INDIA AT THE TIME OF THE BUDDHA:

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL BACKGROUNDS

Subject: History of Indian Buddhism

Instructor : Prof. Kapila Abhayawansa
Assistant Instructor : Sis. Chiew Suan Bee ([email protected])

Mahendradatta Jayadi
74 Hillside Street, Springvale 3171, Australia
[email protected]

International Buddhist College, Thailand

October 2011
Introduction
Buddhists around the world learn and recite sutra (Pali: sutta) as a means of recollecting the
doctrines taught by the Buddha. However, many Buddhists have little understanding of what
had happened in India when the Buddha taught his doctrines. Most of the Dharma (Buddha’s
teaching) put emphasis on the outcomes of the hearers that they will improve their life
afterward. The social condition and its historical background of the sutras have rarely been
explained in the detail. This essay will provide comprehensive notes by analysing the social
conditions in India at the time of the Buddha. The social conditions will cover its
geographical condition, economic and political factors, sociological and philosophical
environment. The phrase of “At the time of the Buddha” or “Buddha’s time” will refer to the
period from 563 BCE to 483 BCE or roughly around fifth to fourth century BCE.

Geographical and Political Backgrounds

In the sixth century BCE India was divided into a large number of independent states known
as janapadas or mahajanapadas. The Anguttara Nikaya, one of the early Pali canonical texts,
mentions sixteen (16) states of considerable extent and power known as the “Solasa
Mahajanapadas” (Hazra, 1995). These states were tribal states and did not indicate real
geographical states1. From these states, four were becoming very powerful at the time of the
Buddha, there were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Rhys Davids (1987) described these
states in details:

1) The kingdom of Magadha with its capital at Rajagaha (Sanskrit Rajagrha) (afterwards at
Pataliputta) reigned over by King Bimbisara and afterwards by his son Ajatasattu. It is
said that at the time of the Buddha, the kingdom had 80,000 villages and 300 leagues
(about 2,300 miles) in circumference.

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The sixteen states were: Anga (east Bihar), Magadha (south Bihar), Kasi (Varanasi), Kosala (Oudh), Vajji
(Vriji) (north Bihar), Malla (Gorakhpur district), Ceti (Cedi) (between the Jumna and the Narmada), Vamsa
(Vatsa) (Allahabad region), Kuru (Thaneswara, Delhi and Meerut districts), Pancala (Bareilly, Badaun and
Farukkhabad districts), Maccha (Matsya) (Jaipur), Surasena (Mathura), Assaka (Asmaka), Avanti (in Malwa),
Gandhara (Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts) and Kamboja (south-west Kashmir and parts of Kafiristan) (Rhys
Davids, 1987; Hazra, 1995).
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2) The kingdom of Kosala with its capital at Savatthi reigned over by King Pasenadi and
followed by his son Vidudabha.

3) The kingdom of the Vamsas or Vatsas with its capital at Kosambi on the Jumna reigned
over by King Udena, the son of Parantapa.

4) The kingdom of Avanti with its capital Ujjeni reigned over by King Pajjota.

The struggle of Kosala and Magadha was the leading point in the politics at the Buddha’s
time.

Caste System (varna dharma)

At the Buddha’s time Indian society were influenced by later Vedic civilisation. They
recognised the concept of caste and four stages of life. The concept of caste or stratified
society arose in the later Vedic society, i.e. circa 1000 to 500 BCE. Gombrich (1988)
provided the explanation of stratified society2. The idea of caste came from the last book of
Rg Veda, a famous hymn called Purusa-sukta ("Hymn of the Cosmic Man"). A huge male
figure is compared and assimilated to universe, which he both pervades and transcends.
Verse 12 of this hymn runs: 'His mouth was the brahmin, arms were made the royal
(kshatriya), his two thighs that which is the vaisya, from his feet was born the sudra'.

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The Buddha lived in Vedic civilisation. The word veda means knowledge' and refers in this case to sacred
knowledge, knowledge about ultimate matters. In fact the Sanskrit term for Vedic literature is sruti, what has
been 'heard' (by inspired sages). Ultimately they are not composed, by gods or men, but exist eternally, whether
anyone is aware of them or not. Sruti is eternally true and infallible; it tells men what to do. Brahmins are the
class of men whose duty and function it is to preserve sruti. The whole brahminical ideology and society is
based on this fact. Brahmins are a hereditary class. Since it is prerogrative of brahmins to learn and to interpret
it, all authority (on ultimate matters) rests with them. The Vedic texts are our only evidence for the religious life
of the period.

In early India the measure of orthodoxy was whether one accepted sruti and whether one accepted the authority
(in ideological matters) of brahmins. However, heterodox thinkers like the Buddha were rejecting both the
Vedas as the depository of final truth and the position of brahmins as arbiters of truth.

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Indian society was divided into four classes, called varnas (means colours). At the top were
there were two classes: the priestly class (brahmana) composed of those who sacrificed to the
gods, and the ruling caste (rajanya or ksatriya), composed of rulers and warriors. Vaisya is
known as 'ordinary free people'. The function of the vaisya is fertility, economic production,
symbolised presumably by the loans. The function of the sudra is classically defined as
serving the other three classes.

The Vedic brahmins possessed authority on Vedas, performed sacrificial rites and earned for
this ritual service. They did not like change and tried to maintain its status quo (Hirakawa,
1990; Gombrich, 1988). Caste systems created the barriers amongst the classes. Inter-class
marriage was prohibited. Water and food resources were restricted. No lower class could use
upper class water resources such as wells.

Under the brahmin religion, the position of women was not so far behind that of sudras.
Women were treated lower than men. They were confined only to household activities. There
was no religious activity of any kind prescribed by the religion for the women. In Buddhism,
women gained equal status as men did. They could live as nuns or householders.

Bapat (1956) showed that Vedic literature is replete with references to many problems
unconnected with the present life, or to problems relating to the origin of the world, its
constituents, the next world and imaginary happiness as contrasted with the misery of the
present life. However, Buddhist teaching is more practical and provides guides to daily life.

Four stages of life (catur asrama)

Indian society believed that people life was divided into four stages (asramas) and later it
was regarded as part of the foundation of orthodox society, ie. studentship (brahmacari),
married life (grhasta), retirement (wanaprastha) and renunciation (sanyasin or bhiksuka).
The catur asramas applied to most people in India regardless their castes. This concept was
not mentioned in the Veda and in the Aryan tradition (Warder, 2000). Catur asramas were
different from catur varnas (caste systems) since the former did not regulate on how people
worked and interacted with others but it emphasised on how people fulfilled their lifetime in
the world.

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Sramana movements
At the time of the Buddha, there were two primary classes of religious practitioners in India:
the brahmanas and the sramanas. The former were followers of Vedic religion who
officiated at sacrifices. The latter or “person who strives” abandoned his home to lead life of
wandering and begging. During the time of the Buddha, there were different groups of
sramanas representing their own systems of religious or philosophical thinking. Therefore,
unlike the brahmana movement, sramana movement does not necessarily refer to one and the
same religious practice. There were six (6) famous sramanas (excluding Mahavira) who lived
around the time of the Buddha as written in the scriptures and be explained later in this essay.

The Buddha and His Doctrines

Siddhartha (Pali: Siddhattha) was born in the Sakyas, a small ksatriya (warrior caste) tribe
who lived on the border of India and Nepal, with their capital at Kapilavastu. Gautama (Pali:
Gotama) is the clan name of the Buddha. We refer historical Buddha of our time as
Siddhartha Gautama (Pali: Siddhattha Gotama). The Sakyas were primarily engaged in rice
farming. Its society did not appear to have been divided into four castes. Although the Sakya
tribe governed itself, it was not completely independent since it was dominated by Kausala to
the south (Hirakawa, 1990). Since he came from the community called the Sakyas, hence his
commonest Sanskrit title was Sakyamuni, ‘the Sage of the Sakyas’. He modelled the
monastic institution (sangha) on that of such communities as his own, the Sakyas (Gombrich,
1988).

Siddhartha was not satisfied by the ordinary patterns of daily life, or the Vedic legitimisation
thereof. The Vedic brahmins claimed to be the offspring of Brahma (creator god) and thus to
be conduits of supramundane power (Brahman) in the human world. However, later Buddhist
texts described them as greedy, foolish, proud men who hide their fraud behind high-flown
claims to supremacy based upon the ancient names of their clans and caste (Cohen, 2004).

It is believed that Siddhartha encountered with four men while on four sightseeing journeys
outside his father’s palace: old man, sick man, dead man and a wandering mendicant. He left
home against his parents’ will, he left home to seek the good (kusala) (Hirakawa, 1990).

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After practising ascetic life for six years, he realised middle path under Bodhi-tree, then he
became a Buddha, the Enlightened One. He was known as social reformer and criticised the
Vedic priests as evidenced in the Buddhist texts:

• Dhammapada verses 393: “One is not a Brahmin because one wears dreadlocks, or due to
one’s own clan or caste. It is due to truth and dharma that one is pure, and is a brahmin.”

• Kalama Sutta. The Buddha advised Kalama tribe not to accept any teaching merely on a
teacher’s authority, but to work things out for themselves. He was against ritual practice
and beliefs that did not lead to enlightenment (Gombrich, 2002; Walshe, 1995).

• Tevijja Sutta (the threefold knowledge: the way to Brahma). The Buddha sharply
criticised Vedic brahmins who said they knew the path leading to union with Brahma
although they have never been there or seen Brahma by themselves. The Buddha called
them tevijja (having three knowledges Rg, Sama and Yajur Vedas). The Buddha
possessed three knowledges but his knowledges were not texts, he had already
experienced them (Gombrich, 2002; Walshe, 1995).

• Samanna-phala Sutta (the fruits of the homeless life). This discourse articulated a set of
three knowledges (vijja) possessed by the Buddha: knowledge of one’s former lives; of
the rebirths of others; and of the four noble truths and the desctruction of the corruptions
(Gombrich, 2002; Walshe, 1995).

After Siddhartha attained enlightenment, he preached the first sermon “setting in motion the
wheel of the Law” (Dhammacakka-pavattana Sutta) to five ascetics who accompanied him
when he practised severe asceticism. These five ascetics became his first followers and
attained Arahantships in a short time. It is believed that the monastic institution (sangha) was
established after this events.

The Buddha established the new social order called catuparisa meaning that the society
consisted of fourfold assemby, i.e. bhikkhu (monk), bhikkhuni (nun), upasaka (laymen) and
upasika (laywomen). The new social orders were well accepted by Indian society, in contrast
to catur varnas (caste system) became less popular since catuparisa advocated equality of
the people by birth.

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The Buddha preached the Dharma for forty years before he attained supreme liberation called
parinirvana. The main Buddha’s doctrines, now known as Early Buddhism, were well
accepted by Indian people at that time were:

• The Four Noble Truths (catur aryasatya)3.

• The Middle Way (madhyama-pratipad) and The Eightfold Noble Path (Pali ariyo
attangiko maggo)4.
• The doctrine of no-Self (anatman; Pali anatta)5.
• The Dependent Origination (pratityasamutpada)6.
These doctrines have been widely accepted by all Buddhist schools after the Buddha’s
parinirvana.

The Buddha and Contemporary Teachers

Bapat (1956), Hirakawa (1990) and Abhayawansa (2011) gave detailed description of
contemporary teachers who hold different view from the Buddha’s teaching. They were
known as Six Heterodox Teachers (excluding Mahavira).

Mahavira as a champion of Kriyavada. The misery in the world was the result of one's
own acts, and not caused by anything else; release from samsara can be attained by

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Human existence accepts four truths: life is unsatisfactory or suffering (duhkha-aryasatya); human beings have
to understand the cause of suffering (duhkhasamudaya-aryasatya); then they have to eradicate the suffering
(duhkhanirodha-aryasatya); and they have to know the ways that lead to the cessation of suffering
(dukhanirodhagamini pratipad).
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The Middle Way teaches the people to avoid two extremes: self-indulgence and self-mortifications. The
Middle Way will lead the people to the cessation of suffering by practising the Noble Eightfold Path: right
understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right
concentration.
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No human beings has a real, permanent, and substantial Self. Human body and minds are analysed into five
groups or aggregates (skandha; Pali khandha).
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The teaching on dharmas are applied to an individual’s life through the doctrine of the twelve links of
Dependent Origination (dvadasanga pratityasamutpada). These twelve links reveal the basis of human’s
existence, the functioning of rebirth and karma.

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knowledge of the highest truth and by good conduct. Mahavira answered the problems in
terms of his Anekantavada (no single point of view is the complete truth) or Syadvada
(theory of conditioned predication), while Buddha's answer was based on his Paticca-
samuppada. Mahavira was one of the founders of Jainism.

Below were the six (6) famous sramanas at the time of the Buddha who held wrong views.

1. Ajita Kesakambali as a champion of the Akriyavada. He represented materialistic

school of Sramanas. According to him, the universe is composed of the four great
elements namely, earth, water, fire and air. There is no existence of being after his death.
He did not accept the moral causation. There is no sin in killing and there is nothing
wrong in enjoying the pleasures of the world.

2. Sanjaya Belatthiputta or Sanjayin Vairattiputra as a champion of Ajnanavada (also

called as Viksepavadin, or one who did not adhere to any view categorically). He
represented the Agnostic of the Skeptic school of Sramanas. He did not present any
conclusive or decisive answer to any of the speculative doctrines. His doctrine diverted
the mind from the right track. According to Sammannaphala-sutta, he always declined to
give categorical answer to problems facing the human mind. The Buddha’s disciples,
Sariputra and Mahamaudgalyayana, came from this school.

3. Nigantha Nataputta or Nirgrantha Jnatiputra, according to Jaina tradition, was the

last prophet of the present cycle. He preached ethical doctrines, similar to the ideas held
by a senior ascetic, Parsva. They taught: not to kill living things, not to take things unless
they are given, not to tell a lie and not to have worldly possession including a wife.
Mahavira's ideas included the fifth one: not to have worldly possession except clothes.
Parsva and his followers were naked (acelakas) and Mahavira and his followers wore
white garments. In Samannaphala Sutta Nigantha Nataputta is mentioned as having held
the doctrine of fourfold restraint: restraint from the use of cold water as it contains life,
and from sinful activities such as killing and sexual intercourse. He was free from all sins
and had purified himself. However, he believed in a doctrine of transmigrating eternal
soul, which is known as Jiva. His doctrine was karmic determinism that everything
happened were due to the result of the past kammas. Man had to do rigorous ascetic
practices for annihilating of past kammas. The doctrine of non-violence was highly
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 practised in the discipline of Jainas. The Buddha did not recommend self-mortification
(attakilamathanuyoga) as a way for liberation or people who had gone forth.

4. Makkhali Gosala, he belonged to sect of acelakas (naked one), his name indicated
carrying a stuff of bamboo (maskarin). It was believed that he was a disciple of Mahavira
then he broke away and founded a school called Ajivika. This sect is now extinct but
seems to have enjoyed popularity and royal patronage at the time of the Buddha. He
maintained the ideas of strict determinism or fatalism. Man has no free will and effort of
his own. Everything happens in accordance of fate (niyati). He rejected moral causation.
His doctrine was called samsara-visuddhi, human beings would attain purity only by
passing through all kinds of existence. Gosala did not believe that there was any special
cause for the misery of human beings or for their deliverance. All creatures were helpless
against destiny and had to pass through samsara. Gosala was said to have practised
austerities with Mahavira, and apparently believed that he could attain salvation through
those austerities.

5. Purana Kassapa held the doctrine of Akiriyavadi or non-action. A man did not incur sin
through actions even bad actions such as killing, committing theft, adultery or telling a
lie. Moreover, a man did not make merit through a good act. He was against the moral
causation.

6. Pakuda Kaccayana or Kakuda Katyayana. His views referred to in the Suyagada, as

stated in Jaina canon. He presented a doctrine of substance which are considered as the
ultimate constituents of the universe. His doctrine may be called asasvatavada. There are
seven elements which are immutable, not made, not created and self existent, ie. water,
fire, air, pleasure and pain and the life principle. The body is ultimately dissolved into
these seven eternal elements. He did not accept the efficacy of moral causation.

The Buddha propagated the doctrine of moral causation and karma. Ajita Kesakambali,
Makkhali Gosala, Purana Kassapa and Pakuda Kaccayana hold wrong views, they did not
believe in moral causation. Strict and severe ascetic practice shown by Nigantha Nataputta
did not lead to liberation. The Buddha stated that only by practising Middle Way, men
attained liberation.

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Rise of Buddhism: Political and Economical Factors

From 7th to 5th century BCE India had experienced dramatic change in political and economic
needs. The 16 small states were reduced to four within 150 years then the empire of Magadha
consolidated them all during the period of 550-350 BCE. Darian (1977) explored the non-
religious factors contributing to the growth and acceptance of Buddhism in India. He
explained the political and economic needs of expanding bureaucratic empires, and from the
economic and status needs of the merchant class.

The consolidation of small states into greater states created changes from simple to advanced
agrarian societies. These were characterised by the use of iron tools and weapons which led
to accumulation fo greater economic surplus. During this phase, the lower caste vaisya and
sudra played more important roles since they became working class to support the economic
needs of growing empires. During this period the new mercantile class emerged. These
merchant class did not favour the stratified society (caste systems) because they had to make
contacts with any people in daily life for trade. The caste systems created barriers amongst
the people, inequality and injustice. Upper classes, brahman and kshatriya, owned the greater
portion of land, yet did not pay taxes. This exemption deprived the state of considerable
income. The growing empire required a vast amount of income to run the government.

Brahmanism, with Vedic priests as superior caste, was oriented towards a rural, self-
sufficient, relatively static agricultural society. Instead, Buddhism and Jainism, whose
founders spent considerable time preaching their messages in towns and cities, gained
popularity and many followers. Buddhism experienced significant growth due to the
development of urban institution. Buddhism did not compete for power since the monk
renounced the world while the layman had no claims to spiritual authority. However, the
priestly caste (Vedic brahmin) stressed out its costly sacrifice, discouraged of mercantile
activities and threatened the development of market-type economy. Vedic society with its
caste systems did not accomodate the needs of growing empire. Thus, rulers could find in
Buddhism a powerful solvent to the caste system and a means of reducing the political and
economic power of the traditional ascriptive status groups.

Buddhist text, from fifth century BCE, stated the sense of growing commerce in India at
Buddha’s time. Rajagrha, the capital city of Magadha, had contained 36,000 merchants’
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houses, half of them belonged to Buddhists, the other half to Jains who skilled in banking
activities. Meanwhile, Jataka stories described conditions from about 500 BCE onwards,
depicting considerable overland trade, with large caravans and travelling merchants.

Monastic Life and Buddhist Education

Brahmanical system hold the education called as the gurugrha (the Teacher’s House). The
education took place between individual teacher with his small group of disciples and pupils.
Meanwhile, the tradition of Buddhist system was monastic since it functioned within the
regimen of monastic life. Monasteries were not just a place for meditation but also a seat of
culture and learning. It reflected the process of inner intellectual life of the monasteries. At
the time of Buddha, royal patronage and merchants support were the main sources for
funding the monasteries.

Education under brahmanical system did not favour the expansion of the small school under
individual teacher into a large educational institution, controlled by a collective body of
teachers. However, Buddhist education system enabled to accommodate a large number of
the students into large-scale monastic universities. Throughout the history over a millenium
and a half, people might go the famous buddhist universities like Nalanda, Valabhi,
Vikramasila, Jagaddala and Odantapuri (Bapat, 1956). Records from chinese pilgrims on 4th
to 6th century CE showed that although many student-monks from different sects attended
these universities, they could live harmoniously and no monastic rule breaches were reported
(Hazra, 2011)

The initial Buddhist education systems was known as nissaya meaning ‘dependence on a
teacher’. Lay persons who joined the sangha would have upajjhaya (spiritual guide) and
acarya (regular instructor, at least ten years’ standing). The Buddha’s teaching was imparted
by word of mouth and retained in the memory. The acarya took his small class informally.
The teaching material covered the following: monastic rules (vinaya), holy legends, buddhist
moral fables (Jataka), hymnology and fundamental doctrines. The purpose of the class
teaching was to fix the texts of the Canon in the memory by means of recitation.

In monasteries there were the unrestricted freedom to argue, to dispute and to debate the
buddhist doctrines. Each was expected to think, reason and decide for himself in all matters

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relating to both the Dhamma and the Vinaya. Debates and dialogues had the Buddha’s
teaching flourished and understood. However, some points of controversy that could not be
solved by the sangha might lead to the sectarianism or schisms at later stage.

Conclusions
The need to understand social and political background in India when the Buddha lived and
propagated the Dharma will improve our comprehension on buddhist Suttas (Sanskrit sutras)
India experienced significant social and political conflict with Vedic civilisation when sixteen
tribal states consolidating into four states and becoming one unified empire. Vedic
civilisation with catur varnas society and brahmin sacificial rites did not accommodate the
needs of growing empire. Buddhism emerged as a social reforms with the new social order
called catuparisa. Buddhism removed the communal barriers in the society and promoted
equality and justice by noble acts. The Buddha criticised other contemporary teachers who
held wrong views. The Buddha, as a social reformer, preached its teaching by eradication
wrong and misleading views in the society. In response to brahmanical education systems,
the Buddha established the monastic institution, sangha who could accomodate the large
groups of monks where monks relied on Vinaya and Dhamma as the only guide after the
Buddha’s parinibbana. Therefore, we preserve the Buddha’s teaching by reciting suttas and
by understanding his doctrines with its social background so that we will have right views on
the Triratna (Buddha-Dhamma-Sangha).

References
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Cohen, R. S. (2004). India. In J. R. E. Buswell (Ed.), Encyclopedia Buddhism. New York:
Macmillan Reference USA.
Darian, J. C. (1977). Social and Economic Factors in the Rise of Buddhism. Sociological
Analysis, 38(3), 226-238.
Gombrich, R. F. (1988). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to
Modern Colombo. London: Routledge.4

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Gombrich, R. F. (2002). How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early
Teaching: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
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