DGP10013-ELECTRICAL
TECHNOLGY
Petrochemical Engineering Department
Chapter 1
Generation and Electrical Sources
Author: Mr Khairil Fazly Bin Bachok
Editor: Dr Khairunnisa Binti A. Rahman
2
Chapter 1: Conductor, Insulator and Electrical
Sources
1.1 Explain Atom Structure
1.2 Define Conductor, Inductor and Insulator
1.3 Discuss Electrical Sources Generation System
3 1.1 Explain Atom Structure
An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of
a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral
or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (a
ten-billionth of a meter, in the short scale).
They are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics
– as if they were billiard balls, for example – gives noticeably incorrect predictions due
to quantum effects. Through the development of physics, atomic models have
incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict this behavior.
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus.
The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a similar number of neutrons: only the
most common form of hydrogen has no neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the
nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative
electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons
and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer
electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively,
and it is called an ion.
4
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by
this electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to
each other by a different force, the nuclear force, which is usually stronger than the
electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another.
Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger
than the nuclear force, and the nucleus shatters, leaving behind different elements;
this is a kind of nuclear decay.
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom
belongs: for example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons
defines the isotope of the element. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms
by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The ability of
atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes
observed in nature and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.
5 Valence electron
In chemistry, a valence electron is an outer shell electron that is
associated with an atom, and that can participate in the
formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a
single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one
valence electron in order to form a shared pair. The presence of
valence electrons can determine
the element's chemical properties, such as its valence—whether
it may bond with other elements and, if so, how readily and with
how many. For a main group element, a valence electron can
exist only in the outermost electron shell; in a transition metal, a
valence electron can also be in an inner shell.
Four covalent bonds. Carbon has four valence electrons and here a valence of
6 four. Each hydrogen atom has one valence electron and is univalent.
The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by
7 the periodic table group (vertical column) in which the element is categorized.
With the exception of groups 3–12 (the transition metals), the units digit of the
group number identifies how many valence electrons are associated with a
neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column.
8
9 Conductors, Insulators, and
Semiconductors
Conductors are those materials, like silver, copper and graphite, that will allow electrical
current to pass.
Insulators are those materials, like pure water and diamond, that will not pass electrical
current to pass.
In between these two extremes are semiconductors. The difference between the
electrical behavior of conductors and insulators are due to the difference between their
electronic structures.
In conductors, especially in metals, the atoms that make up the material have some
loosely bound electrons. In a solid metal, the atoms are said to “share” one or more of their
electrons; that is, some of these electrons are not bound any more to a specific atom but
are shared between all atoms and are free to move about. These electrons form an
“electron sea”, and it is through their movement that current is conducted.
On the other hand, in an insulator, all electrons are tightly bound to their atoms. None are
free to move about. There are no free charged particles, in other words, no free carriers.
Therefore, insulators do not let current flow. There is no current flowing in a piece of
conductor lying there by itself. There must be a driving force applied. In the next section,
we look at the nature of current a little more closely
1.3 Discuss Electrical Sources
10
Generation System
1.3.1 Define Direct Current (DC)
11 What is Direct Current(DC)?
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge
Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells,
and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type.
Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow
through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion
beams.
12
Sources of direct current:
a) Battery/cells
A battery is a device that converts chemical
energy to electricity.
Symbol:
Types of batteries:
Primary battery - cannot recharge
Secondary battery - can recharge
13
Sources of direct current:
14 b) Solar Cell
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device
that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect.
It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage,
or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are
the building blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise
known as solar panels
Batteries/cells can connected in 3 methods: What are the
effects?
15
1)Series 3) Combination series-parallel
2)Parallel
16 In Series connection:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4
𝐸1 +𝐸2 +𝐸3 + 𝐸4
𝐼𝑇 =
𝑟1 +𝑟2 +𝑟3 + 𝑟4
In Parallel connection:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸3
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
1 1 1
𝑅𝑇 = + +
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
17 Exercise:
1) Eight cells, each with an interval
resistance of 0.2Ω and an emf (E) of 2.2 V
are connected:
(a) in series
(b) in parallel
determine the emf (E)and the internal
resistance of batteries so formed
Solution:
a) When connected in series, total emf (E);
18
= sum of cell’s emf
= 2.2 V x 8
= 17.6 V
b) When connected in parallel, total emf ( E) ;
= emf of one cell
= 2.2 V
Total internal resistance of 8 cells;
=1/8 x internal resistance of one cell
=1/8 x 0.2
=0.025Ω
1.3.2 Explain Alternating Current (AC)
19
What is Alternating Current(AC)?
Alternating Current(AC) is the flow of electric charge that changes
direction periodically
The changes of the flow of electric charge cause by the changes polarity
of the voltage source.
The value will increase from “zero” to maximum for positive cycle and will
slope down maximum value of the negative cycle.
Sources AC voltage can be generated in 2 ways:
1) Conductors cut the magnetic flux which is the conductor is moving
and the flux is stationary.
2) Magnetic flux cut the conductor where the flux is moving and
conductor is stationary.
Differences AC vs DC
20 Alternating Current Direct Current
Safe to transfer over longer city Voltage of DC cannot travel very far until
Amount of energy that can be
distances and can provide more it begins to lose energy.
carried
power.
Cause of the direction of flow of Rotating magnet along the wire. Steady magnetism along the wire.
electrons
The frequency of alternating current is The frequency of direct current is zero.
Frequency 50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the
country.
It reverses its direction while flowing in It flows in one direction in the circuit.
Direction
a circuit.
It is the current of magnitude varying It is the current of constant magnitude.
Current
with time
Electrons keep switching directions - Electrons move steadily in one direction
Flow of Electrons forward and backward. or 'forward'.
Obtained from A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.
Passive Parameters Impedance. Resistance only
Lies between 0 & 1. it is always 1.
Power Factor
Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Triangular, Pure and pulsating
Types Square.
21 Ac waveform is same as form of sine wave as shown below:
Sine wave Mathematic equation
22 amplitude
cycle
Cycle: One complete series values of the waveform
Period/periodic time, T: The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle of the waveform
T= 1/frequency (f)
Frequency: The number of cycles in one second, measured in hertz, Hz.
F =1 /time(T)
Peak value/amplitude: The largest value reached in a half cycle.
23
24
e) form/shape factor
25
𝑟. 𝑚. 𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= = 1.11
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
f) Peak factor
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= = 1.41
𝑟. 𝑚. 𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
**the values of form and peak factor give an indication of the shape of the
waveforms.
1) Determine the periodic time for frequencies of:
a. 50khz
26
b. 20khz
2) Determine the frequencies for periodic times of:
a. 4ms
b. 4µs
3) An alternating current complete 5 cycles in 8ms. What is its frequency?
4) Calculate the r.m.s value of a sinusoidal current of maximum value
20A.
5) Determine the peak and mean values for a 240v main supply.
1.3.3 Explain Electrical Sources Generation
27
System
List of energy sources:
i. Oil & gas
ii. Coal
iii. Diesel
iv. Nuclear
v. Hidroelectric
vi. Solar
vii. Geothermal
viii.Tidal power
ix. Wind power
x. Biomass
Oil Power Plant
28
29
Coal Power Plant
30 Gas Power Plant
31 Nuclear Power Plant
32
Discuss the Advantages & Disadvantages of
all types of electricity generation for these
factors below:
A.Price and availability of fuel
B. Location suitability
C.Cooling
D.Environmental pollution
Basic principle of hydroelectric generation
33
The dam stores lots of water behind it
in the reservoir.
Near the bottom of the dam wall
there is the water intake.
Gravity causes it to fall through the
penstock inside the dam.
At the end of the penstock there is a
turbine propeller, which is turned by
the moving water.
The shaft from the turbine goes up
into the generator, which produces
the power.
Power lines are connected to the
generator that carry electricity to
your home and mine.
The water continues past the
propeller through the tailrace into the
river past the dam.
