PH 3:

Food Processing of
Agricultural Products

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 OVERVIEW

This module provides context and foundation knowledge in the basic concepts
and principles of food processing and the variations of agricultural products. As today’s
pandemic continue to limit learning options, adjustments were made; thus, this learning
material in Post-Harvest 2 is provided.

Basically, this reading material is comprised of four (4) modules: (a) Introduction
to Food Processing and Agricultural Products; (b) Food Safety and Quality
Management; (c) Food Processing: Packaging and Marketing; and (d) Food
preservation. Every module highlights different lessons that are well orchestrated to
holistically establish the whole idea of agricultural production and food processing
activities and/or technologies.

Assessments in the form of different activities (e.g. analysis, food safety plan
making, etc.) are incorporated at end of each topic. These activities are crafted to
measure your comprehension on the knowledge presented.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module 1: Introduction to Food Processing 5

and Agricultural Products ……………………………………….

Module Overview ……………………………………………………….. 6

Lesson 1: Agricultural Products: Types and Uses 6
1.1. What is agricultural production? …………………………. 7
1.2. How does agricultural production work? ………………… 8
1.3. What are the different groups of agricultural products? ….. 10
References ………………………………………………………………… 16
Assessment ………………………………………………………………………. 17
Lesson 2: Food Processing: History, Principles,
Methods and Equipment …………………………………… 18

2.1. What is food processing and its principles? ……………… 19

2.2. How and when does food processing started? …………… 19
2.3. What are the primitive methods of food processing? ……. 19
2.4. What are the preparatory activities in food processing? … 23
2.5. What are the common functions of existing
food processing equipment? ……………………………… 29
References ………………………………………………………………. 38
Assessment ……………………………………………………………………… 39

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MODULE 1
Introduction to Food Processing of
Agricultural Products

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Module No. & Title Module 1: Introduction to Food Processing of Agricultural
Products

Module Overview Postharvest 2 is a laboratory course designed to introduce students to

agriculture food products, processing operations and management. It
includes instruction in the characteristics and properties of
agricultural products and processing. It also offers instruction in
equipment used in food processing.

Agricultural produce are essential demands and means of survival, as

it plays a greater role in almost all aspect of life. Considering the
challenges, such as increasing human population, low yield due to
pest and disease attack on cultivated crops and poor level of
mechanized agricultural activities, processing of agricultural produce
is considered a necessity to address.

Module 1 is comprised with topics introducing different groups of

agricultural products, and discusses food processing principles,
methods and its importance.

Module Objectives / ● Introduce different groups of agricultural products and their

Outcomes associated uses;
● Learn important parts in history of food processing;
● Explain and discuss food processing principles, methods and
equipment involved; and
● Discuss the importance of food processing.

Lessons in the 1.1. Agricultural Products: Types and Uses; and

Module 1.2. Food Processing: History, Principles, Methods and Equipment.

General Instructions You are advised to read with comprehension on the given concepts
per lesson (i.e. Learning Guide). Figures, tables and diagrams are
presented to speed up your learning process. Should there be any
question or clarification that may arise during your learning session,
please do not hesitate to seek your instructor’s assistance.

Note: There are things to be done (assessment activities) at the end of

each topic. You are then required to submit a rejoinder based on your
instructor’s directives (this will be given as soon as the academic year
commences).

Disclaimer:
Some of the figures/photos are not cited in this module due to
unknown sources. Thus, figures/photos belongs to their rightful
owners. No copyright infringement intended.

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1. MODULE NO. & TITLE Module 1: Introduction to Food Processing and
Agricultural Production and Products

2. LESSON NO. & TITLE Lesson No.1: Agricultural Products:

Groups and Uses

3. LEARNING ● Introduce and discuss agricultural production and

OUTCOMES different types of agricultural products; and
● Elaborate different uses of agricultural products

4. TIME FRAME
5. INTRODUCTION Agricultural product provides raw materials for
industry workers while industry in turn provides
finished goods (consumables, tools and equipment’s)
used in agriculture. Through this concept, agricultural
production will be tackled, as well as, the types and
uses of different agricultural products.

6. LEARNING GUIDE What is agricultural production?

QUESTIONS
How does agricultural production work?

What are the different groups of agricultural

products?

7. LEARNING GUIDE

1. What is agricultural production?

 Agricultural production is the use of cultivated plants or animals to produce

products for sustaining or enhancing human life (Figure 1).

 People use a vast array of agricultural products every day—these range from the
clothes we wear to the paper we write on. We decorate with flowers often produced
by agriculture and run our cars in part on ethanol produced by agriculture.

 Roughly 11% of the planet's land is dedicated to crop production, and close to 26%
is being used for animal pastures.

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Source: https://extquest.home.blog/2019/05/26/agricultural-crop-production/htm.
Figure 1. Agricultural products.

2. How does Agricultural Production Work?

 Land is used to grow crops that have an intended use in one of the four groups.
The crops are purchased by businesses that specialize in processing them for their
expected purposes and then sold to manufacturers or distributors.

 Businesses involved in agricultural production include:

Source: https://letstalkchicken.ca

 Breeding operations

Source: https://cdn.thefencepost.com
Figure 2. Breeding farms: poultry (top) and cattle
(bottom).

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 Farms, including crops and certain Source: https://upmetrics.co/assets/
media/cattle-farm-business-plan.jpg
animals

Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com
Figure 3. Cattle (top) and crop farms
(bottom).

 Greenhouses and nurseries that

grow their products to be sold at
retail

Source:https://resize.hswstatic.com/u_0/w_480/gif/
greenhouse-1.jpg
Figure 4. Nursery of banana plantlets.

 Ranches

Source:https://s.abcnews.com/images/US/abc_cowr
ustlers_le_140307_16x9_992.jpg
Figure 5. Cattle ranch.

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  Tree and sod farms (if products are sold at retail and not replanted elsewhere
by the grower)

Agricultural production DOES NOT include:

 Storing or preserving raw materials before the start of the production process
 Storing, preserving, handling, or moving finished goods
 Storing or processing agricultural products at co-ops, grain elevators, dairies,
or meat-packers
 Raising animals for personal use

Agricultural Production Activities are:

 Agriculture:

cultivating soil; planting; raising, and harvesting crops; rearing, feeding, and
managing animals

 Aquaculture:

raising private aquatic animals (fish)

 Floriculture:

growing flowering plants

 Horticulture:

growing fruits, vegetables, and plants

 Silviculture:

growing and caring for fresh trees

3. What are the different groups of agricultural

products and their uses?

 There are four major groups of agricultural products:

Foods, Fuels, Fibers, or Raw Materials

FOOD:

Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruit, oils, meat, milk, fungi and eggs
(Table 1). Some of the crops are turned into feed and fed to animals, which then
produce dairy products like milk or are turned into food for humans or other animals.
Honey and farmed fish are also some examples of food products.

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Table 1. Food classes and attributes.
Some Food Classes and Attributes

Cereals/Grains

The nutrients provided by grains include carbohydrates/starch

(energy), protein, fibre and a wide range of vitamins and minerals including the B
vitamins folate, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, iron, vitamin E, zinc, magnesium and
phosphorus.

(www.eatforhealth.gov.au)

Source: https://www.womensrunning.com/health/whole-grains-runners-eating/
Figure 6. Classes of grains.

Vegetables

Vegetables may be raw or cooked; fresh, frozen, canned, or dried/dehydrated; and

may be whole, cut-up, or mashed.

Vegetables are organized into 5 subgroups: dark-green vegetables, starchy

vegetables, red and orange vegetables, beans and peas, and other vegetables.

(https://www.choosemyplate.gov/eathealthy/vegetables)

Source: https://www.diabetes.co.uk/food/non-starchy-vegetables.html
Figure 7. Classes of vegetables.

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Oils

- NOT a food group, but they provide essential nutrients.

- Some commonly eaten oils include: canola oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil,
safflower oil, soybean oil, and sunflower oil.
- Some oils are used mainly as flavorings, such as walnut oil and sesame oil.

- Oils from plant sources (vegetable and nut oils) do not contain any cholesterol.

-A few plant oils, however, including coconut oil, palm oil, and palm kernel oil, are
high in saturated fats and for nutritional purposes should be considered to be solid fats.

(https://www.choosemyplate.gov/eathealthy/oils)

Source: https://media.self.com/photos.jpg
Figure 8. Classes of oil.

Meat

Meat is a major source of five of the B-complex vitamins: thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
vitamin B6 and vitamin B12. Meat is not a good source of folacin but it does contain
biotin and pantothenic acid.

(https://meatscience.org/TheMeatWeEat/topics/meat-in-the-diet/nutrients-in-meat)

Source: https://creg.property/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/meat-poultry.jpg
Figure 9. Classes of meat.

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Milk

-Dairy milk is a whole food, providing 18 of 22 essential nutrients that play an

important role in growth and development.

- Milk is recognized for its important role in building and maintaining strong bones.
The human body doesn't work with one nutrient at a time; rather, a combination of
nutrients working together positively affects health and body systems.

- Milk and dairy foods provide the right amount of bone-building nutrients,
specifically calcium, vitamin D, protein, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, vitamin
B12 and zinc.

(https://www.healthyeating.org/nutrition-topics/milk-dairy/dairy-foods/milk)

Source: https://cdn-a.william-reed.com/var/wrbm_gb_food_pharma/storage/images
Figure 10. Fresh milk.

Fungi (mushroom)

Low in calories and fat and cholesterol-free, mushrooms contain a modest amount of
fiber and over a dozen minerals and vitamins, including copper, potassium, magnesium,
zinc and a number of B vitamins such as folate.

Mushrooms are also high in antioxidants like selenium and glutathione, or GSH,
substances believed to protect cells from damage and reduce chronic disease and
inflammation.

(https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/19/well/eat/what-is-the-health-and-nutritional-val
ue-of-mushrooms.html)

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Source:https://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/health_tool
s/all_about_mushrooms.jpg
Figure 11. Classes of edible mushroom.

Eggs

Eggs are so nutritious that they’re often referred to as “nature’s multivitamin.”

One large egg contains:
-Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): 9% of the RDA
-Vitamin B2 (riboflavin): 15% of the RDA
-Vitamin A: 6% of the RDA
-Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid): 7% of the RDA
-Selenium: 22% of the RDA
-Eggs also contain small amounts of almost every vitamin and mineral required by the
human body, including calcium, iron, potassium, zinc, manganese, vitamin E, folate
and many more.

(https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/6-reasons-why-eggs-are-the-healthiest-food-on
-the-planet)

Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images
Figure 12. Classes of egg from poultry animals.

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FUEL:

Agricultural products can also be used to produce fuel (Figure 1.2). Ethanol—produced
from corn, sugarcane, or sorghum—is the agricultural fuel product in widest use.

Note: Agricultural production by-products can be used in industrial

applications such as textiles or used to reinforce plastics.

Source:https://www.e-education.psu.edu/egee439/sites/www.e-education.psu.edu.jpg

Figure 13. How corn is processed to make Ethanol.

FIBER:

Fiber crops include banana, abaca, pineapple, cotton, wool, silk, jute and etc. (Figure
1.3). Agricultural producers also use hemp to make rope and flax for linen. It's even
possible to use bamboo fiber to make cloth.

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 Source: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com

Source: https://s3-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com

BANAN
A

Source: https://www.zureli.com/app/images/product-f
eatured-images/image/handmade-banana-fiber-fabric-4914

Figure 14. Fiber crops and products.

RAW MATERIALS:

Raw materials are the products not refined or processed for use in one of the other
categories. Many of the crops grown are used to feed animals that become other
agricultural products.

Source: https://4.bp.blogspot.com Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com

Figure 15. Raw materials (e.g. sorghum and sugarcane) fed to livestock animals.

8. REFERENCE

Chait, J. (2020). The Balance Small Business. What is Agricultural Production? Retrieved
from https://www.thebalancesmb.com/what-is-an-agricultural-product-2538211

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9. ASSESSMENT

Questions to be answered

1. How do you understand agricultural production? (10 points)

2. Why do you think raising of animals for personal use is NOT considered an
agricultural production practice? (10 points)
3. Having the idea of agricultural production and the groups of agricultural products,
give at least four (4) agricultural products that are not mentioned in Lesson 1 and
explain each significant uses. (20 points)
4. State your opinion on the importance of agricultural production/products in facing
today’s pandemic. (20 points)

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1. MODULE NO. & TITLE Module 1: Introduction to Food Processing and
Agricultural Production and Products

2. LESSON NO. & TITLE Lesson No. 2: Food Processing: History,

Principles, Methods and
Equipment

3. LEARNING OUTCOMES ● Present and elaborate the history of food

processing;
● Describe food processing;
● Discuss the principles of food processing and
methods; and
● Enumerate and discuss different equipment
involved in food processing.

4. TIME FRAME September 14-25, 2020

5. INTRODUCTION Food processing is the preparation and preservation
of man's food supply. It is probably reasonable to
assert that food processing was one of the first
industries known to man (besides hunting and the
simplest cultivation).

Through this concept, food processing will be

understood, as well as its important history - of how
and when it began. Also, principles and methods
applied, and the equipment used in different food
processing practices will be enumerated and
discussed in this lesson.

6. LEARNING GUIDE What is food processing and its principles?

QUESTIONS
How and when does food processing started?

What are the primitive methods of food processing?

What are the preparatory activities in food

processing?

What are the common functions of existing food

processing equipment?

7. LEARNING GUIDES

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1. What is food processing and its principles?

 Food processing refers to the

application of techniques to
foods in a systematic manner for
pr e v e n t i n g l o s s e s th r o u g h p
r e se r vati on, pr oc e s si ng, p
ackaging, storage and
distribution, ultimately to ensure
greater availability of a wide
variety of foods which would help
to improve the food intake and
nutritional standards during the
pe r i od s of lo w ava i l a bi l i t y .
Figure 16. Manual sorting of sweet pepper.

 The main objective of fruits and vegetables processing is to supply wholesome,

safe, nutritious and acceptable food to consumers throughout the year.
 Processing has an important role in conservation and better utilization of fruits
and vegetables
 Necessary to employ modern methods to extend storage life for better
distribution, in order to avoid the glut and utilize the surplus during the season
 Preserve food for utilization in the off-season on both large-scale and small-
scale

2. How and when does food processing started?

 For thousands of years, man's cooking was limited to searing or roasting with fire,
for he had no containers to hold his food other than a flat rock or a seashell. Then
processing achieved another milestone in exerting its catalytic influence.
 Pre-historic man was almost totally occupied with protecting and feeding his
family and himself. He had little time for anything but to daily search for food.
Since he had no way either to grow or to preserve his food, he was at the mercy of
the vagaries of nature".
 Progress in processing was slow until 1809 when Nicolas Appert a French
confectioner showed the food industry and the world how to preserve foods almost
indefinitely without appreciable loss of appearance, flavour or nutritional value.

3. What are the primitive methods of food processing?

 Man is a product of what he eats- and the amount of time required to provide his
food. The food that man eats is a product of his intellect and his inventiveness. Due
to better processing our food today is more varied in taste, nutritious and

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 plentiful than at any other time in the history of man.. Moreover we spend less time
in preparing and providing it.
 The path to today's plenty has been long and hard. The tracing of that pathway will
cover the origin of processing, the development of the major methods in use today,
the contribution of scientific research and the important role of the salesmen in
widening the influence of processing. The beginning of this chronology goes back
a long way.

a. Drying

- Nature's drying of food was observed and adapted by man before the discovery
of fire.
- The first step towards a food supply came when early man noticed that nuts and
grains dried by the rays of the sun would last through the winter if kept dry.

- Legends, of the stone-age man tell

of great buffalo hunts among the
Indians of North America in
which thousands of buffaloes
were stampeded over cliffs to
their death.
- The buffalo hides were used in
making clothes and tepees, the
meat was cut into thin strips and
dried in the sun on window
frames.
- Our modem methods of drying
are adaptation of and great
improvement on this most basic Source:https://readfoundation.files.wordpress.com/
2014/06/12-drying-meat-in-the-sun.jpg
nature's ways of processing food.
Figure 17. Traditional drying of meat.

b. Fermentation

- Fermentation - the natural process of chemical change in foods - was observed and
adapted by man in many ways for several thousands of years before the
fermentation of yeast was adapted to the making of leavened bread.
- Early men noticed that fruit juices left to stand for periods of time 'soured' and
proved that souring transformed the juice into something quite different both in
taste and effect. In areas of uncertain water supply, wines provided a safe beverage.
- One of the earliest references to wines is in the book of Genesis in the Old
Testament, where it stated that Noah became a husbandman and drank wines.
- Wine making led to the development of various types of vinegar that were used in
pickling meat, fish, vegetables and fruits. Sauerkraut (fermented cabbage) was an
early Chinese contribution that was later adopted by the German and other
Europeans as a basic item in the diet.

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- Fermentation of milk led to the development of cheese in about 3000 BC. Arabian
horsemen found that during their travels, milk in their goatskin bags was churned
into a sort of cheese we know today as yeast.
- And of course the Egyptian development of raised sourdough bread owes its
unique quality to the fermentation of yeast.

Source: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/region1
Figure 18. Traditional bagoong fermenting in burnay
jars in the Province of Ilocos Norte.

c. Salting

- Salting was done at about the time leavened bread was introduced.
- Salt had been used as a flavouring for a long time before it was discovered that
meat rubbed with salt, or soaked in a salt brine, could be kept for weeks or months.
- Vegetables and fruits soaked in a brine solution (later called pickling)
could be preserved for use during the
long winter months.
- In the ancient world, salt was as valuable as gold. It established monetary
standards and served as the basis for world trade.
- Among the refreshments during the ancient Sumerian empire (later Babylon), a
favourite dish was made from salted pork and tertiles - the first known pork and
beans in history.
- Early American pioneers moving westward centered their camps and countries
around natural deposits of salt called "salt licks”. Animals could be hunted or
trapped easily as they came to the salt licks and the salt was used to preserve the
meat.

Source: https://c.stocksy.com
Figure 19. Traditional salting of Makeral.

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d. Sugar

- In ancient Persia, the preserving power of the natural sugar on fruits was known
but not understood.
- Marmalade that is made by cooking fruits until most of the liquid had boiled
away, was a favourite spread for breads.
- The people of the ancient civilization in the Indus River Valley traded their fruit
jams or spices with the passing Arab caravans.
- Sugar, however remained as scarce and expensive for thousands of years.
- Not until the settlement of the great sugar cane areas of the new world, did the
supply of sugar become abundant enough for wide spread use as a preservative.

e. Spices

- Spices have long played an important role in food processing.

- While the spices in themselves did not preserve foods, they added flavour and
more important they covered up the unpleasant flavour of slightly spoiled meat
or meat that had been preserved with salt.
- Spices were highly prized and great caravan traveled thousands of miles
overland to reach the spice centers of the East.
- The crusaders in the 1200's and 1300's brought back large quantities of spices.
- Many of the early explorations of the world were made in an effort to find
shorter routes to the sources of spices.
- The most famous of all explorers, Columbus, was searching for a shorter route to
the spice-rich orient when he discovered the much more valuable prize of America.

Source: https://sites.google.com/site/hamdaemiraticulturephotoessay
Figure 20. Traditional spices sold in markets.

f. Freezing

- Natural freezing in the northern area of the world was known for as long as men
inhabited those areas.
- Fish found frozen in the ice were preserved.
- Man took advantage of natures icebox and deep freeze facilities but thousands of
years were to pass before technology opened the way for him to adopt the principle
of preservation by freezing through man made refrigeration process.

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4. What are the preparatory activities in food processing?
a. Cleaning

 It is a unit operation in which contaminating materials are removed from the food
material and separated to leave the surface of the food in a suitable condition for
further processing.
 In vegetable processing, blanching also helps to clean the product. In addition, the
early removal of small quantities of food contaminated by micro-organisms
prevents the subsequent loss of the remaining bulk by microbial growth during
storage or delays before processing.

Figure 21. Contaminants found in raw food.

Wet cleaning:

 More effective than dry methods for removing soil from root crops or dust and
pesticide residues from soft fruits or vegetables
 Dustless and causes less damage to foods than dry methods
 Soaking/flotation, spraying, washing and ultrasonic cleaning

a b c
Figure 22. Wet cleaning methods: (a) Soaking and flotation, ultrasonic cleaning (b) and
(c) filter spraying.

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 Dry cleaning:

 Used for products that are smaller, have

greater mechanical strength and possess
lower moisture content (e.g. grains and
nuts)

 After cleaning, the surfaces are dry, to

aid preservation or further drying

Figure 23. Air classifier mill

 The main groups of equipment used

for dry cleaning are air classifiers,
magnetic separators and separators
based on screening of foods

Figure 24. Magnetic separator

Removing Contaminants and Foreign Bodies

 Possible when the food has a regular well-

defined shape
 For example round foods (peas, blackcurrants
and rapeseed) are separated from contaminants
by exploiting their ability to roll down an
inclined, upward moving conveyor belt.
 A disc separator, used to separate grain from
weed seeds, consists of a series of vertical
metal discs with precisely engineered
indentations in the sides that match the shape
of the grain.
 Screens are also used to remove contaminants
from foods. Fig. 25. Separation of chaff from


grain by aspiration cleaning.













 Metal fragments or bolts from machinery is a potential hazard in all processing.

Raw materials may pass through metal detectors before processing and all
packaged foods are checked for contamination.
 Ferrous metals are removed by either permanent magnets or electromagnets.
 Electromagnets are easier to clean (by switching off the power supply) but
permanent magnets are cheaper.

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Cleaning devices

 If the desired product is to be completely free of impurities and suitable for long-
term storage, appropriate cleaning devices must be used, such as:

-- Winnower

a) May reach an output of one ton per hour.

b) can significantly contribute to improving
product quality and marketing, especially in production areas.

Fig. 26. Winnower machine.

c) Sometimes operated by hand but more often motorized.

d) Relatively simple machines that consist mainly of a hopper to receive the grain, a fan

and a set of sieves.

e) The grain unloaded into the hoppers first has its lightest impurities removed by
running it through a current of air produced by a fan. Then, the set of sieves
completes the cleaning of the grain at the same time it is sorted according to size.

-- Pre-cleaner

a) Generally used to pre-clean grain that has been harvested when moist, before it
goes to the artificial dryer

b) Several models of pre-cleaner:

– Pre-cleaner, in which impurities are eliminated principally by suction (output of
about 150 quintals an hour);
– Drum pre-cleaner, in which the heaviest impurities are eliminated by passing the
grain through the meshes of a drum, and the lightest are eliminated by suction
(output of about 10 to 50 tonnes an hour);
– Clodder, in which the bulkiest impurities are eliminated by means of a coarse,
vibrating sieve.

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 Fig. 27. Diagram of clodder: (1) Grain entry, (2) Adjustment,
(3) Suction, (4) Impurities exit and (5) Grain exit.

b. Sorting

 Sorting is the separation of foods into

categories on the basis of a
measurable physical property
 Should be employed as early as
possible to ensure a uniform product
for subsequent processing
 The four main physical properties
used to sort foods are size, shape,
weight and color.

Fig. 28. Manual sorting

Shape and size sorting

 The particle size distribution of a

material is expressed as either the
mass fraction of material that is
retained on each sieve or cumulative
percentage of material retained.

The shape of some foods is important

in determining their suitability for
processing or their retail value (e.g. Fig. 29. Belt-and-roller sorter
potatoes should have a uniform oval or
round shape without protuberances).

 Shape sorting is either done manually or mechanically.

 Size sorting use screens with either fixed or variable apertures.

-- Fixed aperture screens

1. Multideck flat bed screen

25
a) Has a number of inclined or horizontal
mesh screens, which have aperture
sizes from 20 m µ to 125 mm, stacked
inside a vibrating frame.

b) Food particles that are smaller than the

screen apertures pass through under
gravity until they reach a screen with
an aperture size that retains them.

Fig. 30. Multi-deck Flat Bed Screen

c) Widely used for sorting dry foods (e.g. flour, sugar and spices)

1. Drum screen
a) Used for sorting small-particulate foods
(e.g. nuts, peas or beans) that have
sufficient mechanical strength to
withstand the tumbling action inside
the screen.
b) Drum screens are almost horizontal (5–
10º inclination), perforated metal or
mesh cylinders.
c) All types have a higher capacity than flat
bed screens and problems associated
with blinding are less
severe than with flat bed screens. Fig. 31. Parallel Drum Screen

Color sorting

 Small particulate foods may be automatically sorted at high rates using

microprocessor controlled color sorting equipment.
 Particles are fed into chute one at a time.
 The angle, shape and lining material of chute are altered to control the velocity of
pieces as the pass a photo detector.
 Photo detectors measure the reflected color of each piece and compare it with
preset standards, and defective foods are separated by a short blast of compressed
air.

Weight sorting

 Weight sorting is more accurate than other methods and is therefore used for more
valuable foods.

26
A) Weight Graders

a) Each fruit rest in an individually hinged cup

and for much journey along the conveyor
the cup and fruit are supported in an upright
position by a fixed guide rail.

b) At suitable interval, however, the support is

provided by an adjustable lever type
weighing device.
.
Fig. 32. Weight grading
c. Grading

 This term is often used interchangeably with sorting but strictly means ‘the
assessment of overall quality of a food using a number of attributes’.
 Grading is carried out by machines or operators who are trained to simultaneously
assess a number of variables.

Example of Grading Systems

a. Widening Bands

 Rubber bands which become progressively wider can be used to grade cherries.
Cherries of the same size will fall together between the bands. Different channels
and outlets enable cherries of predefined sizes to be collected.

Fig. 33. Widening band grading system.

b. Spiral

 A spiral with a changing diameter can

also be used to grade the tree fruit. This
is a less common method because it
takes more time compared to the
rubber bands.

Fig. 34. Spira grading system.

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c. Laser

 This system will takes up photographs/images of the fruit and can grade based on
weight, color, size and shape. Their place on the conveyor is labeled and the fruit
will be dropped at a predefined exit.

Fig. 35. Laser system for apple grading.

5. What are the common functions of existing

food processing equipment?

 Employed for food and food product applications ranging from bakery goods to
beverages and dairy to produce, a wide range of food processing equipment is
available to execute the various unit operations necessary during a complete
production cycle, such as washing, separating, mixing, baking, freezing, and
sealing.

Some of the most common functions by which food processing equipment are
grouped include:

 Preparation
 Mechanical processing
 Heat processing
 Preservation
 Packaging

3.1. Preparatory Equipment

 Focus on preparing the raw food material for subsequent processes—typically

mechanical or chemical processing—by separating the desirable material from the
low quality, substandard, or undesirable material

Table 12. Food Preparation Equipment by Unit Operation

Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Cleaning Removes foreign matter and Wet Processes

contaminants—e.g., soil, oil,

28
 insects, skins, chemicals,  Soak/floatation tanks
etc.—from the surface of raw (soaking)
food material via wet and dry  Spray washers (spray
cleaning processes washing)
 Washing
systems (washing)
 Sterilizers (sterilizing)
 Ultrasonic cleaners

Dry Processes

 Air classifiers
 Magnetic separators
 Screening separators

Grading Closely related to, and often  Tungsten lights

precluding, sorting processes (candling)
 Image processors
Assesses several  Laboratory equipment
characteristics of food matter
(e.g., flavor, damage, skin
color, aroma, etc.) to
determine the overall quality
Peeling/Skinning Removes inedible or  Pressure vessels (flash
undesirable material to steam peeling)
increase the overall quality  Stationary/rotating
and/or appearance of the final blades (knife peeling)
food product  Carborundum abrasive
rollers/bowls (abrasion
peeling)
 Conveyors and furnaces
(flame peeling)

Sorting Operates similarly to and  See Dry Processes

overlaps with dry cleaning  Sorting machinery
processes  Disc separators (shape
sorting)
Classifies and separates  Sieves/screens (size
foreign matter and sorting)
contaminants from raw food  Machine vision sorting
material based on a systems
measurable physical  Sorting conveyors
characteristic (typically size,
shape, weight, or color)

29
3.2. Mechanical Processing Equipment

 Mechanical processing operations are employed (without the application of heat

or chemicals) to reduce, enlarge, homogenize, or otherwise change the physical
form of solid, semi-solid, and liquid food matter.

 By altering the form and size of the food matter, manufacturers can facilitate and
increase the efficiency and effectiveness of subsequent processes, improve the
overall quality and edibility, and allow for a greater range of food products to be
produced.

Table 3. Mechanical Food Processing Equipment by Unit Operation

Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Size Reduction* Reduces the average particle Grinding/Crushing

size of solid food matter
through mechanical processes  Impact mills
involving compression, shear,  Pressure mills
or impact force  Attrition mills
 Jaw crushers
 Roll crushers
 Strainers/pulpers

Cutting/Chopping

 Knives/blades
 Band saws
 Slicing machines
 Meat grinders

Size Increases the average particle Extrusion

Enlargement* size of solid food matter
through mechanical  Non-thermal extruders
processes, such as extrusion,  Single-screw extruders
agglomeration, or forming  Twin-screw extruders
 Refrigerated extruders

Agglomeration

 Rotating pans
 Rotating drums
 High-speed agitators
 Tableting equipment
 Pelletizing equipment

Forming

30
  Bread molders
 Pie and biscuit formers
 Confectionary molders
 Enrobing machines

Homogenization* Also referred to as  Homogenizers

emulsification  Emulsifiers
 Colloid mills
Reduces the average particle  High shear mixers
size and increases the
consistency of semi-solid and
liquid food matter

Mixing** Also referred to as blending Fluid Mixers

Combines and disperses two  Agitated tanks

or more components into one  Paddle mixers
another to achieve and  Anchor mixers
maintain a uniform mixture  Turbine mixers
and/or an alteration to the
functional or aesthetic Dough/Paste Mixers
qualities of the food product
(e.g., texture)  Horizontal dough mixers
 Sigma-blade mixers
Type of equipment depends  Cutter mixers
on the form of the food
components—gas/liquid, Solids Mixers
liquid/liquid, liquid/solid,
solid/solid  Diffusive (passive)
mixers
 Convective (active)
mixers
 Drum blenders

3.3. Heat Processing Equipment

(Preservation by the Application of Heat)

 Heat processing equipment—i.e., equipment which heats food—can cause not

only physical changes in the food material, but chemical, biochemical, and
biological changes as well.

 These changes can transform and affect the overall quality of the resulting food
products—such as by altering the chemical structure or enhancing the flavor—and
serve as a preservation method by inhibiting or destroying the microorganisms or
enzymes which cause spoilage.

31
Table 4. Heat Processing Equipment by Unit Operation
Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Baking Similar to, and often referred Baking ovens

interchangeably with,
roasting  Direct heating ovens
 Indirect heating ovens
Employs heated air (heated  Batch ovens
by convection, conduction,  Continuous and
and radiation)—and, in some semi-continuous ovens
cases, water vapor—to heat
and produce physical and
chemical changes in food
material, such as texture or
flavor

Assists in the preservation of

food matter by destroying
microorganisms and reducing
the amount of moisture at the
food surface

Suitable for producing bread,

crackers, biscuits, and other
flour- based or dough-based
products

Blanching Employs heated water or Blanchers

steam to reduce the number
of microorganisms and  Steam blanchers
inactivate undesirable  Hot water blanchers
enzymes which can cause
spoilage

Also cleans, removes excess

air from, softens, and
improves the overall quality

Typically follows preparation

operations and precedes
preservation operations, such
as packaging, dehydrating, or
freezing

Suitable for fruits and

vegetables

32
Dehydration Employs heat to remove (i.e., Dryers
evaporate) water from solid,
semi-solid, or liquid food  Convective dryers
material with the intention of  Contact (conductive)
producing a solid food dryers
product with sufficiently low  Vacuum dryers
water content  Freeze dryers

Increases the shelf life of

food products due to the
reduced water content which
inhibits microbial growth and
enzyme activity

Reduces weight and volume

and/or transforms the form of
the final food product

Evaporation Removes volatile solvents Heat exchangers

(typically water) from food
material by boiling to  Evaporators
increase the concentration of  Condensers
solid contents

Increases the shelf life of

food products due to the
reduced water content, but
also increases the rate of
chemical deterioration

Reduces the weight and

volume of the final food
product

Typically precedes
operations, such as
crystallization, precipitation,
and coagulation

Suitable for liquid-based food

products

Frying Processes food material under Pasteurizers

medium temperatures (70–
100 °C) to inactivate most  In-container pasteurizers
enzymes and microorganisms  Continuous flow
(but not pasteurizers

33
 spores) which cause spoilage Heat exchangers

Produces food products with  Plate heat exchangers

limited shelf lives (short-term  Concentric tube heat
preservation method) exchangers

Little to no impact to quality

and characteristics beyond
the shelf life

Suitable for dairy,

fruit/vegetable-based, wine,
beer, and egg products

Roasting Similar to, and often referred  Roasting machinery

interchangeably with, baking  Roasting ovens
 See Baking Equipment
Employs heated air (heated Employed
by convection, conduction,
and radiation)—and, in some
cases, water vapor—to heat
and produce physical and
chemical changes in food
material, such as texture or
flavor

Assists in the preservation of

food matter by destroying
microorganisms and reducing
the amount of water at the
food surface

Suitable for meats, nuts,

vegetables, etc.

Sterilization Processes food material under Sterilizers/sterilizing retorts

high temperatures (100+ °C)
to inactivate all  In-container sterilizers
microorganisms and enzymes  Continuous flow
(including microbial spores) sterilizers

Can be heated by steam, hot Heat exchangers

water, or direct flames

Produces food products with

long shelf lives (long-term
preservation method)

34
 May result in a significant
impact on quality and
characteristics

3.4. Preservation Equipment

 The preservation stage of the food processing production cycle ultimately aims to
prevent or inhibit the spoilage and increase the shelf life of food products.

 There is a wide range of preservation methods available ranging from refrigeration

to irradiation, each of which acts to destroy microorganisms and enzymes within
the food material or, at the very least, limit and depress their activity.

Table 5. Food Preservation Equipment by Method

Preservation Description Equipment Employed
Method

Chemical*  Employs natural and Natural

non-natural chemical
substances to prevent  Salt (salting)
or inhibit spoilage  Smokers (smoking)
 Can change the pH  Acids (e.g., acetic acid,
and other qualities of vinegar, etc.)
food material
Non-Natural

 Sorbic acid
 Sulfur dioxide
 Benzoic acid

Heat Processing See Heat Processing

(Application of Equipment section
Heat)
Irradiation Employs ionizing radiation to Irradiation equipment, such as
destroy microorganisms and isotopes and electron
inactivate enzymes which accelerators
cause spoilage

Little to no heating of food

material

Refrigeration** Reduces the temperature of Chilling (-1°C–8°C)

(Removal of food material to depress the
Heat) biochemical and  Chillers
microbiological processes of

35
 microorganisms and enzymes  Mechanical refrigerators
which cause spoilage  Cryogenic systems

Helps maintain quality and Freezing (below freezing point)

characteristics of food
material  Freezers
 Mechanical refrigerators
 Cryogenic systems

Water Reduces the amount of water Drying

Reduction** in food matter in solid, semi-
solid, or liquid food material  Convective dryers
to inhibit  Contact (conductive)
microbiological and dryers
enzymatic process which  Vacuum/freeze dryers
cause spoilage
Solute Addition

 Sugar
 Salt

Concentration

 Evaporators
 Condensers

3.5. Packaging Equipment

 Following the preparation and processing stages, food material generally

undergoes one or more post-processing operations, which help to produce the final
food product and complete the food processing production cycle.

 Additionally, food packaging is available in several forms—e.g., boxes, jars,

bottles, cans, etc.
 Some of the other factors which may influence the type of packaging equipment
employed include the type and form of food product and the storage, handling,
distribution, and marketing requirements.

Table 6. Common Types of Food Packaging and Equipment.

Equipment Employed Function Description

Printers Packaging Material  Enables the

(e.g., flexographic, Creation identification of food
photogravure, contents and the
planographic, screen, indication of handling,

36
or ink-jet) storage, and usage
instructions (e.g.,
ingredient list,
production date,
barcodes, etc.)
 Allows for branding and
marketing (e.g., brand
name, logo, etc.)

Volumetric Fillers Filling Used to fill a set volume of the

packaging containers with
liquid, paste, or small pieces of
solid food material

Net-weight/Gross-weig Filling Used to fill packaging containers

ht Fillers with a specific weight of liquid,
paste, or small pieces of solid
food material

Seamers Sealing  Creates a double seam in

filled food and beverage
cans

Form-Fill-Seal (FFS) Sealing  Capable of forming,

Systems filling, and sealing
flexible film packaging
containers

Checkweighers Quality Control  Verifies that filled

packaging containers are
at the required fill
weight and removes
underweight products
from the production line

APPLICATION

Infographics related on food Processing and Agricultural Products

8. REFERENCES:

Bhalla, A. S. (1975). (Ed.), Technology and Employment in Industry, Geneva: IL0.

Bhattachana, S.C. (1978). Kerula's Utilization of Fruits and Vegetables, New Delhi:
Himalaya Publishing House.
37
Brahmanada, P. R. (1982). Productivity in the Indian Economy, Delhi: Himalaya
Publishing House.

38
Center for Industrial and Economic Research, Industrial Data Book, Various Issues,
New Delhi.

Debroy, B. (1994). Food Processing Industries in India. New Delhi : Ministry of Food
Processing Industries.

Dennis, M.J. and P.R. Ashwrott. (1985). An Introduction to Food Authentication,

Delhi: Oxford Publication.

Desai, B.M., V.K. Gupta and N.V. Namboodiri. (1994). Food Processing Industries :
Development and Financial Performance, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing
House.

Dhamsaniya, N. K. (2009). Guide to Post Harvest Unit Operations. Kalyani Publishers

Fellows, P. (2000). Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practice (Second

Edition ed.). Cambridge , England: Woodhead Publishing Limited.

Ronquillo, R. (2020). Overview of food processing equipment. Retrieved from

https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/machinery-tools-supplies/overview-of-food-
processing-equipment/htm.

Sahay, K. M. and Singh, K. K. (2009). Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing

(Second ed.). India : Vikas Publishing House Pvt Limited.

Srivastava, R. P. and Kumar, S. (2002). Fruits and Vegetables Preservation:

Principles and Practices. Lucknow, India: International Book Distributing Co.

9. ASSESSMENT

Questions to be answered:

1. Among the primitive methods of food processing, which is/are still commonly
used up to date and why? Give the name of the processed product/s. (20 points)
2. Enumerate and discuss the principles of food processing and associated methods?
(20pts.)
3. How did food processing influence the present world. (20pts.)
4. State each importance of existing equipment used in food processing nowadays.
(20 points

39
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