Answers
Q1
1. Drilling program
2. Casing setting depths
3. Casing program
4. Mud program
5. Pressure & Hydraulic Plan
6. Cementing program
7. Logging program
8. Completion program
Q2
Pressure:
Pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit area. In the oil field,
pressure is commonly measured in pounds per square inch (psi).
Formula:
P= F/A Where P is the pressure
F is the magnitude of the normal force
A is the Area of the surface in Contact
Pressure Gradient:
The pressure gradient reflects the rate at which pressure varies with
depth).
Can be expressed:
Pressure Gradient = 0.052 X Mt
Where
Mt= fluid density( mud weight ) lb/gal.
The pore pressure gradient is the density of the fluid in the pore space
is often expressed in units of (psi / ft).
Density:
(the volumetric mass density also known as specific mass), of a
substance is its mass per unit volume.
And also referred to as the mud weight, density may be expressed as
pounds per gallon (lb/gal), pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).
The density is measured by instrument called The mud balance.
Normal formation pressure:
Normal Pressure Gradient 0.465 Psi/Ft
Is in any geologic setting will equal the hydrostatic head (Phy) (i.e.
hydrostatic pressure) of water from the surface to the subsurface.
Where
The Hydrostatic Pressure is the pressure executed by a column of fluid.
Hydrostatic pressure = Hydrostatic Pressure gradient X density of
fluid X Vertical Depth
Expressed Mathematically as HP(psi) = 0.052 X Mt X TVD
Where: HP = hydrostatic pressure ,Psi. MT= fluid density(mud
weight ) Lb/gal. TVD = True Vertical Fluid Column (i.e. depth) ft.
Subnormal pressure:
Sub-normal Pressure Gradient < 0.465 Psi/Ft
is weak or low pressure zones, in drilling require low mud
weight and setting additional casing strings for hole stability.
Abnormal pressure:
Abnormal Pressure Gradient > 0.465 Psi/Ft
High pressure zone, effect the well plan including the
following :
Type and Mud weight selection.
Cement planning.
Casing setting depth selection.
Casing and tubing design
Problems Considered as a result of high formation
pressure:
Differential pressure pipe sticking.
Kicks and blow out
Lost circulation resulting from high mud weight.
Caving shale
The overburden formation gradient:
The overburden formation gradient (psi/ft) is not constant with depth
due to variations in formation density.
its increases uniformly by depth with a gradient of 1.0 psi/ft . maximum
overburden gradient in calstic rocks may be as high as 1.35 psi/ft
OR
FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT:
Pressure above which injection of fluids will cause
the rock formation to fracture hydraulically.
If the pressure in the borehole exceeds the fracture pressure then the
formations will fracture and losses of drilling fluid will occur.
fracture pressure gradient
The pressure required to induce fractures in rock at a given depth.
Or
obtained by dividing the true vertical depth into the fracture
pressure.
Fresh water gradient:
Hydrostatic pressure gradient equal 0.433 psi/ft
Sea water gradient:
Hydrostatic pressure gradient equal 0.447 – 0.460 psi/ft
Geostatic pressure:
the geostatic pressure : at a given depth is the vertical pressure due to the
.weight of a column of rock and the fluids contained in the rock above that depth
ECD:
Q3:
Kick is:
An unscheduled entry of formation fluids into the wellbore of sufficient quantity to
require shutting in the well .
Causes of kick:
Once the hydrostatic pressure is less than the formation pore pressure.
This can happen when one or a combination of the following occurs;
Abnormal Formation Pressure, Gas Cut Mud
Kicks Occur When Under Balance
Under Balance Is Caused by:
Mud Hydrostatic Reduction
Increase in Formation Pressure
indications of kick:
Pit gain
Increase drilling rate (ROP)
Increase in hook load
Shows of gas, oil, or salt water
Well flows after mud pump has been shut down
Well Control Methods:
1. Primary Well Control
Maintains a hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore greater than the
pressure of the fluids in the formation being drilled
2. Secondary Well Control
Secondary well control is done after the Primary oil well control has
failed ,a blowout preventer (BOP) is a large valve used to seal, control
and monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowout .
Kick Warning Signs:
ROP Changes
Overbalance Less
Softer Rock
Hole condition
Squeezing Rock
Torque / Drag / Fill
Data from Mud
Gas ,Cutting ,Temperature , Chloride , Shale Property, Trip Monitor
major Warning Signs:
Improper Fill up or Displacement During Trips
Connection Gas
Increased Background Gas
Increased Drilling Rate
Flow line Mud Temperature Increase
Increased Chloride Content of Mud
Increased Drill String Torque
Increased Drill String Drag
Increased Number and Size of Cuttings
Q4:
Q7:
Q8:
Power Law Model(time-independent):
The power-law model is defined by the following mathematical model:
= K(n
Where n= flow behavior index which varies between 0 and 1
shear stress
shear rate
K= consistency index
The Equation Shear Stress to Shear Rate Relationship for Power Law
Fluids
the power-law model can be used to represent a pseudo plastic fluid
(n < 1), a Newtonian fluid (n = 1), or a dilatant fluid (n > 1). The above is
only valid for laminar flow.
Pipe Flow
Determine n and k.
θ600
n = 3.32 log ( θ )
300
θ300
k = (511)n
Figure shear stress vs. shear rate relationship for power law fluids.
Q9:
Factors Affecting Well Costs:
Well costs for a single well depend on:
1. Geographical location
2. Type of well
3. Drill ability
4. Hole depth
5. Well target(s)
6. Profile
7. Subsurface problems
8. Rig costs
9. Completion type
10. Knowledge of the area
The total well costs for a development drilling
:program comprising several wells depend on
• Rig rate
• Well numbers and well type
• Total hole depth
• Well layout and spacing
• Specifications of equipment ,
• Water depth for offshore wells
Q10
Tectonically Stressed Formations
High in-situ stresses
Mobile formations
Unconsolidated formations
Naturally Over-Pressured Shale Collapse
Induced Over-Pressured Shale Collapse
Controllable factors:
Bottom hole pressure (mud density).
Well Inclination and Azimuth
Transient wellbore pressures
Physical/chemical fluid-rock interaction
Drill string vibrations (during drilling)
Drilling fluid temperature
Some Indicator of Wellbore Instability during
drilling operation:
Excessive drill string vibrations
Excessive volume of caving, Excessive volume of cuttings
Excess cement volume required, increased circulating pressures
There are four different types of borehole
instabilities:
Hole closure
Hole enlargement
Fracturing
Collapse
Drilling problems can be very costly. The most
prevalent drilling problems include:
Pipe sticking
Loss of circulation
Hole deviation
Pipe failures
Borehole instability
Mud contamination
Formation damage
Hole cleaning
H2S-bearing zones
Shallow gas zones
Equipment and personnel-related problems
Types and associated Problems:
There are four different types of borehole instabilities:
Hole closure or narrowing
Hole enlargement or washouts
Fracturing
Collapse
Hole closure:
Hole closure is a narrowing time-dependent process of borehole
instability. It sometimes is referred to as creep under the overburden
pressure, and it generally occurs in plastic-flowing shale and salt
sections. Problems associated with hole closure are:
Increase in torque and drag
Increase in potential pipe sticking
Increase in the difficulty of casings landing
Hole enlargement:
Hole enlargements are commonly called washouts because the hole
becomes undesirably larger than intended. Hole enlargements are
generally caused by:
Hydraulic erosion
Mechanical abrasion caused by drillstring
Inherently sloughing shale
The problems associated with hole enlargement are:
Increase in cementing difficulty
Increase in potential hole deviation
Increase in hydraulic requirements for effective hole cleaning
Increase in potential problems during logging operations
Fracturing:
Fracturing occurs when the wellbore drilling-fluid pressure exceeds the
formation-fracture pressure. The associated problems are lost
circulation and possible kick occurrence.
Collapse:
Borehole collapse occurs when the drilling-fluid pressure is too low to
maintain the structural integrity of the drilled hole. The associated
problems are pipe sticking and possible loss of well.
