T05

Distribution Date: Monday, November 27th, 2000 — 14:30 to 15:30 h.

Let f (x) = (2x2 − 3x + 2)ex .

1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3075

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

xa
(You may use, without proof, the fact that lim = 0 for any real number a.)
x→∞ ex

T04, T06

Distribution Date: Monday, November 27th, 2000 — 15:30 to 16:30 h.

Let f (x) = (6x2 + x + 5)ex .

1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

xa
(You may use, without proof, the fact that lim = 0 for any real number a.)
x→∞ ex

T07

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 29th, 2000 — 13:30 to 14:30 h.

Let f (x) = (2x2 − 5x + 4)ex .

1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3076

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

xa
(You may use, without proof, the fact that lim = 0 for any real number a.)
x→∞ ex

T08, T09, T11

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 29th, 2000 — 14:30 to 15:30 h.
1 64
Let f (x) = − .
x−1 x+1
1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

T10, T12, T15

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 29th, 2000 — 15:30 to 16:30 h.
64 1
Let f (x) = − .
x−1 x+1
1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3077

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

T16

Distribution Date: Wednesday, November 29th, 2000 — 16:30 to 17:30 h.

1 64
Let f (x) = − .
x−1 x+8
1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

T13

Distribution Date: Thursday, November 30th, 2000 — 16:00 to 17:00 h.

1 16
Let f (x) = − .
4x + 1 x + 2
1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3078

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

T14

Distribution Date: Thursday, November 30th, 2000 — 17:00 to 18:00 h.

Let f (x) = ln |x + 2| − 4 ln |x − 1| .

1. [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .

2. [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes of the
graph of f .

3. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f increases, and the intervals where it
decreases.

4. [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima of f .

5. [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upwards, and the
intervals where it is concave downwards.

6. [5 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.

7. [5 MARKS] Sketch the graph.

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3079

F.3 First 2005/2006 Written Assignment W1, with Sketch of

Solutions
F.3.1 The assignment question
You are given formulæ for functions f and g.

1. Determine a formula for each of the functions f ◦ f , f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, simplified as

much as you can.

2. Determine for each of the functions f , g, f ◦ f , f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, its domain. Where

the domain is not all of R, you must explain your work — it’s not enough just to
write down the answers.
TUTORIAL DAY f (x) g(x)
2 1
MONDAY, 26 Sept., 2005 √1 − x x
WEDNESDAY, 28 Sept., 2005 2x − 1 x2 + 1
THURSDAY, 29 Sept., 2005 1
x−1
sin2 x
FRIDAY, 30 Sept., 2005 cos x 1 + x1

F.3.2 Solutions
Marking Scheme: 1. 2 MARKS for each of the 4 formulæ for the compositions
2. 2 MARKS for each of the 6 domains. But, where the domain is not all of R,
the student must provide an acceptable explanation in order to receive full
marks.
3. THE CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY must be signed. If the student has
not signed it, insist on seeing it signed before returning the graded assignment.
TOTAL = 20 MARKS

MONDAY: 1. Since f is a polynomial, there are no real numbers where it is unde-

fined. Domain(f ) = R
2. Since g(x) = x1 , it is defined only where the fraction is defined. In the devel-
opment of the real number system we do not assign a meaning to 10 ; we can’t!
No matter what real number r we would want to choose as the value of 10 , we
find that one of our other basic properties of the real number system would
be violated if we used r as the value of this quotient. We resolve this issue by
restricting fractions ab to cases where b 6= 0. Thus Domain(g) = R − {0}.
3. f (f (x)) = 1 − (1 − x2 )2 = 2x2 − x4 . Since f is defined for all x, we may apply
the function again to f (x). It follows that Domain(f ◦ f ) = R.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3080

2
4. f (g(x)) = 1 − x1 = 1 − x12 . Since g(x) is not defined for x = 0, 0 will
be excluded from the domain of the composition. As f is defined for all x,
the composition is also defined for all x except this one excluded value. Thus
Domain(f ◦ g) = R − {0}.
1
5. g(f (x)) = 1−x 2 . There is no restriction when the first function, here f , is

applied. But we must exclude the possibility that its value be 0, since g will
not be defined there. Thus we exclude all x such that 1 − x2 = 0, equivalently,
that x = ±1. It follows that Domain(g ◦ f ) = R − {−1, 1}.
6. g(g(x)) = 11 = x. One might be tempted to say that the domain of the
x
composition is R. But we would be forgetting that the first application of g
was restricted to x 6= 0. So the composition g ◦ g differs from the function x
only in the fact that its domain excludes the point 0: Domain(g ◦g) = R−{0}.
√
WEDNESDAY: 1. The square root 2x − 1 is defined only where the argument is
1
not
 1 negative, i.e., where 2x − 1 ≥ 0, equivalently, where x ≥ 2 . Domain(f ) =
2
, ∞).
2. Since g is a polynomial, it is defined for all real numbers x. Thus Domain(g) =
R.
p √
3. f (f (x)) = 2 2x − 1 − 1. The first application of f requires that x ≥ 12 .
The result of this application is a non-negative number, which, when√ doubled
and added to −1, must be non-negative also. We thus require 2 2x − 1 ≥ 1,
which implies that x ≥ 58 . Domain(f ◦ f ) = 58 , ∞).
p √
4. f (g(x)) = 2(x2 + 1) − 1 = 2x2 + 1. The first function yields a number
no less than 1, which, when doubled and the result decreased by 1, yields
a positive number, which certainly has a non-negative square root. Hence
Domain(f ◦ g) = R.
√
2
5. g(f (x)) = 2x − 1 + 1 = |2x − 1| + 1. The application of f requires that
x ≥ 21 . Thus 2x − 1 ≥ 0, and we may remove the absolute sign and further
simplify to g(f (x)) = 2x. But, unlike the polynomial 2x, this function has
a1more restricted domain, because of the restriction on f : Domain(g ◦ f ) =
2
, ∞).
2
6. g(g(x)) = (x2 + 1) . This is no restriction on the applicability of g, and so
the 2nd application is also unrestricted. Domain(g ◦ g) = R.
1
THURSDAY: 1. The reciprocal x−1 is defined only where x − 1 6= 0, i.e., where
x 6= 1. Domain(f ) = R − {1}. (See solution MONDAY.2.)
2. Since g is a power of the sine function, which is defined for all x, Domain(g) =
R.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3081

1 x−1
3. f (f (x)) = 1
−1
= 2−x
. This rational expression conceals one restriction in
x−1
the domain, so let’s examine the steps in computing this composition. In
the first application of f we must avoid the value x = 1. No matter what
happens in the second application, the value x = 1 has now been irrevocably
removed from the domain of the composition. In the second application we
1
have to ensure that x−1 − 1 6= 0. But this is equivalent to x 6= 1, 2. Thus
Domain(f ◦ f ) = R − {1, 2}.
4. f (g(x)) = sin21x−1 = − sec2 x. When we first apply g there is no restriction, as
the sine function and its square are applicable everywhere. However, we have
to ensure that the result of the
application of g is different from 1, i.e., that
sin x 6= ±1, i.e., that x 6= n π2 , where n is any odd integer. Thus
n πo
Domain(f ◦ g) = R − all odd integer multiples of .
2

5. g(f (x)) = sin2 x−1 1

. The first step in calculating f is to take the reciprocal
of a non-zero real number; we need to restrict x to be different from 1, and
no other restriction is needed. The subsequent application of g imposes no
further restriction, as the sine function is defined for all real numbers. Hence
Domain(g ◦ f ) = R − {1}.
6. g(g(x)) = sin2 sin2 x . There are no restrictions on x: Domain(g ◦ g) = R.

FRIDAY: 1. The cosine function is defined for all x. Domain(f ) = R.

2. The only restriction in evaluating g is that x1 must be well defined, so x 6=
0. This restriction is not affected by the subsequent addition of 1 to the
reciprocal. Domain(g) = R − {0}.
3. f (f (x)) = cos(cos x). The cosine function is defined everywhere, so one ap-
plication can follow another without restriction. Domain(f ◦ f ) = R.
4. f (g(x)) = cos 1 + x1 . In applying g first we need to ensure that x 6= 0. The

subsequent application of f is unrestricted, as its domain is all of R. Hence

Domain(f ◦ g) = R − {0} .
5. g(f (x)) = 1 + cos1 x = 1 + sec x. The first step in calculating f is to evaluate a
cosine. That is possible for all x. However, we cannot proceed to the second
step of the calculation if that cosine is equal to 0, and that is the only obstacle
to completing the calculation. It follows that
n πo
Domain(g ◦ f ) = R − all odd integer multiples of .
2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3082

6. g(g(x)) = 1+ 1+1 1 = 2x+1

x+1
. In the first application of g we must avoid the value
x
x = 0 in order to take the reciprocal of x. But, for a second application to be
possible, we need to ensure that g(x) 6= −1, i.e., that x1 6= −1, equivalently
that x 6= −1. Domain(g ◦ g) = R − {−1, 0}.

F.4 Second 2006/2006 Written Assignment W2, with Sketch of

Solutions
Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week October 17-21, 2005. Please slip the
assignment into your folded quiz answer paper. All materials must bear your name
and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

F.4.1 The assignment questions with solutions

Prove the following statement by using the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Students whose tutorial is on Monday:

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 =
6
for all positive integers n.
Solution: Define S(n) to be the preceding equation.

“Base” or “Anchor” Case: Since

1(1 + 1)(2 + 1) 6
= = 1 = 12 ,
6 6
S(1) is true.
Induction Step: Suppose that it is known that S(k) is true, where k is any
positive integer. Then

12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 + (k + 1)2
= 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 + (k + 1)2

k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
= + (k + 1)2
6
by the Induction Hypothesis
k+1 k+1
= · (k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)) = · (2k 2 + 7k + 6)
6 6
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3083

k+1
= · (2k + 3)(k + 2)
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
= ,
6
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)
=
6
which is S(k + 1).
Conclusion: We may conclude that S(n) is true for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Wednesday:
If n is a positive integer, then 5n + 3 is divisible by 4.

Solution: Let S(n) denote the preceding statement.

“Base” or “Anchor” Case: When n = 1, 51 + 3 = 8, which is equal to 2 × 4.
Thus 51 + 3 is divisible by 4, and S(1) is true.
Induction Step: Suppose it is known that S(k) is true, i.e., that 5k + 3 is a
multiple of 4, i.e., that there exists an integer b such that 5k + 3 = b · 4. Then
5k+1 + 3 = 5 · 5k + 3
by the exponent rules
= 4 5k + 5k + 3



since 5 = 4 + 1
k


= 4 5 + b · 4 by the Induction Hypothesis
= 5k + b · 4 ,

which is a multiple of 4. We have thus proved that S(k + 1) is true.

Conclusion: We may conclude that S(n) is true for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Thursday: A sequence of real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an ,
. . . is defined102 as follows:
1
a1 = ,
2
1
For n = 1, 2, 3, . . . an+1 = an + .
(n + 1)(n + 2)
Prove that
1 1 1 1
+ + + . . . + < an for all n ≥ 1.
22 32 42 (n + 1)2
Solution: Let the preceding inequality be designated as S(n).
102
We call a definition of this type a recursive definition.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3084

1
“Base” or “Anchor” Case: The case n = 1 reads < a1 . Since
22
1 1 1
a1 = > = 2,
2 4 2
statement S(1) is true.
Induction Step: Suppose it is known that S(k) is true, i.e., that
1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + 2 + ...+ < ak .
2 3 4 (k + 1)2
Then
1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + 2 + ...+
2 3 4 ((k + 1) + 1)2
 
1 1 1 1 1
= 2
+ 2 + 2 + ...+ 2
+
2 3 4 (k + 1) (k + 2)2
1
< ak +
(k + 2)2
by the Induction Hypothesis
1
< ak +
(k + 1)(k + 2)
since the denominator is reduced, so the fraction is increased
= ak+1 by the definition of ak+1
proving Sk+1 .
Conclusion: We may conclude that S(n) is true for all positive integers n.
Students whose tutorial is on Friday: A sequence of functions f0 , f1 , . . . , fn , . . . is
defined by
f0 (x) = 2x + 1 ,
For n = 0, 1, 2, . . . fn+1 = f0 ◦ fn .
Prove that
fn (x) = 2n+1 x + 2n+1 − 1 .
Solution: Let S(n) denote the preceding sentence.
“Base” or “Anchor” Step: When n = 0,
2n+1 x + 2n+1 − 1 = 2x + 2 − 1 = 2x + 1 = f0 (x)
so S(0) is true.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3085

Induction Step: Suppose it is known that S(k) is true. Then

fk+1(x) = (f0 ◦ fk ) (x) by definition of fk+1

= f0 (fk (x)) by definition of ◦
= f0 2k+1 x + 2k+1 − 1

by the Induction Hypothesis

= 2 2k+1x + 2k+1 − 1 + 1 by definition of f0

= 2(k+1)+1 x + 2(k+1)+1 − 1

proving Sk+1 .
Conclusion: Hence, by the Principle of Induction, S(n) is true for all n ≥ 0.

F.4.2 Solution to the “Fun Problem” (Student were not asked to submit a
solution.):
What is wrong with the following “proof” by induction?
Claim: All birds are of the same colour.
Fallacious Proof: Let Sn be the statement
“any n birds are of the same colour”.
The statement is clearly true for n = 1, because all members of a set of one bird have
the same colour. Assume that it is always true that any k birds are of the same colour.
(We call this the Induction Hypothesis.) Now take k + 1 birds. Put one aside. There
are k birds left; by the Induction Hypothesis, the k birds are of the same colour. For
simplicity, say they are all black. Replace the bird previously taken aside into the group,
and take out a different bird. Again, there are k birds remaining, which by assumption
must have the same colour. In particular, the bird that was taken out in the first place
must now have the same colour as all the other birds, namely black. The bird taken out
was also black. Therefore, the k + 1 birds must all be black. But that means that we
have proved the statement Sn for all natural numbers by induction. Yet, the statement
is obviously false. Where is the fallacy in this proof?
The Fallacy: We have given what appears to be a general proof that Sk implies Sk+1.
That general proof is almost correct. The problem is that it is not valid in the case
S1 ⇒ S2 . In that one induction step, the assumption that the kth case implies the next
is defective. Consider a set containing exactly 2 birds. If you remove 1 bird, then the
resulting set of 1 bird does, indeed, consist of birds of the same colour. But the removal
of another element of the set of 2 — i.e., of the only possible other element — produces
a set of 1 bird which is totally disjoint from the one we discussed earlier. These 2 sets
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3086

of size 2 − 1 do not overlap; so, while they each consist of elements of the same colour,
there is no justification in concluding that those colours are the same for both sets of
size 2 − 1.

F.5 Third 2005/2006 Written Assignment W3

Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week October 31 – November 4, 2005. Please
slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper. All materials must bear your
name and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

F.5.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W3 , R7 , and R8 does not violate
McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

F.5.2 Instructions
• This assignment consists of problems taken from YOUR VERSIONS of WeBWorK
assignments R6 and R7 .

• There is no place in this assignment where the use of a calculator is required

or permitted.

• The tutor may grade only part of your solutions, but may check whether you have
submitted solutions to all of the problems.

• You are expected to write FULL SOLUTIONS to the following problems; it is not suf-
ficient to get the correct answer — you should show a full explanation, comparable to
solutions in the Student Solutions Manual to the textbook.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3087

• You are expected either to attach a printout of the questions from your
assignments, or to copy the questions verbatim on to your answer sheet before
beginning the solution.

F.5.3 The assignment questions

1. Problem 1 on R6: DO NOT USE A CALCULATOR; YOU MAY EXPRESS
PORTIONS OF YOUR SOLUTION USING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNC-
TIONS.

2. Problem 4 on R6

3. Problem 14 on R6: Do not use l’Hospital’s Rule anywhere in your solutions.

4. Problem 16 on R6

5. Problem 9 on R7

F.6 Fourth 2005/2006 Written Assignment W4

Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week November 14 – November 18, 2005.
Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper. All materials must bear
your name and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

F.6.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W4 , R9 , and R10 does not violate
McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3088

F.6.2 Instructions
• This assignment consists of 2 problems taken from YOUR version of WeBWorK as-
signment R9 . One of the problems is extended beyond the version on your WeBWorK
assignment.

• There is no place in this assignment where the use of a calculator is required

or permitted.

• The tutor may grade only part of your solutions, but may check whether you have
submitted solutions to all of the problems.

• You are expected to write FULL SOLUTIONS to the following problems; it is not suf-
ficient to get the correct answer — you should show a full explanation, comparable to
solutions in the Student Solutions Manual to the textbook.

• You are expected either to attach a printout of the questions from your
assignments, or to copy the questions verbatim on to your answer sheet before
beginning the solution.

F.6.3 The assignment questions

1. Problem 6 on R9 :

(a) Solve the problem as stated.

(b) Find the normal line to the curve at the point of contact of the tangent.

2. Problem 19 on R9 . (This problem resembles Exercise 23, p. 261 in your text-

book.)

F.7 Fifth 2005/2006 Written Assignment W5

Your completed solution to this assignment should be submitted, with a copy of this
question sheet at your Tutorial, during the week November 28 – December 2, 2005.
Please slip the assignment into your folded quiz answer paper. All materials must bear
your name and/or student number. No other method of submission is acceptable.

F.7.1 Certificate
Your assignment will not be graded unless you attach or include the following completed
certificate of originality, signed in ink:
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3089

I have read the information on the web page

http://www.mcgill.ca/integrity/studentguide/,

and assert that my work submitted for W5 , R11 , and R12 does not
violate McGill’s regulations concerning plagiarism.

Signature(required) Date(required)

F.7.2 Instructions
• This assignment consists of an extension of one problem taken from YOUR version of
WeBWorK assignment R11 . Note that the problem given below asks more than the
WeBWorK problem.
Solution of the problem may require the use of L’Hospital’s Rule, which you may not
have seen yet in your lectures. Part of your assignment is to read ahead in your textbook,
and learn enough about that rule that you may use it if you need to. Example 2 on page
309 of the textbook, may prove helpful.
• There is no place in this assignment where the use of a calculator is required
or permitted.
• The tutor may grade only some parts of your solutions, but may check whether you have
submitted solutions to all of the parts.
• You are expected to write FULL SOLUTIONS; it is not sufficient to report the correct
answer — you should show a full explanation, comparable to solutions in the Student
Solutions Manual to the textbook.

F.7.3 The assignment question

Consider the function f (x) = x2 eax with the value of a in Problem 13 of your WeB-
WorK assignment R11 . Show all your work! It is not sufficient to make unsubstan-
tiated statements.
1. Find an equation for each horizontal asymptote to the graph of f .
2. Find an equation for every vertical asymptote, or show that there is none.
3. Determine all critical numbers.
4. Determine the global maximum of the function, if there is one, or show that there
is none.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3090

5. Determine the global minimum of the function, if there is one, or show that there
is none.
6. Determine the locations of all inflection points of this graph. You are expected
to refer to the textbook definition of inflection point and to demonstrate that the
points you have given are, indeed, inflection points.
7. Give the intervals where the graph is concave downward, and the intervals where
the graph is concave upward.
8. Give a rough sketch of your graph, showing the approximate locations of the in-
flection points and the intervals of upward and downward concavity. (The sketch
may be freehand, and need not be to scale.)

G Examinations from Previous Years

G.1
1. These examinations have been taken from the original versions in computer files.
Occasionally an examination has been changed or corrected in the examination
room: such changes may not have been incorporated into these versions.
2. Listed below are only the texts of the problems on most of the examinations from
1996-May 2005; the actual formats of most of the examinations can be seen at the
following URL:
http://www.math.mcgill.ca/brown/math140a.html
3. It is possible that the form and format of the examination in MATH 140 will
undergo further changes in December, 2006. Further information may be given at
the lectures.
4. The syllabus on which the following examinations was based has undergone only
minor changes over the years. Some changes derive from the use of different text-
books. The examinations can serve as a circumstantial evidence of what a student
in Math 140 was expected to know by examination time. Notwithstanding the
foregoing, you are advised not to base your preparation for your examination on a
study of these examinations. The best way to prepare for your examination is to
work through your textbook, using the Student Solutions Manual and consultations
with the tutors to help you evaluate the quality of your solutions to problems.
5. Solutions to these examinations are not available: in some cases you may be able
to find similar, solved problems in the Student Solutions Manual.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3091

G.2 December 1996 Final Examination in 189-122A

1
− 12
x
1. [4 MARKS] Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

x−9
2. [4 MARKS] Evaluate lim √ .
x→9 x−3
3. [4 MARKS] Evaluate lim x cot 3x .
x→0

4. [5 MARKS] Find an equation for the straight line which is normal to the graph of
f (x) = x2 at x = −3 .

5. [8 MARKS] The surface area of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 10 square metres

per hour. At what rate is the volume increasing, when the radius is 2 metres?
(Note: The volume of a sphere of radius r is 43 πr 3 ; the surface area is 4πr 2 .)

6. [8 MARKS] Show that the equation 6x4 − 7x + 1 = 0 does not have more than
two distinct real roots.

7. [10 MARKS] A right circular cylinder is inscribed in a right circular cone of height
H and radius R. Determine the dimensions of the cylinder with the largest possible
volume. What is that largest volume?
1
8. [8 MARKS] Show that the function f (x) = 2 + (1 − x3 ) 5 has an inverse. Deter-
mine f −1 (x) .

9. The function f (x) = x − cos x (−π ≤ x ≤ π) is differentiable.

(a) [2 MARKS] Show that this function has an inverse.

(b) [4 MARKS] Calculate the derivative of the inverse function.
(c) [4 MARKS] Evaluate the derivative of f −1 (x) at all points x such that f (x) =
−1 .

10. [8 MARKS] Use the mean value theorem to show that, when
x>1,
x−1
< ln x < x − 1 .
x
x4
 
11. Let f (x) = ln .
x−1
(a) [3 MARKS] Specify the domain of f .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3092

(b) [3 MARKS] Determine the interval(s) where f increases, and the interval(s)
where f decreases.
(c) [3 MARKS] Determine the concavity of the graph of f , and find the points
of inflection.
(d) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph, using the information determined above.

12. Let f (x) = xe−x .

(a) [3 MARKS] Specify the domain of f .

(b) [3 MARKS] Determine the interval(s) where f increases, and the interval(s)
where it decreases.
(c) [3 MARKS] Determine the concavity of the graph of f , and find the points
of inflection.
(d) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph, using the information determined above.

13. [7 MARKS] Given the curve x3 + y 3 = 1 + 3xy 2 , verify that the point (x, y)
dy d2 y
= (0, 1) is on the curve. Find and 2 at (x, y) = (0, 1) .
dx dx

G.3 December 1997 Final Examination in 189-140A

x2 − 4
1. [8 MARKS] For the function f (x) =
|x − 2|
(a) Find the left-hand and right-hand limits at x = 2 .
(b) Determine whether the two-sided limit exists at x = 2 .
(c) Sketch the graph of y = f (x) .

2. [2 MARKS] Multiple Choice: Circle the correct answer (A, B, C, D, or E.)

√ √
9 + x − 9 − 3x
lim
x→0 x

A B C D E
2
=0 = = 1 does not exist (or = is a real number r dif-
3 2
∞, or = −∞). ferent from 0, , 1.
3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3093

3. [8 MARKS] Apply the intermediate value property of continuous functions to prove

that the equation x3 − 4x2 + 1 = 0 has at least three different solutions. (Hint:
Denoting f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 1 , we have f (+1) = −2.)
60 − t
4. [8 MARKS] At time t, the radius of a leaking spherical balloon is r =
12
centimetres. Determine the rate (in cm.3 /second) at which the volume is decreasing
when t = 30 . (Hint: You may assume that the volume of a sphere of radius r is
4
3
πr 3 .)

5. [8 MARKS] Determine an equation for the straight line that passes through the
point (1, 5) and is tangent to the curve y = x3 .

6. [2 MARKS] Multiple Choice: Circle the correct answer (A, B, C, D, or E.)

x − 4 tan x
lim
x→0 sin x

A B C D E
2
=0 = = 1 does not exist (or = is a real number r dif-
3 2
∞, or = −∞). ferent from 0, , 1.
3

7. [8 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the maximum area of a rectangle
with a base that lies on the x-axis, and with two upper vertices that lie on the
graph of the equation y = 4 − x2 .

8. [8 MARKS] A tank is in the shape of an inverted right circular cone of height 800
cm., whose top is a disk of radius 160 cm. Water is running out of a small hole
at the vertex (apex) of the cone, which is at the bottom. Showing all your work,
determine the rate of change of volume V with respect to height h, at a time when
the height is 600 cm. (Hint: You may assume that the volume of a right circular
cone of height h, whose base has radius r, is 13 πr 2 h.)

9. [2 MARKS] Multiple Choice: Circle the correct answer (A, B, C, D, or E.)

dy π
If y = sin 2x cos 3x , the value of when x = is
dx 2

A B C D E
2 2
0 1 −1 different from 0, , 1, −1.
3 3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3094

10. [8 MARKS] A covered rectangular box is to be constructed with volume 576 cubic
centimetres, with its bottom twice as long as it is wide. Determine the dimensions
of the box that will minimize its total surface area (including the cover).

11. [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the maximum and minimum values
of f (x) = 3 − |x − 2| on the interval [1, 4] .

12. [5 MARKS] Multiple Choice: Circle the correct answer (A, B, C, D, or E.)
The function f (x) = 2x2 − 3x e−x has a global maximum on the half-line x ≥ 0 .

The maximum value is

A B C D E

√ 1 9 9 −3
− e −√ e 4 none of the preceding
e e2 8
4 values.

13. [8 MARKS] Showing all your work, sketch the graph of the function

e2x
f (x) = ,
e2x + 3
identifying asymptotes, critical points, and inflection points. Show clearly where
the graph is concave upward and where it is concave downward.

14. [8 MARKS]

(a) State the Mean Value Theorem.

(b) Given that f (x) = |x| for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , does it follow from the Mean Value
Theorem that there exists a point c such that −1 ≤ c ≤ 1 and f ′ (c) = 0 ?
Explain your answer.

15. [2 MARKS] Multiple Choice: Circle the correct answer (A, B, C, D, or E.)
dy
If x5 − y 5 = 2x2 y 2 , the value of when (x, y) = (1, −1) is
dx

A B C D E
5 5 5 5
−1 1 − none of −1, 1, − , .
3 3 3 3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3095

16. [10 MARKS] Showing all your work, sketch the graph of the function

x2 − x − 2
f (x) = −1,
(1 − x)2
identifying asymptotes, critical points, and inflection points. Show clearly where
the graph is concave upward and where it is concave downward.

G.4 December 1998 Final Examination in 189-140A

x3 − 27
1. [4 MARKS] Showing your work, find lim .
x→3 x − 3

2. [5 MARKS] Given that a function f has the property that

|f (x) − 2| ≤ (x − 1)2 ,

determine lim f (x).

x→1

3. (a) [4 MARKS] Define v(x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 3 . Use the Intermediate Value

Theorem to show that the equation v(x) = 0 has a solution between x = 1
and x = 2.
(b) [4 MARKS] By examining the behavior of v(x) as x → ∞ and as x → −∞,
or otherwise, discuss the existence of other solutions to v(x) = 0.

4. [8 MARKS]
√ Find equations for all straight lines which are both normal to the curve
y = x − 3 and parallel to the straight line y = −2x + 11.

5. For the function g(x) = |1 − x2 |,

(a) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of g.

(b) [3 MARKS] Show that g is continuous at x = 1.
(c) [2 MARKS] Determine whether g is differentiable at x = 1.
sin x
6. (a) [3 MARKS] Determine h′ (x) , if h(x) = .
1 − 2 cos x
(b) [3 MARKS] If u(x) = ln ((2x − 1)3 ), determine u′ (x).

7. [12 MARKS] Determine the slope of the curve

(x + y)2 − (x − y)2 = x4 + y 4

at all point(s), other than the origin, where the curve meets the line x = y.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3096

8. [6 MARKS] A child is building a snowman by rolling a snowball on the ground; its

volume is increasing at the rate of 8 cubic centimetres per minute. Find the rate
at which the radius is increasing when the snowball is 75 centimetres in diameter.
(The volume of a sphere of radius r is 34 πr 3 .)
9. [8 MARKS] The domain of the function F is to be taken to be the interval −2, 12 .
 

On that interval,
F (x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1 .
Determine the global maximum ( = absolute maximum), global minimum ( = abso-
lute minimum), local maxima ( = relative maxima), and local minima ( = relative
minima).
10. [10 MARKS] A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 2, 000 cubic
centimetres. The material for the top and bottom of the box costs $3 per square
centimeter, while the material for the sides costs $1.50 per square centimetre.
Determine the dimensions of the least expensive box.

11. For the function f (x) = x2 ,

x2 − 4
(a) [2 MARKS] Determine the (largest possible) domain.
(b) [4 MARKS] Determine all local extrema, and all points of inflection.
(c) [2 MARKS] Determine precisely where the function is increasing, decreasing,
concave upward, concave downward.
(d) [2 MARKS] Determine all horizontal and all vertical asymptotes, if any.
(e) [1 MARK] Sketch the graph.
12. It is given that the function f , defined by f (x) = x + x3 has an inverse, denoted
by f −1 .
(a) [3 MARKS] Determine the value of f −1 (2).
 
(b) [3 MARKS] Determine the value of d (f −1 ) (2).
dx
13. [4 MARKS] Determine the derivative of the function

m(x) = xx .

14. [4 MARKS] Determine the value of the following limit, if it exists:

3
ex − 1
lim
x→0 x − sin x
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3097

G.5 May 1999 Supplemental Examination in 189-140A

x2 − 4
1. (a) Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2

(b) Let f be the function with domain ∞ < x < ∞ given by

 2
x − 2x if x ≤ 1
f (x) =
x−2 if x > 1

i. Is f continuous at x = 1? Explain (justify) your answer.

ii. Is f differentiable at x = 1? Explain (justify) your answer.

2. Find the derivative of each of the following functions. (You need not simplify your
answers.)

sin(2x2 − 1)
(a) F (x) =
(x2 + 1)3
 
−1 1
(b) G(x) = tan √
x3 + 1
2 −2x
(c) H(x) = x e ln x

[a, b], and theorem. g ′ (x) > 0

3. It is given that the function f , defined by f (x) = x + x3 has an inverse, denoted

by f −1 .

(a) Determine the value of f −1 (2).

 
(b) Determine the value of d (f −1 ) (2).
dx
4. (a) Find an equation for the line tangent at the point (1, 1) to the curve y 2 =
x3 (2 − x).
(b) A woman who is 1.75 metres tall walks at a rate of 1.5 metres per second
away from a lamp that is at the top of a 4-metre high lamp post. At what
rate is her shadow lengthening when she is 30 metres from the lamp post.

5. Find the area of the largest rectangle which can be inscribed in a semicircle of
radius 1, where one side of the rectangle lies on the diameter of the semicircle, and
the other two vertices lie on the semicircle.

6. Consider the function h(x) = 4x3 − 15x2 + 12x + 7, with domain −∞ < x < ∞.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3098

(a) Find all points at which h has a local maximum, a local minimum, or a point
of inflection. Justify all of your answers.
(b) Find the global (absolute) maximum and the global (absolute) minimum of h
on the interval [0, 3].
2x2
7. Sketch the curve y = , indicating any horizontal or vertical asymptotes.
x2 − 1
8. Let the function u be defined by u(x) = ln(2x + 1).

(a) What is the (maximum possible) domain of u. (Explain.)

(b) Sketch the graph of u(x) = ln(2x + 1).

G.6 December 1999 Final Examination in 189-140A


x + sin 3x

 x>0
tan 4x

1. Let f (x) = , where a is a constant, to be determined.
 (x − a)2

 x≤0
4
(a) [6 MARKS] Determine each of lim− f (x), lim+ f (x) or explain why either or
x→0 x→0
both do not exist.
(b) [3 MARKS] Use the information of part (a) to determine all values, if any, for
the constant a, which will make f continuous at x = 0.
2 −3
2. [8 MARKS] Let m(x) = xx − (x2 ) . Determine the value of m′ (1).

3. [8 MARKS] If y is defined implicitly as a function of x by 2x2 − 3xy + 5y 2 = 10,

d2 y
determine the value of 2 when (x, y) = (1, −1).
dx
2+x
4. For the function h(x) = arctan ,
1 − 2x
(a) [1 MARK] State the (largest possible) domain.
dh
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine for all points x where the derivative exists.
dx
(c) [2 MARKS] Give an example of a function different from h which has exactly
the same domain and exactly the same derivative as h.
x
5. The function u is defined by u(x) = , for −∞ < x < ∞.
1 + x2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3099

(a) [3 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the function u is increasing, and
those where it is decreasing.
(b) [3 MARKS] Find all critical points. In each case determine whether the point
is a maximum or minimum point, or neither.
(c) [3 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph of u is concave upwards,
and those where it is concave downwards.
(d) [3 MARKS] Determine all inflection points of the graph.
(e) [2 MARKS] Determine all horizontal or vertical asymptotes of the graph.
(f) [4 MARKS] Sketch the graph.
(x − 1)(x + 1) 2x(x2 − 3)
You may assume that u′ (x) = − , and that u ′′
(x) = .
(x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)3
(For each of parts (a) through (e) you are expected to show all your work and your
results, clearly marked by the question number, e.g., 5(c); it is not sufficient to
provide information only on your graph.)

6. [8 MARKS] Use the Intermediate Value Theorem and/or the Mean Value Theorem
1
and/or properties of G′ (x) to show that the function G(x) = x2 − e 1+x assumes
the value 0 for exactly one real number x such that 0 < x < 2. Show all your work.
1
[Hint: You may assume that e 3 < 2.]

7. [8 MARKS] Triangle OBC, in the first quadrant, has vertex O at the origin, vertex
B on the x-axis, and vertex C on the y-axis. If the vertices are constrained so that
the line joining B and C passes through the point (2, 3), determine the minimum
area for triangle OBC. Show all your work.

8. Showing all your work, evaluate the following limits, if they exist:
√ √
(a) [8 MARKS] lim ( x2 + x − x2 − x).
x→∞
tan x − sin x
(b) [8 MARKS] lim .
x→0 x3
9. [8 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine all lines with slope 3 which are
normal to the curve 64y + x3 = 0, (i.e. which are perpendicular to the tangent at
each point where they meet the curve).

10. [9 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the (global) maxima and minima
of the function R(x) = 3x4 + 4x3 − 6x2 − 12x on the closed interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
[Hint: x3 + x2 − x − 1 = (x2 − 1)(x + 1).]
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3100

G.7 December 1999 Special Final Examination in 189-140A

1 − x + ln x
1. [4 MARKS] Evaluate lim− .
x→1 1 + cos πx
2
2. [6 MARKS] When f (x) = x−2x , evaluate f ′ (1).
2x
3. [5 MARKS] Evaluate lim .
x→0 tan 3x
4. [5 MARKS] Find an equation for the straight line which is normal to the graph of
f (x) = x3 at x = −2 .

5. [10 MARKS] The volume of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 10 cubic metres per
hour. At what rate is the surface area increasing, when the radius is 2 metres?
(Note: The volume of a sphere of radius r is 43 πr 3 ; the surface area is 4πr 2 .)

6. [10 MARKS] Show that the equation 3x4 − 28x + 8 = 0 does not have more than
two distinct real roots.
dy d2 y
7. [10 MARKS] Determine the value of and 2 at the point (x, y) = (1, −1) when
dx dx
x and y are related by the equation x3 + xy + y 4 = 1.

8. [10 MARKS] A box with a square base and an open top is to have volume 62.5
cubic centimetres. Neglect the thickness of the material used to make the box, and
find the dimensions that will minimize the amount of material used.
x3
 
9. Let f (x) = ln .
x2 − 1
(a) [4 MARKS] Specify the domain of f , and any points of discontinuity.
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptotes and all vertical asymptotes.
(c) [5 MARKS] Determine the interval(s) where f increases, the interval(s) where
f decreases, and all local extrema.
(d) [3 MARKS] Determine the concavity of the graph of f , and find all points of
inflection.
(e) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph, using the information determined above.
 
−1 8π
10. [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine sin sin .
3
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3101

G.8 December 2000 Final examination in 189-140A

1. (a) [5 MARKS] Find the derivative of ln cosh(x2 ) .
 
2t
(b) [5 MARKS] Find the derivative of arctan . You are expected to
1 + t2
simplify your answer.

2. [10 MARKS] Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve

x2 + y sin x + tan2 y = 1

at the point (1, 0) .

3. [10 MARKS] Use a linear approximation to estimate the value of

√3
√
5
0.97 + 0.97 .

4. [10 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the domain of the following func-
tion, and all vertical or horizontal asymptotes to its graph.
2x + 5
f (x) = √ .
x2 − 36

5. [10 MARKS] Let f (x) = |2x + 5|. Show that there is no value of c such that

f (−4) = f (0) + f ′ (c) · (−4 − 0) .

Explain why this does not contradict the Mean Value Theorem.

6. [10 MARKS] A farmer wants to fence an area of 20,000 square metres in a rectan-
gular field, and then divide it into three parts by fences parallel to one of the sides
of the rectangle. What shape of field will minimize the cost of the fencing? Show
all your work.

7. For the function h(x) = x2 e2x , showing all your work

(a) [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where h is increasing, and where it is

decreasing.
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima, and all local minima.
(c) [5 MARKS] Determine intervals of concavity, and all inflection points.
(d) [5 MARKS] Sketch a graph of the function.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3102

8. (a) [5 MARKS] Find the function f that satisfies all of the following conditions:

f ′′ (x) = 3ex + 5 sin x , f (0) = 1 , f ′ (0) = 2 .

(b) [5 MARKS] Determine all values of the constant c that will make the
following function continuous everywhere:

cx + 1 if x < 5
f (x) =
cx2 − 1 if x ≥ 5

G.9 May 2001 Supplemental/Deferred Examination in 189-140A

√ √
1. (a) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, evaluate lim ( x + 2 − x) .
x→∞

sin(x2 − 1)
(b) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, evaluate lim .
x→−1 x+1
x2 + 1
2. (a) [5 MARKS] Find the derivative of .
x2 − 2
 
1
(b) [5 MARKS] Find the derivative of cos √ .
x+1
(c) [5 MARKS] Find the derivative of x sin−1 x .

3. [10 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the greatest and least values at-
sin x
tained by the function f (x) = .
(7 − 2 cos x)2

3 3 dy d2 y
4. [10 MARKS] If x − xy + y = 1 , determine and when x = 1
dx dx2
and y = 0.

5. [10 MARKS] The illumination I of an object by a light source is given by the

S
formula I = 2 units, where S is the strength of the light source, and d is the
d
distance of the object from the light source. If two light sources, one 8 times as
strong as the other, are placed 3 units apart, where should an object be placed on
the line between them so as to receive the least illumination?

6. [10 MARKS] Use a “linear” or “tangent-line” approximation at x = 4 to compute

√ 1
an approximate value for f (x) = x + √ at x = 3.97.
x
7. For the function f (x) = x5 + x6 , showing all your work
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3103

(a) [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f is increasing, and those where it
is decreasing.
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine all local maxima, and all local minima.
(c) [5 MARKS] Determine intervals of concavity, and all inflection points.
(d) [5 MARKS] Sketch a graph of the function.
1
8. (a) [5 MARKS] If f ′ (x) = x − 1 and f (1) = , find f (x).
5
1
(b) [5 MARKS] If f ′ (x) = and f (0) = 0, use the Mean Value Theorem
1 + x3
to show that
2
f (2) − f (0) =
1 + c3
2
for some c such that 0 < c < 2, and deduce that < f (2) < 2. (Use the
9
Mean Value Theorem — do not determine an exact formula for f (x).)

G.10 December 2001 Final Examination in 189-140A

A TOTAL OF 137 MARKS ARE AVAILABLE ON THIS EXAMINATION.

1. In each of the following cases evaluate the limit, or explain why the limit does not
exist. Show all your work. Do not use l’Hôpital’s Rule.
x−2
(a) [5 MARKS] lim−
x→2 |x − 2|

sin x − sin(3x)
(b) [5 MARKS] lim
x→0 x2 + 6x
x+4
(c) [5 MARKS] lim
x→−4 x2 + 5x + 4

2. In each of the following cases evaluate the limit, or explain why the limit does not
exist. Show all your work. If you wish, you may use l’Hôpital’s Rule.
2
ex − 1
(a) [10 MARKS] lim .
x→0 sec x − 1

sinh(x + 1)
(b) [5 MARKS] lim . (Hint: Express the functions in terms of
x→∞ cosh(x)
exponentials.)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3104

3. Showing your work, find the derivative of each of the following functions at the
points indicated, or explain why the function fails to be differentiable there. In
all cases you are expected to simplify your answers as much as possible, but the
examiners are aware that you do not have a calculator.
π
(a) [5 MARKS] a(x) = ex sin x at x = − .
2
√
x+5
(b) [5 MARKS] b(x) = √ at x = 4 .
x−5
eln(2x)
(c) [5 MARKS] c(x) = at x = 4.
ln(e3x )
4. A function K(x) is defined as follows, where α and β are constants to be evaluated:

α + x − x2

if x < 2
K(x) =
x2 − β(x − 2) − 4 if x ≥ 2

(a) [8 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine all values of α and β — if any
— that will make K continuous at x = 2.
(b) [7 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine all values of α and β — if any
— that will make K differentiable at x = 2.

5. Suppose that y = 1 − xy 4 .
dy
(a) [10 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the values of and
dx
d2 y
when x = 0 .
dx2
(b) [5 MARKS] Find an equation for the tangent to the curve y = 1 − xy 4
at the point where x = 0 .
1 1
6. Let f (x) = − − 1.
x x−1
(a) [3 MARKS] Determine the domain of f .
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f is increasing, and the intervals
where it is decreasing.
(c) [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where the graph of f is concave upwards,
and the intervals where it is concave downwards.
(d) [5 MARKS] Determine the local extrema of f , or prove that there are no
local extrema.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3105

(e) [5 MARKS] Determine the inflection points of the graph of f , or prove that
there are no inflection points.
(f) [4 MARKS] Determine the horizontal asymptotes (if any) and the vertical
asymptotes (if any) to the graph of f .
(g) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of f .

7. A line ℓ with positive slope m is drawn through the point (−4, 9) in the plane.

(a) [1 MARK] Find an equation for ℓ.

(b) [2 MARKS] ℓ intersects the x-axis in a point A and the y-axis in a point B.
Find the coordinates of A and B.
(c) [12 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine which values of m minimize
the area of the triangle AOB (where O denotes the origin).
√
4
8. (a) [6 MARKS] Showing all your work, find a linear approximation to 10020 .
(b) [2 MARKS] Carefully state the Mean Value Theorem.
(c) [7 MARKS] Showing all your work, apply the Mean Value Theorem to show
that the function arctan x − x is equal to zero only at x = 0 .
(d) [2 MARKS] Prove that the curves y = x and y = arctan x intersect only
at the origin.

G.11 May 2002 Supplemental/Deferred Examination in 189-

140A
1. Compute the derivatives of the functions

(a) [4 MARKS] f (x) = 2x x3

√
(b) [4 MARKS] g(x) = sinh( x4 + 1)
sec x
(c) [4 MARKS] h(x) =
arctan x
2. Suppose that the function f satisfies
f (x) − 3
lim =4
x→1 x2 − 1

(a) [6 MARKS] Find lim f (x).

x→1

(b) [6 MARKS] Given that f is continuous at x = 1, use the definition of the

derivative to show that f is differentiable at x = 1 and find f ′ (1).
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3106

3. The equation
y 5 + xy 2 + x3 = 4x + 3
defines y implicitly as a function of x near the point (2, 1).

(a) [6 MARKS] Determine the values of y ′ and y ′′ at this point.

(b) [4 MARKS] Use the tangent line approximation to estimate y when x = 1.98.
x3
4. Let f (x) = .
x2 − 4
(a) [3 MARKS] Compute and simplify f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x).
(b) [3 MARKS] Determine, if any, all vertical and horizontal
asymptotes of f .
(c) [3 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f is increasing, and the intervals
where f is decreasing.
(d) [3 MARKS] Determine all local maxima and all local minima.
(e) [3 MARKS] Determine all intervals where (the graph of) f is concave upward
and all intervals where (the graph of) f is concave downward.
(f) [3 MARKS] Determine all inflection points.
(g) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of f .

5. Evaluate the following limits, using l’Hôpital’s rule or otherwise:

tan(3x)
(a) [5 MARKS] lim
x→0 sin(5x)
(b) [6 MARKS] lim xe1/x − x


x→∞

6. A rectangle is inscribed with its base on the x-axis, its upper left vertex on the
y-axis and its upper right vertex on the graph of the function y = e−2x .

(a) [6 MARKS] Find the dimensions of the rectangle that maximize its area. Fully
justify your answer!
(b) [6 MARKS] Find the dimensions of the rectangle that minimize its circum-
ference. Fully justify your answer!

7. [10 MARKS] Use the mean value theorem, or properties

√ of the derivative, to show
that the graphs of y = arcsin x and y = 2x 2 intersect exactly once for x
√
2
between 2 and 1.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3107

8. In each of the following problems, find the function that satisfies all the stated
conditions:

(a) [6 MARKS] f ′ (x) = e2x − sin x, f (0) = 0.

1
(b) [6 MARKS] g ′′ (x) = 2 , g ′ (1) = 0, g(1) = 0.
x

G.12 December 2002 Final Examination in MATH 140 2002 09

A TOTAL OF 140 MARKS ARE AVAILABLE ON THIS EXAMINATION.

1. In each of the following cases evaluate the limit, or explain why the limit does not
exist. Show all your work. Do not use l’Hôpital’s Rule.
5+u
(a) [5 MARKS] lim .
u→−5 u2 − 25

x2
(b) [5 MARKS] lim
x→0 sin2 3x

(c) [10 MARKS] lim x(cosh ln x − sinh ln x).

x→∞

2. In each of the following cases evaluate the limit, or explain why the limit does not
exist. Show all your work. If you wish, you may use l’Hôpital’s Rule.
2 − x2 − 2 cos x
(a) [7 MARKS] lim .
x→0 x4
(b) [8 MARKS] lim x (2 arctan x − π) .
x→∞

3. In each of the following problems you are expected to show your work, and to
simplify your answer as much as possible. The examiners are aware that you do
not have the use of a calculator.

(a) [5 MARKS] Find the value of the derivative of a(x) = tan(1 + x2 ) at x = 0 .

(b) [8 MARKS] Find the value of the derivative of f (x) = 2 · xln x at x = e3 .
(c) [7 MARKS] Find a function f (x) such that f (−1) = 7 and, for x < 0 ,
2
f ′ (x) = .
x
4. Let A be the point (6, −3) on the curve C with equation x2 = y 2(y + 7) .

(a) [12 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine an equation for the tangent
to the curve at A .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3108

(b) [8 MARKS] A point P is moving along the curve C . Let t represent time.
dy
Determine the value of when P is at position A on the curve, if it is
dt
known that, at that moment,
dx
= 4 m/s.
dt
1
5. Let f (x) = x(4 − x2 ) 2 .
(a) [3 MARKS] Determine the (largest possible) domain of f .
(b) [5 MARKS] Determine the intervals where f is increasing, and the intervals
where it is decreasing.
(c) [5 MARKS] Determine the local extrema of f , or prove that there are no
local extrema.
(d) [5 MARKS] Prove that f ′′ (x) = 2x(x2 − 6)(4 − x2 )−3/2 . Then determine the
intervals where the graph of f is concave upwards, and the intervals where
it is concave downwards.
(e) [5 MARKS] Determine the inflection points of the graph of f , or prove that
there are no inflection points.
(f) [4 MARKS] Determine every horizontal asymptote to the graph of f , or prove
that there is none; determine every vertical asymptote to the graph of f , or
prove that there is none.
(g) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of f .
6. (a) [8 MARKS] Determine the derivative of the function
1+x
h(x) = arctan x + arctan 1 − arctan .
1−x
for x 6= 1 . You are expected to simplify your answer.
(b) [7 MARKS] Use your solution to question 6.(a) to determine the value of
h(−5) . Only a solution using the previous result will be accepted. Reduce
your answer as much as possible; the examiners are aware that you do not
have the use of a calculator.
√
7. Let f (x) = sin3 x + 3 · cos3 x .
(a) [10 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine all local maxima (= relative
maxima) and all local minima (= relative minima) x of f such that
π π
− <x< .
2 2
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3109

(b) [5 MARKS] Determine the global maximum (= absolute maximum) and

global minimum (= absolute minimum) value of f on the interval
π π
− ≤x≤ .
2 2
(c) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, use a linear approximation to estimate
the value of √
sin3 62◦ + 3 · cos3 62◦ .
√
◦ 1 ◦ 3
You may assume that the sine of 30 is , and that the sine of 60 is .
2 2

G.13 May 2003 Supplemental/Deferred Examination in MATH

140 2002 09
1. In each of the following cases, evaluate the limit or explain why the limit does not
exist. Do not use L’Hôpital’s Rule!
2x3 − 3x2 + 7
(a) [3 MARKS] lim
x→∞ −x3 + 5x − 1
√
x+4−3
(b) [3 MARKS] lim
x→5 x−5
(tan 2x) · (cos 2x)
(c) [3 MARKS] lim
x→0 x
2x − 4a2

if x ≤ 2
2. Let a be a real number, and f (x) = 2 .
a(x − 6x + 8) if x > 2

(a) [5 MARKS] Determine the value(s) of a — if any — for which f is continuous.

(b) [5 MARKS] Explain why f is not differentiable at x = 2 if a = −2.

3. Compute the derivatives of the following functions. Simplify your answers!

sin x
(a) [4 MARKS] f (x) = .
ex
 
1
(b) [4 MARKS] g(x) = arctan .
x
 √ 
2
(c) [4 MARKS] h(x) = ln x + 1 + x .

4. (a) [5 MARKS] Determine the function f if it is known that f ′′ (x) = 6x − 6,

f (0) = −2 and f (1) = 3.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3110

3
(b) [5 MARKS] Let g(x) = √ . Find an antiderivative G of g such that
1 − x2
√ !
3
G = 0.
2

5. Consider the curve C with equation 2x3 + 2y 3 = 9xy .

(a) [2 MARKS] Verify that the point P = (1, 2) lies on C.

(b) [4 MARKS] Determine the equation of the tangent line to C at P .
d2 y
(c) [6 MARKS] Determine when x = 1. Is C concave upward or concave
dx2
downward at P ?

6. [10 MARKS] Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove that x = 0 is the only solution
of the equation sinh x = x. Carefully explain your reasoning!

7. [10 MARKS] A particle is moving along the parabola 4y = (x + 1)2 in such a

way that its x-coordinate is increasing at the constant rate of 5 units per second.
Determine how fast the distance from the particle to the origin is changing at the
instant the particle is at the point (3, 4).

8. [10 MARKS] A rectangle with sides parallel to the coordinate axes has one vertex
at the origin, one on the positive x-axis, one on the positive y-axis, and its fourth
1
vertex in the first quadrant on the curve y = . What is the maximum
1 + x2
possible area of such a rectangle? Fully justify your answer!

9. Let f (x) = (x2 + 4x + 4)e−x .

(a) [2 MARKS] Determine all x — if any — for which f (x) = 0 .

(b) [4 MARKS] Determine all horizontal asymptote(s) — if any — to the graph
of f .
(c) [4 MARKS] Find all local extrema — if any — of f ; determine which are
local maxima and which are local minima. Determine the intervals where f
is increasing, and the intervals where f is decreasing.
(d) [4 MARKS] Find all inflection points — if any — of f . Determine the intervals
where the graph of f is concave upward, and the intervals where the graph is
concave downward.
(e) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of f .
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3111

G.14 December 2003 Final Examination in MATH 140 2003 09

Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:
• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!

• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.
“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”
1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Give the limit in each of the following cases. If the limit does
not exist, or is +∞ or −∞, write “DOES NOT EXIST”, +∞, or −∞ respectively.
15 − 2x − x2
(a) lim− =
x→3 x−3
ANSWER ONLY

7x5 + 2x3 − x2 + 11
(b) lim =
x→−∞ x5 − 3x4 + 2
ANSWER ONLY

tan 5x
(c) lim =
x→0 sin 4x
ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3112

30 + 6x
(d) lim − =
x→−5 |5 + x|
ANSWER ONLY

√ √
(e) lim ( x2 + x − x2 − 4x) =
x→∞

ANSWER ONLY

(f) lim x2 ex =
x→−∞

ANSWER ONLY

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Determine each of the following derivatives.
d sin t2
(a) e =
dt
ANSWER ONLY

d
(b) ln(e4x ) =
dx
ANSWER ONLY

d 4
(c) |x | =
dx
ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3113

d √
(d) arcsin x =
dx
ANSWER ONLY

(e) If y(x) satisfies the equation

(y(x))5 + x (y(x))2 + 9x4 = 1 , then y ′(0) =
ANSWER ONLY

x2
(f) If g(x) = x6 , g ′(0) =

ANSWER ONLY

3. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH]

(a) Give equations for all of the vertical asymptotes of the graph of
x
f (x) = .
x2 +x−2
If there is none, write “NONE”.
ANSWER ONLY

(b) Determine all values of the constant c that will make the function

−4x + c when x < 0
f (x) =
(x + c)2 when x ≥ 0

continuous from the right at x = 0. If there is none, write “NONE”.

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3114

ANSWER ONLY

(c) Determine all horizontal asymptotes to the following curve; if there is none,
write “NONE”.
y = arctan(x2 )
ANSWER ONLY

3
(d) If tanh x = , sinh x =
5
ANSWER ONLY

4. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[4 MARKS EACH]
(a) Determine all points on the curve
y 3 − x2 = 4
where the tangent is horizontal. If there is none, write “NONE”.
ANSWER ONLY

(b) On the interval −2 < x < 0, determine the values of x at which the function
f has a local (=relative) minimum, if it is known that
f ′ (x) = (2x + 1)(x + 1)2 (x + 3) .
If there is no local minimum, write “NONE”.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3115

ANSWER ONLY

(c) Find f (2) if it is known that

x2 − x + 1
f ′ (x) = , and
x
f (1) = 5 .

ANSWER ONLY

The examiners are aware that you do not have a calculator.

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[3 MARKS EACH]
For each of the following descriptions of a function or functions, either

• give an example of functions with the properties stated, or

• name or state a theorem, law, or rule which can be used to show that no such
function or functions exist.

(a) f (3) = 0, f (1) = −4, f ′ (x) ≤ 1 for all x.

(b) f is continuous on [−4, 4], f (−3) = −1, f (3) = 2, f (x) 6= 0 for all x.
 
(c) lim f (x) = 3, f lim x = 2 .
x→4 x→4
′
(d) f (1) = 5 and f is not continuous at x = 1 .

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[12 MARKS] A balloon leaves the ground 100 metres from an observer, and rises
vertically at the rate of 40 metres per minute. Determine the rate at which the
angle of inclination of the observer’s line of sight (the angle between the line of
sight and the horizontal) is increasing at the instant when the balloon is exactly
100 metres above the ground?
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3116

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

√
Let f (x) = x x + 3 .
(a) [2 MARKS] State the domain of f .
(b) [4 MARKS] Find the intervals of increase and the intervals of decrease of f .
(c) [4 MARKS] Find the absolute (global) maximum and minimum values of f
— if any — and the points where they are attained.
(d) [3 MARKS] Determine the intervals of concavity upwards and the intervals of
concavity downwards, and the inflection points, if any.
(e) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

Let t represents time measured in seconds, and let C be a constant that is to
be determined. A particle moves so that its position on the x axis at time t is
x(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t + C.
(a) [3 MARKS] Determine the acceleration of the particle as a function of time.
(b) [6 MARKS] The speed of the particle is the absolute value of its velocity.
Determine the time intervals when the speed is increasing.
(c) [3 MARKS] Determine the value of C if it is known that the particle is at the
origin the whenever the acceleration is 0.

G.15 May 2004 Supplemental/Deferred Examination in MATH

140 2003 09
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:
• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!
• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3117

“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”

1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Find each of the following. If the item requested does not exist,
or is +∞ or −∞, write “DOES NOT EXIST”, +∞, or −∞ respectively.

(a) If g(x) = 2 + x + ex , find g −1(3).

ANSWER ONLY

(b) Find a formula for the inverse of the function

r(x) = ln(x + 2) .

ANSWER ONLY

√
t2 + 4 − 2
(c) Find lim .
t→0 t2
ANSWER ONLY

 √ 
(d) lim x+ x2 + 3x =
x→−∞

ANSWER ONLY

(You may do rough work in this space, or on the back of the preceding page.)

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Determine each of the following derivatives.
d  3t 
(a) 2 =
dt
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3118

ANSWER ONLY

ex
 
d
(b) =
dx x2
ANSWER ONLY

d
(x2 + 1)50 (x4 + 1)3 =


(c)
dx
ANSWER ONLY

d
(d) sin(sin 2x) =
dx
ANSWER ONLY

3. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

Full explanations are required for all of your statements.

(a) [4 MARKS] Determine the domain of the function

√ √
r(x) = x − −x .

(b) [4 MARKS] Determine whether the function


x − 2 for x < 3
h(x) =
5 − x for x ≥ 3

is continuous at x = 3.
(c) [4 MARKS] Determine whether the function f (x) = |x − 4|5 is differentiable
at x = 4.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3119

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[6 MARKS] A plane flying horizontally at an altitude of 2 km and a speed of 500
km/h passes directly over a certain radar station. Determine the rate at which the
(shortest) distance from the plane directly to the station is increasing when the
plane is 3 km away from the station.

5. [8 MARKS] SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

Showing all your work, and naming any theorems that you use, prove that the
equation x5 − 7x + 5 = 0 has exactly one root in the closed interval [−1, +1].

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [6 MARKS] Find an equation for the line tangent to the curve y 2 = x3 (2 − x)
at the point (1, 1).
(b) [8 MARKS] A particle is moving on the x axis so that its position at time t
is given by
x(t) = 2t3 − 7t2 + 4t + 1 .
Find
i. The times when the velocity is 0.
ii. The acceleration at each time when the velocity is 0.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [2 MARKS] State the Mean Value Theorem.

(b) [8 MARKS] For the function

2|x + 1| when x ≤ −1
f (x) =
x(1 − |x|)(1 + |x|) when x > −1

decide whether f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the
interval [−2, 3]. Then answer the appropriate one of the following questions:
I. If f satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem on the interval
[−2, 3], explain precisely what the conclusion of the theorem is for this
function.
II. If f does not satisfy the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem, explain
precisely where it fails to satisfy those conditions.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3120

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

Let x and y = f (x) be related by the equation

ey + x · y = e .

Showing all your work,

(a) [2 MARKS] determine f (0);

(b) [3 MARKS] determine f ′ (0);
(c) [5 MARKS] determine f ′′ (0).

9. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

√
Let f (x) = x 4 − x2 .

(a) [2 MARKS] State the domain of f .

(b) [4 MARKS] Find the intervals of increase and the intervals of decrease of f .
(c) [4 MARKS] Find the absolute (global) maximum and minimum values of f
— if any — and the points where they are attained.
(d) [3 MARKS] Determine the intervals of concavity upwards and the intervals of
concavity downwards, and the inflection points, if any.
(e) [2 MARKS] Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

10. [9 MARKS] SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

A metal box with a square base and an open top must have a volume of 500 m3 .
Find the dimensions of the box that minimize the total amount of metal used.

G.16 December 2004 Final Examination in MATH 140 2004 09

(One of several versions)
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:

• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3121

• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.

“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”

1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH] Give the numeric value of each of the following limits if it exists;
if the limit is +∞ or −∞, write +∞ or −∞ respectively. In all other cases write
”NO FINITE OR INFINITE LIMIT”.
|y|
(a) lim =
y→−∞ y

ANSWER ONLY

sin u
(b) lim =
u→−∞ u

ANSWER ONLY

 2n
1
(c) lim 1+ =
n→∞ n
ANSWER ONLY

 
1 1
(d) lim − =
x→0 x sin x
ANSWER ONLY

(e) lim ln(3t2 ) − ln(t2 + 7) =

t→∞
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3122

ANSWER ONLY

√ √
x + 8 − 2x
(f) lim =
x→8 x2 − 8x
ANSWER ONLY

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH] Determine each of the following derivatives, and simplify your
answers as much as possible.
d x2 + 3x
 
(a) =
dx x

ANSWER ONLY

d −3t

(b) t =
dt

ANSWER ONLY

d
tan(e2s ) − e2 tan s =


(c)
ds

ANSWER ONLY

d
cosh2 (3y) =


(d)
dy
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3123

ANSWER ONLY

d
cos2 X − cos(X 2 ) =


(e)
dX

ANSWER ONLY

3. BRIEF SOLUTIONS

(a) [5 MARKS] Find an equation for a line through the point (−2, 0) which is
tangent to the curve y = x2 and is not horizontal.

ANSWER ONLY

(b) [5 MARKS] Determine values of the constants a and b that will make the
following function continuous at x = −6.
 √
 x + 31 if x < −6
f (x) = a+b if x = −6
a(x + 5) if x > −6


ANSWER ONLY

(c) [5 MARKS] Determine values of the constants k and ℓ that will make the
following function differentiable at x = 1.

kx2 + ℓ if x ≤ 1

g(x) =
6x − 4 if x > 1
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3124

ANSWER ONLY

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [6 MARKS] Coffee is draining from a conical filter of depth 10 cm and diameter
10 cm (at the top) into a cylindrical coffee pot of diameter 12 cm, at the rate
of 100 cm3 /min. Determine how fast, in cm/min, the level of coffee in the pot
is rising when the coffee in the filter is 3 cm deep?
(b) [6 MARKS] You are given that y = y(t) is a function of t satisfying t3 y +ty 3 =
2. Assuming that y(1) = 1, determine the values of y ′(1) and y ′′ (1).

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [4 MARKS] Prove that the function x3 + 9x2 + 33x assumes the value −8 at
least once.
(b) [8 MARKS] Using the Mean Value Theorem or Rolle’s Theorem — no other
methods will be accepted — prove carefully that x3 + 9x2 + 33x takes on the
value −8 at most once.

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[10 MARKS] Using the calculus carefully, determine how to express 8 as the sum
of 2 nonnegative real numbers such that the sum of the square of the first and the
cube of the second is as small as possible.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

 2
x
Let f (x) = .
x+3
(a) [1 MARKS] State the domain of f .
(b) [4 MARKS] Find the intervals of increase and the intervals of decrease of f .
(c) [4 MARKS] Determine the intervals of concavity upwards and the intervals of
concavity downwards, and the inflection points, if any.
(d) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of y = f (x), showing — clearly labelled — all
horizontal and all vertical asymptotes.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3125

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[6 MARKS] Consider the function f (x) = 5x + 9 near x = −1. Is it, or is it not
true that f is continuous at x = −1? If the statement is true, prove it carefully,
using the ǫ-δ definition. If it is false, prove that carefully.

G.17 May 2005 Supplemental/Deferred Examination in MATH

140 2004 09
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:
• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!
• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.
“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”
1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH] Give the numeric value of each of the following limits if it exists;
if the limit is +∞ or −∞, write +∞ or −∞ respectively. In all other cases write
“NO FINITE OR INFINITE LIMIT”.
 
2x 8
(a) lim − =
x→4 x − 4 x−4
ANSWER ONLY

1 − cos u
(b) lim =
u→∞ u2
ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3126

 −n
1
(c) lim 1− =
n→∞ n
ANSWER ONLY

 
1 1
(d) limπ − =
x→ 2 x sin x

ANSWER ONLY

x+2
(e) lim √ √ =
x→−2 −x − 2
ANSWER ONLY

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[3 MARKS EACH] Determine each of the following derivatives or antiderivatives,
and simplify your answers as much as possible. If the derivative or antiderivative
does not exist, write “DOES NOT EXIST”.
d x2 + 3x
 
(a) =
dx x

ANSWER ONLY

d −3t

(b) t =
dt

ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3127

d
(c) (sinh(ln s) − ln(sinh s)) =
ds

ANSWER ONLY

d
2y · | − y| + 3 · |y|4 =


(d) At the point y = −1,
dy

ANSWER ONLY

(e) A function f such that f ′′ (θ) = cos θ − sin θ, f (0) = 4, f ′ (π) = −3.

ANSWER ONLY

3. BRIEF SOLUTIONS

(a) [5 MARKS] Find all points — if any — on the graph of the function
f (x) = 2 sin x + sin2 x (−π ≤ x ≤ π)
at which the tangent line is horizontal.

ANSWER ONLY

(b) [5 MARKS] Determine values of the constants a and b that will make the
following function continuous at x = 24.
 √
 49 − x if x < 24
f (x) = a−b if x = 24
b(x − 19) if x > 24

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3128

ANSWER ONLY

(c) [5 MARKS] Determine the domain of the function

sin(arcsin x) − arcsin(sin x) .

ANSWER ONLY

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [6 MARKS] You are given that y = y(x) is a function of x satisfying

2x3 − 3xy 4 + 5xy − 10 = 0 .

Express the value of y ′(x) in terms of x and y.

(b) [9 MARKS] Suppose the lengths of the sides of a triangle are a, b and c. Define
s = 21 (a + b + c). Heron’s formula for the area T of the triangle is
p
T = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) .

If the lengths of the sides are all increasing at the rate of 1 cm/min, determine
— using logarithmic differentiation or otherwise — the rate of change of the
ds
area, T , when a=3 cm, b=4 cm, c= 5 cm. (Hint: First find .)
dt

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [4 MARKS] Prove that the function x3 + 9x2 + 33x assumes the value −8 at
least once.
(b) [8 MARKS] Using the Mean Value Theorem or Rolle’s Theorem — no other
methods will be accepted — prove carefully that x3 + 9x2 + 33x takes on the
value −8 at most once.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3129

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[10 MARKS] Determine all points on the curve y = 1 − 40x3 + 3x5 at which the
slope of the tangent line has a local maximum, and all points where the slope of
the tangent line has a local minimum. Then discuss whether the slope has global
maxima and global minima.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

1
Let f (x) = e− x .

(a) [1 MARKS] State the domain of f .

(b) [4 MARKS] Find the intervals of increase and the intervals of decrease of f .
(c) [4 MARKS] Determine the intervals of concavity upwards and the intervals of
concavity downwards, and the inflection points, if any.
(d) [3 MARKS] Sketch the graph of y = f (x), showing — clearly labelled — all
horizontal and all vertical asymptotes.

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[6 MARKS] Let f (x) = 5x − 8. Given a real number ǫ > 0, find a real number δ
— depending on ǫ — such that |f (x) − 7| < ǫ whenever 0 < |x − 3| < δ.

G.18 December, 2005, Final Examination in MATH 140 2005

09 (one version)
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:

• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!

• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.

“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3130

1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Give the numeric value of each of the following limits if it exists;
if the limit is +∞ or −∞, write +∞ or −∞ respectively. In all other cases write
“NO FINITE OR INFINITE LIMIT”.
p 
(a) lim y2 + y + y =
y→−∞

ANSWER ONLY

(b) lim e−x sinh x =

x→∞

ANSWER ONLY

√ √
x + 8 + 2x
(c) lim =
x→8 x2 + 8x

ANSWER ONLY

 
1 1
(d) lim + =
x→1 1 − x ln x

ANSWER ONLY

sin ex
(e) lim =
x→∞ cos ex

ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3131

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Evaluate each of the following, and simplify your answers as
much as possible.
d x2 + 3x
 
(a) =
dx x

ANSWER ONLY

d u
(b) (u ) =
du

ANSWER ONLY

(c) An antiderivative F (x) of f (x) = 5x4 + 2x5 such that F (0) = 3 is

ANSWER ONLY

(d) If f (x) = x3 + 7, its inverse function f −1 (x) =

ANSWER ONLY

d
|x|4 =


(e)
dx

ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3132

3. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [6 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine values of the constants a and
b that will make the following function continuous everywhere.
 1


 (1 + x) x if x > 0
f (x) = a + bx if −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
 sin(x + 1)

 if x < −1
x+1

(b) [4 MARKS] Determine whether f is differentiable at x = −1. (For the purpose

of this question you may assume that e is approximately 2.72.)

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[5 MARKS] Let f (x) = x2 ex . Prove carefully by mathematical induction that

dn f 2

x
(x) = x + 2nx + (n − 1)n ·e
dxn
for all positive integers n.

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[5 MARKS] Let g(x) = 2x − 3 + cos x. Use Rolle’s Theorem or the Mean Value
Theorem, to prove carefully that there exists exactly one real number x such that
g(x) = 0. (π may be taken to be approximately 3.14.)

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[10 MARKS] A rectangular poster is to be printed on a rectangular board of min-
imum area, leaving margins at the 4 sides. The top and bottom margins are each
10 cm, and the side margins are each 4 cm. If the printed area on the poster is
fixed at 1,000 cm2 , find the best dimensions for the board. Show all of your work,
and justify all of your statements. In your solution, you are expected to carefully
apply either the First or the Second Derivative Test, naming the test as you apply
it.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

√
Let f (x) = x2 − 1 .

(a) [1 MARK] State the domain of f .

(b) [1 MARK] State precisely where f is differentiable.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3133

(c) [2 MARKS] Define when a line x = a is a vertical asymptote to the graph of

f.
(d) [2 MARKS] Either
i. Find all vertical asymptotes; or
ii. Explain why the graph has no vertical asymptotes.
(e) [2 MARKS] Determine the global maximum value of f , or explain why there
is none.
(f) [2 MARKS] Determine the global minimum value of f , or explain why there
is none.

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

A function f (t) satisfies, for all real numbers t, the equation

t3 + f (t)3 + 6t2 · f (t) = 8 .

(a) [5 MARKS] Find an equation for the tangent to the graph y = f (t) at the
point (t, y) = (2, 0).
(b) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the value of f ′′ (2).

G.19 May, 2006, Supplemental/Deferred Examination in MATH

140 2005 09
Students were advised that there were two kinds of problems on this examination, each
clearly marked as to its type:

• “Some of the questions on this paper require that you SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!
Their solutions are to be written in the space provided on the page where the
question is printed. When that space is exhausted, you may write on the facing
page. Any solution may be continued on the last pages, or the back cover of the
booklet, but you must indicate any continuation clearly on the page where the
question is printed!

• “Some of the questions on this paper require only BRIEF SOLUTIONS ; for these
you are expected to write the correct answer in the box provided; you are not asked
to show your work, and you should not expect partial marks for solutions that are
not completely correct.

“You are expected to simplify your answers wherever possible.”

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3134

1. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Give the value of each of the following limits if it exists; if the
limit is +∞ or −∞, write +∞ or −∞ respectively. In all other cases write “NO
FINITE OR INFINITE LIMIT”.
sin e−x
(a) lim =
x→∞ cos e−x

ANSWER ONLY

p p 
(b) If a and b are real numbers, lim y 2 + ay − y 2 − by =
y→∞

ANSWER ONLY

e−x cosh x =


(c) lim
x→−∞

ANSWER ONLY

sin x + sin π6
(d) limπ =
x→ 6 x + π6

ANSWER ONLY

x3
(e) lim+ =
x→0 x − sin x

ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3135

2. BRIEF SOLUTIONS
[2 MARKS EACH] Evaluate each of the following, and simplify your answers as
much as possible.
(a) An antiderivative G(x) of g(x) = ex + 4x − 1 such that G(0) = 5 is

ANSWER ONLY

 
d y(cos 2y)
(b) =
dy cos2 y − sin2 y

ANSWER ONLY

d
x−x =


(c)
dx

ANSWER ONLY

d
(d) (x arctan(4x)) =
dx

ANSWER ONLY

(e) If A(t) = ln (t3 + 7), its inverse function A−1 (t) =

ANSWER ONLY
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3136

3. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

(a) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine all values of the constants a
and b that will make the following function continuous everywhere.

x(2a − x) if x ≤ 0
f (x) =
x(x2 − 6x + 12) + b if x > 0

(b) [5 MARKS] By examining one-sided limits, determine all values of the con-
stants a and b that will make f differentiable at x = 0.

4. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[5 MARKS] Two sides of a triangle are 3 m. and 4 m. in length, and the angle
between them is increasing at the rate of 1 degree/second. Find the rate at which
the area of the triangle is increasing when the angle between the sides of fixed
π
length is . [Remember that the area of the triangle is one-half the product of the
3
lengths of the base and the altitude (or height).]

5. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[5 MARKS] Use Rolle’s Theorem or the Mean Value Theorem, to prove carefully
that there exists no function f such that f (1) = 5, f (4) = 14, and f ′ (x) ≤ 2 for
−3 ≤ x ≤ 8.

6. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

[10 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the points on the curve y = −3x5 +
40x3 − 1 where the tangent line has the largest positive slope. In your solution,
you are expected to carefully apply either the First or the Second Derivative Test,
naming the test as you apply it.

7. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

√
Let f (x) = x x2 − 1 .

(a) [1 MARK] State the domain of f .

(b) [1 MARK] State precisely where f is differentiable.
(c) [4 MARKS] Investigate whether the graph of f has horizontal and/or vertical
asymptotes, and determine them all, if there are any.
(d) [4 MARKS] Investigate whether the graph of f has global extremum points,
and determine them all, if there are any.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 3137

8. SHOW ALL YOUR WORK!

A function y = f (x) satisfies, for all real numbers x, the equation

ey + xy = e .

(a) [5 MARKS] Find an equation for the tangent to the graph y = f (x) at the
point (x, y) = (0, 1).
(b) [5 MARKS] Showing all your work, determine the value of f ′′ (0).
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4001

H WeBWorK
H.1 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
H.1.1 Where is WeBWorK?
WeBWorK is located on Web servers of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
and is accessible at the following URL’s:

http://msr04.math.mcgill.ca/webwork/m140f06
or
http://msr05.math.mcgill.ca/webwork/m140f06

If your student number ends with an odd digit — 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9 — you should access
the URL

http://msr05.math.mcgill.ca/webwork/m140f06;

if your student number ends with an even digit — 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 — you should access

http://msr04.math.mcgill.ca/webwork/m140f06.

If you access WeBWorK through WebCT, the link on your page will have been pro-
grammed to take you to the correct WeBWorK server automatically.

H.1.2 Do I need a password to use WeBWorK?

You will need a user code and a password.

Your user code. Your user code will be your 9-digit student number.

Your password. The WeBWorK system is administered by the Mathematics and

Statistics Department, and is not accessible through the myMcGill Portal; your initial
password will be different from your MINERVA password, but you could change it to
that if you wish. Your initial password will be your 9-digit student ID number. You will
be able to change this password after you sign on to WeBWorK.103
103
If you forget your password you will have to send a message to Professor Brown so that the system
administrator may be instructed to reset the password at its initial value.

UPDATED TO December 1, 2006

Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4002

Your e-mail address. The WeBWorK system requires each user to have an e-mail
address. After signing on to WeBWorK, you should verify that the e-mail address
shown is the one that you prefer. You should endeavour to keep your e-mail address up
to date, since the instructors may send messages to the entire class through this route.
We suggest that you use either your UEA104 or your po-box address. You may be able
to forward your mail from these addresses to another convenient address, (cf. §1.8.1.)

H.1.3 Do I have to pay an additional fee to use WeBWorK?

WeBWorK is available to all students registered in the course at no additional charge.

H.1.4 When will assignments be available on WeBWorK?

Each assignment will have a begin date and a due date. The assignment is available to
you after the begin date; solutions will be made available soon after the due date.

H.1.5 Do WeBWorK assignments cover the full range of problems that I

should be able to solve in this course?
The questions on the WeBWorK assignments (A1 through A7 ) are a sampling of some
types of problem you should be able to solve after successfully completing this course.
Some types of calculus problems do not lend themselves to this kind of treatment, and
may not appear on the WeBWorK assignments. Use of WeBWorK does not re-
place studying the textbook — including the worked examples, attending
lectures and tutorials, and working exercises from the textbook — using the
Student Solutions Manual [3] to check your work. Students are cautioned not
to draw conclusions from the presence, absence, or relative frequencies of problems of
particular types, or from particular sections of the textbook. Certain sections of the
textbook remain examination material even though no problems are included in the
WeBWorK assignments.

H.1.6 May I assume that the distribution of topics on quizzes and final
examinations will parallel the distribution of topics in the WeBWorK
assignments?
No! While the order of topics on WeBWorK assignments should conform to the order
of the lectures, there are some topics on the syllabus that will not appear in WeBWorK
questions. Use WeBWorK for the areas it covers, and supplement it by working prob-
lems from your textbook. Also, remember that WeBWorK — which checks answer
104
Uniform E-mail Address
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4003

only — cannot ascertain whether you are using a correct method for solving problems.
But, if you write out a solution to an odd-numbered textbook problem, you can compare
it with the solution in the Solutions Manual; and, if in doubt, you can show your work
to a Teaching Assistant at one of the many office hours that they hold through the week.

H.1.7 WeBWorK provides for different kinds of “Display Mode”. Which

should I use?
“Display mode” is the mode that you enter when you first view a problem; and, later,
when you submit your answer. You may wish to experiment with the different formats.
The default is images mode, which should look similar to the version that you print
out (cf. next question). The lowest quality is text mode, which is essentially the way
the author of the problem entered his data into the system; this mode is related to
the TEX and LATEX systems that mathematicians use in typesetting their documents;
the notes that you are reading here were prepared using LATEX; it contains formatting
instructions in a “markup” language, and is difficult for inexperienced readers. The
mode called jsMath requires the presence of certain TEX fonts on your computer, and
should be avoided unless you are using your own computer, and are prepared to follow
the instructions to install the new fonts. This requires a major investment of time, and
is not recommended unless there are other reasons why you need to work with TEX or
LATEX.

H.1.8 WeBWorK provides for printing assignments in “Portable Document

Format” (.pdf), “PostScript” (.ps) forms. Which should I use?
Most newer home computers have already been loaded with the Acrobat Reader for .pdf
files; if the Reader has not been installed on your computer105 , you will find instructions
for downloading this (free) software in §1.5.5 of these notes. If you are not happy with
.pdf files, and wish to print and view PostScript files, you may require such (free) software
as Ghostscript and Ghostview, available at
http://www.cs.wisc.edu/∼ghost/gsview/index.html
Most computers available to you on campus should be capable of printing in either
of .pdf and PostScript formats.

H.1.9 What is the relation between WeBWorK and WebCT?

There is none. WebCT is the proprietary system of Web Course Tools that has been
implemented by McGill University. You may access the web page for this course, and
105
At the time these notes were written, the latest version of the Reader was 7.0.8, but recent, earlier
versions should also work properly.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4004

WeBWorK through your WebCT account106 , and WebCT will link you to the appropri-
ate server for WeBWorK. If you follow this route to WeBWorK, you will still have to
log in when you reach the WeBWorK site. At the present time we will be using WebCT
primarily for the posting of grades, and as a convenient repository for links to notes and
announcements in the course. We are not planning to use the potential WebCT sites
that exist for the tutorial sections: use only the site for the lecture section in which you
are registered.

H.1.10 Which browser should I use for WeBWorK?

We recommend that you use Internet Explorer, Netscape, or Mozilla. While other
browsers may give satisfactory results, your instructors and tutors do not have time
to correct errors in your WeBWorK records that could be attributed to idiosyncracies
in another browser. Information about browsers supported by WebCT may be obtained
at

http://www.mcgill.ca/webct/

H.1.11 What do I have to do on WeBWorK?

After you sign on to WeBWorK, and click on “Begin Problem Sets”, you will see a
list of Assignments, each with a due date. Since there is no limit to the number of
attempts at problems on P0 or the other “Practice” assignments, you may play with
these assignments to learn how to use the WeBWorK software.
You may print out a copy of your assignment by clicking on “Get hard copy”. This is
your version of the assignment, and it will differ from the assignments of other students
in the course. You should spend some time working on the assignment away from the
computer. When you are ready to submit your solutions, sign on again, and select the
same assignment. This time click on “Do problem set”. You can expect to become more
comfortable with the system as you attempt several problems; but, in the beginning,
there are likely to be situations where you cannot understand what the system finds
wrong with some of your answers. It is useful to click on the Preview Answers button to
see how the system interprets an answer that you have typed in. As the problems may
become more difficult, you may have to refer to the “Help” page, and also to the “List
of functions” which appears on the page listing the problems. Don’t submit an answer
until you are happy with the interpretation that the Preview Answers button shows that
the system will be taking of your answer.
106
http://webct.mcgill.ca
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4005

H.1.12 How can I learn how to use WeBWorK?

As soon as your instructor announces that the WeBWorK accounts are ready, sign on
and try assignment P0 , which does not count. The system is self-instructive, so we will
not burden you with a long list of instructions.

You will need to learn how to enter algebraic expressions into WeBWorK as it is coded
to read what you type in a way that may different from what you expect. For example,
the symbol ^ is used for writing exponents (powers). If you type 2^3, WeBWorK will
interpret this as 23 = 8. However, if you type 2^3+x, WeBWorKwill interpret it as
23 + x, i.e. as 8 + x; if you wish to write 23+x , you have to type 2^(3+x). You may obtain
more information from the List of Available Functions, available online, or at

http://webwork.math.rochester.edu/webwork_system_html
/docs/docs/pglanguage/availablefunctions.html

H.1.13 Where should I go if I have difficulties with WeBWorK ?

If you have difficulties signing on to WeBWorK, or with the viewing or printing func-
tions on WeBWorK, or with the specific problems on your version of an assignment,
you may send an e-mail distress message directly from WeBWorK by clicking on the
Feedback button. You may also report the problem to your instructor and/or your
tutor, but the fastest way of resolving your difficulty is usually the Feedback . Please
give as much information as you can. (All of the instructors and tutors are able to view
from within WeBWorK the answers that you have submitted to questions.)
If your problem is mathematical, and you need help in solving a problem, you should
consult one of the tutors at their office hours; you may go to any tutor’s office hours, not
only to the hours of the tutor of the section in which you are registered.

H.1.14 Can the WeBWorK system ever break down or degrade?

Like all computer systems, WeBWorK can experience technical problems. The systems
manager is continually monitoring its performance. If you experience a difficulty when
online, please click on the Feedback button and report it. If that option is not available
to you, please communicate with either instructor by e-mail.
If you leave your WeBWorK assignment until the hours close to the due time on
the due date, you should not be surprised if the system is slow to respond. This is
not a malfunction, but is simply a reflection of the fact that other students have also
been procrastinating! To benefit from the speed that the system can deliver under normal
conditions, do not delay your WeBWorK until the last possible day! If a systems failure
interferes with the due date of an assignment, arrangements could be made to change that
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 4006

date, and an e-mail message could be broadcast to all users (to the e-mail addresses on
record), or a message could be posted on WeBCT or the WeBWorK sign-on screen.107

H.1.15 How many attempts may I make to solve a particular problem on

WeBWorK?
Practice Assignments P1 — P7 are intended to prepare you for Assignments A1 — A7 ,
and permit unlimited numbers of attempts; your grades on these “Practice” do not
count in your term mark. For the problems on assignments A1 — A7 you will normally
be permitted about 5 tries: read the instructions at the head of the assignment.

H.1.16 Will all WeBWorK assignments have the same length? the same
value?
The numbers of problems on the various assignments may not be the same, and the
individual problems may vary in difficulty. Assignments A1 — A7 will count equally in
the computation of your grade.

H.1.17 Is WeBWorK a good indicator of examination performance?

A low grade on WeBWorK has often been followed by a low grade on the examination.
A high grade on WeBWorK does not necessarily indicate a likely high grade on the
examination.
To summarize: WeBWorK alone is not enough to prepare this course; but students
who don’t do WeBWorK appear to have a poor likelihood of success in MATH 140:
that is one reason why we have made the WeBWorK assignments compulsory.

107
But slowness of the system just before the due time will not normally be considered a systems
failure.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 5001

I Contents of the DVD disks for

Larson/Hostetler/Edwards
These excellent disks were produced to accompany the textbook, Calculus of a Single
Variable: Early Transcendental Functions, 3rd Edition[22] (called LHE in the charts be-
low). The correspondence shown to sections of [11] are only approximate. (NOTE THAT
THIS BOOK DOES NOT FOLLOW STEWART’S CONVENTIONS FOR INVERSE
SECANT/COSECANT!)

DVD LHE Stewart

# Section Subject Minutes Section
1 P Chapter P: Preparation for Calculus
1 P.1 Graphs and Models 45
1 P.2 Linear Models and Rates of Change 27 A10
1 P.3 Functions and Their Graphs 48 1.1
1 P.4 Fitting Models to Data 21 1.2
1 P.5 Inverse Functions 48 1.6
1 P.6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 30 1.5
DVD LHE Stewart
# Section Subject Minutes Section
1 1 Chapter 1: Limits and Their Properties
1 1.1 A Preview of Calculus 11 2.1
1 1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numeri- 25 2.2, 2.4
cally
1 1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 28 2.3
1 1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 22 2.5
1 1.5 Infinite Limits 18 2.6
DVD LHE Stewart
# Section Subject Minutes Section
1 2 Chapter 2: Differentiation
1 2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Prob- 68 2.1
lem
1 2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of 34 2.3
Change
1 2.3 The Product and Quotient Rules and 25 3.2, 3.7
Higher Order Derivatives
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 5002

DVD LHE Stewart

# Section Subject Minutes Section
2 2 Chapter 2 (continued): Differentiation
2 2.4 The Chain Rule 44 3.5
2 2.5 Implicit Differentiation 50 3.6
2 2.6 Derivatives of Inverse Functions 17 3.5, 3.8, 3.9
2 2.7 Related Rates 34 3.10
2 2.8 Newton’s Method 26 4.9
DVD LHE Stewart
# Section Subject Minutes Section
2 3 Chapter 3: Applications of Differentiation
2 3.1 Extrema on an Interval 41 4.1
2 3.2 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value The- 15 4.2
orem
2 3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and 19 4.3
the First Derivative Test
2 3.4 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test 24 4.3
2 3.5 Limits at Infinity 23 2.6
2 3.6 A Summary of Curve Sketching 43 4.5
2 3.7 Optimization Problems 37 4.7
2 3.8 Differentials 51 3.11
DVD LHE Stewart
# Section Subject Minutes Section
3 4 Chapter 4: Integration
3 4.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 40 4.10
DVD LHE Stewart
# Section Subject Minutes Section
4 7 Chapter 7: Integration by Parts Trigono-
metric Substitution Partial Fractions
L’Hôpital’s Rule
4 7.7 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule 22 4.4

(The coverage extends to part of the material for Math 141 as well.)
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 6001

J References

J.1 Stewart Calculus Series

[1] J. Stewart, Single Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thom-
son * Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-534-39330-6.
[2] J. Stewart, Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thomson *
Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-534-39321-7.
[3] D. Anderson, J. A. Cole, D. Drucker, Student Solutions Manual for Stewart’s Single
Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thomson * Brooks/Cole
(2003). ISBN 0-534-39333-0.
[4] J. Stewart, Single Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thom-
son * Brooks/Cole (2003); bundled with Student Solutions Manual for Stew-
art’s Single Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thomson
* Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-17-6425411.
[5] J. Stewart, Single Variable Essential Calculus (Early Transcendentals). Thomson
* Brooks/Cole (2006). Thomson * Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-495-10957-6.
[6] J. Stewart, Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thomson *
Brooks/Cole (2003); bundled with Student Solutions Manual for Stewart’s Single
Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition. Thomson * Brooks/Cole
(2003). ISBN 0-534-10307-3.
[7] R. St. Andre, Study Guide for Stewart’s Single Variable Calculus (Early Transcen-
dentals), Fifth Edition. Thomson * Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-534-39331-4.
[8] Video Outline for Stewart’s Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fifth Edition.
Thomson * Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-534-39325-X. 17 VCR tapes.
[9] Interactive Video Skillbuilder CD for Stewart’s Calculus: Early Transcendentals,
5th Edition. Thomson * Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-534-39326-8.
[10] H. Keynes, J. Stewart, D. Clegg, Tools for Enriching Calculus, CD to accompany
[1] and [2]. Thomson * Brooks/Cole (2003). ISBN 0-534-39731-X.
[11] J. Stewart, Single Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fourth Edition.
Brooks/Cole (1999). ISBN 0-534-35563-3.
[12] J. Stewart, Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fourth Edition. Brooks/Cole (1999).
ISBN 0-534-36298-2.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 6002

[13] D. Anderson, J. A. Cole, D. Drucker, Student Solutions Manual for Stewart’s

Single Variable Calculus (Early Transcendentals), Fourth Edition. Brooks/Cole
(1999). ISBN 0-534-36301-6.

[14] J. Stewart, L. Redlin, S. Watson, Precalculus: Mathematics for Calculus, Fifth

Edition. Thomson * Brooks/Cole. (2006). ISBN: 0-534-49277-0.

[15] J. Stewart, Trigonometry for Calculus. Thomson * Brooks/Cole. ISBN: 0-17-

641227-1.

J.2 Other Calculus Textbooks

J.2.1 R. A. Adams

[16] R. A. Adams, Calculus, Single Variable, Fifth Edition. Addison, Wesley, Longman,
Toronto (2003). ISBN 0-201-79805-0.

[17] R. A. Adams, Calculus of Several Variables, Fifth Edition. Addison, Wesley, Long-
man, Toronto (2003). ISBN 0-201-79802-6.

[18] R. A. Adams, Calculus: A Complete Course, Fifth Edition. Addison, Wesley, Long-
man, Toronto (2003). ISBN 0-201-79131-5.

[19] R. A. Adams, Student Solution Manual for Adams’, Calculus: A Complete Course,
Fifth Edition. Addison, Wesley, Longman, Toronto (2003). ISBN 0-201-79803-4.

[20] R. A. Adams, Calculus: A Complete Course, with Solution Manual, Fifth Edition.
Addison, Wesley, Longman, Toronto (2003). ISBN 0-131-30565-4.

[21] R. A. Adams, Calculus: A Complete Course Manual, Sixth Edition. Addison,

Wesley, Longman, Toronto (2006). ISBN 0-321-27000-2.

J.2.2 Larson, Hostetler, et al.

[22] Calculus Instructional DVD Program, for use with (inter alia) Lar-
son/Hostetler/Edwards, Calculus of a Single Variable: Early Transcendental Func-
tions, Third Edition [23]. Houghton Mifflin (2003). ISBN 0-618-25097-2.

[23] R. Larson, R. P. Hostetler, B. H. Edwards, D. E. Heyd, Calculus, Early Transcen-

dental Functions, Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston (2003). ISBN
0-618-22307-X.
Information for Students in MATH 140 2006 09 6003

J.2.3 Edwards and Penney

[24] C. H. Edwards, Jr., and D. E. Penney, Single Variable Calculus, Early Transcen-
dentals, Sixth Edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (2002). ISBN 0-13-
041407-7.

[25] C. H. Edwards, Jr., and D. E. Penney, Calculus with Analytic Geometry, Early
Transcendentals Version, Fifth Edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1997).
ISBN 0-13-793076-3.

[26] C. H. Edwards, Jr., and D. E. Penney, Student Solutions Manual for Calculus with
Analytic Geometry, Early Transcendentals Version, Fifth Edition. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1997). ISBN 0-13-079875-4.

[27] C. H. Edwards, Jr., and D. E. Penney, Single Variable Calculus with Analytic
Geometry, Early Transcendentals Version, Fifth Edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ (1997). ISBN 0-13-793092-5.

[28] C. H. Edwards, Jr., and D. E. Penney, Student Solutions Manual for Single Variable
Calculus with Analytic Geometry, Early Transcendentals Version, Fifth Edition.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1997). ISBN 0-13-095247-1.

J.2.4 Others, not “Early Transcendentals”

[29] G. H. Hardy, A Course of Pure Mathematics, 10th edition. Cambridge University

Press (1967).

[30] H. S. Hall, S. R. Knight, Elementary Trigonometry, Fourth Edition. Macmillan

and Company, London (1905).

[31] S. L. Salas, E. Hille, G. J. Etgen, Calculus, One and Several Variables, 9th Edition.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2003). ISBN 0471-23120-7.

J.3 Other References

[32] D. Ebersole, D. Schattschneider, A. Sevilla, K. Somers, A Companion to Calculus.
Brooks/Cole (1995). ISBN 0-534-26592-8.

[33] McGill Undergraduate Programs Calendar 2006/2007. Also accessible at

http://www.coursecalendar.mcgill.ca/ugcal2006-07