THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

BONE TISSUE
 BONE TISSUE
➢Bone tissue is continuously growing, remodeling, and repairing itself.
➢It contributes to homeostasis of the body by providing support,
protection, the production of blood cells, and the storage of minerals and
triglycerides.
 FUNCTIONS OF BONE AND THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bone tissue makes up about 18% of the weight of the human body.
The skeletal system performs several basic functions:
1. Support. The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by
supporting soft tissues and providing attachment points for the tendons of
most skeletal muscles.

2. Protection. The skeleton protects the most important internal organs from
injury. For example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae (backbones)
protect the spinal cord, and the rib cage protects the heart and lungs.

3. Assistance in movement. Most skeletal muscles attach to bones; when they

contract, they pull on bones to produce movement.
4. Mineral homeostasis (storage and release). Bone tissue stores several
minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, which contribute to the strength
of bone. Bone tissue stores about 99% of the body’s calcium.
On demand, bone releases minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral
balances (homeostasis) and to distribute the minerals to other parts of the
body.

5. Blood cell production. Within certain bones, a connective tissue called red
bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, a
process called hemopoiesis.

6. Triglyceride storage. Yellow bone marrow consists mainly

of adipose cells, which store triglycerides.
 Four types of cells are present in bone tissue:
➢ osteogeniccells
➢ osteoblasts
➢ osteocytes
➢ osteoclasts

1. Osteogenic cells are unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme, the
tissue from which almost all connective tissues are formed. They are the only
bone cells to undergo cell division; the resulting cells develop into osteoblasts.
2. Osteoblasts are bone-building cells. They synthesize and secrete collagen
fibers and other organic components needed to build the extracellular matrix
of bone tissue, and they initiate calcification.
3. Osteocytes: mature bone cells, are the main cells in bone tissue and
maintain its daily metabolism, such as the exchange of nutrients and
wastes with the blood. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes do not undergo cell
division.

4. Osteoclasts are huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50

monocytes and are concentrated in the endosteum. The breakdown of
bone extracellular matrix, termed resorption is part of the normal
development, maintenance, and repair of bone.
 STRUCTURE OF BONE
A long bone is one that has greater length than width.
A typical long bone consists of the following parts:
1. The diaphysis is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main portion of the
bone.

2. The epiphyses are the proximal and distal ends of the bone.

3. The m etaphyses are the regions between the diaphysis and the epiphyses.
In a growing bone, each metaphysis contains an epiphyseal (grow th) plate a layer of
hyaline cartilage that allows the diaphysis of the bone to grow in length.
When a bone ceases to grow in length at about ages 18–21, the cartilage in the
epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone; the resulting bony structure is known as the
epiphyseal line.
4. The articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the
part of the epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation (joint) with
another bone. Articular cartilage reduces friction and absorbs shock at
freely movable joints.

5. The periosteum surrounds the external bone surface wherever it is not

covered by articular cartilage. It is composed of an outer fibrous layer of
dense irregular connective tissue and an inner osteogenic layer
that consists of cells.
Some of the cells of the periosteum enable bone to grow in thickness, but
not in length. The periosteum also
protects the bone, assists in fracture repair, helps nourish bone tissue, and
serves as an attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
6. The m edullary cavity or m arrow cavity is a hollow, cylindrical space
within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.

7. The endosteum is a thin membrane that lines the internal bone surface
facing the medullary cavity. It contains a single layer of cells and a small
amount of connective tissue.
 HISTOLOGY OF BONE TISSUE

➢Compact Bone Tissue

➢Spongy Bone Tissue
The components of compact bone tissue are arranged into repeating
structural units called osteons or haversian systems.
➢Each osteon consists of a central (haversian) canal with its concentrically
arranged lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi.
➢The central canals run longitudinally through the bone.
➢Around the central canals are concentric lam ellae rings of calcified
extracellular matrix much like the rings of a tree trunk.
➢Between the lamellae are small spaces called lacunae which contain
osteocytes

➢Radiating in all directions from the lacunae are tiny canaliculi filled with
extracellular fluid

➢The canaliculi connect lacunae with one another and with the central
canals, forming an intricate, miniature system of interconnected canals
throughout the bone.

➢This system provides many routes for nutrients and oxygen to reach the
osteocytes and for the removal of wastes.
 Spongy Bone Tissue
➢Spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons.
➢Despite what the name seems to imply, the term “spongy” does not refer
to the texture of the bone, only
its appearance.
➢Spongy bone consists of lamellae arranged in an irregular lattice of thin
columns called trabeculae
 TYPES OF BONES
All bones of the body can be classified into five main types based on shape:
➢Long bones
➢Short bones
➢Flat bones
➢Irregular bones
➢Sesamoid bones

Long bones: vary tremendously in size and include those in the femur (thigh bone),
tibia and fibula (leg bones), humerus (arm bone), ulna and radius (forearm bones).
Short bones: are the carpal (wrist) bones and the tarsal (ankle) bones

Flat bones: include the cranial bones, which protect the brain; the sternum
(breastbone) and ribs, which protect organs in the thorax; and the scapulae
(shoulder blades).

Irregular bones: include the vertebrae (backbones), hip bones, certain facial bones.

Sesamoid bones: develop in certain tendons where there is considerable friction,

tension, and physical stress, such as the palms and soles. sesamoid bones protect
tendons from excessive wear and tear, and they often change the direction of pull of
a tendon, which improves the mechanical advantage at a joint.
Cranial Bones: (8)

➢Frontal Bone(1)

➢Parietal Bones(2)

➢Temporal Bones(2)

➢Occipital Bone(1)

➢Sphenoid Bone(1)

➢Ethmoid Bone(1)
Facial Bones (14):
➢Nasal bones (2)
➢Maxillae (or maxillas) (2)
➢Zygomatic bones (2)
➢Mandible (1)
➢Lacrimal bones (2)
➢Palatine bones (2)
➢Inferior nasal conchae (2)
➢ Vomer (1)
Auditory ossicles: (6)
➢Malleus (2)
➢Stapes (2)
➢Incus (2)

Vertebral column: (26)

➢ 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck region.
➢12 thoracic vertebrae are posterior to the thoracic cavity.
➢5 lum bar vertebrae support the lower back.
➢1 sacrum consists of five fused sacral vertebrae.
➢1 coccyx usually consists of four fused coccygeal vertebrae.
SHOULDER BLADE AND COLLAR BONE
 ARMS
Humerus

Radius

Ulna Ulna
 BONES OF PELVIS

Male pelvis: anterior view Female pelvis: anterior view

 ARMS
Humerus

Radius

Ulna Ulna
FEMUR (THIGH BONE)
TIBIA AND FIBULA
JOINTS
A joint or articulation
(or articulate surface)
is the location at
which bones connect.
They are constructed
to allow movement
(except for skull,
sacral, sternal, and
pelvic bones) and
provide mechanical
support .
 JOINTS
A joint, also called an articulation or arthrosis is a point of contact
between two bones, between bone and cartilage, or between bone and
teeth.
Joints are classified structurally, based on their anatomical characteristics,
and functionally, based on the type of movement they permit.
Three classes of joints are:
➢Fibrous joints : There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held
together by dense irregular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers.
➢Cartilaginous joints : There is no synovial cavity and the bones are held
together by cartilage.
➢Synovial joints : The bones forming the joint have a synovial cavity and
are united by the dense irregular connective tissue of an articular capsule,
and often by accessory ligaments
Fibrous joints
Fibrous joints lack a synovial cavity, and the articulating bones are held
very closely together by dense irregular connective tissue. Fibrous joints
permit little or no movement. The three types of fibrous joints are sutures,
syndesmoses, and interosseous membranes.
 Cartilaginous joint
A cartilaginous joint lacks a synovial cavity and allows little or no
movement. Here the articulating bones are tightly connected by either
hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. The two types of cartilaginous
joints are synchondroses and symphyses.
 Synovial joints
Synovial joints have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other
joints.
The unique characteristic of a synovial joint is the presence of a space called a
synovial (joint) cavity between the articulating bones.
Because the synovial cavity allows a joint to be freely movable.
Structural characteristics of Synovial joints:
1. articular cartilage
The bones at a synovial joint are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage
called articular cartilage. The cartilage covers the articulating surface of the
bones with a smooth, slippery surface but does not bind them together.
Articular cartilage reduces friction between bones in the joint during movement
and helps to absorb shock.
2. Capsule or capsular ligament
The joint is surrounded by a sleeve of fibrous tissue which holds the bones
together. It is sufficiently loose to allow freedom of movement but strong
enough to protect it from injury
3. synovial membrane
This is composed of epithelial cells and is found lining the capsule
4. synovial fluid
This is a thick sticky fluid, of egg-white consistency, secreted by synovial
membrane into the synovial cavity and it :
➢Provides nutrients for the structures within the joint cavity
➢Contains phagocytes which remove microbes and cellular debris
➢Acts as a lubricant
➢Maintains joint stability
➢Prevents the ends of the bones being separated as does a little water
between two glass surfaces.
 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
➢Planar Joints

➢Hinge Joints

➢Pivot Joints

➢Condyloid Joints

➢Saddle Joints

➢Ball-and-Socket Joints
Movements of joints
1. Gliding- Movement of relatively flat bone surfaces back-and-forth and
side-to-side over one another; little change in the angle between bones.

2. Angular- Increase or decrease in the angle between bones.

Flexion- Decrease in the angle between articulating bones, usually in the

sagittal plane

Lateral flexion- Movement of the trunk in the frontal plane.

Extension- Increase in the angle between articulating bones, usually in the

sagittal plane.
Hyperextension- Extension beyond the anatomical position.

Abduction- Movement of a bone away from the midline, usually in the frontal
plane.

Adduction- Movement of a bone toward the midline, usually in the frontal

plane.

Circumduction- Flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction in succession, in

which the distal end of a body part moves in a circle.

3. Rotation-Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis; in the limbs, it

may be medial (toward midline) or lateral (away from midline).
4. Special movements occurs at specific joints.
Elevation -Superior movement of a body part.

Depression- Inferior movement of a body part.

Protraction- Anterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane.

Retraction -Posterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane.

Inversion -Medial movement of the sole.

Eversion- Lateral movement of the sole.

Dorsiflexion -Bending the foot in the direction of the dorsum (superior

surface).

Plantar flexion- Bending the foot in the direction of the plantar surface
(sole).

Supination- Movement of the forearm that turns the palm anteriorly.

Pronation -Movement of the forearm that turns the palm posteriorly.

Opposition- Movement of the thumb across the palm to touch fingertips on

the same hand
 BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS
enables the bone to move in a 360°
angle.

Which other joint is also

ball and socket?
HINGE JOINTS - MOTION ONLY IN ONE PLANE
(backward and forward)

Which other joint is also

hinged?
PIVOT JOINTS - MOVES BY ROTATING

Which other joint is also

pivoted?
GLIDING JOINTS - FLAT OR SLIGHTLY FLAT
surfaces move against each other
 Ligaments
A tissue that connects bone to bone

Video on Knee Anatomy

 Tendons
A tissue that connects muscle to bone
 CARTILAGE
A tissue that helps to prevent the bones from
rubbing against each other and wearing down
the bone.
 CARTILAGES

Knees Cartilage - Menicus Intervertebral Disc Cartilage

 SYNOVIAL FLUID
A fluid that reduce friction between the joints
during movement.
 Diseases and
Conditions
of the Skeletal
System
 Bursitis
Inflammation of the Bursa (fluid filled sac
surrounding the joint).
A bursa can become inflamed from injury,
infection (rare in the shoulder), or due to an
underlying rheumatic condition.
Bursitis is typically identified by localized
pain or swelling, tenderness, and pain with
motion of the tissues in the affected area.
 Tendonitis
Sometimes the tendons become inflamed for
a variety of reasons, and the action of pulling
the muscle becomes irritating. If the normal
smooth gliding motion of your tendon is
impaired, the tendon will become inflamed
and movement will become painful. This is
called tendonitis, and literally means
inflammation of the tendon.
The most common cause of tendonitis is
overuse.
Carpal Tunnel
Syndrome
Any condition that causes swelling or a
change in position of the tissue within the
carpal tunnel can squeeze and irritate the
median nerve. Irritation of the median
nerve in this manner causes tingling and
numbness of the thumb, index, and the
middle fingers, a condition known as
"carpal tunnel syndrome
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a term that means
"porous bones." It is a skeletal disease
affecting women and men.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which
bones have lost minerals especially
calciumﾑmaking them weaker, more
brittle, and susceptible to fractures
(broken bones). Any bone in the body
can be affected by osteoporosis, but
the most common places where
fractures occur are the back (spine),
hips, and wrists.
Rickets

Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children,

usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D
deficiency.
Some skeletal deformities caused by rickets may need
corrective surgery.
Leukemia
Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. It starts in the
bone marrow, the soft tissue inside most bones. Bone
marrow is where blood cells are made.When you are
healthy, your bone marrow makes:･White blood cells,
which help your body fight infection.･Red blood cells,
which carry oxygen to all parts of your body.･Platelets,
which help your blood clot.When you have leukemia,
the bone marrow starts to make a lot of abnormal white
blood cells, called leukemia cells. They don't do the
work of normal white blood cells, they grow faster than
normal cells, and they don't stop growing when they
should
HEALTHY MANAGEMENT OF
BONES
Our bones start becoming thinner and lose
th eir density as we age.

This will lead to Osteoporosis (A disease of

bones that leads to an increased risk of
fracture) if we do not keep our bone healthy

This is especially for women after menopause

 SOLUTION
Calcium and phosphorous are
minerals that give strength to bones.
People must obtain these minerals
from food. People who do not have
enough of these minerals will have
brittle bones and become stooped
when they are old.
 bones
TOP 8 FOOD FOR HEALTHY, STRONGER
Milk
Yogurt and Cheese
Sardines
Green-leafy Vegetables Soy Foods
(Tofu)
Fortified Foods (Food that has essential minerals and vitamins added eg:
Orange Juice and Cereals)
Calcium Supplements
Nuts and Seeds (Almonds, Pistachios, sunflower
seeds, seaweeds)

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WORKOUT FOR HEALTHY BONES
Aerobics
Cycling
Dancing - especially contra dancing, tap dancing, polka and
other folk dances that involve stomping, hopping etc.
Gardening
Gymnastics
Jogging
Jumping rope or doing Jumping Jacks
Race Walking
Tennis
Stair climbing - going down stairs is best
Weight Bearing Exercise

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