DHANANJAYA

UNIT-4
CASED HOLE LOGGING
Cased hole logs are run to assess well integrity, improve reservoir management and scan the well for
bypassed production before plugging and abandoning. It is extremely important in secondary & tertiary
recovery programs. Cased hole logs can be placed into two categories:
A. Well bore integrity
Evaluate cement sheath around the casing, mainly
 Cement top location.
 Fraction of annular fill.
 Cement compressive strength.
 Casing condition. (Depth & extent of damage).
B. Fluid movement
This category detects channels behind pipe in both injection and production wells.

Cased hole logs for formation evaluation are principally those from the radiation -measuring tools;
e.g., the Thermal Decay Time (TDT), Gamma Ray Spectrometry (GST), Compensated Neutron (CNL),
standard gamma ray (GR), and Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry (NGS) tools. In addition the Array-Sonic
or Long-Spaced Sonic (LSS) tools provide porosity data in well-cemented casings and the density log is also
useful in special cases.

Gamma Ray Spectral (NGS) Logs

The natural gamma ray (GR) log is a recording of the natural radioactivity of the formations. There are two
types of GR logs:
 The standard GR log, measures only the total radioactivity
 The Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry (NGS) log, measures the total radioactivity and the
concentrations of potassium, thorium, and uranium producing the radioactivity
The GR log is generally recorded in track 1 (left track) of the log. It is usually recorded in conjunction with
some other log-such as the cement evaluation log or thermal decay time log. Indeed, nearly every cased
hole log now includes a recording of the GR log.

Principle of NGS Logging

The GR log and the NGS log, both measure the natural radioactivity of the formations. The GR log,
measures only the total radioactivity, but NGS log measures both the number of gamma rays and the
energy level of each and permits the determination of the concentrations of radioactive potassium,
thorium, and uranium in formation rocks. Most of the gamma ray radiation in the earth originates from the
decay of three radioactive isotopes: Potassium 40 (40K), Uranium 238 (238U), and Thorium 232(232Th).
K40 decays directly to stable Argon-40 with the emission of a 1.46-MeV gamma ray. However, 238U and
232Th decay sequentially through various daughter isotopes before arriving at stable lead isotopes. As a
result, gamma rays of much different energy are emitted and fairly complex energy spectra are obtained,
as Figure 2.2A shows. The characteristic peaks in the thorium series at 2.62 MeV and the uranium series at
1.76 MeV are caused by the decay of Thallium-208 and Bismuth-214, respectively. It is generally assumed
that formations are in secular equilibrium; i.e., the daughter isotopes decay at the same rate as they are

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produced from the parent isotope. The relative proportions of parent and daughter elements in a
particular series remain fairly constant; so, the gamma ray population in a particular part of the spectrum it
is possible to infer the population at any other point. In this way, the amount of parent isotope present can
be determined. Once the parent isotope population is known, the amount of nonradioactive isotope can
also be found. The ratio of 40K to total Potassium is very stable and constant on the Earth. Apart from
232Th, the Thorium isotopes are very rare and so can be neglected. The relative proportions of the
uranium isotopes depend somewhat on their environment, and there is also a gradual change because of
their different half-lives; at present, the ratio of 238U to 235U is about 137.

Measurement Principle of NGS Logs

The NGS tool (NGT of Schlumberger) uses a
sodium iodide scintillation detector. Gamma rays
emitted by the formation rarely reach the
detector directly. Instead, they are scattered and
lose energy through three possible interactions
with the formation: the photoelectric effect,
Compton scattering, and pair production.
Because of these interactions and the response of
the sodium iodide scintillation detector, the
original spectra of Figure 2.3A are degraded to
the rather “smeared” spectra shown in Figure
2.3B. The high-energy part of the detected
spectrum is divided into three energy windows,
W1, W2, and W3, each covering a characteristic
peak of the three radioactivity series (Figure
2.3B). Knowing the response of the tool and the
number of counts in each window, it is possible
to determine the amounts of Potassium 40 (40K),
Uranium 238 (238U), and Thorium 232 (232Th) in
the formation.
There are relatively few counts in the
high-energy range where peak discrimination is
best; therefore, measurements are subject to
large statistical variations, even at low logging
speeds. By including a contribution from the
high-count rate, low-energy part of the
spectrum (windows W1 and W2), and these
high statistical variations in the high-energy
windows can be reduced by a factor of 1.5 to 2.
The statistics are further reduced by another
factor of 1.5 to 2 by using a filtering technique
that compares the counts at a particular depth

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with the previous values in such a way that spurious changes are eliminated while the effects of formation
changes are retained. Normally, only the final filtered data are presented on film, but the unfiltered raw
data are always recorded on tape.
NGS Log Data Presentation
The NGS log provides a recording of the amounts (concentrations) of K, Th & U in the formation. These are
usually presented in tracks 2 and 3 of the log. The Thorium and Uranium concentrations are presented in
parts per million (ppm) and the Potassium concentration in percent (%). In addition to the concentrations
of the three individual radioactive elements, a total (standard) GR curve is recorded and presented in track-
1. The total response is determined by a linear combination of the K, Th & U concentrations. This standard
curve is expressed in API units. If desired, a “Uranium-Free” measurement (CGR) can also be provided. It is
simply the summation of gamma rays from thorium and potassium only. The NGS log is presented in
Figure 2.4B.

Applications of GR & NGS Logs

Among the GR and NGS uses are the following:
 Differentiate potentially porous and permeable reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone, dolomite)
from nonpermeable clays and shales i.e. lithology identification
 Define bed boundaries
 Tie cased hole to openhole logs
 Give a qualitative indication of shaliness
 Aid in lithology (mineral) identification
 Depth correlation
 Identification of radioactive scale, possible sign of water entry
 Monitoring of radioactive flow tracer
 Gravel pack density monitoring (With addition of gamma source)
 Delination of nonradioactive mineral including coal beds
 NGS log- Detect and evaluate deposits of radioactive minerals
 NGS log- Define the concentrations of potassium, thorium, and uranium
 NGS log- Monitor multiple isotope tracers

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 Neutron decay time log
The Thermal Decay Time (TDT) log records the thermal neutron capture cross section of the formation by
measuring the thermal neutrons’ rate of decay. Because chlorine is by far the strongest neutron absorber
of the common earth elements, the response of the TDT log is determined primarily by the chlorine
present (as sodium chloride) in the formation water. When formation water salinity permits, TDT logging
provides the means to recognize the presence of hydrocarbons in formations which have been cased, and
to detect changes in water saturation during the production life of the well. The TDT log is thus useful for
the evaluation of old wells, for diagnosing production problems, and for monitoring reservoir performance.
There are two thermal decay time tools currently in use
 Dual-Burst TDT Tool
 TDT-K Tool
Both tools have 1-11/16" diameters for through-tubing operations. The Dual-Burst TDT tool uses a diffusion
model to analyze the decay of a burst of fast neutrons in the downhole environment. This method uses a
better approximate solution to the neutron diffusion equation than the exponential decay model used by
the TDT-K tool.
Principle of TDT Measurements
At every point in the formation, a certain fraction of the thermal neutrons locally present is
absorbed per unit time. This fraction is vΣabs, where v is the neutron velocity and Σabs is the macroscopic
absorption (capture) cross section in the medium. Σabs is the summation of the cross sections of the
entire individual atomic nuclei in a unit volume of formation for a mean thermal neutron velocity of
2200m/s (corresponding to a temperature of 77°F). For most chemical elements of interest in logging,
Σabs, is inversely proportional to the neutron velocity. Thus, the quantity vΣabs is a constant which
characterizes the formation. Since Σvaries inversely, and v varies directly with the square root of
temperature, the quantity vΣ is independent of temperature (as is also the intrinsic decay time, Τint).
Consider, now, the thermal neutron density at a point in a formation. Let N0 be the thermal neutron
density after a delay time, to, following the neutron burst. Let to be long enough to permit the neutrons to
reach thermal equilibrium. Then if neutron capture is the only process occurring, the neutron density, N,
decays according to the equation:

Where t is the time measured from t0.

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To measure the decay rate, the gamma
rays detected at the sonde are counted
over two discrete time intervals, or gates,
which are chosen to fall within the
exponential decay time. These detection
gates are variable in time (after the
neutron burst) and in duration. A third
and later gate provides the background
count rate which is automatically
subtracted from the counts of curve A.
The TDT-K tool measurement is affected
by the borehole environment, diffusion,
and the geometry of the formation.

The Duel-Burst (TDT) Tool

The Dual-Burst Thermal Decay Time tool uses a new method of analyzing the decay of a burst of
fast neutrons in the downhole environment. This method, called the diffusion model, uses a better
approximate solution to the neutron diffusion equation than the exponential decay model. The benefit of
this approach is that the algorithm solves for the actual formation sigma and the measurement is
independent of the borehole fluid without the need for Log Interpretation Charts book corrections. This
capability is of obvious benefit in time lapse logging where the composition of the borehole fluid can
change over time and in a log-inject-log program where the borehole fluid is changed deliberately. In
addition to the correct formation sigma, the Dual-Burst TDT tool also provides a measure of the thermal
neutron diffusion coefficient plus a neutron porosity measurement.

Applications of TDT Measurements

1. Porosity determination
2. Gas detection
3. Lithology
4. Water saturaion

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Determination of fluid saturation behind casing Cement bond log

1. Gamma Ray Spectrometry Logs

The GST tool is operated in two modes: inelastic and capture-tau. In the inelastic mode, the tool is
operated in either a stationary position at predetermined depth settings or in a continuous mode.
Statistical precision is improved by averaging repeat passes. The gamma rays detected are the result of
high-energy neutron interactions and occur during the neutron burst. Common elements detected are
carbon (C), oxygen (0), silicon (Si), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), and iron (Fe). The capture-tau mode
measurements are made with the tool in motion; the gamma rays detected are the result of thermal
neutron absorption. This reaction occurs after the neutrons have slowed to the thermal energy level.
Common elements detected are hydrogen (H), silicon (Si), calcium (Ca), chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), and
sulfur (S). A formation capture cross section (sigma) is also computed. The GST elemental yields can be
related to specific minerals or fluids found in the formations. GST yields and corresponding minerals or
fluids are:
H H2O, clays, oil
Ca CaC03, CaMg(CO3)2, CaSO4, CaSO4(H2O)2
Si SiO2, clays
Cl NaCl
S S, CaSO4, CaSO4 (H2O)2
Fe FeS2, clays
C Hydrocarbon, CaCO3, CaMg (CO3)2
By using the relationship between GST elemental yields and these minerals and fluids, formation
characteristics such as lithology, porosity, fluid salinity, and hydrocarbon saturation can be calculated.
There are two major categories of gamma-ray-producing interactions used by the GST tool:
 fast neutron interactions
 Neutrons capture interactions.

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2. Determination of Fluid Saturation behind Casing from TDT Logs

Interpretation procedures of the Dual-Burst TDT logs are similar to those for the TDT-K logs
except that diffusion and borehole corrections are not required on Dual-Burst logs. In the
general case of a shaly, porous formation containing water and hydrocarbon:

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Cement Bond & Variable Density Logs

In the process of drilling and completing a well, cement is injected through the wellbore and rises up the
annulus between the steel casing and the formation. Proper cement placement between the well casing
and the formation is essential:
 To support the casing (shear bond)
 To prevent fluid from leaking to the surface
 For isolating producing zones from water-bearing zones (hydraulic bond)

A cement bond log (CBL) documents an evaluation of the integrity of cement work performed on an oil
well. Cement bond tools measure the bond between casing and the cement placed in the annulus between
the casing and the wellbore. The measurement is made by using acoustic sonic and ultrasonic tools.
Factors that affect the quality of the cement bonding measured by a CBL are:
 Cement job design and execution including effective mud removal
 Compressive strength of the cement in place
 Temperature and pressure changes applied to the casing after cementing
 epoxy resin applied to the outer wall of the casing
A sonic tool is typically run on wire-line by a service company that detects the bond of the cement to the
casing and formation via a principle based on resonance. Casing that is not bound has a higher resonant
vibration than that which is bound, causing the imparted energy from the sonic signal to be transferred to
the formation. In this sense, the amplitude of the waveform received is the basic measurement that is
evaluated. The data is collected by the tool and recorded on a log which is used by the oil producing
company as an indicator of zonal isolation in the well. The measurements of industry-standard sonic tools
are usually displayed on a cement bond log (CBL) in millivolt units, decibel attenuation, or both. Reduction
of the reading in millivolts or an increase in the decibel attenuation is an indication of better-quality
bonding of the cement behind the casing to the casing wall.

CBL-VDL Principle
Modern acoustic cement-evaluation (bond) devices are comprised of monopole (axisymmetric)
transmitters (one or more) and receivers (two or more). They operate on the principle that acoustic
amplitude is rapidly attenuated in good cement bond but not in partial bond or free pipe. These cased-hole
wireline tools measure:
 Compressional-wave travel time (transit time)
 Amplitude (first pipe arrival)
 Attenuation per unit distance

Amplitude measured directly or as an attenuation ratio, is the primary bond measurement and is used to
provide:
 Quantitative estimations of cement compressive strength
 Bond index
 Qualitative interpretation of the cement-to-formation interface

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A typical cement-log presentation includes:
 A correlation curve (gamma ray), travel time (μsec)
 Amplitude (mV)
 Attenuation (dB/ft) curves
 A full-waveform display (μsec)

Variable density log (VDL)

It is a continuous-depth time display of full-waveform amplitude presented as shades of black and
white. Positive waveform amplitudes are shown as dark bands and negative amplitudes as gray or white
bands; contrast is proportional to amplitude. On a variable-density log, free pipe and fluid arrivals (if
present) are easily identified as straight dark and light lines (indicating homogenous acoustic properties) at
either side of the display (Figure 5.2B). After the transmitter fires, the waveform arrives at the sensors via
different paths e.g. Casing, Formation and Mud. Arrival times are a function of distance travelled &
slowness of medium (~density). The wave form is recorded at each sensor is a combination or of all arrivals
present. The zigzag, wavy, or chevron pattern between these two arrivals is the formation signal (indicating
varying acoustic transit time). In cases of poor bonding, casing-collar signals (CCL-Logs) may also be
identified as "w" patterns (anomalies)

CBL-VDL TOOL CONFIGURATION

The tool typically has a single directional acoustic

transmitter and two receivers. Most common are a
receiver at three feet and another at five feet from
the transmitter (Figure-57).

The CBL measurement is the amplitude in mV of the

casing first arrival E1 at the 3-ft receiver. It is a
function of the attenuation due to the shear coupling
of the cement sheath to the casing. The attenuation
rate depends on the cement compressive strength,
the casing diameter, the pipe thickness, and the
percentage of bonded circumference.

The longer 5-ft spacing is used to record the VDL waveform for
better discrimination between casing and formation arrivals. The
VDL is generally used to assess the cement to formation bond and
helps to detect the presence of channels and the intrusion of gas.

Figure-57 cement bond log tool configuration and travel time

measurement

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CBL-VDL tool estimates quality of cement bond with casing and formation by recording sonic
Waves (20 kHz) travelling through casing and formation.

 In case of free casing or poor casing cement bond, amplitude of the casing arrival is large as most of
the energy passes through casing.

 In case of good casing-cement bond, amplitude of the casing arrival is less as energy is separated
into casing and formation.

For casing cement bond, 3 feet receiver is used while for

cement-formation bond 5 feet receiver is used. Strong
formation arrivals are received when casing to cement
and cement to formation bonds are good.

VDL displays sonic waveforms with respect to time in

variable density mode recorded at 5 feet receiver. The
longer 5 feet receiver is used to increase temporal
separation between the casing arrivals and formation
arrivals.

CBL-VDL Interpretation
A casing cement job can result in one or more of the following situations:
 Free pipe
 Good bond
 Bond to casing only
 Partial bond

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1. free pipe, there is no cement bond between the casing&cement. No acoustic coupling with the
formation, most of the acoustic energy is confined to the casing and the borehole fluid.

2. In the second scenario, good bond, cement is properly bonded to casing and to the formation. This
provides good acoustic coupling and most of the acoustic energy is transmitted to the formation, resulting
in little (weak) to no casing signals and little amplitude until the arrival of the strong formation signal.

3. The third scenario, bond to casing only, is a common condition in which cement is bonded to the casing
but not to the formation. This can occur because the mud cake dries and shrinks away from cement, or
because the cement did not bond with mud cake in poorly consolidated formations. In this situation,
energy travelling through the casing is attenuated drastically because of the highly attenuating cement
sheath.

4. In the last scenario, partial bond, a space exists within an otherwise well-bonded casing. This may occur
with the presence of a micro-annulus or channels within the cement. The resulting waveform is comprised
of a casing signal and a formation signal

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CASING COLLAR LOCATOR
The casing collar locator (CCL) is the universal positioning device used to correlate between cased hole
services (e.g., gamma ray–CCL to perforating–CCL or other cased hole services that do not necessarily
require a gamma ray for correlation). The CCL run in combination with a cased hole gamma ray establishes
the link between the open hole gamma ray measurement and the cased hole casing collar locator.

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The casing-collar locator (CCL) tool is used for depth control. CCL tool, when
combined with a gamma ray log, it allows depth correlation of a cased-hole
logging run with the open hole logs and, therefore, reservoir units or zones. This
is essential for subsequent downhole operations such as perforating. Because it
constitutes the primary depth control, the CCL is run on almost every cased-hole
tool string.

The CCL Tool Principle

A Casing Collar Locator (CCL) is based on the principle that a changing

magnetic flux within a coil generates a voltage across the terminals of that coil. The magnetic field of a CCL
magnet is affected by any magnetically susceptible material close to it such as
casing in the borehole. A collar or joint in the casing changes the magnetic flux
field including the flux passing through the coil ends adjacent to the magnet or
magnets. Thus an electric voltage is generated in the CCL by the discontinuity
(collar or joint) in the casing.

Log presentation:
The casing collar locater log presented in track 1 (Figure-66). Casing collar,
gamma and transit time log also same track, The GR measurement for correlation
to open hole logs and The TT3 travel time being a function of the casing size.
Applications of CCL:
1.The CCL log is used for depth control and
depth correlation.
2.This is essential for subsequent downhole
operations such as perforating.

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Depth control
Generally gamma ray and neutron tools are used to log formations through steel casing, as well as
in air- or gas-filled holes or in oil-based muds. Other than these logs alone, the magnetic casing collar
locator when combined with a gamma ray and/or neutron log provides a technique to tie the casing collars
to specific depths in relation to the formations. This provided positive depth control for subsequent
wireline operations such as perforating.
A cased hole gamma ray / casing collar locator log are run for correlation purposes to assist in
perforating depth control. Short joints of casing are sometimes run to assist in the correlation. The
distance from the top shot of the gun to the casing collar locator is measured before running the
perforating system in the well to ensure the perforations are placed where they were intended.

Depth Matching Techniques

 Gun-Gamma Ray Tool
 Precision Identified Perforations (P.I.P)
 TCP Depth Control (tubing conveyed perforation)
TCP Depth Control

Four main techniques are used to ensure that the guns are at the correct perforating depth:
1. Running a through-tubing gamma ray collar locator to locate a reference point in the string and tie
into openhole logs
2. Setting the packer on wireline at a known depth, and stinging through the guns and completion
string
3. Setting the packer and guns on wireline at a known depth, and stabbing the completion string in the
packer
4. Tagging a fixed and accurate reference point such as a bridge plug
The first method is the most accurate. It relies on a radioactive marker sub in the string, and the distance
from the radioactive marker sub to the top shot being precisely measured at surface. The string is run in
the hole to approximately the correct depth and a short section of GR-CCL (Gamma Ray Casing Collar
Locator) log is run over the zone where the sub is located. The gamma ray log indicates the position of the
sub (a short radioactive peak anomaly) relative to the formation gamma ray as shown in Figure 7.2.3A. As
the distance from the sub to the top shot is known, the position of the guns can be calculated, and
corrected if necessary by spacing out the string at surface. After the packer is set, the gamma ray may be
rerun to ensure that the guns are at the correct depth.

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Perforation Techniques

After drilling and casing your well, the next phase in well completion is perforation (Figure 8.1A).
Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production string and cement, perforations must be made in order
for the oil or gas to flow into the wellbore. Perforations are simply holes that are made through the casing
and cement and extend some distance into the formation. These are deliberate holes in the casing or
tubing to permit the exchange of fluid with the reservoir or annulus. The perforation must provide a clean
flow channel between the producing formation and the wellbore with minimum damage to the producing
formation. Perforation involves specialized equipment that creates tiny holes through the casing, the
surrounding cement, and any other barrier between the formation and the open well. The primary cause of
wellbore damage and reduced production in any perforated completion is the invasion of pulverized rock
formation grains that create a restrictive “low-permeability crushed zone. When accomplished effectively,
perforation allows for efficient flow of hydrocarbons into the well hole by minimizing the invasion of this
pulverized debris.

Perforating is probably the most important completion functions in cased holes. Adequate communication
between the well bore and all desired zones, is essential to evaluate and to optimize production and
recovery from each zone.
“Perforation technique create a hole in the casing through the cement and into the formation to form a
channel for the oil and gas to flow from the producing formation into the wellbore.”

Perforation process:
(A) A perforating gun is lowered into
the borehole at the depth where the
oil or gas formation is found.
(B) After the gun is lined up properly,
powerful shaped explosive charges
are fired from the control panel in
the truck at ground level. These
explosives blast a hole in the steel
casing and cement, up to several feet out into the rock.
(C) Finally, the oil and gas fluids flow into the holes and up the well to the surface

Perforation Geometry:
The ultimate test of the effectiveness of the perforating system, however, is the well productivity
(injectivity). The productivity of a perforated completion depends significantly on the geometry of the
perforations (Figure 8.3A). The major geometrical factors that determine the efficiency of flow in a
perforated completion arc:
 Perforation length
 Shot density
 Angular phasing
 Perforation diameter

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Perforating Gun Systems & Their Conveyance Methods

The perforating gun consists of four components, a transmission for the shaped charge such as a hollow
carrier, the individual shaped charge, the detonator cord, and the detonator.
 Most guns shoot from 4 to 12 shots per foot.
 Main explosives used in a shaped charge are RDX (Cyclotrimethylene
Trinitramine), HMX (Cyclotetramethylene Trinitramine), and HNS
(Hexanitrosilbene).
 Most perforating guns punch holes with diameters of 0.23” to 0.72”
(0.58 to 1.83 cm).
 The typical perforating guns have penetrations of 6” to 48” (15.24 to
121.92 cm).

In perforation guns has different shapes of explosive charges and different

range of sizes and configurations. The Perforating Guns can be divided in
mainly four types, these are list below,

 Casing gun
 Expendable gun
 Retrievable gun
 High-shot density gun
TCP
1. Casing gun: The casing gun manly for create holes in a casing string.
These casing guns are typically 3 to 5 inchs. In diameter and carry up
to four perforating charges per foot. Allow perforation through production casing using larger
diameter gun assembly.
2. Expendable gun: A perforating gun assembly that disintegrates upon firing, creating finer debris. It
is used where wellbore restrictions allow only limited access, as in through-tubing applications.
3. Retrievable gun: It is retrievable from the wellbore after firing and It generate minimal debris.
Minimum distortion of the gun body to help ensure easy retrieval.

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4. High-shot density gun : A perforating gun have more than four shots per foot. In high-shot density
gun use to Improves the phasing and distribution of perforations around the wellbore.

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In generally some types of perforation methods are used, these are list below,
 Bullet Perforation
 Jet Perforation
 Hydraulic “Sand-jet” perforation
 Perforation using laser technology
 Horizontal oriented perforating system – HOPS

1. Bullet Perforation: In this perforation,

Bullets lose velocity when gun clearance
>0.5 in. The generally bullet perforation
use in a unconsolidated formations.
The method cheaper to use and rarely
been used today, Bullets plug settled at
the end of the flow channel.
2. Jet Perforation: In jet perforation uses a shaped charges contained in a perforating gun assembly.
Gun assembly is placed in wireline and tubing or coiled tubing, depending on the application and
the wellbore conditions.
High-pressure jet will penetrates the casing or liner to shoot into the reservoir formation to form
channels.
3. Hydraulic “Sand-jet” Perforation: It uses high-pressure jetting
of sand-laden fluid through an orifice and Short penetration
range.
4. Perforating with Laser: In Conventional explosive charge
perforation method reduces the rock permeability.
The Laser perforation increase the rock permeability, hence,
increase the oil or gas production rate of a well.
5. Horizontal oriented perforating system (HOPS):
Performs oriented perforating
and Combining a series of
rotated gun connectors
containing internal. Explosive
transfer devices and an internally
contained gun weighting system.

This system incorporates a series

of short gun sections that rotate to the desired orientation, providing the optimum shot pattern
and maximizing reservoir production.
Applications of Perforation
 Creating a channel between the pay zone and the wellbore
 Cause oil and gas to flow to the wellbore easily
 Future stimulation: for example Hydraulic fracturing
 Sand Control

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Free point locater and Plug setting
Once the pipe is stack, attempts to free it are usually made by jarring and by circulating a friction reducer. If
these attempts are unsuccessful, a wireline service is usually run to locate the deepest free point of the
stuck pipe and then the pipe is backed off just above this point. After the free pipe is recovered, a common
procedure is to washover the stuck section of pipe and reconnects with a jar near the stuck section for
retrieval. By using stretch and torque measurements, the Freepoint Indicator tool accurately determines
the free point in any string of pipe stuck in the hole including drillpipe, drill collars, tubing, and casing.
Some of the major causes of stuck pipe are:
 Differential sticking caused by heavy mud and/or highly deviated holes
 Keyseated pipe caused by doglegs
 Unconsolidated formations collapsing around the pipe
 Sloughing or swelling shales

The Free Point Indicator Tool (FPIT) Principle

The Free point tools are of Schlumberger is known as the Free Point Indicator Tool (FPIT) & of
Halliburton it is Halliburton Free Point Tool (HFPT) (Figure 9.2.1A) The FPIT tool consists of two anchors and
a sonde. A backoff can be successful only if the desired backoff joint is free in both stretch and torque. The
FPIT sonde contains two sensors, one which detects stretch and is not affected by torque, and one which
detects only torque. By applying stretch and torque on the pipe, the FPIT can determine elongation or
rotation at any depth. With measurements from both sensors, the interpretation of the results is
completely reliable.
The torque sensor can measure both right- and left-hand torque, giving the added capability of
showing that applied left-hand torque has reached the point to be backed off. This is particularly useful in
deviated wells where torque has to be worked down. These measurements can be read directly on the bar
graph display on the FPIT module in the CSU unit. A log is presented as shown in Figure 9.2B-1 & 2 that
provide a pipe sketch and display the stretch and torque measurements.

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The Free Point Indicator Tool (FPIT) Applications
FPIT applications are:
 Determination of the deepest free point in any string of stuck pipe
 Backoff of stuck pipe
 Determination of pipe tally
 Improved pipe recovery decision making
 Independent measurement of torque and stretch— performed sequentially
 Measurement of left-hand and right-hand torque
 Real-time monitoring of stretch and torque as they are transmitted

Back Off Services:

In most cases, the FPIT tool can be combined with the backoff shot allowing the backoff to be made
immediately after the detection of the deepest free point. The CSU program allows the full integration of
the drillers’ parameters and pipe string configuration (such as weight before sticking, pipe dimensions and
depths) to provide a computation of the required pull and torque to be applied for optimum sensor
readings. This results in a very high success rate in backing off at the first attempt. A string shot (prima-cord
charge) is RIH and fired at the targeted connection, which temporarily swells the box and allows the pin to
back-out. Once the survey has been completed, the program gives the estimated stuck point and the
recommended number of primacord strands to be used for the backoff shot. If more than seven strands of
primacord are required, the backoff shot must be run separately.

26
Plug Setting

The need for hydraulic isolation of selected portions of the wellbore became more important with the
introduction of cemented casing strings and wireline gun perforating. Most of the commercially available
wireline sealing devices such as production packers, cement retainers, bridge plugs, and tubing stops can
be accurately set with depth control provided by a casing collar locator and a Gamma Ray log.

“Cement plug is a relatively small volume of cement slurry placed in the well bore for various purposes.
Mechanical plug system also used in well bore.

REASONS FOR SETTING A CEMENT PLUG

 To stop lost circulation during drilling
 Directional drilling and side tracking
 To plug back a depleted zone
 Abandonment
There are two different types of Plug Setting techniques.
 Through-Tubing Bridge Plug (Plus Plug)
 PosiSet Mechanical Plugback Tool

1.Through-Tubing Bridge Plug (Plus Plug)

The Plus Plug tool assembly consisting of

a positive displacement dump bailer, a
vent tube with a mechanically timed vent
valve, and a collapsed packer bag is run in
and positioned in the well. The dump
bailer is actuated and cement is forced
into the packer bag, inflating it to the
diameter of the casing. The remaining
cement is dumped around the vent tube.
Subsequent dump bailer runs place an
additional column of cement around the
vent tube, which is open to allow the
movement of well fluids.
After the cement has set up within the
bag and in the column above the vent
tube, the timer closes the vent tube and
additional cement is dumped to
strengthen the plug. The operational
sequence is illustrated in

27
2.PosiSet Mechanical Plugback Tool

The PosiSet plug consists of upper and lower anchors, metal backup elements, and elastomeric seal
elements. Operational sequences are illustrated in Figure 10.2.2B in both the running in the well and after
setting configurations.

The seal elements are constrained within specially treated plastic sleeves when running in through the
small diameter tubing. Positioned at the desired depth, the setting sequence begins. Activation of the
setting tool energizes the top anchor first and then the bottom anchor and the elastomeric seal elements.
The constraining sleeves around the seal elements are burst as the elements are compressed. The metal
backup elements are also flattened, forming an anti-extrusion system for the seal elements. The mandrel
lock serves as a restraining ratchet system during the setting process. With the seal and backup elements
fully compressed, the anchor arms “bite” into the casing to lock the plug against differential pressure
forces. A tension stud in the rod system breaks, allowing the tool string to separate from the plug.

28
Casing inspection logs
A Casing Inspection log is a record of casing thickness and integrity.
This log is
used to determine whether or not the casing has undergone
damage. The Casing
Inspection Log identifies and quantifies corrosion damage. It
identifies scale,
wax, solids accumulation, and location of mechanical damage.
Casing failure can be caused by:
 Deformation
 Physical wear
 Corrosion
Preventing such failures is critical to maintaining well production.
The commonly used techniques for the inspection of casing are:
1. Cased Hole Calipers
2. Flux Leakage Tools
3. Electromagnetic Phase-Shift Tools
4. Ultrasonic Tools
1.Cased Hole Calipers
Multifinger calipers are used to identify changes in casing diameter as indicators of corrosion. They are also
used to monitor casing deformation. They can have up to 80 spring-loaded fingers, Each finger can measure
the internal casing diameter with a radial resolution and a vertical resolution. All these data can be
combined with then measurements of diameter to produce a 3D picture of the casing.

29
2.Flux-Leakage Tools

Flux leakage is a semi-quantitative method that uses a strong magnetic field to identify and, to a
certain extent, quantify localized corrosion on both the inner and the outer surfaces of the casing. A
downhole electromagnet that fits snugly within the casing creates a low-frequency or a direct-current
magnetic field. This can be a permanent magnet so it is possible to use this tool on a memory string for
which battery power is at a premium. Magnetic flux is concentrated within the casing, which is close to
magnetic saturation. The tool contains spring-loaded, coil-type, pad-mounted sensors that are pushed
close to the casing during logging. Where casing corrosion is encountered, the lines of flux "bulge out" from
the casing as though they were leaking from it. The primary sensors pass through this excluded flux and
measure the induced voltage. The amplitude and spatial extent of the sensor response is related to the
volume and shape of the corrosion metal loss, thereby allowing an estimate of the size of the defect. The
major advantage of flux-leakage tools is that they can identify localized casing defects such as corrosion
patches, pits, and holes as small as 0.2" [5mm] on both the inside and the outside of the pipe. A
disadvantage is that the tool does not detect large areas of corrosion. It does not see nonmagnetic scale,
which can degrade the sensor response. The tool is affected by changes in the electromagnetic properties
of the casing. It is limited in three ways- accuracy, coverage and resolution. The coil-sensor response is
sensitive to logging speed, and this sensitivity makes quantitative interpretation more difficult.

3.Electromagnetic Phase-Shift Tools

The electromagnetic phase-shift technique provides an estimate of casing thickness across

approximately 1´ [300mm] of casing length, so its spatial resolution is weaker than that of the first two
methods. Electromagnetic phase-shift tools make measurements that are averages around the
circumference of the pipe. They lack the localized investigative capability of flux-leakage tools and are best
used to investigate larger-scale corrosion. Essentially, a transmitter coil generates a low-frequency
alternating magnetic field, which couples to a receiver coil. It also induces eddy currents in the surrounding
casing and formation. These eddy currents generate their own magnetic field, which is phase-shifted by the
presence of casing. The phase-shifted field is superimposed on the transmitted field. This total field is
detected by a receiver coil. Advantages are that the method is sensitive to large areas of corrosion and to
gradual thinning of the casing. The sensors do not need to be in close proximity to the casing, so a single
tool can examine a range of casing sizes. Disadvantages are the low spatial resolution and the lack of
response to nonmagnetic scale. Moreover, the alternating-current magnet requires a relatively high power,
which makes the tool difficult to deploy in memory mode.

30
4.Ultrasonic Tools

The ultrasonic method provides a

full quantitative record of casing radius
and thickness. The first ultrasonic
casing-inspection tools were the
borehole televiewers, but these only
"saw" the inner casing surface and their
use is now mainly in open hole. Later
tools had fixed ultrasonic transducers,
but these were principally directed at
cement evaluation, and they provided an
incomplete coverage of casing-thickness
measurements. This problem was
overcome by a rotating ultrasonic
transducer that was initially directed at
cement evaluation. More recently, tools
have been designed for a better spatial
resolution. Schlumberger’s Ultrasonic
Corrosion Imager (UCI) was designed
with a short-pulse 2-MHz transducer, 0.5" [12.5mm] in diameter, focused at a distance of 2" [50mm] from
its front face (Figure 11.2.4A). The higher-frequency measurement sharpened the spatial resolution so that
internal pits of diameter 0.16" [4mm] could be defined quantitatively. The velocity of sound in the
borehole fluid is measured using a built-in reflector at a known offset while running into the hole. The
wellsite computer calculates the internal radius from internal echo time and the measured fluid velocity.
Downhole processing extracts the time difference between the internal and external echoes for an
improved determination of casing thickness using the velocity of sound in steel. This information allows
external casing defects to be identified. Azimuthal sampling interval is 2°. Vertical sampling interval in high-
resolution mode is 0.2" [5mm] at a logging speed of 425ft/hr [130m/hr]. The signal is attenuated by the
borehole fluid. Best results are achieved with brine, oil, or very light drilling muds.

Applications of Casing Inspection Logs

Ultrasonic radial-cement-evaluation devices and modified open hole-imaging devices are used to evaluate
casing for indications of:
 Potential collapse
 Thinning
 Internal or external metal loss
Echo amplitude and travel time provide images of the condition of the inside casing surface (e.g., buildup,
defects, and roughness such as pitting and gouges) (Figure 11.2A-A), and travel-time and resonant-
frequency analysis provide casing thickness (Figure 11.2A-B). The acoustic caliper generated from the
pulse/echo travel time provides the casing inside diameter (an average of all transducers or a single

31
circumferential scan). An estimate of casing ovality is obtained using only the maximum and minimum
measurements. Then, if the nominal value of the outside casing diameter is assumed, changes in thickness
can be calculated and internal defects identified. Frequency analysis determines the casing resonant
frequency from the acoustic waveform; casing thickness is inversely related to the resonant frequency. By
combining travel time and resonant-frequency measurements and using data from all available transducers
(or a single scan), presentations showing casing cross sections are used to highlight casing damage such as
(Figure 11.2A-B):
 Thinning
 Corrosion metal loss
 Collapse

32
 Production logging
Production logging is the measurement of fluid parameters on a zone-by-zone basis to yield
information about the type and movement of fluids within and near the wellbore. Production logging is
intended primarily for measuring the performance of producing wells. It provides diagnostic information,
pin-points where fluids such as water, oil and gas are entering a well and gives an indication about the
efficiency of the perforations. Production logging involves four measurements – flow, density, temperature
and pressure. However, only the flow and density readings are used in quantitative production logging
analysis.
Temperature and pressure data have normally been used in a qualitative way to compute in -situ
flow properties and locate zones of entry of fluid into a well.
Production logging measurement tools
Production logging tools consists of a number of sensors which make the measurements inside the well.
The main types are:
1. Flow rate (fluid velocity) measurement.
2. Wellbore temperature.
3. Fluid density measurement (gradiomanometer).
4. Radioactive tracer tool.
Solving Production Problems with the Help of Logs
Production logs have useful application in two broad
areas: evaluation of well performance with respect
to the reservoir and analysis of mechanical
problems.
(And also refer the page no:39-40 for problems)
Well Performance
In a producing well, production logs can determine
which perforated zones are giving up fluids,
ascertain the types and proportions of the fluids,
and measure the downhole conditions of
temperature and pressure, and the rates at which
the fluids are flowing. If thief zones or other
unwanted downhole fluid circulation exist, they can
be pinpointed. Injection wells are especially well
adapted to production log analysis because the fluid
is monophasic and of a known and controlled type.
The objective of logging is to locate the zones taking
fluid and to detect lost injection through the casing
annulus.
Well Problems
In the absence of knowledge to the contrary, it is
assumed that the well has hydraulic integrity, and that the fluids are going where they belong; often, this
assumption is wrong. Examples include: casing leaks, tubing leaks, packer leaks, communication through
the annulus due to poor cement, and thief zones. Figure A-0 shows how these conditions can lead to

33
misleading conclusions when well performance data come from surface measurements alone. Solutions to
these and other well problems can be found by the integration and interpretation of production log data.

1. Flow rate measurement (Spinner tools)

Spinner flow meter is a device for measuring in-situ the velocity of fluid flow in a production or injection
well, based on the speed of rotation of a spinner. Down hole flow velocity surveys are usually made with
spinner devices. The spinner can be helical, that is, longer than it is wide, which is similar to a fan blade
turned by the flowing fluid. The speed of rotation of the spinner is measured and related to the effective
velocity of the fluid. The spinner revolutions generate electrical currents or pulses that are measured by
the surface equipment and converted into spinner revolutions per second (rps). Knowledge of a particular
spinner performance allows the conversion of the rps into fluid flow velocity. The rate of the spinner, rps, is
a function of the velocity, Vf of the incident fluid.

There are several types of spinner flow meter. The most common device uses a small vane-like
spinner, about 1.5 in. [3.8 cm] in diameter, allowing the logging tool to pass through the tubing and other
restrictions before reaching the reservoir interval. The small spinner captures only part of the fluid flow in
the casing, too little to make it turn in some low flow-rate wells and possibly unrepresentative in
multiphase flow settings. Other devices have been designed to capture more of the flow, for example the
full-bore spinner and various types of flow-concentrating or diverter spinners, such as the packer flow
meter and the basket flow meter.
Types of spinner devices
Spinner devices are of the following three basic types:
1. High flow rate tools.
2. Low to intermediate flow rate tools.
3. Low flow rate tools.
1. Continuous flow meter
High flow rate tools or continuous flow meters descend through tubing and perform their function
below tubing without changing their shape for the measurements (fig a). This configuration can result in
less accuracy due to the small diameter. However, their simpler operation can produce better reliability.
The small diameter may allow eccentering in casing; this can cause erroneous flow sampling in deviated
holes where gravity segregation of fluids occurs.
2. Low to intermediate flow rate tools
Low to intermediate flow rate tools or full bore flow meters descend through tubing, and then they
expand their spinner diameter by unfolding their blades to occupy most of the inner casing diameter.
Strong centralizers protect the spinner blades from striking the casing wall. These full bore flow meters are
more complex mechanically than the other continuous devices, but they offer less probability of erroneous
flow sampling from eccentering (fig b). They give far better results in low flow rates than other types of
continuous tools.
3. Low flow rate tools or diverter flow meters
Low flow rate tools or diverter flow meters descent through tubing, they then expand their effective
diameter below tubing to divert the flow through an orifice containing a small diameter spinner (fig c).
These devices have good fluid sampling characteristics because the majority of the fluids moving in the

34
casing must go through the spinner section; however, they may also create pressure drops or changes that
can cause fluid flow outside the casing if zone isolation does not exist due to poor cement or vertical
fracturing. These devices usually have an umbrella configuration that diverts the fluid into the orifice; this
generally results in a non- continuous or station type of data collection.

C
Applications
1. Determine producing zones.
2. Stimulation evaluation.
3. Secondary recovery.
4. Flow potential evaluation.

2 Temperature log
Temperature surveys are the support of production logging for fluid movement detection downhole.
Temperature surveys are run in producing wells to locate production sources downhole, assist in locating
channels, and possibly discriminate gas from liquid entries. Other applications include the evaluation of the
height of an induced fracture, locate zones of acid placement, and detect the top of cement.

It is well known that the temperature of the earth increases with depth. A thermal equilibrium exists and
the rate of increase is called geothermal gradient. The geothermal gradient varies from place to place and
depends on the thermal conductivity of the rocks. The measurement of geothermal gradients may be
sometimes used for correlation purposes. The natural geothermal gradient in a drilling well is disturbed by
the circulating mud. The temperature measurement in a well is used for the following purposes:
1. Locating cement top behind the casing.
2. Locating the depth of lost circulation.
3. Locating gas producing horizons during production.
4. Correlation with electrical logs for depth control, perforation.

35
Temperature measurements were earlier made with a
thermometer whose sensing element was temperature
sensitive resistance. If a constant current is passed through
this resistance the voltage drop will be proportional to the
resistance and may be recorded as temperature.
Nowadays for greater sensitivity and linearity in response
the sensing element is made of a semi -conductor. The
temperature survey is always recorded slowly while going
down in the hole. The logging speed is kept low to allow the
thermometer to attain sufficient time to reach the
temperature of the surrounding medium.

Temperature in a well increases with depth. The actual rate

of increase will depend upon the type of formation and its
thermal conductivity. For purposes of production logging
(PL), this temperature profile is assumed linear and called
the “geothermal profile.”
Well Temperature Deviating from Geothermal profile is,
when fluids are produced or injected in a single well
Well temperature logs:
1.Liquid Entry from a Single Point
The fluid temperature increase as well as temperature log reading increase for geothermal profile. Where
A is low flow rate, B intermediate and C high flow rate. The lines A’, B’, and C’ is an indication of the
flowrate of geothermal profile.
2.Single Point Gas Entry
The gas flow temperature decrease as well as temperature log reading decrease from geothermal profile.
Where A is low flow rate, B intermediate and C high flow rate. The lines A’, B’, and C’ is an indication of the
flowrate of geothermal profile.

Single point liquid entry Single point gas entry

36
3 The Gradiomanometer (fluid density tool)

Fluid Density Log is a record of the density, or changes in density of fluids in a production or injection well.
Since gas, oil and water all have different densities; the log can determine the percentage or holdup of the
different fluids, directly in the case of bi-phase flow, and in combination with other measurements for tri-
phase flow.

The gradiomanometer tool uses the pressure differential between

two pressure sensors spaced a known distance apart; e.g., two feet;
to infer the density of the fluid between the sensors. There are
several types of pressure sensors that can be used in the
gradiomanometer application.

The gradiomanometer device uses a bellows system (figure 6.5).The

bellows will compress with pressure. The lower set of bellows will be
slightly more compressed than the upper set. The mechanical linkage
between the bellows is constructed such that a rod moves in
proportion to the difference in compression between the two sets of
bellows. A magnetic plunger on the end of the rod generates a signal
in the transducer coil proportional to the rod movement. This allows
the coil to be calibrated in terms of fluid density.

Applications
1. Measurement with a gradiomanometer is of primary importance in
producing oil and gas wells, where it permits quantitative evaluation of
dynamic conditions and determination of the character of the fluids
entering the borehole.
2. Gradiomanometer are used to check the difference in pressure over a 2
inch interval in a producing well. This is then related to water-holdup in
poly phase fluid flow within the casing.
3. The gradiomanometer measures the specific gravity (density) of any
fluids entering the borehole.

4 Radioactive tracer log

Radioactive tracer techniques are usually used to monitor fluid movement
downhole by detecting radioactive tracer materials released into in the
flowing stream by the tool.
Tracer techniques are most often used in injection rather than producing
wells.

37
The radioactive tracer ejector tool (figure 6.6) carries a small quantity of radioactive solution into the well
where it may be selectively released into the flow stream. Fluid movements in the well are then traced by
means of one or more gamma ray detectors mounted above and or below the surface- controlled ejector
or ―squirt gun‖. Radioactive tracer methods are sometimes used to establish flow profiles in water
injection wells.
One advantage of the technique is that the tool is small in diameter relative to the hole, and the
well flow pattern is not generally disturbed. The obvious advantage of tracer tools over the continuous
flowmeter is that they can measure low fluid velocities. In multiphase flow, tracer methods are not
frequently used for establishing production profiles, primarily due to the problem of radioactive
contamination at the surface. The tracer solution must be density balanced with and soluble in the well
fluid to prevent erroneous results. Radioactive tracer log is a record of the presence of tracer material
placed in or around the borehole to measure fluid movement in injection wells. There are two traditional
techniques for recording radioactive-tracer logs: the tracer-loss measurement, in which a tracer material is
added to the completion fluid and its progress monitored with a gamma ray tool; and the velocity-shot
measurement, in which the tracer is ejected from one part of a production logging tool and its progress
monitored by one or more gamma ray detectors farther down the tool.
Radioactive tracer Controlled Time Survey:
The controlled time method qualitatively
detects the flow of fluids up or down the
hole, either in the casing or in the annulus.
Figure 4-20 shows an example of the
controlled-time Radioactive Tracer Survey.

In this case radioactive material was ejected

at the bottom of the tubing and successive
runs were made with the gamma ray tool.
The times of the injection and of each log run
were carefully noted.
*The radioactive slug (points a, c, e, and h)
may be seen to move down the casing.
*After entering the perforations opposite
sand 3, a part of the radioactive slug (points f,
j, n, and v) channels up the casing annulus to
sand 4.
*After entering at sand 2. Part of the
radioactive slug (points i and p) channels
down the casing annulus to sand 1.
*Fluid appears to be entering sand 3 because
of the stationary readings at points i, m, and
q. And finally, some radioactive material is trapped in a turbulence pattern just below the tubing as shown
by point’s b, d, g, and k.

38
Applications
1. The radioactive tracer approach is frequently used to detect movements of fluid behind the pipe,
leaking packers, or even movements between wells.
2. Tracer tools may also be used where rust particles or viscous crudes preclude use of spinner- type flow
meters.

Production problems
1. Cross flow
Thief zones can be defined as those zones that are considered open to the wellbore either by perforations
or open hole completion which due to zone pressure differences remove fluids from the wellbore. The
pressure differences are caused by zones depleting faster due to higher permeability. Hence in the
illustration above, the middle zone may become a thief zone as it produces. In case of production well the
thief zones are generally most noticeable when the well is in a shunting surface condition. In this condition,
the higher pressure zones will tend to feed fluid into the low pressure zones. In some cases this could be a
hydrocarbon, in other cases water, but in all cases, generally makes the surface production rates unusual in
predicting individual zone balance of material equations. It also reduces the potential production of the
well and the reservoir.
2. Channelling
Channelling is generally defined as the ability of fluid to move in the region of the production casing
annulus because of a lack of hydraulic isolation between the casing and the cement or the cement and the
formation. Channelling producers can lead to the production of unwanted fluids that is water from the wet
zones or gas from the gas cap or gas zone.
Channelling may occur in three conditions.
1. Oil or gas well with water channelling up from a lower zone.
2. Oil or gas well with water channelling down from a higher zone.
3. Oil well with gas channelling down from a higher zone.

3. Cementing
Cementing of the casing in place is one of the most vital operations in the drilling phase. It is necessary to
have a perfect seal between zones to avoid unwanted fluid production or reservoir contamination. The
cement quality has to be evaluated before the completion and any repairs made at that time. One of the
major difficulties in the cementing is the presence of gas zones. This will cause problems if precautions are
not taken during the cement job.
4. Corrosion
Corrosion encountered in the oil industry involves several mechanisms. Main categories are:
1. Electrochemical corrosion
2. Chemical corrosion
Electrochemical corrosion is caused by phenomenon that involves passage of current between one or
several metals and an electrolyte, with transfer of ions and electrons. Electrochemical corrosion accounts
for the majority of the observed down hole casing corrosion and is mainly detected on the outer casing
walls. Chemical corrosion involves chemical reaction which may not produce appreciable voltages. Five
different mechanisms are known to contribute to chemical corrosion:

39
a. Direct chemical attack
b. H2S attack
c. CO2 attack
d. Hydrogen attack
e. Bacterial attack
There are many potential problems caused by the numerous corrosion mechanisms. Any of the
components of the completion string can leak- packers, tubing etc., this will cause mixed production which
could lead to further problems such as cross flow. The casing string could leak allowing fluid to escape into
another layer. This is not only causes a loss in production but could contaminate water zones.

Major applications of production logging include:

1. Evaluating completion efficiency

2. Detecting mechanical problems , breakthrough, coning
3. Monitoring and profiling of production and injection
4. Detecting thief zones, channelled cement
5. Single layer and multilayer well test evaluation
6. Identifying reservoir boundaries for field development

40