CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: CE 37– Construction Materials, Lecture

Name of Teacher: Irish S. Tambis, CE, ME, RMP

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY, NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

UNIT 5
Table of Contents

Course Overview

➢ Introduction to Construction Materials and Testing

➢ Quality Control Supervision in Concrete Construction
➢ Familiarization with apparatus & equipment used in testing of materials;
➢ General properties of construction materials
➢ Specific Weight, Water Absorption, Abrasion, Density and Uniformity of
Aggregates and quality control test
➢ Concrete as a construction material
➢ Preparation and Curing of Concrete Test Specimens.
➢ Determination of Setting Time of Hydraulic Cement; Cement and Cementitious
materials
➢ Familiarization with the Parts and Functions of the Universal Testing Machine;
➢ Mechanical Properties and Testing of Wood: Samples for Bending, Compression,
Shear, Tension, and Water Content;
➢ Determine the Compressive Strength of Concrete Hollow Blocks;
➢ Introduction to design of concrete mixtures
➢ Properties of Concrete
➢ Water, Admixtures and Reinforcing Steel Bars
➢ Testing the Tensile Strength of Steel Bars
➢ Field Tests of Construction Materials
At the end of every unit: Evaluation
Self Help
Let’s Check
Let’s Analyze
COURSE OUTLINE: CE 37- CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, LECTURE

Course Coordinator: Engr. Irish Sultan Tambis

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: Google Classroom LMS and E-mail
Mobile:
Effectivity Date: August 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: Should have passed ES 28 (Mechanics of Deformable Bodies)
Credit: 3 units lecture, 1-unit Laboratory
Attendance Requirements:
Time Frame:

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

This 3-unit course self-instructional manual/module is
Contact and Non-contact Hours designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions.
The face to face sessions shall include the summative
assessment tasks (exams) since this course is also a part
in the licensure examination for civil engineers.

Assessment Task Submission

Submission of assessment tasks shall be on the next
week of the term. The assessment paper shall be
attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the name
of the course coordinator, date of submission and name
of the student. The document should be emailed to the
course coordinator or via Google Classroom.
Since this course is included in the licensure examination
for civil engineering, you will be required to take the
Assessment through Long quizzes and term exams inside
the university. This should be scheduled ahead of time
by your course coordinator.
Penalties for Late Assignments/Assessments The score for an assessment item submitted after the
designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper has
a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
 Return of Assignments/ Assessments Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
after the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Google Classroom portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will
require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g. illness, accidents
financial constraints.

All culled from Online sessions and traditional Contact:

Grading System (see provided syllabus for the Quizzes, Graded Reporting, Laboratory Activities.
specific subject) Assignments and Term Exams

% PASSING = 50% OF THE TOTAL POSSIBLE SCORE

MTG = 35% LQ + 25% Reports of Assignments/Grp Act +

40% TE

FTG = 35% LQ + 25% Reports of Assignments/Grp Act +

40% TE

MTG/FTG = (1/3) (Lab Term

Grade(MTGorFTG))+(2/3)(Lecture Term Grade (MTGor
FTG))

FG = (1/3) Midterm Grade (MTG) + (2/3) Final Term

Grade (FTG)

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Google Classroom LMS

 CC’s Voice: Hello prospective Engineers! Welcome to this course CE 37 Construction
Materials, Lecture. By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become an engineer
and that you have acquired enough knowledge in ES 28-Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
as the pre-requisite of this course.

Course Objectives:
CO1. Explain relevant properties of common construction materials;
CO2. Conduct experiments on common construction materials according to international
standards such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM);
CO3. Evaluate the results of the test of common construction materials
Let us begin!

BIG PICTURE
Week 9-11: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
• Able to understand and design of concrete mixtures
• Understand properties of Fresh Concrete
Design of Concrete Mixtures

INTRODUCTION

A concrete mix is a combination of five major elements in various proportions, cement,

water, coarse aggregates (gravel), fine aggregates (i.e. sand), and air. Additional
elements such as pozzolanic materials and chemical admixtures can also be
incorporated into the mix to give it certain desirable properties. (Fig.)

The design of a concrete mixture is the determination of the relative proportions of

cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and water.

All ready-mix producers strive to find the perfect proportions of these ingredients in order
to optimize their concrete mixes and give their concrete strength, durability, workability,
and other desirable properties. The engineer should know that using concrete as a
structural material needs to create an exclusive mix design depending on the individual
material to be incorporated as discussed. This is far from easy, as every addition or
subtraction to the concrete mix entails adjustments to the other components.

Concrete mix design is the process of selecting the ingredients for a concrete mixture
and deciding on their proportions with the consideration of the designers engineering
judgement. When the designing concrete mix, one should always consider the desired
strength, durability and workability of the concrete for the project in to be constructed.

Fig. 5.1 Illustration of a Concrete Mixture

Composition of Concrete

Most volume (70-100%) will be occupied by gravel. The voids between the gravel will be
occupied by sand (50% of the volume) and the voids between the sand will be occupied
by cement and the water (paste)

Fig. 5.2 Main Ingredients of Concrete

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

In compliance to subsections 311.2 and 405.1 of DPWH Standard Specifications Volume

II, 2103 edition, the Contractor shall prepare design mix for Portland Cement Concrete
Pavement (PCCP) and Structural Concrete for approval of the Engineer.

In concrete design and quality control, strength is the property generally specified. This is
because, compared to most other properties, testing strength is relatively easy. We
usually take minimum number of samples of poured concrete and test it to get the
following:

1. Compressive strength test for structural concrete such as buildings and bridges
2. Flexural strength test for horizontal structures such as roads

Normally, strength of concrete is statistically computed by testing the taken samples with
the following ages:

1. For structural concrete, cylinder samples are tested at the age of 7, 14, 21 and
maximum 28 days. Concrete with age below 28-days may be subjected for testing
with the prior approval of the Engineer.
2. For horizontal structures, beam samples are tested at the age of 7 and 14 days.
Beam samples with age below 14 days may be subjected for testing with the prior
approval of the Engineer.
In accordance with DPWH Standard Specifications for Highways, Bridges and Airports
Volume II, 2013 Edition, the following prescribes the proportion of concrete mixtures in
DPWH projects.

a. Proportioning of Concrete for Structural Concrete

The materials shall be proportioned in accordance with the requirements for each class
of concrete in Table 5.1A, using the absolute volume method as outlined in the American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Standard 211.1. “Recommended Practice for Selecting
Proportions for Normal and Heavyweight Concrete”. Other methods of proportioning
may be employed in the mix design with prior approval of the Engineer. The mix shall
either be designed or approved by the Engineer. A change in the source of materials
during the process of work may necessitates a new mix design.

Concrete can be made with wide variations in quality. Our standard specification
includes several classes of concrete which are selected on the basis of intended use.
Table 5.1A advises the use of water-cement ratio, slump, and desired strength, however,
the engineer decides the mix depending on his preferred design that technically and
economically applicable to the mix.
CLASS A: All superstructures and heavily reinforced substructures. For slabs, beams,
girders, arch ribs, box culvert, reinforced footings, precast piles and cribbing.

CLASS B: Footings, pedestals, massive pier shafts, pipe bedding and gravity walls,
unreinforced or with only a small amount of reinforcement.

CLASS C: Thin reinforced sections, railings, and for filler in steel grid floors

CLASS P: Pres-stressed concrete structures and members

SEAL: Concrete deposited in water

Table 5.1A. Composition and Strength of Concrete for Use in Structure

class Minimum Maximum Consistency Designated Minimum

Cement water- Range in Size of Compressive
Content per cement Slump (inch) Coarse Strength of
m3 Kg ratio Kg/Kg Aggregates, 150 mm x
(bag*) square 300 mm
opening, concrete
Std. mm cylinder
specimen at
28 days MPa
(psi)
A 360 (9.1) 0.53 50-100 (2-4) 37.5 - 4.75 20.7 (3000)
(1 ½” – No.4)
B 320 (8.0) 0.58 50-100 (2-4) 50 (4.75) 16.5 (2,400)
(2” – No.4)
C 380 (9.5) 0.55 50-100 (2-4) 12.5 - 4.75 20.7 (3000)
(1/2” – No.4)
P 440 (11) 0.49 100 Max 19 - 4.75 37.7 (5000)
 (4) Max (3/4” – No.4)
Seal 380 (9.5) 0.58 100-200 25 - 4.75 20.7 (3000)
(4-8) (1” – No.4)
The measured cement shall be within plus or minus 2 mass percent of the design cement content.
Source: DPWH Standard Specifications, Volume II, 2013 Edition

However, before we proceed to using the ACI Concrete Mix design, various calculations
have been made possible, innovated, and modified to simplify its utilization based on
applicable situations.

b. Proportioning of Concrete for Roads

The design mix shall be prepared based on the absolute volume method as outlined in
the American Concrete Institute (ACI)

For road projects, it is required to have at least 364 kg of cement (9.1 bags of 40 Kg) per
cubic meter of concrete to meet the minimum strength requirements. The Engineer shall
determine from laboratory tests of the materials to be used, the cement content and the
proportions of aggregate and water that will produce workable concrete having the
following slump:

1. Slump of between 40 and 75 mm of not vibrated; or

2. Slump of between 10 and 40 mm if vibrated

The mix shall also have the following flexural strengths:

1. Flexural strength of not less than 3.8 MPa when tested by the third-point method
at fourteen (14) days in accordance with AASHTO T 97; or
2. Flexural strength of not less than 4.5 MPa when tested by the mid-point method at
fourteen (14) days in accordance with AASHTO T177
3. Compressive strength of 24.1 MPa for cores taken at fourteen (14) days and tested
in accordance with AASHTO T24

Slump shall be determined using AASHTO T 119

The designer shall consider the use if lean concrete (econocrete) mixtures using local
materials or specifically modified conventional concrete mixes in base course and in the
lower course composite, monolithic concrete pavements using a minimum of 75 mm of
conventional concrete as surface course.

Process Flow of Designing and Approval of the Mix

The concrete mixture shall be designed to give the most economical and practical
combination of the materials that will produce the desired workability, strength and
durability. The mix design shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval and shall be
accompanied with certified test data from an approved laboratory demonstrating the
adequacy of the mix design. A change in the source of materials during the progress of
work may necessitate a new design mix.
The flow of designing the right proportions starts with the testing and approval of the
material source. A change in the source of materials during the progress of work may
necessitate a new mix design.

Once the materials sources passed the individual requirement and are approved by the
engineer-in charge (Government M.E.), designing the mix proportion and calculations
are made.

The approved design mix will then be subjected to trial mix. The right water content of
aggregates is needed in modifying the proportions. The Contractor is obliged to make a
design mix, conduct trial mix and trial construction before commencement of pavement
construction for approval of Engineer/PE or ME.

Material Design of Trial Final approval Commence

test and mix and construct of design mix ment of
approval trial mix ion and construction
construction
method
Fig. 5.3 flow of design mix, trial mix and trial construction of PCCP

The design mix shall be based on the approved materials such as aggregate, sand,
water, additive, and cement that meet the specification requirements and the
appropriate design parameters indicated in Standard Specifications. The design mix shall
be verified through the trial mix, sampling and testing.
The trial mix shall include various proportions with an attempt to optimize every single
material to be incorporated in the mix esp water and cement. It is important to create
various mixes so that the best proportion will be identified with consideration of the
available material sources, cement content and workability.

Trial mix starts with sampling and material preparation, followed by weighing of each
material, then by mixing materials together. Correct sampling and slump test must be
done. Any subtraction or addition of water must be logged in the worksheet. Once
placing of trial mix is done, let the mix harden. After 24 hours, demold the sample/s. Place
the hardened concrete into the curing tank and let it soaked until the day of testing. Be
sure to weigh the sample before testing.

It’s important to get the right mix for your concrete. The purpose of concrete trial mixes is
to enable you to check the strength, workability, density and other properties of concrete
mixes. Trial mixes are often undertaken when new materials or admixtures are to be used.
Trials are also undertaken when setting up batch data. Trial mixes can help you maximize
all the materials in the mix and is important for mix optimization.

CONCRETE MIXING

Concrete can be mixed by hand in small portable mixers, in transit mix trucks, and in large
stationary mixers. No matter how the concrete is mixed, the end result desired is the same
– a quality concrete meeting the design requirements.
To produce quality concrete, the batching and measuring of ingredients must be done
accurately. Most specifications require that materials be weighed and combined rather
than combined by volume.

Weighing materials allows for adjustments in moisture conditions, especially in fine

aggregates where bulking can occur due to moisture.
All weighing equipment should be checked periodically and adjustments made when
required. Admixture equipment should be checked daily since overdoses can be very
detrimental to quality of concrete production.
1. The actual mixing of the ingredients to produce concrete
2. The agitating of already mixed concrete
The agitating capacity is higher than the mixing capacity. The mixing equipment can be
stationary, mounted on wheels and towable, mounted on a truck for transit mix or
mounted on crawlers for paving operations.

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN CALCULATIONS

In general, concrete mixes are designed to follow the guidelines provided by ACI
Committee 211-Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and
Mass Concrete (ACI 211.91). A concrete mix can be designed using the tables and
calculations provided in the standard.

Though the use of ACI 211 is already specified in the standard specifications, various
calculations immerge depending on the applicability and availability of materials.

Proportioning concrete mixture has two (2) different ways: by weight or by volume
method. The most accurate method to provide better values is by weight which
concrete batching plants are required to use, however, it would utilize laboratory tests
which can be tedious to small-scale construction in the country. The most common and
convenient way is by volume method using the empty plastic bag of cement, or by
measuring box for sand and gravel.

CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE PROPORTION

For estimating purposes, we provide 9.1 bags of cement, 0.50 cu.m of sand for
river/natural aggregates (0.54 cu.m/cu.m of concrete if angular coarse aggregates are
used); 0.77 cu.m of rounded coarse aggregates in one (1) cu.m of concrete (0.68
cu.m/cu.m of concrete if angular coarse aggregates are used). To simplify these
calculations, Table 5.2B – Conventional Concrete Proportions is hereby provided.

Table 5.2B Conventional Concrete Proportions

Class Proportion Compressive CF Sand m3 Gravel, m3
Strength PSI 40 River Manuf. Rounded Angular
(MPa) kg/bags
A 1:2:4 3500 (24.1) 9.1 0.50 0.54 0.77 0.68
B 1:2.25:4.5 2400 (16.5) 8.0 0.50 0.54 0.77 0.68
B2 1:2.5:5 2500 (17.2) 7.5 0.50 0.54 0.77 0.68
 B3 1:3:6 2000 (13.8) 6.0 0.50 0.54 0.77 0.68
C 1:1.75:3.75 3000 (20.7) 9.5 0.50 0.54 0.77 0.68
P 1:1.5:3.25 5000 (37.7) 11.0 0.50 0.54 0.77 0.68

Example Problem No. 5.1 Conventional Concrete Proportions

A proposed farm to market road in Brgy. Tigum, Pavia, Iloilo is composed of 2-lanes, 2-
meters wide per lane Portland Cement Concrete Pavement (PCCP), 500 meters long
and 230mm thickness. Determine the quantity of cement in bags, sand and gravel in
cubic meters using class “A” mixture with sources of River Sand and Rounded Gravel
(River Aggregates).

Fig. 5.4 Farm to Market Road

Computation/Solution:
1. Determine the volume of the PCCP
Volume = Width (W) x Length (L) x Thickness (T) x 2 Lanes
V = 2 x 500 x 0.23 xx 2 Lanes
V = 460 m3

2. PCCP shall be designed in such a way that it will withstand a higher compressive
and flexural strength. This is a road construction project, and that the flexural
strength has a minimum requirement of 550 psi. Class A is the best design mix for
this case.

From Table 5.2B, using 40 kg cement class A, river aggregates (screened):

Cement: 460 m3 x 9.1 bags/m3 of concrete = 4,186 Bags of cement
Sand: 460 m3 x 0.50 m3 of gravel /m3 of concrete = 230 m3
Gravel: 460 m3 x 0.77 m3 of gravel/ m3 of concrete = 354.20 m3

Thus, for the whole project, we will be needing 4,186 bags of Portland Cement, 230 m3 of
fine aggregates and 354.2 m3 of coarse aggregates.

Example Problem 5.2 Conventional Concrete Proportion

The proposed 0.30 - meter square column in Fig. has a clear height of 3.0 meters from the
floor line to the bottom line of the beam. Class A will be used.

Regardless of the presence of reinforcing bars with the assumption that their volume will
not affect that much to the total volume of concrete used. Determine the quantity of
bags cement, sand and gravel in cubic meters.

Fig. 5.3 Square Column

Computation/Solution:

1. Volume of Concrete = W x L x T
Volume = 0.30 x 0.30 x 3.0 m
Volume = 0.27 cu.m

2. From Table 5.2, using concrete Class “A”, aggregates from a crushing plant:

Cement: 0.27 m3 x 9.1 bags/m3 = 2.457, 2.50 Bags

Sand: 0.27 m3 x 0.54 m3 of gravel/ m3 of concrete = 0.1458 say 0.15 m3

Gravel: 0.27 m3 x 0.68 m3 of gravel / m3 of concrete = 0.1836 say 0.19 m3

Thus, for the said square column, we will be needing 2.5 bags of Portland Cement, 0.15
m3 of Fine aggregates and 0.19 m3 of Coarse aggregates.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Properties of concrete are influenced by many factors mainly due to mix proportion of
cement, sand, aggregates and water. Ratio of these materials control the various
concrete properties which are discussed below.
Properties of Concrete
Different properties of concrete:
1. Grades (M20, M25, M30 etc.)
2. Compressive strength
3. Characteristic Strength
4. Tensile strength
5. Durability
6. Creep
7. Shrinkage
8. Unit weight
9. Modular Ratio
10. Poissons ratio

1. Grades of concrete
Concrete is known by its grade which is designated as M15, M20 etc. in which letter M
refers to concrete mix and number 15, 20 denotes the specified compressive strength
(fck) of 150mm cube at 28 days, expressed in N/mm2.
Thus, concrete is known by its compressive strength. M20 and M25 are the most
common grades of concrete, and higher grades of concrete should be used for
severe, very severe and extreme environments.

2. Compressive strength of concrete

Like load, the strength of the concrete is also a quality which varies considerably for the
same concrete mix. Therefore, a single representative value, known as characteristic
strength is used.

3. Characteristic strength of concrete

It is defined as the value of the strength below which not more then 5% of the test results
are expected to fall (i.e. there is 95% probability of achieving this value only 5% of not
achieving the same)

Characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member

The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67 times the
strength of concrete cube.
Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength
The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as design strength
and is given by
Design strength (fd) = characteristic strength/ partial safety factor for material strength
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the type
of limit state. According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for concrete and
1.15 for steel.
Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck
4. Tensile strength of concrete
The estimate of flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture or the cracking
strength of concrete from cube compressive strength is obtained by the relations
fcr = 0.7 fck N/mm2. The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained
experimentally by split cylinder. It varies between 1/8 to 1/12 of cube compressive
strength.

5. Creep in concrete
Creep is defined as the plastic deformation under sustained load. Creep strain depends
primarily on the duration of sustained loading. According to the code, the value of the
ultimate creep coefficient is taken as 1.6 at 28 days of loading.

6. Shrinkage of Concrete
The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and hardening is
termed Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure. If this strain is
prevented, it produces tensile stress in the concrete and hence concrete develops
cracks.

7. Modular ratio
Short term modular ratio is the modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of elasticity
of concrete.
Short term modular ratio = Es/ Ec
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (2 x 10 5 N/mm2)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete (5000 x SQRT(fck) N/mm2)
As the modulus of elasticity of concrete changes with time, age at loading etc the
modular ratio also changes accordingly. Taking into account the effects of creep and
shrinkage partially IS code gives the following expression for the long term modular
ratio.
Long term modular ratio (m) = 280/ (3fcbc)
Where, fcbc = permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm 2.

8. Poissons ratio
Poissons ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength concrete and 0.2 for weak mixes. It is
normally taken as 0.15 for strength design and 0.2 for serviceability criteria.

9. Durability of concrete
Durability of concrete is its ability to resist its disintegration and decay. One of the chief
characteristics influencing durability of concrete is its permeability to increase of water
and other potentially deleterious materials.
The desired low permeability in concrete is achieved by having adequate cement,
sufficient low water/cement ratio, by ensuring full compaction of concrete and by
adequate curing.

10. Unit weight of concrete

The unit weight of concrete depends on percentage of reinforcement, type of
aggregate, amount of voids and varies from 23 to 26 kN/m2. The unit weight of plain
and reinforced concrete as specified by IS:456 are 24 and 25 KN/m3 respectively.
The properties of hardened concrete
Hardened concrete has a number of properties, including:

Mechanical strength, in particular compressive strength. The strength of normal

concrete varies between 25 and 40 MPa. Above 50 MPa, the term High Performance
Concrete is used (50 MPa corresponds to a force of 50 tonnes acting on a square with
sides of ten centimetres).
Durability.
Concrete is extremely resistant to the physico-chemical attack emanating from the
environment (frost, rain atmospheric pollution, etc...) It is particularly well-suited for
structures exposed to demanding and extreme conditions.

Porosity and density.

These properties are responsible for the first two. The denser (or the less porous) the
concrete the better its performance and the greater its durability. The density of
concrete is increased by optimizing the dimensions and packing of the aggregate and
reducing the water content.
Fire resistance.
Thermal and acoustic insulation properties.
Impact resistance.

ACCEPTANCE OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Principles of Evaluation of Concrete

In accepting the in-placed concrete, thorough evaluation must be done before paying
the quantity and accomplished work. Payment is very important, of course, since it is thr
ultimate prize of the business.

There are many ways to evaluate concrete depending on its physical properties ad
durability. The very first property to notice is its visual attributes.

Evaluation of concrete durability performance is the main challenge in the condition

assessment of concrete structures. It is safe to say that the compressive strength of
concrete is the most important parameter used in its design. However, concrete does
not provide significant tensile strength. Perhaps, this is the very fundamental idea of
building reinforced concrete, where steel reinforcement provides the much needed
tensile strength of the section. Strength is one single piece of information everyone wants
to know before going deep into analysis and design as well as structural evaluation and
is widely accepted as the best test for the quality control of fresh concrete.

In accordance to ACI 214 - Evaluation of Strength Test Results of Concrete, the variations
in the strength of concrete test specimens can be traced to two (2) fundamentally
different sources:
 1. Variability in strength-producing properties of the concrete mixture and
production process, and under the batch variations; and
2. Variability in the measurement of strength coming from the testing procedures

Influence of Batch -to Batch Variations on Concrete Strength

For a given set of raw materials, concrete strength is largely governed by the water-
cementitious material ratio (w/cm). Controlling the w/cm is of primary importance for
producing concrete of consistent strength. Because the quantity of cementitious
material can be measured with accuracy, maintaining a constant w/cm principally
involves strict control of the quantity of water used (Neville 1996)

Strength variations often result from variation of air content. The entrained air content
influences both the water requirement and strength. There is an inverse relationship
between strength and air content (Kosmatka et al. 2002). The air content of a specific
concrete mixture can vary depending on variations in constituent materials, extent of
mixing, and ambient site conditions. For good concrete control, the entrained air content
is usually monitored closely at the construction site.

The temperature of fresh concrete affects the amount of water needed to achieve the
proper consistency and entrained air content. In addition, the concrete temperature
during the first 24 hours of curing can significantly affect later-age strengths of the
concrete. Concrete cylinders that are not standard cured in accordance with ASTM
C31/C31M-respecting the times at which particular events should occur, the acceptable
temperature range, and the need to prevent damage and moisture loss- will not
necessarily reflect the potential strength of the concrete.

Misuse of admixtures can cause concrete strength reductions. The known performance
of admixtures at normal temperatures may be different at extremely low or high
temperatures. The performance of an admixture when used by itself may be different of
it is used in combination with another admixture.

Construction practices can cause variations of in-place strength due to inadequate

mixing, improper consolidation, placement delays, improper curing and insufficient
protection at early ages. These differences will not be reflected in specimens fabricated
and stored under standard laboratory conditions (ASTM C31/C31M) but will be reflected
in strength assessments using nondestructive testing methods or strength testing of cores.

Influence of Within-Batch Variations on Concrete Strength

Testing to determine compliance with contract specifications should be conducted

according to the methods specified in the contract documents, such as ASTM C31/C31M
and C39/C39M. acceptance tests assess the compressive strength of the concrete when
prepared and cured under standard conditions, not in-place strength. It is not the
purpose of such tests to determine the in-place strength of the structure, but rather to
assure that the concrete delivered and placed was the concrete specified.

Deviations in field sampling, specimen preparation, curing, and testing procedures cause
lower strength test results. Field sampling, making, curing, handling, and testing of
specimens should be performed by ACI Certified Technicians or equivalently trained and
certified personnel. Provisions for maintaining specified curing conditions should be
made.

Specimens from concrete that are hardening and gaining strength should not be
disturbed until sufficient strength is achieved to prevent cylinder damage (ASTM
C31/C31M)

Using accurate, properly calibrated testing equipment and proper sample preparation
procedures is essential. Test results with low variability do not necessarily indicate
accurate test results. A routinely applied, systematic error can provide results that are
biased but uniform. Laboratory equipment and procedures should be calibrated and
checked periodically.

Testing personnel should be trained as ACI Certified Technicians or the equivalent who
are evaluated routinely, and this shall be made available in the Philippines.
In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength

1. Non-Destructive Testing

In-place tests are performed typically on concrete within a structure in contrast to tests
performed on molded specimens made from the concrete to be used in the structures.
Historically, they have been called nondestructive tests because some of the early tests
did not damage the concrete. Over the years, however, new methods have developed
that result in superficial local damage. Therefore, the terminology in placed tests is used
as a general category that includes those which do not alter the concrete and those
which result in minor surface damage. The important characteristics of these tests is that
they measure the properties of the concrete in a structure.

In-place tests can be used to estimate concrete strength during construction, so that
operations can be performed safely or curing procedures can be terminated. They can
also be used to estimate concrete strength during the evaluation of existing structures.

2. Need for in-place tests during construction

For over 40 years in Philippine practice, the most widely used test for concrete has been
the compression test of the standard cylinder. The test procedure is relatively easy to
perform in terms of sampling, preparation of specimens, and the determination of
strength. When properly performed, this test has low within test variation and low
interlaboratory variation, and therefore lends itself readily to use a standard. The
compressive strength so obtained is modified by specified factors and used to verify the
nominal strengths of structural members. This strength value is, therefore, an essential
parameter in design codes.

3. Influence of ACI 318

The alternative procedures must be approved by the building official prior to use.
Subsequent versions of ACI 318 also permit the use of in placed testing as an alternative
to testing field-cured specimens.
Most provisions in ACI 318 are based on the compressive strength of standard cylinder.
Thus, to evaluate structural capacity under construction loading, it is necessary to have
a measure of the cylinder strength of the concrete as it exists in the structure. If in-place
tests are used, it is necessary to establish a valid relationship between the results of in-
place tests and the compressive strength of cylinders. At present, there are no standard
practices for developing the required strength relationship. There are also no generally
accepted guidelines for interpretation of in-place test results. These deficiencies have
been impediments to widespread adoption of in-place tests.

4. Existing Construction

Reliable estimates of the in-place concrete strength are required for structural evaluation
of existing structures (refer to ACI 437R – Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete
Strength). Historically, the in-place strength has been estimated by testing cores drilled
from the structure. In-place tests can supplement coring and permit more economical
evaluation of the concrete in the structure. The critical step in such applications is
establish the relationship between in-place test results and concrete strength. The present
approach is to correlate results in-place tests performed at selected locations with
strength of corresponding cores. In placed testing does not eliminate the need for coring,
but it can reduce the total amount of coring needed to evaluate a large volume of
concrete. For success, a sound sampling plan is needed to acquire the correlation data
and for reliable interpretation of test results.

EVALUATION OF STRENGTH BASED ON ACI 301 STANDARDS

Testing concrete cylinders and beam samples is the most widely used test for measuring
the compressive strength. ASTM C39, “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
of Cylinder Concrete Specimens” provides a standard procedure for testing concrete
cylinders and reporting the test results. The most accepted test result is the strength of
cylinders at the age 28 days.

The rules of ACI 301, Specifications for Structural Concrete Buildings and ASTM C94,
“Standard Specifications for Ready-Mixed Concrete”, also include other important
information. For example, both have clear requirements that test results are to be
reported to the owner, architect/engineer, contractor and concrete supplier. ACI 301
also makes it clear that “when it appears that material furnished or work performed by
contractor fails to conform to contract documents, the testing agency will immediately
report such deficiency to architect/engineer, owner, contractor, and concrete supplier.

It is important to know that both ACI 301 and ASTM C94 require that when test results,
such as slump or air, are out of compliance with specified values, the first step is to
perform a “check test” to verify the initial reading.

Assessment of Results

And just as in stock market, there are all sorts of statistics that you can track: strength
versus air content, strength versus concrete or air temperature, or the chronological
record of strength over the duration of your project. This latter option actually is required
by ACI 318 “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete”, ACI 301, and ASTM
C94 in the two fundamental criteria for 0

To quote ACI 301, “ The Strength of concrete is satisfactory provided that the criteria of
1.6.6.1.a and 1.6.6.1.b are met:

• 1.6.6.1.a: Every average of three consecutive strength tests equals or exceeds the
specified compressive strength f’c
• 1.6.6.1.b: No strength test result falls below f’c by more than 500 psi (3.45 MPa)
when f’c is 5000 psi (34.48 MPa) or less, or by more than 0.10 f’c when f’c is more
than 5000 psi”

To evaluate these criteria, you need to first recognize that a single strength test result
is not the result of breaking a single cylinder, rather it is defined by averaging the
strengths of at least two (2) 6x12 inch or at least three 4x8 inch cylinders. Next criteria
1.6.6.1.b limits the value by which such single test results can fall below the specified
strength. At the same time, criteria 1.6.6.1.a looks at the bigger picture by requiring
the running average of three consecutive strength tests always equal or exceed the
specified strength.

Let’ consider a concrete mixture for which there are test results for 30 – 6x12 in
cylinders, cast over a number of placements and broken at an age of 28 days. The
specified 28-day strength is 4500 psi (31 MPa). The field test technician was careful to
make a pair of cylinders at each desired age at time of testing, so that for each batch
(truckload) of concrete that was sampled, two cylinders were subsequently tested in
the lab at 28 days.

In each case, the average of those two-cylinder strengths is reported as the single 28-
day compressive strength of that batch. (If more than two 28 day cylinders are
available for that single batch, the average of all of them can be used). The strength
of that batch and of subsequent batches would be considered acceptable if each
two-cylinder average from the batch is not lower than the specified strength by more
than the specified strength minus 500 psi (in this example 4500-500=4000 psi).

ACCEPTANCE OF CONCRETE TEST RESULTS BASED ON ACI 318 STANDARD

ACCEPTANCE OF CONCRETE TEST RESULTS BASED ON DPWH SPECIFICATIONS

DPWH Standard Specifications for Highways, Bridges and Airports Vol. II, 2013 Ed.
Excerpts from Cuna, Jose Reynaldo (2019). Fundamentals of Concrete Technology. Central Books Supply, Inc. 927 Phoenix
Building Quezon Avenue, Quezon City
INTRODUCTION TO TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE
Excerpts from Cuna, Jose Reynaldo (2019). Fundamentals of Concrete Technology. Central Books Supply, Inc. 927 Phoenix
Building Quezon Avenue, Quezon City

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Readings sources:
https://www.everything-about-concrete.com/concrete-mixing-ratios.html

http://www.planete-tp.com/en/the-properties-of-hardened-concrete-a233.html
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/properties-of-concrete-3/1692/

Cuna, Jose Reynaldo (2019). Fundamentals of Concrete Technology. Central Books

Supply, Inc. 927 Phoenix Building Quezon Avenue, Quezon City

Cuna, Jose Reynaldo (2019). The Materials Engineer Examination Reference for Civil
Engineers. Vol 1.1. 2nd Edition. Central Books Supply, Inc. 927 Phoenix Building Quezon
Avenue, Quezon City
Let’s Check:
Problem 1: A transit mixer for road construction was found to have 6” slump of fresh concrete
instead of the required 3”. What will you recommend of you are the assigned Materials
Engineer?

a. Add Portland cement to attain the required 3” slump

b. Add Portland cement and fine aggregate to attain the required 3” slump
c. Reject the concrete mixture
d. Let the concrete mix diverted for pouring on a prepared column for retaining wall of the
same project

Problem 2: The concrete has been tested for consistency. After the test, the height of concrete
was measured at 178 mm. What is the slump of the concrete?

a. 122mm
b. 172 mm
c. 222 mm
d. 272 mm

Problem 3: When do you obtain samples of fresh concrete from revolving drum truck mixers or
agitators?

a. During the initial discharge of the batch

b. During discharge of the middle portion of the batch
c. During the discharge of the last portion of the batch
d. All of the above

Problem 4: concrete curing refers to:

a. Procedures done to repair damages in concrete surface

b. Procedures done to promote cement hydration
c. Procedures done to maximize concrete strength
d. Procedures done to minimize concrete cracking

Problem 5: what is the water-cement ratio that will produce the highest strength of concrete?

a. 0.45
b. 0.48
c. 0.50
d. 0.52