UNIT I COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING - Fundamentals of

Computing – Identification of Computational Problems -Algorithms, building blocks of algorithms

(statements, state, control flow, functions), notation (pseudo code, flow chart, programming language),
algorithmic problem solving, simple strategies for developing algorithms (iteration, recursion). Illustrative
problems: find minimum in a list, insert a card in a list of sorted cards, guess an integer number in a
range, Towers of Hanoi.

Computational problem

In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a problem that a computer might be able to
solve or a question that a computer may be able to answer. For example, the problem of factoring

"Given a positive integer n, find a nontrivial prime factor of n."

is a computational problem. A computational problem can be viewed as a set of instances or cases

together with a, possibly empty, set of solutions for every instance/case. For example, in the factoring
problem, the instances are the integers n, and solutions are prime numbers p that describe nontrivial prime
factors of n.

Computational problems are one of the main objects of study in theoretical computer science. The field of
computational complexity theory attempts to determine the amount of resources (computational
complexity) solving a given problem will require and explain why some problems are intractable or
undecidable. Computational problems belong to complexity classes that define broadly the resources (e.g.
time, space/memory, energy, circuit depth) it takes to compute (solve) them with various abstract
machines. For example, the complexity class P for classicalmachines, and BQP for quantum machines.

It is typical of many problems to represent both instances and solutions by binary strings, namely
elements of {0, 1}*.[a] For example, numbers can be represented as binary strings using binary encoding.

Types

A decision problem is a computational problem where the answer for every instance is either yes or no.
An example of a decision problem is primality testing:

"Given a positive integer n, determine if n is prime."

A decision problem is typically represented as the set of all instances for which the answer is yes. For
example, primality testing can be represented as the infinite set

L = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...}

In a search problem, the answers can be arbitrary strings. For example, factoring is a search problem
where the instances are (string representations of) positive integers and the solutions are (string
representations of) collections of primes.

A search problem is represented as a relation consisting of all the instance-solution pairs, called a search
relation. For example, factoring can be represented as the relation

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R = {(4, 2), (6, 2), (6, 3), (8, 2), (9, 3), (10, 2), (10, 5)...}

which consist of all pairs of numbers (n, p), where p is a nontrivial prime factor of n.

A counting problem asks for the number of solutions to a given search problem. For example, a counting
problem associated with factoring is

"Given a positive integer n, count the number of nontrivial prime factors of n."

A counting problem can be represented by a function f from {0, 1}* to the nonnegative integers. For a
search relation R, the counting problem associated to R is the function

fR(x) = |{y: R(x, y) }|.

An optimization problem asks for finding a "best possible" solution among the set of all possible solutions
to a search problem. One example is the maximum independent set problem:

"Given a graph G, find an independent set of G of maximum size."

Optimization problems can be represented by their search relations.

In a function problem a single output (of a total function) is expected for every input, but the output is
more complex than that of a decision problem, that is, it isn't just "yes" or "no". One of the most famous
examples is the traveling salesman problem:

"Given a list of cities and the distances between each pair of cities, find the shortest possible route that
visits each city exactly once and returns to the origin city."

It is an NP-hard problem in combinatorial optimization, important in operations research and theoretical

computer science.

Algorithm

Definition: An algorithm is procedure consisting of a finite set of unambiguous rules (instructions) which
specify a finite sequence of operations that provides the solution to a problem. In other word, an
algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a given problem

Definition: An algorithm is a finite number of clearly described, unambiguous “double” steps that can be
systematically followed to produce a desired result for given input in a finite amount of time.

Building blocks of algorithm

It has been proven that any algorithm can be constructed from just three basic building blocks. These
three building blocks are Sequence, Selection, and Iteration.

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 Building Block Common name

Sequence Action

Selection Decision

Iteration Repetition or Loop

A sequence is one of the basic logic structures in computer programming. In a sequence structure, an
action, or event, leads to the next ordered action in a predetermined order. The sequence can contain any
number of actions, but no actions can be skipped in the sequence. Once running, the program must
perform each action in order without skipping any.

A selection (also called a decision) is also one of the basic logic structures in computer programming. In a
selection structure, a question is asked, and depending on the answer, the program takes one of two
courses of action, after which the program moves on to the next event.

An iteration is a single pass through a group/set of instructions. Most programs often contain loops of
instructions that are executed over and over again. The computer repeatedly executes the loop, iterating
through the loop

E.g.

Write an algorithm to add two numbers entered by user.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read A,B
Step 3: Compute C = A + B
Step 4: Display C
Step 6: Stop

Write an algorithm to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read variables a, b and c.
Step 4: If a>b and a>c
Display a is the largest number.
Else
If b>c
Display b is the largest number.
Else
Display c is the greatest number.
Step 5: Stop

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Write an algorithm to find the factorial of a number entered by user.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: factorial←1
Step 3: i←1
Step 4: Read n
Step 5: Repeat the steps till i=n
5.1: factorial←factorial*i
5.2: i←i+1
Step 6: Display factorial
Step 7: Stop

Statements:
Statement is a single action in a computer.
In a computer statements might include some of the following actions
 Input data-information given to the program
 Process data-perform operation on a given input
 Output data-processed result
State
Transition from one process to another process under specified condition with in a time is called state.
Control flow
The process of executing the individual statements in a given order is called control flow.
The control can be executed in three ways
1.Sequence
2. Selection
3. Iteration

Functions
 Function is a sub program which consists of block of code(set of instructions) that performs a
particular task.
 For complex problems, the problem is been divided into smaller and simpler tasks during algorithm
design.
Benefits of Using Functions
 Reduction in line of code
 code reuse
 Better readability
 Information hiding
 Easy to debug and test
 Improved maintainability

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Example:
Algorithm for addition of two numbers using function
Main function()
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Call the function add()
Step 3: Stop
Sub function add()
Step 1: Function start
Step 2: Get a, b Values
Step 3: compute c=a+b
Step 4: Print c
Step 5: Return

NOTATIONS OF ALGORITHM

 Pseudocode
 Flow Chart
 Programming language

PSEUDO CODE

 Pseudo code consists of short, readable and formally styled English languages used for explain an
algorithm.
 It does not include details like variable declaration, subroutines.
 It is easier to understand for the programmer or non programmer to understand the general
working of the program, because it is not based on any programming language.
 It gives us the sketch of the program before actual coding.
 It is not a machine readable
 Pseudo code can’t be compiled and executed.
 There is no standard syntax for pseudo code.
Guidelines for writing pseudo code:

 Write one statement per line

 Capitalize initial keyword
 Indent to hierarchy
 End multiline structure
 Keep statements language independent

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Common keywords used in pseudocode

The following gives common keywords used in pseudocodes.

1. //: This keyword used to represent a comment.

2. BEGIN,END: Begin is the first statement and end is the last statement.

3. INPUT, GET, READ: The keyword is used to inputting data.

4. COMPUTE, CALCULATE: used for calculation of the result of the given expression. 

5. ADD, SUBTRACT, INITIALIZE used for addition, subtraction and initialization.

6. OUTPUT, PRINT, DISPLAY: It is used to display the output of the program.

7. IF, ELSE, ENDIF: used to make decision.

8. WHILE, ENDWHILE: used for iterative statements.

9. FOR, ENDFOR: Another iterative incremented/decremented tested automatically.

Example: Greates of two numbers          

BEGIN

READ a,b

IF (a>b) THEN

DISPLAY a is greater

ELSE

DISPLAY b is greater

END IF

END

Example: Print n natural numbersusing for

BEGIN

GET n

INITIALIZE i=1

FOR (i<=n) DO

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PRINT i

i=i+1

ENDFOR

END

Example: Print n natural numbers using while

BEGIN

GET n

INITIALIZE i=1

WHILE(i<=n) DO

PRINT i

i=i+1

ENDWHILE

END

Advantages:

 Pseudo is independent of any language; it can be used by most programmers.

 It is easy to translate pseudo code into a programming language.
 It can be easily modified as compared to flowchart.
 Converting a pseudo code to programming language is very easy as compared with converting a
flowchart to programming language.

Disadvantages:
 It does not provide visual representation of the program’s logic.
 There are no accepted standards for writing pseudo codes.
 It cannot be compiled nor executed.
 For a beginner, It is more difficult to follow the logic or write pseudo code ascompared to flowchart.

FLOW CHART

Flow chart is defined as graphical representation of the logic for problem solving.

The purpose of flowchart is making the logic of the program clear in a visual representation.

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Rules for drawing a flowchart

1. The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow.

2. The flowchart must have a logical start and finish.
3. Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

4. Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol. However, two or three flow lines may leave the
decision symbol.

5. Only one flow line is used with a terminal symbol.

6. Within standard symbols, write briefly and precisely.

7. Intersection of flow lines should be avoided.

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Advantages of flowchart:

1.Communication: - Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a system to all concerned.

2.Effective analysis: - With the help of flowchart, problem can be analyzed in more effective way.
3.Proper documentation: - Program flowcharts serve as a good program documentation, which is
needed for various purposes.
4.Efficient Coding: - The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems analysis and program
development phase.
5.Proper Debugging: - The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6.Efficient Program Maintenance: - The maintenance of operating program becomes easy with the help
of flowchart. It helps the programmer to put efforts more efficiently on that part.
 

Disadvantages of flow chart:

1.Complex logic: - Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that case, flowchart becomes
complex and clumsy.

2.Alterations and Modifications: - If alterations are required the flowchart may require re-drawing
completely.
3.Reproduction: - As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of flowchart becomes a
problem.
4.Cost: For large application the time and cost of flowchart drawing becomes costly.

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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

A programming language is a set of symbols and rules for instructing a computer to perform specific
tasks. The programmers have to follow all the specified rules before writing program using programming
language. The user has to communicate with the computer using language which it can understand.

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Types of programming language
1.Machine language
2. Assembly language
3. High level language

Machine language:The computer can understand only machine language which uses 0’s and 1’s. In

machine language the different instructions are formed by taking different combinations of 0’s and 1’s.

Advantages:

Translation free:Machine language is the only language which the computer understands. For executing
any program written in any programming language, the conversion to machine language is necessary. The
program written in machine language can be executed directly on computer. In this case any conversion
process is not required.

High speed: The machine language program is translation free. Since the conversion time is saved, the
execution of machine language program is extremely fast.

Disadvantage:

   It is hard to find errors in a program written in the machine language.

   Writhing program in machine language is a time consuming process.
 
Machine dependent: According to architecture used, the computer differs from each other. So machine
language differs from computer to computer. So a program developed for a particular type of computer
may not run on other type of computer.

Assembly language:

To overcome the issues in programming language and make the programming process easier, an assembly
language is developed which is logically equivalent to machine language but it is easier for people to read,
write and understand.

   Assembly language is symbolic representation of machine language. Assembly languages are

symbolic programming language that uses symbolic notation to represent machine language instructions.
They are called low level language because they are so closely related to the machines.

Assembler

Assembler is the program which translates assembly language instruction in to a machine language.

   Easy to understand and use.

   It is easy to locate and correct errors.

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Disadvantage

Machine dependent :The assembly language program which can be executed on the machine depends on
the architecture of that computer.

Hard to learn: It is machine dependent, so the programmer should have the hardware knowledge to
create applications using assembly language.

Less efficient:

 Execution time of assembly language program is more than machine language program.
 Because assembler is needed to convert from assembly language to machine language.

High level language

High level language contains English words and symbols. The specified rules are to be followed while
writing program in high level language. The interpreter or compilers are used for converting these
programs in to machine readable form.

Translating high level language to machine language

The programs that translate high level language in to machine language are called interpreter or compiler.

Compiler:A compiler is a program which translates the source code written in a high level language in to
object code which is in machine language program. Compiler reads the whole program written in high
level language and translates it to machine language. If any error is found it display error message on the
screen.

Interpreter: Interpreter translates the high level language program in line by line manner. The interpreter
translates a high level language statement in a source program to a machine code and executes it
immediately before translating the next statement. When an error is found the execution of the program is
halted and error message is displayed on the screen.

Advantages

Readability :High level language is closer to natural language so they are easier to learn and understand

Machine independent: High level language program have the advantage of being portable between
machines.

Easy debugging: Easy to find and correct error in high level language

Disadvantages

Less efficient: The translation process increases the execution time of the program. Programs in high
level language require more memory and take more execution time to execute.

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They are divided into following categories:

1.Interpreted programming languages

2. Functional programming languages
3. Compiled programming languages
4. Procedural programming languages
5. Scripting programming language
6. Markup programming language
7.Concurrent programming language
8.Object oriented programming language

Interpreted programming languages:An interpreted language is a programming language for which

most of its implementation executes instructions directly, without previously compiling a program into
machine language instructions. The interpreter executes the program directly translating each statement
into a sequence of one or more subroutines already compiled into machine code.

Examples:

 Pascal
 Python

Functional programming language:Functional programming language defines every computation as a

mathematical evaluation. They focus on the programming languages are bound to mathematical
calculations

Examples:Clean, Haskell

Compiled Programming language:A compiled programming is a programming language whose

implementation are typically compilers and not interpreters.It will produce a machine code from source
code.

Examples:C, C++, C#, JAVA

Procedural programming language:Procedural (imperative) programming implies specifying the steps

that the programs should take to reach to an intended state.A procedure is a group of statements that can
be referred through a procedure call. Procedures help in the reuse of code. Procedural programming
makes the programs structured and easily traceable for program flow.

Examples:Hyper talk ,MATLAB

Scripting language:Scripting language are programming languages that control an application. Scripts
can execute independent of any other application. They are mostly embedded in the application that they
control and are used to automate frequently executed tasks like communicating with external program.

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Examples:Apple script, VB script, PHP

Markup languages:A markup language is an artificial language that uses annotations to text that define
hoe the text is to be displayed.

Examples:HTML, XML

Concurrent programming language:Concurrent programming is a computer programming technique

that provides for the execution of operation concurrently, either with in a single computer or across a
number of systems.

Examples: Joule, Limbo

Object oriented programming language:Object oriented programming is a programming paradigm

based on the concept of objects which may contain data in the form of procedures often known as
methods.

Examples:Lava, Moto

ALGORITHMIC PROBLEM SOLVING:

Algorithmic problem solving is solving problem that require the formulation of an algorithm for the
solution.

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Understanding the Problem

   It is the process of finding the input of the problem that the algorithm solves.
   It is very important to specify exactly the set of inputs the algorithm needs to handle.
   A correct algorithm is not one that works most of the time, but one that works correctly
for all legitimate inputs.

Ascertaining the Capabilities of the Computational Device

   If the instructions are executed one after another, it is called sequential algorithm.
   If the instructions are executed concurrently, it is called parallel algorithm.

Choosing between Exact and Approximate Problem Solving

   The next principal decision is to choose between solving the problem exactly or solving it
approximately.
   Based on this, the algorithms are classified as exact algorithm and approximationalgorithm.

Deciding a data structure:

   Data structure plays a vital role in designing and analysis the algorithms.
   Some of the algorithm design techniques also depend on the structuring data specifying a problem’s
instance
   Algorithm+ Data structure=programs.

Algorithm Design Techniques

   An algorithm design technique (or “strategy” or “paradigm”) is a general approach to solving

problems algorithmically that is applicable to a variety of problems from different areas of computing.
   Learning these techniques is of utmost importance for the following reasons.
   First, they provide guidance for designing algorithms for new problems,
   Second, algorithms are the cornerstone of computer science

Methods of Specifying an Algorithm

   Pseudocode is a mixture of a natural language and programming language-like constructs.

Pseudocode is usually more precise than natural language, and its usage often yields more succinct
algorithm descriptions.
   In the earlier days of computing, the dominant vehicle for specifying algorithms was a flowchart, a
method of expressing an algorithm by a collection of connected geometric shapes containing descriptions
of the algorithm’s steps.
   Programming language can be fed into an electronic computer directly. Instead, it needs to be
converted into a computer program written in a particular computer language. We can look at such a
program as yet another way ofspecifying the algorithm, although it is preferable to consider it as the
algorithm’s implementation.

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Proving an Algorithm’s Correctness

   Once an algorithm has been specified, you have to prove its correctness. That is, you have to prove
that the algorithm yields a required result for every legitimate input in a finite amount of time.
   A common technique for proving correctness is to use mathematical induction because an algorithm’s
iterations provide a natural sequence of steps needed for such proofs.
   It might be worth mentioning that although tracing the algorithm’s performance for a few specific
inputs can be a very worthwhile activity, it cannot prove the algorithm’s correctness conclusively. But in
order to show that an algorithm is incorrect, you need just one instance of its input for which the
algorithm fails.

Analysing an Algorithm

1. Efficiency.

Time efficiency, indicating how fast the algorithm runs,

Space efficiency, indicating how much extra memory it uses.

2. simplicity.

   An algorithm should be precisely defined and investigated with mathematical expressions.
   Simpler algorithms are easier to understand and easier to program.
   Simple algorithms usually contain fewer bugs.

Coding an Algorithm

   Most algorithms are destined to be ultimately implemented as computer programs. Programming an

algorithm presents both a peril and an opportunity.
   A working program provides an additional opportunity in allowing an empirical analysis of the
underlying algorithm. Such an analysis is based on timing the program on several inputs and then
analysing the results obtained

SIMPLE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING ALGORITHMS:

1.Iterations

2. Recursions

1. Iterations:A sequence of statements is executed until a specified condition is true is called iterations.

1.for loop

2.While loop

Syntax for For:

FOR( start-value to end-value) DO

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Statement
...
ENDFOR
 Example: Print n natural numbers
BEGIN
GET n
INITIALIZE i=1
FOR (i<=n) DO
PRINT i
i=i+1
ENDFOR
END
Syntax for While:
WHILE (condition) DO
Statement
...              
ENDWHILE

Example: Print n natural numbers

BEGIN
GET n
INITIALIZE i=1
WHILE(i<=n) DO
PRINT i
i=i+1
ENDWHILE
END

Recursions:

   A function that calls itself is known as recursion.

   Recursion is a process by which a function calls itself repeatedly until some specified condition has
been satisfied.

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Algorithm for factorial of n numbers using recursion:

Main function:

Step1: Start

Step2: Get n

Step3: call factorial(n)

Step4: print fact

Step5: Stop

Sub function factorial(n):

Step1: if(n==1) then fact=1 return fact

Step2: else fact=n*factorial(n-1) and return fact

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Pseudo code for factorial using recursion:

Main function:

BEGIN

GET n

CALL factorial(n)

PRINT fact

END

Sub function factorial(n):

IF(n==1) THEN

           fact=1

           RETURN fact

ELSE

           RETURN fact=n*factorial(n-1)

More examples:

Write an algorithm to find area of a rectangle

Step 1: Start

Step 2: get l,b values

Step 3: Calculate A=l*b

Step 4: Display A

Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read L,B

Calculate A=L*B

Display A

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End

Write an Algorithm For Calculating Area And Circumference Of Circle

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Get R Value

Step 3: Calculate A=3.14*R*R

Step 4: Calculate C=2.3.14*R

Step 5: Display A,C

Step 6: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read R

Calculate A And C

A=3.14*R*R

C=2*3.14*R

Display A

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End

Write An Algorithm For Calculating Simple Interest

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Get P, N, R Value

Step3:Calculate

Si=(P*N*R)/100

Step 4: Display S

Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read P, N, R

Calculate S

Si=(P*N*R)/100

Display Si

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End

Write An Algorithm For Calculating Engineering Cutoff

Step 1: Start

Step2: Get P,C,M Value

Step3:Calculate

Cutoff= (P/4+C/4+M/2)

Step 4: Display Cutoff

Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read P,C,M

Calculate

Cutoff= (P/4+C/4+M/2)

Display Cutoff

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End

To Check Greatest Of Two Numbers

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Get A,B Value

Step 3: Check If(A>B) Print A Is Greater

Step 4: Else B Is Greater

Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read A,B

If (A>B) Then

Display A Is Greater

Else

Display B Is Greater

End If

End

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To Check Leap Year Or Not

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Get Y

Step 3: If(Y%4==0) Print Leap Year

Step 4: Else Print Not Leap Year

Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read Y

If (Y%4==0) Then

Display Leap Year

Else

Display Not Leap Year

End If

End 

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To Check Positive Or Negative Number

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Get Num

Step 3: Check If(Num>0) Print A Is Positive

Step 4: Else Num Is Negative

Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode

Begin

Read Num

If (Num>0) Then

Display Num Is Positive

Else

Display Num Is Negative

End If

End

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To Check Odd Or Even Number
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get Num
Step 3: Check If(Num%2==0) Print Num Is Even
Step 4: Else Num Is Odd
Step 5: Stop

Psuedocode
Begin
Read Num
If (Num%2==0) Then
Display Num Is Even
Else
Display Num Is Odd
End If
End

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To Check Greatest Of Three Numbers

Step1: Start

Step2: Get A, B, C

Step3: If(A>B) Goto Step4 Else Goto Step5

Step4: If(A>C) Print A Else Print C

Step5: If(B>C) Print B Else Print C

Step6: Stop

Psuedocode
Begin
Read A, B, C
If (A>B) Then
If(A>C) Then
Display A Is Greater
Else
Display C Is Greater
End If
Else
If(B>C) Then
Display B Is Greater
Else
Display C Is Greater
End If
End If

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End

Write An Algorithm To Check Whether Given Number Is +Ve, -Ve Or Zero.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value.
Step 3: If (N ==0) Print “Given Number Is Zero” Else Goto Step4
Step 4: If (N > 0) Then Print “Given Number Is +Ve”
Step 5: Else Print “Given Number Is -Ve”
Step 6: Stop

 
Begin
Get N
If(N==0) Then
           Display “ N Is Zero”
Else
           If(N>0) Then
            Display “N Is Positive”
Else
            Display “N Is Positive”
End If
End If

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End

Write An Algorithm To Print All Natural Numbers Up To N

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value.
Step 3: Initialize I=1
Step 4: If (I<=N) Go To Step 5 Else Go To Step 8
Step 5: Print I Value
Step 6 : Increment I Value By 1
Step 7: Go To Step 4
Step 8: Stop

Begin
Get N
Initialize I=1
While(I<=N) Do
Print I
I=I+1
Endwhile
End

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Write An Algorithm To Print N Odd Numbers
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value
Step 3: Set Initial Value I=1
Step 4: Check If(I<=N) Goto Step 5 Else Goto Step 8 
Step 5: Print I Value
Step 6: Increment I Value By 2
Step 7: Goto Step 4
Step 8: Stop

Begin
Get N
Initialize I=1
While(I<=N) Do
           Print I
           I=I+2
Endwhile
End

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Write An Algorithm To Print N Even Numbers
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value
Step 3: Set Initial Value I=2
Step 4: Check If(I<=N) Goto Step 5 Else Goto Step8
Step 5: Print I Value
Step 6: Increment I Value By 2
Step 7: Goto Step 4
Step 8: Stop

Psuedocode
Begin
Get N
Initialize I=2
While(I<=N) Do
           Print I
           I=I+2
Endwhile
End

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Write An Algorithm To Print Squares Of A Number
Step 1: Start

Step 2: Get N Value

Step 3: Set Initial Value I=1

Step 4: Check I Value If(I<=N) Goto Step 5 Else Goto Step8

Step 5: Print I*I Value

Step 6: Increment I Value By 1

Step 7: Goto Step 4

Step 8: Stop

Psuedocode
Begin
Get N
Initialize I=1
While(I<=N) Do
           Print I*I
           I=I+2
Endwhile
End

32
Write An Algorithm To Print To Print Cubes Of A Number
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value
Step 3: Set Initial Value I=1
Step 4: Check I Value If(I<=N) Goto Step 5 Else Goto Step8
Step 5: Print I*I *I Value
Step 6: Increment I Value By 1
Step 7: Goto Step 4
Step 8: Stop

Begin
Get N
Initialize I=1
While(I<=N) Do
           Print I*I*I
           I=I+2
Endwhile
End

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Write An Algorithm To Find Sum Of A Given Number
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value
Step 3: Set Initial Value I=1, Sum=0
Step 4: Check I Value If(I<=N) Goto Step 5 Else Goto Step8
Step 5: Calculate Sum=Sum+I
Step 6: Increment I Value By 1
Step 7: Goto Step 4
Step 8: Print Sum Value
Step 9: Stop

Begin
Get N
Initialize I=1,Sum=0
While(I<=N) Do
           Sum=Sum+I
           I=I+1
Endwhile
Print Sum
End

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Write An Algorithm To Find Factorial Of A Given Number
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get N Value
Step 3: Set Initial Value I=1, Fact=1
Step 4: Check I Value If(I<=N) Goto Step 5 Else Goto Step8
Step 5: Calculate Fact=Fact*I
Step 6: Increment I Value By 1
Step 7: Goto Step 4
Step 8: Print Fact Value
Step 9: Stop

Begin
Get N
Initialize I=1,Fact=1
While(I<=N) Do
           Fact=Fact*I
           I=I+1
Endwhile
Print Fact
End

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