GENERAL EDUCATION - ENGLISH

I. VOCABULARY

Vocabulary knowledge implies a rich understanding of the word. It means knowing a word by definition and associating experiences
with that word.

1. Structural Analysis. Words are made up of the smallest meaningful units called morphemes. The visual scrutiny of unfamiliar
words to identify morphemes is called structural analysis. Knowing the roots, prefixes, and suffixes of words helps reveal the
meaning of the total word form.
a) Root words are words from which other words are formed by adding a beginning part (prefix) or an ending part (suffix)
active (move) porter (carry) contradiction (to speak)
b) Prefixes are word parts added to the beginning of a word
benevolent (good) decline (from) nonsense (not)
c) Suffixes are syllables added at the end of a word to form a new word with a different meaning
Biology (study of) homeless (without) scientist (one who does)
2. Word Formation. Words undergo changes. The following are five processes of word formation:
a) Clipping means to cut off the beginning or the end of the word. It may mean cutting from both ends, leaving a part to stand
for the whole.
phone photo psycho trigo chem
b) Blending is formed by fusing or putting two words together. Usually the first part of one word is blended or fused with the last
part of another. The blended word then gets its meaning from the two words put together.
Eurasian Philhealth cosmonaut smog telecast
c) Compounding uses two or three words put together to make a full form. Most often the meaning of the word is different from
its parts. Sometimes it is the meaning of the two words put together.
tightwad blackout first aid runner-up trigger-happy
d) Acronymy is the use of initial letter or syllables of several words in succession.
UNESCO AWOL scuba radar
e) Reduplication- full or partial repetition of a free morpheme; sometimes with variation
full with variation
so-so zigzag
bye-bye dilly-dally
hotch potch
hodge podge
In Filipino
Bili (BUY) – bibili (WILL BUY)
Kain (to eat) – Kakain (WILL EAT)
Pasok (to go) – papasok (WILL GO)
f) Coining (Coinage): Creating a completely new free morpheme, which is unrelated to any existing morphemes; a rare thing
pooch nylon pantaloon
g) Loan Words – can be French, Latin, Italian words
French: a la carte, bon voyage, buffet, de luxe, coup d’ etat, etc.
Latin: alter ego, bona fide, cum laude, mea culpa, per se, etc.
Italian: a cappella, alto, bravo, piano, opera, etc.
h) Slang – do not have the same meaning as Filipino words
Papa (English – dad); papa (English – boyfriend); stand by (English – stick by) – istambay (English hang around)
i) Folk or Popular Etymology results from changing a word in part or in whole to make it more like a familiar word.
belfry isle bachelor barbeque caesarian
3. Context Clues. The meaning of a word may be determined by its environment – the words that surround it, either coming before
or after it in the sentence of in the paragraph.
j) Definition is considered the simplest and most obvious way by which the meaning of a word is revealed. The be verb is
used to equate the term to be defined to the familiar word in the sentence.
Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.
k) Restatement may be in the form of synonyms, examples, elaboration by the use of modifiers, and pairing closely related
words. It is usually introduced by signal words: that is, for example, such as, like, in the way, that, in other words, what this
means, etc. It may also be signaled by the dash and the parentheses.
He was a true peripatetic, like the walking philosophers who followed Aristotle and the wandering Jews of Israel.
l) Synonym is a word that means essentially the same thing as another word. It is usually preceded by the function word or.
Sometimes the synonym may be found in another sentence within the paragraph.
God is omniscient, or all-knowing.
m) Antonym is the opposite or contrasting word that may serve as a clue to the unfamiliar word.
Julia’s remarks are generally not nebulous, but clear.
n) Inference requires reading between lines to see connections and relationships not explicitly stated in a particular passage.
The practicing physician as a rule is completely unskilled in obstetrics. His preliminary training contains little or
nothing concerning the details of pregnancy and childbirth.
o) Homophones & Words with Multiple Meanings indicate several meanings that a word has in English.
Susan bought a bar of soap.
The soldiers tried to bar the enemies.
The brilliant student passed the bar examination.

• Homophones  are a type of  homonym that also sound alike and have different meanings, but have different
spellings. HOMOGRAPHS  are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. Heteronyms are a type
of  homograph that are also spelled the same and have different meanings, but sound different.

p) Words of Various Disciplines are the basic meaning of specialized vocabulary in a particular subject area.
The capital of the Philippines is Metro Manila. (Social Science)
His capital for the new business is one million pesos. (Math)
q) Multiple Context make the meaning of unfamiliar words clearer and easily understood.
Butterflies fly from flower to flower.
How high did the boy fly his kite?
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 Airplanes fly regularly from Manila to Hongkong.
4. Idioms. An idiom is an expression peculiar to a language. It usually has several associated meanings which are not readily
understandable from its grammatical construction and cannot be derived from the meaning of its separate elements.
 cross to bear – endure a kind of burden
 close-fisted – a miser
 cold-reception – unfriendly
 blackmail – money extorted by threat of intimidation
 Argus-eyed – jealously watchful
 blue-blood – noble blood
 chicken-hearted – a timid, cowardly fellow
 absent-minded – to be inattentive of what is going on
 fair weather friend – a friend who deserts you in time of difficulties
 henpecked husband – a submissive husband
 greenhorn – an inexperienced person
 by heart – from memory
 burn the midnight oil – study or work far into the night
 bundle from heaven – new-born baby
 came to terms – deal with misunderstanding
5. Figures of Speech. These forms of expressions are used to convey meaning or heighten effect, often by comparing or identifying
one thing with another that has meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener.
BASED ON RESEMBLANCE:
a) Simile – a comparison between two unlike objects by using like or as
His mind is like a sponge.
b) Metaphor – an indirect comparison of unlike objects
She is a phantom of delight
c) Personification – the giving of human characteristics & capabilities to nonhuman things such as inanimate objects, abstract
ideas, or animals
The clouds cried a torrent of tears.
d) Apostrophe – an address to the absent as if present or to the inanimate as if human
“O wind, if winter comes, can spring be far behind?”
e) Allusion is a reference in a work of literature to another work of literature, or to a well-known person, place or event outside
of literature
i. Mythological Allusion: Magnus is the Adonis of the class.
ii. Literary Allusion: Political Pied Pipers try everything.
iii. Historical Allusion: Some call Marcos a modern day Hitler.
iv. Biblical Allusion:
I took my power in my hand
And went against the world
‘Twas not as much as David had,
But I was twice as bold.

I aimed my pebble, but myself

Was all the one that fell
Was it Goliath was too large,
Or only I too small
- “The Duel” by Emily Dickinson
f) Antonomasia is a special type of allusion which makes use of a title or an epithet (a descriptive word or phrase) instead of a
proper name. It uses a proper name to convey an idea. Often these names are taken from history, myths, legends and the
Bible.
1. Abraham – father of his people
2. Achilles’ heel – flaw or weakness
3. Apollo – manliness
4. Cain – murderer of his brother
5. David and Jonathan – friendship
6. Juliet – young, tragic love
7. Napoleon – strategy in war
8. Penelope – faithful wife
9. Salome – temptation
10. Solomon – wisdom
11. Thomas – doubt
12. Waterloo – cause of defeat/ weakness

BASED ON EMPHASIS:
g) Hyperbole – the use of excessive exaggeration for effect
Waves mountain high broke over the reef.
I think of you every minute of the day.
h) Litotes – makes a deliberate understatement used to affirm by negating its opposite
Regine Velasquez is not a bad singer.
Edgar Allan Poe is no mean writer.
i) Meiosis is a positive understatement intended to suggest a strong affirmative.
I am a bit worried because I am falling in almost all of my subjects.
We were a little disappointed to learn that the guest of honor could not come.
j) Repetition is repeating words, phrases, or whole construction in order to intensify feeling or meaning.
Never give in. Never give in. Never, never, never, never yield to force.- Winston Churchill

BASED ON PARALLELISM/CONTRAST
k) Irony is the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning.
You’re so beautiful; you look like a Christmas tree!
You gave ma a good plan. Its only problem is that it can never be done.”

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 l) Antithesis – a contrast of words or ideas
She looks like an innocent flower but watch out for the serpent under it.
m) Oxymoron – the combining of contraries to portray a particular image or to produce a striking effect
Parting is such sweet sorrow.
He is an honest liar.
n) Paradox – uses a phrase or statement that on surface seems contradictory, but makes some kind of emotional sense. It is a
seemingly, contradictory but true example
Let us go to war for peace.
There is a grief in happiness.
o) Chiasmus is parallelism in sentence element of similar or contrasting ideas, so arranged that the parallel elements of the
second part of the structure are in inverted order.
He was slow in resolution, in performance quick.
BASED ON SUBSTITUTION:
p) Metonymy – substitutes a word that closely relates to a person or thing
Have you no respect for gray hairs?
The “pen and plume” can be used to represent a writer.
q) Periphrasis is the substitution of a descriptive phrase for a name or vice-versa
The sleeping giant has broken ties with its neighbors.
r) Synecdoche – uses a part to represent the whole
Give us this day our daily bread.
Life is so hard when you have eight hungry stomachs to feed.
Ten brilliant minds instead of ten intelligent people

BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS:

6. Climax is the arrangement of words or ideas according to their degree of importance; thus, the last set appears most valuable
I came, I saw, I conquered. – Julius Caesar
7. Anti-climax is abruptly ending a climax build-up with an insignificant item.
I die. I faint. I fail.
BASED ON SOUND EFFECTS:
8. Onomatopoeia is a use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the object or actions they refer to
The cat meows in the dark.
9. Pun is a play on words with humorous, witty effects
“The Tooth, the Whole Tooth and Nothing but the Tooth.”- An essay by Robert Benchley
10. Euphemism is the substitution of an in offensive term for one considered offensively explicit.
Senior citizens for old people / Passed away for dead
Say “He didn’t make it.” instead of “He lost the game.”
11. Rhetorical Devices. These are sound devices used to convey meaning through rhyme and rhythm.
r) Onomatopoeia – uses a word having a sound that imitates what it denotes
hiss, bang, buzz, hush , swoosh
s) Alliteration – involves the repetition of initial consonant sounds
wicked and wan, threatening throngs
t) Assonance – uses repetition of vowels without repetition of consonants, also called a vowel rhyme
alone, alone, all, all, alone
u) Consonance – repeats the final consonant sounds, also called a slant rhyme
dreary and weary; odds and ends
v) Rhyme – employs identical sounds from the vowel of the accented syllables to the end
hold, told, mold, gold; die, sky, my, fly, pie
w) Anaphora – repeats a word or words at the beginning of two or more successive clauses or verses
Cannons to the right of them/Cannons to the left of them

GRAMMAR. It is important to recognize common errors in grammar and usage based on the basic rules of grammar.
A. Verb Errors
1. Verb Tense. Check if the correct verb tense has been used in the sentence.
 When I came home, the children still didn’t finish dinner.
 When I came home, the children still hadn’t finished dinner.
In reported speech, check that the rule of sequence of tenses has been observed.
 She promised she will come.
 She promised she would come.
2. Tense Formation. Know the past participle of irregular verbs.
 He throwed it out the window.
 He threw it out the window.
3. Subject-Verb Agreement. Check if the verb agrees with the subject in number.
 There is many reasons why I can’t help you.
 There are many reasons why I can’t help you.
4. Conditional Sentences. The word if will NEVER be followed by the words will or would.
 If I would have known, I wouldn’t have gone.
 If I had known, I wouldn’t have gone.
5. Expressions of Desire. Unfulfilled desires are expressed by the form “had hoped that ________ would (or could, or
might) do ________.”
 I wish I heard that story about him before I met him.
 I wish I had heard (or could have heard or would have heard) that story about him before I met him.
6. Verbs Followed by Verb Words. A verb word is the infinitive without the to.
 She ignored the doctor’s recommendation that she stops smoking.
 She ignored the doctor’s recommendation that she stop smoking.
7. Tag Endings. Check for three things in tag endings: a) Does the ending use the same person as the sentence verb? b)
Does the ending use the same tense as the sentence verb? c) If the sentence verb is positive, is the ending negative; if
the sentence verb is negative, is the ending positive?
 She’s been there before, isn’t she?
 She’s been there before, hasn’t she?
8. Negative Imperatives. There are two forms for negative imperatives.

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  Would you please don’t smoke here.
 Please don’t smoke here. or Would you please not smoke here.
9. Affirmative and Negative Agreement of Verbs. There are two correct forms for both the affirmative and negative
agreements.
 I haven’t seen the film and hasn’t either.
 I haven’t seen the film and she hasn’t either.
or I haven’t seen the film and neither has she.
10. Infinitives of Gerunds in the Complement of Verbs. Some verbs may be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund.
Others may require either one or the other for idiomatic reasons.
 I intend learning French next semester.
 I intend to learn French next semester.
11. Verbs Requiring How in the Complement. The verbs KNOW, TEACH, LEARN, and SHOW require the word how
before an infinitive in the complement.
 She knows to drive.  She knows how to drive.
12. Idiomatic Verbs Expressions. There are a few commonly used idiomatic verb expressions.
a. must have (done) – it is a logical conclusion
They’re late. They must have missed the bus.
b. had better (do) – it is advisable
It’s getting cold. You had better take your coat.
c. used to (do) – was in the habit of doing in the past
I used to smoke a pack of cigarettes a day, but I stopped.
d. to be used to – to be accustomed to
The noise doesn’t bother me; I’m used to studying with the radio on.
e. make someone do – force someone to do
My mother made me take my little sister with me to the movies.
f. would rather – would prefer
I would rather you didn’t speak to her.

B. Pronoun Errors
1. Pronoun Subject-Object. Check if a pronoun is the SUBJECT or the OBJECT of a verb or preposition.
 All of us – Fred, Jane, Alice, and me – were late.
 All of us – Fred, Jane, Alice, and I – were late.
2. Who and Whom. When in doubt about the correctness of WHO/WHOM, try substituting the subject/object of a simpler
pronoun to clarify the meaning.
 I don’t know who Sarah meant.
 I don’t know whom Sarah meant.
3. Pronoun Subject- Verb Agreement. Check if the pronoun and its verb agree in number.
 Jessa is absent, but a few of the class is here.
 Jessa is absent, but a few of the class are here.
4. Possessive Pronoun Agreement. Check if possessive pronouns agree in person and number.
 If anyone calls, take their name.
 If anyone calls, take his name.
5. Pronouns After the Verb To Be. TO BE is an intransitive verb and will always be followed by a subject pronoun.
 It must have been her at the door.
 It must have been she at the door.
6. Position of Relative Pronouns. A relative pronoun refers to the word preceding it. If the meaning is unclear, the
pronoun is in the wrong position.
 He could park right in front of the door, which was very convenient.
 His being allowed to park right in front of the door was very convenient.
7. Parallelism of Impersonal Pronouns. In forms using impersonal pronouns, use either “one… one’s/his or her” or “you…
your.”
 One should take your duties seriously.
 One should take one’s/his or her duties seriously.
 or You should take your duties seriously.

C. Adjective and Adverb Errors

1. Use of Adjectives and Adverbs. Check if a word modifier is an adjective or an adverb and make sure the correct form is
used.
 I sure wish I were rich!  I surely wish I were rich!

Notes: Adjectives may be transformed into adverbs with –ly or –ily e.g.: aimless – aimlessly, careful – carefully
Nouns may be transformed into adverbs with –ways or –wise e.g.: side – sideways, cross – crosswise
Common adverbs have the same form as their adjective counterparts: late, fast, hard, right
Do not be confused with adverbs and adjectives. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs. Example: good versus well. That is a good computer. (good – adjective, modifies
computer (noun). That computer is functioning well. (well – adverb, modifies is functioning, verb phrase).
2. Adjectives with Verbs of Sense. Intransitive verbs are described by adjectives while transitive verbs are modified with
adverbs.
 She looked very well!  She looked very good!
3. Comparatives. In using adjectives of one or two syllables ending in –y, add –er. Other words of more than one syllable
use more. Adverbs of one syllable add –er; longer adverbs use more.
 This exercise is harder then the last one
 This exercise is harder than the last one.
4. Parallel Comparisons. Check if the correct form is used in parallel comparisons.
 The more you practice, you will get better.
 The more you practice, the better you will get.
5. Illogical Comparatives. Check comparisons to make sure they make sense.
 Texas is bigger than any state in the United States.
 Texas is bigger than any other state in the United States.
6. Identical Comparisons. Something can be the same as or like something else. Do not mix up the two forms.

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  Your dress is the same like mine.
 Your dress is like mine. or  Your dress is the same as mine.
7. Idioms Using Comparative Structures. Some idiomatic terms are formed like comparatives although they are not true
comparisons.
 You may have to spend so much as two hours waiting.
 You may have to spend as much as two hours waiting.
8. Noun – Adjectives. When a noun is used as an adjective, treat it as an adjective. Do not pluralize or add ‘s.
 You’re talking like a two-years-old child!
 You’re talking like a two-year-old child!
9. Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) are preceded by the. Cardinal numbers
(one, two, three, etc.) are not.
 We missed first act.  We missed the first act.
10. Modifying Countable and Non-countable Nouns. If a noun can be preceded by a number, it is a countable noun; if not
it is uncountable.
 I was surprised by the large amount of people who came.
 I was surprised by the large number of people who came.

Adverb Classifications:

a. Manner (how) – dramatically, well

b. Frequency (how often) – occasionally, sometimes, seldom, weekly
c. Place (where) - inside, there
d. Time (when) – later, as soon as possible, tomorrow
e. Degree (to what extent) – completely, rather, too, so
f. Affirmation – certainly, surely
g. Negation – not, never
h. Doubt – probably, may be
i. Approximation – about, sometime

D. Errors in Usage
1. Connectors. Do not mix different forms in connecting ideas.
 She speaks not only Spanish but French as well.
 She speaks Spanish and French.
 She speaks Spanish. She also speaks French.
 She speaks Spanish and French too.
 She speaks not only Spanish but also French.
 She speaks both Spanish and French.
 She speaks Spanish as well as French.

Conjunctive Adverbs. These are also known as words of transitions, sentence connectors, or sentence adverbs which
indicate particular semantic relationship between the preceding and succeeding sentences.
a. Addition – furthermore, also, likewise, moreover, in addition to
b. Restatement/emphasis – actually, in fact, indeed
c. Comment – besides, anyhow, in any case
d. Contrast – instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, otherwise, yet
e. Result – accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore, thus
f. Time sequence – afterwards, finally, eventually, meanwhile, hereafter
g. Parallel ideas – in other words, in short, that is
h. Example – for instance, namely, next, for example
i. Condition – perhaps, probably

2. Question Word Connectors. When a question word such as when or what is used as a connector, the clause that
follows is not a question. Do not use the interrogative form.
 Do you know when does the movie start?  Do you know when the movie starts?
3. Because. It is incorrect to say: The reason is because… Use: The reason is that…
 The reason he was rejected was because he was too young.
 The reason he was rejected was that he was too young.
 He was rejected because of his young age.
 He was rejected because he was too young.
4. Purpose Connectors. The word so by itself means therefore. So that means in order to or in order that.
 We took a cab so we would be on time.  We took a cab so that we would be on time
5. Dangling Modifiers. An introductory verbal modifier should be directly followed by the noun or pronoun that it modifies.
Such a modifier will star with a gerund of participial phrase and be followed by a comma. Look for the modified noun or
pronoun immediately after the comma.
 Seeing that the hour was late, it was decided to postpone the committee vote.
 Seeing that the hour was late, the committee decided to postpone the vote.

Dangling Modifiers are subordinate phrases which appear to modify something other than the one intended. These are
largely caused by faulty positioning of the modifier or failure to supply the noun which is supposed to be modified.
Examples: Going up the stairs, the reports were read by me. (incorrect)
Going up the stairs, I read the reports. (correct)
Before she was born, Marissa’s mother died. (incorrect)
Before Marissa was born, her mother died. (correct)

6. Parallel Construction. In sentences containing a series of two or more items, check to see if the same form has been
used for all the items in the series. Do not mix infinitives with gerunds, adjectives with participial phrases or verbs with
nouns.
 The film was interesting, exciting, and it was made well.
 The film was interesting, exciting, and well-made.
7. Unnecessary Modifiers. In general, the more simply an idea is stated, the better it is.

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  That depends on the state of the general condition of the situation.
 That depends on the situation.
8. Commonly Confused Words. Be aware of the commonly misused words in English.
 He was laying in bed all day yesterday.
 He was lying in bed all day yesterday.
9. Misused Words and Prepositional Idioms. Take note of the prepositions in common idioms.
 They came despite of the rain.
 They came in spite of the rain or  They came despite the rain.

Prepositions are usually classified according to meaning:

1. location: aboard, across, after, along, behind, between, by, next to
2. direction: off, into, to, toward, around, beyond
3. time: about, after, during, prior to, since, till, until
4. process: by means of, through
5. possession: of
6. approximation: about, around
7. attribution: according to
8. relation: along with, apart from, because of, besides, but, by, except, including
9. compound: according to, along with, in accordance to

E. Transformations
1. Emphatic form – is constructed by adding the auxiliaries do, does, and did before the verb stem.
Examples: They do love you. / Erish does want to see you. / She did try to do it.
2. Exclamatory form (exclamative)- by using what followed by the principal noun phrase in the predicate.
Example: That was a brilliant idea. – What a brilliant idea that was! / What a brilliant idea!
3. Inversion – a sentence with the verb be may be recast in the inverted form to postpone the subject for greater emphasis.
Example: The topic sentence is at the end of the paragraph. - At the end of the paragraph is the topic sentence.
4. Existential form. A sentence with the be verb an indefinite subject may also be recast as an existential sentence –
beginning with there followed by the be verb phrase, then the subject and the rest of the original sentence – to focus on
the meaning of location or existence.
Example: Many students are in the covered court. – There are many students in the covered court.
5. Cleft. Any declarative sentence, except an existential, may be transformed into cleft sentence – beginning with IT followed
by the BE verb phrase, the fronted word or phrase, and the relativized form of the rest of the original – to focus attention
on the component word or phrase.
Example: The teacher recorded the scores. – It was the teacher who recorded the scores.

What is Subject-Verb Agreement?

A simple subject-verb agreement definition implies that the subject of the sentence and the verb of the sentence must be in agreement
in number.
Let’s take an example to understand this concept.
Example 1: The dog is playing with his ball.
In this case, the subject of the sentence is ‘dog’ and the verb used is singular in nature, ‘is playing’.
Example 2: The dogs are playing with their ball.
In this case, the subject of the sentence is ‘dogs’ and the verb used is plural in nature, ‘are playing’.
Subject-Verb Agreement Rules
RULE 1: When two subjects are joined by ‘and’, the verb is plural.
For example: My friend and his mother are in town.
RULE 2: When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular. 
For example: The captain and coach of the team has been sacked.
In case these were two different individuals, two articles need to be used: The captain and the coach of the team have been
sacked.            
RULE 3: Indefinite pronouns (everyone, each one, someone, somebody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody etc.) are always singular. 
For example:  Everyone is selfish.
We do not use 'are' in this sentence. 
This rule does not apply to: few, many, several, both, all, some.
RULE 4: When the percentage or a part of something is mentioned with plural meaning the plural verb is used.
For example: 40 of every 100 children are malnourished.
RULE 5: When the subjects joined by ‘either or’ or ‘neither nor’ are of different persons, the verb will agree in person and number with
the noun nearest to it.
For example: Neither you nor your dogs know how to behave.
Either of the books is fine for MAT preparation.
Always remember that, when either and neither are used as pronouns, they are treated as singular and always take the
singular verb. 
RULE 6: If connectives/appositives like along with, together with, as well as, accompanied by etc. are used to combine two subjects,
the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first.
For example: Mr. Ram, accompanied by his wife Sita and his brother, was banished to the forest
RULE 7: A number of/ the number or
‘A number of (some countable noun)’ is always plural. ‘The number of (some countable noun)’ is always singular.
For example: A number of students are going on the trip.
RULE 8: The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement or time.
For example: Five gallons of oil was required to get the engine running.
RULE 9: When any of ‘few, many, several, both, all, some’ is used with a countable noun, the verb is plural.
For example: Some men are needed for the battle.
RULE 10: When any of ‘few, many, several, both, all, some’ is used with an uncountable noun, the verb is singular.
For example: Some milk is spoilt.
Subject-Verb agreement is essential to make sure that a sentence is grammatically correct. Thus, the above ten basic rules
can help you to master subject-verb agreement.

Words and Expressions Commonly Misused. Many words and expressions are not so much bad English as bad style, the
commonplaces of careless writing.

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  Cope. An intransitive verb used with with. In formal writing, one doesn’t “cope,” one “copes with” something or somebody.
 Disinterested. Means “impartial.” Do not confuse it with uninterested which means “not interested in.”
 Each and every one. Avoid, except in dialogue.
 Enthuse. An annoying verb growing out of the noun enthusiasm. Not recommended.
 Hopefully. This once-useful adverb meaning “with hope” has been distorted and is now widely used to mean “I hope” or “it is
to be hoped.”
 However. Avoid starting a sentence with however when the meaning is “nevertheless.” The word usually serves better when
not in first position.
 In regard to. Often wrongly written in regards to. But as regards is correct, and means the same thing.
 Irregardless. Should be regardless.
 Kind of. Except in familiar style, not to be used as a substitute for rather or something like.
 Ongoing. A mix of “continuing” and “active” and is usually superfluous.
 One of the most. There is nothing wrong with the grammar; the formula is simply threadbare.
 Respective, Respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage.
 Secondly, thirdly, etc. Unless you are prepared to begin with firstly, and defend it (which will be difficult), do not prettify
numbers with –ly.
 Thanking you in advance. This sounds as if the writer meant, “It will not be worth my while to write to you again.”

 ACCEPT -to receive Example: He accepts defeat well.

EXCEPT -to take or leave out Example: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.
 ACCESS – availability Example: The lawyer was given access to the grand jury records.
EXCESS - too much Example: His expenses are for the past three months are far in excess of income.
 ADAPT - to change Example: She adapted the piano piece to make it more appropriate for the children’s
concert.
ADOPT - to take as one’s own Example: The impressionable young man adopted his hero’s style of dress.
 ADVICE- a noun meaning opinion
Example: I asked my guidance counselor for advice about what courses to take next semester.
ADVISE- a verb meaning to give an opinion to
Example: My guidance counselor advised me to take a science course and a foreign language.
 AFFECT-to influence Example: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
EFFECT -n., result, v., to accomplish
Examples: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
Can the university effect such a change without disrupting classes?
 AIN’T – originally a contraction of am not. It is not considered standard English.
Nonstandard: John ain’t ready yet.
Correct: John isn’t ready yet.
 ALLUSION-an indirect reference Example: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
ILLUSION -a false perception of reality Example: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the desert.
 ALL READY-prepared Example: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
ALREADY -by this time Example: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.
 ALTERNATE- means every other one in a series or a substitute
Example: When the experiment failed, they tried the alternate method.
ALTERNATIVE- one of the two possibilities
Example: She always reminds everyone that failing is not an alternative to passing.
 ALTOGETHER -entirely Example: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation was well-planned.
ALL TOGETHER -gathered, with everything in one place
Example:  We were all together at the family reunion last spring.
 AMONG - a preposition that implies three or more. Example: The dog sat down among the tulips.
BETWEEN -is generally used with two. Example: Please sit between your mom and me.
 BESIDE-means ‘at the side of’ or ‘close to’. Example: The garden is beside the house.
BESIDES-means ‘in addition to’ Example: Who is going to the concert besides me?
 BETTER-means recovering. Example: He is better now than he was a week ago.
WELL- means completely recovered Example: In a few more weeks, he will be well.
 BIANNUAL- means twice a year Example: The organizers meet biannually.
BIENNIAL-means done every two years or lasting for two years.
Example: The members pay biennial institutional fee.
 BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled Example:  You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale Example:  If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
 BRING- means ‘to carry from a distant place to a nearer one’
Example: Bring those books here, please.
TAKE- means to carry from a nearer place to a more distant one
Example: Take these forms to the principal’s office.
 CANVAS- a kind of cloth Example: The actors need a canvas for their stage play.
CANVASS- a survey of opinions Example: He canvassed the whole studentry re RH Bill.
 CAPITAL-seat of government. It also financial resources.
Examples:  The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
Example:  The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol today.
 CITE-to quote or document Example:  I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT-vision Example: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of the
world.
SITE-position or place Example:  The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
 COARSE- means vulgar or harsh Example: He was reprimanded because of his coarse behavior
COURSE-a path or a study Example: What course are you taking?
 COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete
Example:  A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise

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 Example:  The professor complimented Betty on her proper use of a comma.
 CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong
Example:  The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the exam.
CONSCIOUS-awake Example:  I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
 CONTINUAL- means close occurrence, with interval
Example: Their class has continual discussion on moral issues.
CONTINUOUS- uninterrupted occurrence
Example: Continuous rains last week caused flashfloods.
 COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises
Example:  The men and women on the council voted in favor of an outdoor concert in their town.
COUNSEL-to advise Example:  The parole officer counseled the convict before he was released.
 ELICIT-to draw or bring out Example:  The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
ILLICIT-illegal Example:  The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.
 FORMER- the first of two Example: The former half of the book was in prose.
LATTER- the second of two Example: The latter half of the book was in poetry.
 HEALTHFUL-is used for things Example: Fresh green salads are healthful.
HEALTHY-is used for people Example: She is fit and healthy.
 IN-refers to position Example: The plates are in the cabinet.
INTO-suggests motion Example: Let’s go into the next room.
 LEARN-means to receive knowledge Example: I learned a new word today.
TEACH- means to give knowledge. Example: Sir Ralph taught us that new word.
 LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
Example: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.
The dog has lain in the shade all day.
Yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve hours.
LAY-to lay an object down. Example: The town lay at the foot of the mountain.
At that point, Pappy laid the shotgun on the ground.
 LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win
Example: Mom glared at Mikey: "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even
think of coming home!"
LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
Example: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the
race with the cop chasing him.
 PASSED- verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved
Example: The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage.
PAST-belonging to a former time or place
Example:  Go past the fire station and turn right.
 PRECEDE-to come before Example: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
PROCEED-to go forward Example: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.
 RESPECTIVELY- in the same order as the people or things already mentioned.
Example: Lisa visited Paris and Vatican respectively.
RESPECTFULLY- means in a respectful manner
Example: She greets her teachers respectfully.
 SET- means ‘to put something in a certain place’
Example: Set the plates on the table.
SIT- means to be seated Example: I will sit in his placer tonight.
 STATIONARY-standing still Example: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
STATIONERY-writing paper Example: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.
 SOME TIME- a portion of time Example: I will need some time to make a decision.
SOMETIME- at an indefinite time in the future
Example: Let us meet sometime after 12 noon.
SOMETIMES- adverb, means occasionally
Example: Sometimes it is better to hesitate before signing a contract.
 THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out of
Example:  He plowed right through the other team's defensive line.
THREW-past tense of throw Example:  She threw away his love letters.
THOROUGH-careful or complete
Example:  John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of
dust when he finished.
THOUGH-however; nevertheless Example: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writing
Example:  We're thru for the day.

PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

1. Narration: Reveals what a reader should learn. This type of paragraphs uses the past from of the verb and usually written in
chronological order.
2. Description: Rich descriptive words that put a picture of a person, place or an object in a reader's mind
3. Definition: A paragraph explaining a term of subject so your audience comprehends the topic of the paragraph. This can be
done in three ways: synonyms, class and negation
4. Synonym: Explaining the term by using the words that mean the same thing
5. Class: When you put your topic in a broad category to explain your term
6. Negation: Means that the writer first says something is not, and they say it is.
7. Exemplification: It develops a general statement — the topic sentence with one more concrete examples illustrate and explain the
topic sentence, but they also make your writing more convincing.
8. Classification: This paragraph clearly defines something and place it in a group according to some basis or rules so that it only fits in
one group. To be successful at this, you have to be very detailed.
9. Topic Sentence: It has two parts, the topic and the basis of classification, which is the controlling idea, it controls how the writer
approaches the subject

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10. Comparison and Contrast: This paragraph compares two subjects and discusses how they are alike and lists a few examples.
There are two ways to write this paragraph: point of paragraph (halinhinan) and there is blocked paragraph
(isahan)
11. Cause and Effect: This cause is a reason for, or events leading. And the effect is the result of a cause or causes.
12. Problem Solution: In composition, problem is a method for analyzing and writing about a topic by identifying a problem and
proposing one or more solution
13. Persuasion: The paragraph means to convince the reader that your opinion on an issue or subject is the right one.

CAPITALIZATION RULES
Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
Rule 2. Capitalize proper nouns—and adjectives derived from proper nouns. Examples: the Golden Gate Bridge, the Grand Canyon
Rule 3. In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize any word that applies to their merchandise.
Ex: Domino's Pizza
Rule 4. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used
after a name or instead of a name. Example: The president will address Congress.
Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks in government, royalty, religion, etc.
Example: The President arrived.
Rule 5. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before full names.
Example: director Steven Spielberg
Rule 6. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more formal the title, the more likely it is to be capitalized.
Example: Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
Rule 7. Capitalize nicknames in all cases. Example: Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
Rule 8. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
Example: We had three relatives visit from the West.
Rule 9. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns.
Example: We visited the Grand Canyon.
Rule 10. It is not necessary to capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before the proper name.
Examples: the city of New York / New York City
Rule 11. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."
Rule 12. Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."
Rule 13. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic subjects.
Example: I must take history and Algebra 101.
Rule 14. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.
Example: Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.
Rule 15. Do not capitalize "the national anthem."
Rule 16. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the work's title and follow the same rules of composition
capitalization for the subtitle.
Example: The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage
Note that A is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle

LITERATURE
Literature is derived from the Latin word litera which means letter. It refers to any printed matter written within a book or magazine. It is
a reproduction of man’s manifold experiences blended into one harmonious expression. It relates to man’s love, griefs, dreams, and
aspirations coached in a beautiful language. It is a story of man.

Reasons for Studying literature

1. To better appreciate our literary heritage
2. To trace the rich heritage of ideas handed down to us by our forefathers
3. To understand the great and noble tradition of the different races of the world
4. As Filipinos, to take pride in our own culture and manifest deep concern for our own literature.

TYPES OF LITERATURE

The Prose
 The NOVEL is a long narrative divided into chapters. The events are taken from the true-to-life stories and spans a long period
of time.
 SHORT STORY is a narrative involving one or more chapters, one plot and one single impression.
 PLAYS are presented on stage divided into acts and each act has many scenes.
 LEGENDS are fictions, narratives and usually about origins.
 FABLES are stories about animals and inanimate things that speak and act like people and their purpose is to enlighten the
minds of children to events that can mold their ways and attitudes.
 ANECDOTES are products of the writer’s imagination and the main aim is to bring out lessons to the reader.
 ESSAY expresses the viewpoint or opinion of the writer about a particular problem or event. Best example is an editorial.
 BIOGRAPHY deals with the life of a person which may be about himself or that of others.

The Poetry
 Narrative
 EPIC is an extended narrative about heroic exploits often under supernatural control.
Examples: Biag ni Lam-ang of Ilocos, Phl
Beowulf of England
Iliad and Odyssey of Greece
Ramayana and Mahabarata of India
 TALES are stories about supernatural beings.
 BALLADS are short poems, adapted for singing, simple in plot and metrical structure.
 Lyric poetry expresses emotions and feelings of the poet. It is usually short, simple and easy to understand.
 Folksongs/Awiting Bayan are intended to be sung poems about love, despair, grief, doubt, joy, hope and sorrow.

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 Example: Chit-Chirit-Chit
 Sonnet is a 14-line poem dealing with emotions, feelings or ideas
Example: Sonnets of Shakespeare
 Elegy is a poem for the dead.
Annabel Lee by Edgar Allan Poe
 LYRIC
 Ode is a poem of a noble feeling, expressed with dignity on a certain thing/object.
Example: Ode to the West Wind
 Psalms are songs praising God and containing a philosophy of God.
Example: Psalm of David
 Awit is a realistic poem sung with 12 syllables per line.
Example: Florante at Laura
 Corrido is an 8-syllable recital with element of fantasy.
Example: Ibong Adarna
 Dramatic Comedy
 Tragedy involves the hero who struggles mighty against dynamic forces until he meets death.
Example: Hamlet
 Comedy comes from the Greek word ‘komos’ meaning festivity. Its purpose is to give amusement through s happy
ending.
 Melodrama arouses immediate and intense emotion and is usually sad but there is a happy ending for the principal
character.
 Force is an exaggerated comedy where the situations are too ridiculous to be true.

Famous Works

THE ILIAD by Homer

This consists of 24 books covering the last 49 days of the 10th year of the Trojan War. Most books give detailed accounts of the fierce
battles waged on the plains of Troy.

THE ODYSSEY by Homer

This consists of 24 books that represents the 10-year struggle of the Greek Ulysses (Odysseus) to reach and save his own kingdom,
Ithaca, after the fall of Troy.

BEOWULF by Homer
This is the England’s oldest epic. It is about the heroic deeds Beowulf who helps save the Kingdom of Heorot.

The SHAH NAMAH by Firdausi

A great epic of Persia meaning “Singer of Paradise”- the story tells about the struggle of Persia to overthrow her enemies.

The SONG OF ROLAND

A great epic of France –depicts the great struggle of Christian knights of France under Charlemagne against the Moors of
Mohammedans

The CID
A great folk-epic of Spain- tells the deeds of the great Cid or “lord” Rodrigo in his wars with the Moors.

The DIVINE COMEDY

A great folk-epic of Italy written by Dante- has three parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso, great purpose was the salvation of the
soul.

SIR GAWAIN and the GREEN KNIGHT

A story of courage, loyalty and faith in God

THE CANTERBURY TALES by Geoffrey Chaucer- a large collection of isolated stories. It features the different people of Medieval
England

The DECAMERON by Giovanni Boccaccio- a collection of tales told by a group of young people escaping the black death from the City

A DOLL’S HOUSE by Henrik Ibsen- the husband in the story treats Nora, the wife, as a doll, a plaything, a pet, instead as a person

American Literature
Colonial Period:
1. William Bradford – wrote Of Plymouth Plantation
2. Anne Bradstreet – wrote The Tenth Muse lately Sprung Up in America
3. Edward Taylor
4. Jonathan Edwards – wrote the powerful sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”

Period of Enlightenment
1. Benjamin Franklin
 Wrote the Autobiography, a self-help book written to share pieces of advice to his son
 An important figure in the 1787 Convention which drafted the US Constitution
 Was President of the Anti-slavery Association
2. Thomas Paine – wrote the pamphlet The Common Sense in which he wrote, “The cause of America is in great measure the
cause of all mankind.”
3. Philip Freneau – the poet of the American Revolution
4. Washington Irving – wrote Legend of the Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle
5. James Fennimore Cooper – wrote The Leatherstocking Tales that feature the life of frontiersman Natty Bumpo. His
masterpiece is the Last of the Mohicans
6. Phyllis Wheatley was the second published African American poet whose writings helped create the genre of African
American literature

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The Romantic Period (Poets)
1. Ralph Waldo Emerson 5. Henry David Thoreau 9. Walt Whitman
2. Emily Dickinson 6. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 10. Oliver Wendell Holmes
3. The Romantic Period (Fiction writers) 7. Nathaniel Hawthorne 11. Herman Melville
4. Edgar Allan Poe 8. Sojourner Truth 12. Harrier Beecher Stowe

Realism
1. Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) 5. Bret Harte 9. Henry James
2. Edith Wharton 6. Stephen Crane 10. Jack London
3. Theodore Dreiser 7. Willa Cather 11. Carl Sandburg
4. Edwin Arlington Robinson 8. Langston Hughes
American Realism
1. F. Scott Fitzgerald 4. Ernest Hemingway 7. William Faulkner
2. Sinclair Lewis 5. John Steinbeck 8. Sylvia Plath
3. Richard Wright 6. Zora Neale Hurston
Modernist Poets
1. Ezra Pound 3. T.S. Eliot 5. Robert Frost
2. Wallace Stevens 4. William Carlos Williams 6. Edward Estlin (E.E.) Cummmings

Teaching Philippine Literature in English

The Pre-Spanish era
 Own literature that reflects our own race
 Shows our customs and tradition in everyday life
 Own alphabet known as ‘alibata’
 Records were written on leaves and bamboo cylinder, bark of trees and caves.
 Beginning of legends, folktales, epics, folk songs, riddles, chants, proverbs and sayings
The Spanish Period
 Alibata was replaced by the Roman alphabet
 Teachings of Christian Doctrine became the basis of religious practices.
 Spanish language gave many of its words to our language.
 European legends and traditions were assimilated in our songs, corridos and moro moro.
 Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog and other dialects.
 Grammar books were printed in Filipinos
 Periodicals gained a religious tone.

FIRST BOOKS WRITTEN

 DOCTRINA CHRISTIANA was the first book printed in the Philippines in 1593. It was written by Fr. Juan de Placencia & Fr.
Domingo Nieva.
 BARLAAN at JOSEPHAT was the first Tagalog novel published in the Philippines.
 PASION is about life and sufferings of Jesus Christ
 URBANA at FELISA was written by Modesto de Castro (Father of Classic Prose in Tagalog) about the letters of two sisters
dealing with good behavior.
 VOCABULARIO DELA LENGUA TAGALA was the first Tagalog dictionary by Fr. Pedro de San Buenaventura.
 NINAY was the first social novel in Spanish by Jose Panganiban.
Recreational plays
 Tibag was a search of St. Helena for the cross on which Jesus died.
 Cenaculo was a dramatic performance commemorating the passion and death of Jesus Christ.
 Panunuluyan was a presentation of the search of Virgin Mary and St. Joseph for an inn to deliver the baby Jesus.
 Salubong is an Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the risen Lord and His mother.
 Zarzuela is the father of drama musical comedy/melodrama dealing with man’s passion and emotion.
 Moro-moro is a play about the fighting between Moros and Christians
 Duplo/Karagatan is played during wakes for the dead. The princess who dropped her ring into the middle of the sea.
 Balagtasan
 Awit/Corrido
PERIOD OF ENLIGHTENMENT (NATIONALISM)
 The period where the Filipinos demanded changes in the government and in the church.
 The Rise of Propaganda Movement
 Leaders:
 Jose Rizal – Laong Laan & Dimasalang - Wrote: Noli and Fili
 Marcelo H. Del Pilar – Plaridel, Pupdoh, Piping Dilat, Dolores Manapat
 Wrote: Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa, Dasalan at Tucsohan
 Graciano Lopez Jaena - Wrote: La Solidaridad (first magazine), Fray Botod
PERIOD OF ACTIVE REVOLUTION
 Reforms demanded by propagandists were not given attention.
 There was no other way except to revolt.
 Leaders:
 Andres Bonifacio - the Father of Democracy, Father of KKK, and
 Emilio Jacinto – Brain of the Katipunan, wrote Liwanag at Dilim
 Apolinario Mabini- Sublime Paralytic, Brains of the Revolution
Japanese literature
 English newspapers were stopped by the Japanese.
 LIWAYWAY was placed under strict surveillance.
 Beginning of HAIKU and TANAGA
 Movie houses showing American Films were closed
 Writers: Jose Ma. Hernandez, Francisco Rodrigo, Liwayway Arceo, Carlos Romulo, Carlos Bulosan
Japanese Literature
 NOH DRAMA – a dramatic dance with lyrical poetic texts and masked actors.
 HAIKU – a 7-syllable poetic form usually about nature.
 WAKA – a 31-syllable classical poetry

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  KABUKI – classical Japanese dance drama
 KOJIKI (Record of Ancient Matters) earliest surviving work in Japan – collection of ceremonies or magical practices

Rebirth of Freedom
 American returned in 1945.
 Proliferation of newspapers such as FREE PRESS, MORNING SUN, MANILA TIMES, PHIL. HERALD, CHRONICLE,
BULLETIN
 Famous work: ‘Kwento ni Mabuti’ by Genoveva Edroza- her first Palanca Award

PERIOD OF ACTIVISM
 Because of the ills of society, the youth moved to seek reforms.
 Martial Law
 Writings were rebellious.
 Period of terror and wrath
 Age of Ninoy’s martyrdom
 People Power
 Rebirth of newspapers and books

Chinese literature
 Chinese literature is one of the major cultural heritage of the world.
 Poetry was characterized by compactness and brevity.
 Confucius or Kung Fu-tze was the first sage of China who wanted to make education available to all men. He was the great
teacher who founded Chinese literature.
 SHIH CHING was the first anthology of Chinese poetry
 Five Books of Confucius
 YIKING (Book of Changes) – divination
 LIKING (Book of Ceremonies) – etiquette
 SHUKING (Book of Historical Documents) – political ideals and good governance.
 SHIKING (Book of Poetry) – best poems
 CHUN CHIU (Spring and Autumn) – history of Confucius’s native province.

Teachings of Confucius: Principles of Courage and Prudence, Filial Duty, Selecting friends

 ANALECTS are selections or parts of literary works.

 Examples: I am not concerned that I am not known but I seek to be worthy to be known.
Give man a fish and you feed him for a day, teach man to fish and you feed him for a life.

Arabic literature
 ‘A Thousand and One Night’ was a collection of stories and folk tales compiled in Arabic.
 Example: Alladin, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Sinbad, The Sailor
 Kahlil Gibran – great poet

Indian literature
 The oldest sacred literature found in four VEDAS (knowledge)
 Rigveda – Veda of Praise (oldest)
 Brahmanas – rituals and prayers
 Upanishads – discourses between teachers and pupils
 Puranas – history of the Aryan race
 Mahabharata Hindu epic – the longest poem in the world about the bitter quarrel of two brothers- Pandu and Kuru
 Ramayana – defects the duties of relationship portraying ideal characters like the ideal servant, ideal brother, ideal
wife and ideal king.
 Kalidasa – poet known for Sakantula/greatest Sanskrit playwright and poets
 Rabindranath Tagore – best known of all writers in India

Hebrew literature
 Bible- book of all books with 39 Old Testament books and 27 New Testaments. This is a literature that provokes another
literature.

The Early Period (1900-1930)

 coincided with the American occupation
 English became the medium of instruction in 1900 in all public schools
 first teachers were American soldiers
 in 1901 the Thomasites arrived
 numerous newspapers in English were published
 PNS was founded in 1901; UP was founded in 1910
 first Filipino novel in English was written by Zoilo Galang – A Child of Sorrow (1921)

Writers of the Early Period

POETS : Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion Aurelio S. Alvero Rafael Zulueta da Costa
Angela Manalang Gloria Trinidad Tarrosa Subido Vicente del Fierro
Luis Dato Jose Garcia Villa
FICTIONISTS: Zoilo M. Galang Paz Marquez Benitez Arturo B. Rotor
Amador T. Daguio Paz Latorena Loreto Paras Sulit
ESSAYISTS: Zoilo M. Galang Francisco Benitez Jorge Bocobo
Amador Daguio Fernando Ma. Guerrero I.V. Mallari
Claro M. Recto Carlos P. Romulo Camilo Osias

The Middle Period (1930-1960)

 continued influence of romanticism and later realism from the United States
 literary organizations were formed, e.g. Philippine Book Guild (1936), Philippine Writers’ League (1939), The Veronicans

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  the Philippine Commonwealth Government was established on July 4, 1935
 writers began to explore the idea of searching for a national identity
 S.P. Lopez and J.G. Villa clashed over the social function of art and art for art’s sake function of art
 the short story flourished
 journalistic writing and literary criticism emerged
 the first Commonwealth Literary Awards were given in 1940
 Philippine Independence was proclaimed on July 4, 1946
 the 1950’s were a time of political unrest – the gov’t vs. the Hukbalahap
 Philippine literature in English greatly improved

Characteristics of the Literature

 recurrent subject matter/themes – rural life, love, self-sacrifice and suffering, novelty of city life, value of education, struggle
against poverty
 recurrent setting – the province, the barrio, the small town
 use of local color
 recurrent characters – the barrio lass/lad, the first schooled/educated person in the barrio, the teacher, hardworking
farmer/fisherman, ardent lovers, the Filipino expatriate educated in America

World War II/Japanese occupation

 stylistic characteristics – simple structure, simple plots, mild climaxes, explicit symbols, slow pace or movement, abundant
description of people and places
 reflected Filipino customs, traditions, practices, traits
 culture clashes – American vs. Filipino
 the first Palanca Memorial Awards were given in 1950; for English and the Tagalog one-act play in 1954

Writers of the Modern Period

POETS: Cirilo F. Bautista Rolando Tinio Emmanuel Torres
Virginia Moreno Tita Lacambra-Ayala Marra Lanot-Lacaba
Edith Tiempo Erwin Castillo Godofredo Burce Bunao
FICTIONISTS: Gregorio C. Brillantes Gilda Cordero Fernando Kerima Polotan Tuvera
Bienvenido Santos Ninotchka Rosca Lilia Pablo Amansec
F. Sionil Jose Edilberto K. Tiempo Nick Joaquin
ESSAYISTS: Maximo V. Soliven Carmen Guerrero Nakpil Benjamin M. Pascual
Nestor M. Torre Sylvia Mayuga Cesar Majul
Teodoro F. Valencia Alejandro R. Roces
PLAYWRIGHTS: Amelia Lapeña Bonifacio Estrella D. Alfon Wilfrido Nolledo
Rolando S. Tinio Mar Puatu Nestor Torre, Jr.
Julian Dacanay, Jr. Azucena Grajo Uranza Cirilo F. Bautista

The Contemporary Period (1970 – to present)

 Martial Law was lifted in 1981
 Filipino novelists in English have come of age
 themes have changed from sentimentalized romanticism to a more realistic and naturalistic delineation
 excellent mastery of the English language and literary forms is evident
 1986 EDSA Revolution occurred
 gay and lesbian literature came out
 strong feminist tendencies are evident
 more social problems are tackled
 TV and films have become more popular
 younger writers have entered the literary scene
 more literary criticisms have been written
 university presses have published collections and anthologies

Characteristics of the Literature

 daring or controversial choice of subject matter
 very innovative in structure and style
 influence of different –isms and literary trends from the West
 characters have become more three-dimensional
 characters, plot structure and narrative techniques are more complex

Writers of the Contemporary Period

Fatima Lim Merlinda Bobis Alfredo Navarra Salanga
Gemino Abad Benilda Santos Ophelia Dimalanta
Ma. Luisa IgloriaDanton Remoto Paulino Lim, Jr. Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo
Jessica Zafra Isagani R. Cruz Alfred Yuson

ENGLISH LITERATURE

Development of English Literature

The Renaissance
The Golden Age of English literature 1485- 1660
 Poets took up more secular views and writers wrote in praise of peace, of springtime, and of heavenly and earthly love. The
sonnet, a 14-line iambic pentameter poem, became the most favorite poetic form.
 Humanism was the predominant philosophical thought in 16th century England

CHISTOPHER MARLOWE - Wrote Dr. Faustus

BEN JONSON - Song to Celia –

Drink to me, only with thine eyes
And I will pledge with mine;

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Or leave a kiss but in the cup,
And I'll not look for wine.
The thirst that from the soul doth rise
Doth ask a drink divine:
But might I of Jove's nectar sup
I would not change for thine.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
1. wrote more than 35 plays as well as 154 sonnets and 2 narrative poems –Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece
2. His sonnets, also known as the Elizabethan sonnet, are composed of three quatrains and one heroic couplet with the rhyme
scheme - abab-cdcd-efef-gg.
SONNET 18
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? a
Thou art more lovely and more temperate: b
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, a
And summer's lease hath all too short a date: b
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, c
And often is his gold complexion dimmed, d
And every fair from fair sometime declines, c
By chance, or nature's changing course untrimmed: d
But thy eternal summer shall not fade, e
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st, f
Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade, e
When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st, f
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, g
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. G

In what Shakespearean play does each of the following lines appear?

1. All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely players. As You Like It
2. Parting is such sweet sorrow. Romeo and Juliet
3. What's in a name? That which we call a rose. By any other name would smell as sweet. Romeo and Juliet
4. The course of true love never did run smooth. A Midsummer Night’s Dream
5. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is to have a thankless child! King Lear
6. If you prick us, do we not bleed? if you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you poison us, do we not die? and if you wrong us, shall
we not revenge? Merchant of Venice
7. A woman moved is like a fountain troubled,— Muddy, ill-seeming, thick, bereft of beauty. Taming of the Shrew
8. Out, out, brief candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and then is heard
no more: it is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. Macbeth
9. O, that this too too solid flesh would melt,
Thaw and resolve itself into a dew!
Or that the Everlasting had not fix’d
His canon ’gainst self-slaughter! O God! God!
How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable
Seem to me all the uses of this world! Hamlet

The 17th Century

FRANCIS BACON
He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune; for they are impediments to great enterprises, either of virtue or
mischief.         Work:  Of Marriage and Single Life
 
JOHN MILTON
Famous for his epic poem On His Blindness, Paradise Lost and its sequel Paradise Regained.

The 18th Century

WILLIAM BLAKE

The Sick Rose

ROSE, thou art sick!
The invisible worm,
That flies in the night,
In the howling storm,
 
Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy;
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy.

William Wordsworth (1770-1850), British poet, credited with ushering in the English Romantic Movement with the publication of
Lyrical Ballads (1798) in collaboration with Samuel Taylor Coleridge.

JOHN KEATS
A thing of beauty is a joy forever:
Its loveliness increases; it will never
Pass into nothingness;

How Do I Love Thee? (Sonnet 43) by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.
I love thee to the depth and breadth and height

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My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight
For the ends of Being and ideal Grace.
I love thee to the level of every day's
Most quiet need, by sun and candlelight.
I love thee freely, as men strive for Right;
I love thee purely, as they turn from Praise.
I love thee with a passion put to use
In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith.
I love thee with a love I seemed to lose
With my lost saints, I love thee with the breath,
Smiles, tears, of all my life! and, if God choose,
I shall but love thee better after death.

Famous Literary Personalities (Summary)

• Geoffrey Chaucer : The Canterbury Tales
• Dante Alighieri : The Divine Comedy
• Victor Hugo : Hunchback of Notre Dame/Les Miserables
• Charles Dickens : Tale of Two Cities
• Virginia Wolf : Mrs. Dalloway
• Grabrile Garcia Marquez: One Hundred Years of Solitude
• William Shakespeare : Romeo and Juliet
• Edith Wharton : The Age of Innocence
• Robert Frost : The Road Not Taken
• Jane Austen : Emma
• Fyodor Dostoyevsky : Crime and Punishment
• Rudyard Kipling : The Jungle Book
• William Golding : Lord of the Flies
• Goerge Orwell : Animal Farm
• Edgar Allan Poe : Annabel Lee
• Homer : Iliad and Odyssey
• Plato : The Republic
• Leo Tolstoy : God Sees the Truth but Waits
• John Milton : The Paradise Lost
• Jose Rizal : Noli Me Tangere

LITERARY TERMS
 ALLEGORY is a story or tale with two or more levels of meaning-literary level one or more symbolic levels
 ANECDOTE is a brief story about an interesting, amusing, or strange event
 ANTAGONIST is a character or force in conflict with a main character.
 BALLAD is a songlike poem that tells a story
 CHARACTER is a person or animal who takes part in the action of a literary work.
 CHARACTERIZATION is the act of creating and developing a character
 CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER refers to the way that events follow each other as they happen in time.
 CONFLICT is a struggle between opposing forces.
 CONNOTATION refers to the emotions and associations that a particular word or phrase brings forth.
 DENOTATION is the literal or dictionary definition of a word.
 DRAMA is a story written to be performed by actors
 ELEGY is a solemn and formal lyric poem about death
 EPIGRAM is a brief, pointed statement, in prose or in verse, often characterized by use of some rhetorical device or figure of
speech.
 FANTASY is a form of writing that is highly imaginative
 FICTION is writing in which characters, plots, and settings are invented by the writer.
 FLASHBACK is a section of literary work that interrupts the chronological presentation of events to relate an event from an
earlier.
 FORESHADOWING is a writer’s use of hints and clues to indicate action that will occur later in the narrative. It creates
suspense and makes the reader eager to find out what is going to happen next.
 FREE VERSE is poetry that lacks a regular rhythmical pattern or meter
 HERO/HEROINE is a character whose actions are inspiring or noble.
 An IMAGE is a word or phrase that appeals to one or more of the five senses-sight, sound, hearing, touch, taste, or smell.
 IMAGERY is the descriptive or figurative language used in literature to create word pictures for the reader.
 INFERENCE is a reasonable conclusion drawn from clues provided by the writer.
 LYRIC POEM is a melodic poem that expresses the observations and feelings of a single speaker.
 METER is the rhythmical pattern of a poem
 MOTIVATION is a reason that explains a character’s thoughts, feelings, actions or speech
 NARRATIVE is a story in fiction, nonfiction, poetry or drama.
 NARRATIVE POETRY tells a story.
 NONFICTION is prose writing about real people, real places, real happenings.
 PARODY is a humorous imitation of a literary work, one that exaggerates or distorts the characteristic features of the original.
 PLOT is the sequence of events in the story.
 POINT OF VIEW is the perspective from which a story is told.
 PROTAGONIST is the main character in a literary work.
 REFRAIN is the repetition of a word, phrase, or line in a poem.
 RHYME is a poetic technique that repeats syllable sounds at the end of the lines in a poetry stanza.
 SETTING is the time and place of the action of a story.
 SATIRE is writing that ridicules or criticizes individuals, ideas, institutions, or other works of art or literature.
 SURPRISE ENDING is a conclusion that violates the expectations of the reader.
 SUSPENSE is the excitement a reader feels about the outcome, or solution to the problem the writer has posed.
 TONE is the attitude the writer takes toward a subject

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