Ocean and Coastal Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Ocean and Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

How to make Integrated Coastal Erosion Management a reality

Nelson Rangel-Buitragoa,∗, Victor N. de Jongeb, William Nealc
a
Departamentos de Física y Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Atlántico, Km 7 Antigua Vía Puerto Colombia, Barranquilla, Atlántico, Colombia
b
Institute of Estuarine and Coastal Studies, IECS, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, United Kingdom
c
Department of Geology, Grand Valley State University, The Seymour K. & Esther R. Padnos Hall of Science 213A, Allendale, MI, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Coastal-erosion management actions require a knowledge of sediment behaviour and interchange in all related
Coastal erosion offshore, shore and inland environments. Approaches to managing erosion include hard/soft protection mea-
Accretion sures (hold/advance the line), accommodation, managed retreat, use of ecosystems and sacrifice (do nothing). In
Sediment transport reshaping these options, an essential addition is the most attractive but usually the least used strategy:
Management
Intervention Concerning the Erosion Causes (ICEC). Minimizing erosion via ICEC not only means specific local
actions, but certainly also involves the restoration of natural protective habitats, and even the removal of an-
thropogenic structures that block sediment production and its flow to and through coastal systems. The spatial
and temporal environmental, physical and social knowledge related to the area of interest forms the core of the
ICEC approach to solve or at least minimize coastal erosion.

1. Introduction during medieval times until the period that organized ‘water boards’
were created (de Jonge, 2009). In this period, large parts of the north,
Coastal erosion is a process whereby a coastal zone loses its sub- the west and the southwest of the Netherlands were lost (de Jonge,
aerial land part (beaches, dunes, bluffs or cliffs) resulting in a net se- 2009). In the Netherlands, this more organized modern water man-
diment imbalance and subsequent retreat. This process includes a broad agement started in the 1200s. However, when looking at the historical
range of processes such as wind, wind-induced waves, water currents, developments since ∼1600 (Fig. 1) then it is clear that erosion and
amongst others that are acting at different temporal and spatial scales, accretion are processes that occur simultaneously (left side of Fig. 1
and that are commonly self-related (van Rijn, 2011). where accretion and erosion are indicated), and both vary in intensity
Coastal erosion is a typical primary natural process that has shaped over time (right side of Fig. 1 indicating eroding and accreting coastline
the surface of the earth. Erosion can be related to slow shoreline be- of the Netherlands). The background of these changes between ∼1600
haviours working for decades and that often affect long coastal reaches and ∼2000 were most likely (Ligtendag, 1990) indirectly caused by
covering large areas. It can also be linked to rapid processes, sometimes processes such as tectonics, sediment compaction, isostasy and the
comprising not more than movements during a time span of seconds, proceeding basin formation of the Southern Bight of the North Sea.
and usually involving the movement of small particles, less than a few Under today's complicated situation of human technical develop-
millimetres or even micrometers in size (Larson and Kraus, 1995). ments and related infrastructure, shoreline retreat due to the slow long-
Coastal erosion can either directly or indirectly be related to human term sea-level rise may affect regional coastal areas, while beach ero-
activity (de Jonge, 2009). Since the time that humans started to change sion due to the construction of a groin, for example, may take place
from a nomadic lifestyle to one related to permanent settlements, they within a restricted number of days. Usually, the human engineering
also began to influence their living environment with sometimes dra- approach (seawall, groin, jetty development) has an impact on a de-
matic consequences. A good example is the vast inundations caused by fined area and as far as we know a ‘restricted’ stretch of the coastal zone
a combination of storm events and early dike building and large-scale (Komar, 2000). All the above processes, however, act simultaneously,
peat digging. The peat digging activities were accompanied by the re- and the coastal erosion recorded in a given area is thus a consequence
quired dewatering which resulted in accelerated peat oxidation and of the interaction of all the processes. The analysis of causes and extent
accelerated sediment compaction due to which the difference between of coastal erosion needs to include all of the spatial and temporal scales
the mean sea level and that of the terrestrial area dramatically in- at which these processes work. The information required to analyse
creased (up to 6 m). In north-western Europe, these conditions started every coastal process must take into account the natural scale.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Rangel-Buitrago).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.027
Received 13 January 2018; Received in revised form 19 January 2018; Accepted 21 January 2018
0964-5691/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Rangel-Buitrago, N., Ocean and Coastal Management (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.027
N. Rangel-Buitrago et al. Ocean and Coastal Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Changes of the North Sea coastline in the Netherlands since

∼1600 and the present annual erosion and accretion of the Dutch
coast between the first tidal inlet of the international Wadden Sea
near Den Helder in the north and the Rhine and Meuse delta in the
southwest of the country (near Rotterdam harbours). The figure is a
recomposite based on material published in a Rijkswaterstaat report
in Dutch by Ligtendag (1990).

A significant point is that coastal erosion only becomes a problem such as industry, transportation, and tourism (Barragan and Andreis,
when there is no space to accommodate the occurring changes. In this 2015).
sense, coastal erosion is not an issue for those areas where high elevated From 1950 to the present, the coastlines of the world have experi-
and stable grounds back up the coast, but it is a severe problem for low enced a rapid development with an annual average urban growth of
elevated rural areas and urbanized areas. In fact, in many regions, 2.6% (World Bank, 2017). For the same period, the number of coastal
coastal erosion is necessary for the preservation of some coast related cities has multiplied by a factor of ∼4.5 from 472 coastal cities in
functions and features (e.g., sediment supply to adjacent and down-drift 1950 to 2129 cities in 2015. It has been estimated that almost 30% of
beaches, dunes, intertidal sand flats, mud flats and salt marshes). This is the residences within 200 m of the shoreline along low-elevated coasts,
the case along the east coast of the United Kingdom where the strong may be severely affected by erosion-related property losses over the
annual erosion of the ‘Holderness Coast’ contributes to the accretion of next 50 years (World Bank, 2017).
the Wash area and even the Thames area (Fig. 2). Over the last 50 years, and while tourism grew, coastal erosion
Currently, many coastal communities around the world face serious became a severe problem because of its rising magnitude trend
problems related to coastal erosion (Pilkey and Cooper, 2014; Rangel- (Williams et al., 2016; Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017a, b). Currently,
Buitrago et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2017). These issues are quickly coastal erosion results in beach loss, deterioration of coastal landscape
magnified by the changing conditions related to a warming climate that quality, and high financial investments for protective structures. Thus
has resulted in increasing precipitation and inundation, and increased coastal erosion is regarded as an obstacle hindering economic growth
risk of flooding during extreme events with related severe wind and (Fig. 3). Coastal retreat and flooding affect coastal zones worth billions
wave conditions (Donnelly et al., 2004; Rangel-Buitrago and Anfuso, of dollars in regard to tourist income, industrial development, other
2013; Jin et al., 2015). Coastal erosion issues become more critical as human activities, and the associated infrastructure (Clark, 1996).
most of our coastal zones are attractive places for population settlement
and concentration, and for the development of economic activities,

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Fig. 2. Example of the extreme coastal erosion and its consequences on the ‘Holderness Coast’ north of the Humber estuary in the United Kingdom (from Boyes et al., 2016). Map and
pictures reproduced with permission of Professor Mike Elliott (Institute of Estuarine and Coastal Studies - IECS, University of Hull, UK).

2. Current coastal erosion management practices Of the above five practices presented, the protection approach
using hard structures is widely perceived as the best coastal erosion
Currently, five options are considered as the central coastal erosion management practice, and in many countries, this method is the only
management practices (Table 1 – Fig. 4): alternative (Williams et al., 2016; Ndour et al., 2017; Pranzini, 2017;
Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017a, b). However, hard structures are not
1. Protection: preservation of population centers, economic activities necessarily the most adequate solution, and their negative influence has
and natural resources (vulnerable areas) using hard structures and/ been seen as a critical problem along many coastlines around the world
or soft protection measures. (Griggs, 2005; Charlier et al., 2005; Pranzini and Williams, 2013; Pilkey
2. Accommodation: occupying sensitive regions, but acceptance of a and Cooper, 2014; Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017a, b). Hard structures are
higher degree of flooding by changing land use, construction severely challenged at many locations and are becoming unsustainable
methods and improving preparedness. due to their costly and continual maintenance requirements, as well as
3. Planned retreat: removing structures in developed areas, resettling any widening and height increase to keep in pace with the increasing
inhabitants with the requirement that new development is set back coastal erosion risk. Additionally, such structures significantly alter the
from the coast, as appropriate. natural adaptive capacity of any coastline (Temmerman et al., 2013).
4. Use of Ecosystems: Influence over processes related to coastal Negative experiences prevail over positive ones in the implementation
erosion (e.g., sediment capture and energy attenuation) by means of of hard structures as protection measures against coastal erosion due to
the creation and restoration of coastal ecosystems, such as wetlands interfering processes operating at a broad spatial scale (> 100 km,
(e.g., mangroves), biogenic reef structures (e.g., corals, oysters, and Pilkey and Young, 2009; Neal et al., 2017; Rangel-Buitrago et al.,
mussels), seagrass beds and dune vegetation. 2017a, b; Williams et al., 2017).
5. Sacrifice (do nothing): allowing property loss when the suggested Accommodation includes continued usage of land at risk without
protection is not viable, or the accommodation and retreat option attempting to prevent the area from being damaged by natural events
does not exist. allowing conservation and migration of ecosystems. The above can be
reached in two specific ways:

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Fig. 3. Examples of how coastal erosion produces area loss, deterioration of coastal landscape quality and high financial investments for its management. a) Rock revetment construction
in Valparaiso, Chile; b) Erosion and facilities destruction in Florianopolis, Brasil; c) Cliff Erosion in a pristine area, Bonaire; d) Cliff protection via geotextile covering in Pradomar,
Atlantico, Colombia, e) Erosion and facilities destruction in Playetas, Colombia; f) Erosion and promenade destruction in Cadiz, Spain.

Table 1
Main coastal erosion management practices used.
• Using information systems which enhance the understanding and
awareness of coastal erosion and are able to generate appropriate
responses to minimize the erosion impact.
•
CURRENT COASTAL EROSION MANAGEMENT PRACTICES EXAMPLE
Develop technologies that produce physical changes to accom-
Strategy Adaptation Shoreline modate or promote conservation of sediment systems and ecosys-
objectives management tems.
PROTECTION Increased Advance the Land Claim
robustness existing defence Accommodation practice demands an advanced planning and the
line acceptance that some economic values could change. It is an option
Hold the existing Hard Protection more characteristic of flood-prone areas. Flood hazard warnings, flood
defence line Soft Protection proofing, and agricultural threats tend to be the primary issues in-
ACCOMMODATION Increased flexibility Flood Proofing
Flood Agriculture
volved.
Hazards Mapping Planned retreat can reduce the effect of coastal erosion on coastal
Warnings anthropogenic structures. It is an inclusive term and relates to land use
Geoindicators change and relocation of existing infrastructure. It is the deliberate
PLANNED RETREAT Enhanced Managed Management
process of altering or no longer maintaining defenses in order to allow
adaptability realignment Realignment.
Coastal Setbacks flooding of a presently defended area, and make way for shoreline re-
USE OF ECOSYSTEMS Enhanced adaptability Corals treat. Managing this process helps to avoid uncertain outcomes and
Restoration Seagrass negative impacts and also helps maximise potential benefits (Leggett
Risk reduction Oyster reefs et al., 2004). This practice allows the shoreline (which could be ar-
Mangroves
mored/diked/natural) to move back and forth or just to erode as is the
Dunes
SACRIFICE No active intervention Abandonment case with the English ‘Holderness Coast’ (Fig. 2), but the process is
directed by management, e.g., by shortening/lowering coastal defenses;
breaching dunes to allow sand to move freely into the system. Retreat

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Fig. 4. Examples of the standard practices used in the coastal erosion management a) Protection: revetment used to protect the road between Barranquilla and Santa Marta, Colombia; b)
Accommodation: occupation of a flood-prone area using elevated structures in Panama City, Panama c) Planned retreat: set back in the Gothaland region, Sweden; d) Use of Ecosystems:
dune planting in the Hague, The Netherlands; e) Sacrifice: property abandoned due to coastal erosion in Tierrabomba, Colombia.

constitutes a dynamic change to the existing environment by creating retreat and sacrifice as the ultimate solution. Buildings have fixed
space and enhancing the natural adaptive capacity of inter-tidal habi- lifespans that are shorter on most coasts than inland sites for the same
tats, which could involve removal of people, houses (as happens with areas. Such structures should not be replaced after their loss in high-
the Holderness Coast, United Kingdom; Fig. 2), and the infrastructure in hazard zones, and the ruins of such structures should be removed to
a high-risk area. For high-hazard zones this sort of development should allow natural restoration of shorelines to occur. According to Williams
be part of a long-term strategy (Morris, 2012). et al. (2017) the minimum needs to develop a sacrifice practice in an
Recently, an ecosystem-based coastal erosion management area are:
strategy has been brought into practice as an approach that is more
cost-effective, and sustainable, than conventional hard protection ap- • Identify the rationale behind the decision.
proaches. Management based on habitat diversification can be applied • Use demonstration sites to present the feasibility of accommodating
worldwide, particularly in areas that have space between existing ur- retreat.
banization and the coastline to allow for ecosystem development (for • Assess the geomorphological/ecological changes and indicate the
example into accommodation and planned retreat strategies). Because advantages of allowing them to occur.
ecosystems have the natural ability to reduce extreme wave effects
(Shepard et al., 2011), their growth can keep pace with sea-level rise by 3. Aspects to be taken into account during the coastal erosion
means of sediment accretion if available (Kirwan et al., 2010). This can management
also lead to other benefits such as supporting fisheries and tourism, and
even reducing CO2 levels (see Christianen et al., 2013; Orth et al., 2006 Coastal erosion management requires detailed knowledge of the
for sea grasses, and Mazda et al., 2002; McKee and Faulkner, 2000 for changes related to external forcings and the impact of human measures
mangroves). on the dynamic character and resilience of coastal systems. Specifically,
Sacrifice, or the do nothing practice, is often considered an “ex- management challenges in these environments are related to:
treme” strategy, but is frequently used in post extreme-erosion events
that leave buildings battered and broken. The lost villages of the • Natural resources.
Holderness Coast (Fig. 2) stand as examples of failed accommodation, • Development of ‘healthy and resilient’ ecosystems and associated
followed by planned retreat in only a few cases, but mostly forced ecosystem services (de Jonge, 2007; de Jonge et al., 2012).

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maximizing the benefits of the latter.

Coastal erosion monitoring must be used as a tool for management
purposes and should lead to the establishment of legislation for better
coastal erosion management. Monitoring practices stimulate the sense
of environmental responsibility and encourage public participation in
the activities related to the maintenance of coastal environmental
quality (Liu et al., 2013).
Flexible strategies, i.e., proactive and not reactive measures, should
be adopted to strengthen coastal erosion management. For example,
extreme wave events, such as hurricanes seldom occur, but erosion
management plans must be updated and in force to deal with these
occurrences. For these kinds of events especially, incorporation of as-
sociated river basins and offshore ecosystems (reefs, intertidal areas,
seagrass meadows, salt marshes, mangrove stands) in the overall
management plans are necessary (e/g., Christianen, et al., 2013; Orth
et al., 2006; Mazda et al., 2002: McKee and Faulkner, 2000).

4. Moving to the obvious (ICEC)

Gracia et al. (2017), Rangel-Buitrago et al. (2017a, b) and Williams

et al. (2017) previously defined the conventional strategies for coastal
management in five end members: protection, accommodation, retreat,
use of ecosystems and sacrificing areas (Table 1). In reshaping the
Fig. 5. The new Intervention Concerning the Erosion Causes Approach (ICEC) that in- above-presented management practices, an essential addition is the
cludes all existing strategies plus a new endpoint. most visible but usually the least used strategy: Intervention Con-
cerning the Erosion Causes - ICEC (see Williams et al., 2017).

• The tourism industry (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2015). The new ICEC approach includes all existing strategies plus a new

• Coastal safety (Oost et al., 2012). endpoint: intervention concerning the erosion causes (Fig. 5). Different
weightings, which are fluid, can pinpoint a position within the radar
chart based on which strategies can be developed, tracked or changed.
Managers must also take cognizance of the foreseen (projected or
As a concept, ICEC is more than just implementing one or a com-
modeled) urban development together with related increasing coastal
bination of the previously existing approaches. ICEC asks for a policy
loss (Cooper and McKenna, 2008). Therefore knowledge of the local
and implementation process involving more profound knowledge of the
and regional causes and trends of the latter are indispensable for ef-
coastal erosion and accretion processes as well, and a similar adequate
fective coastal management.
strategy and an operative, management framework. That strategy
The use of coastal resources should always be to meet the require-
should be based on historical and scientific knowledge to come to a
ments of “sustainable development” (a development that meets the
solution that of course needs to fit management frameworks and should
needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future
be carried out following the best available techniques. Such a strategy
generations to meet their own needs of Brundtland (1987, 1997)).
will only work if two current common economic approaches are not
Coastal erosion management strategies require implementation of ef-
regarded as being essential to the management model. These two cur-
fective and efficient solutions based on knowledge of magnitudes,
rent models are:
trends and causes (Komar and McDougal, 1988).
At the same time management plans must include coast user's
priorities and preferences; identifying, maintaining and, where pos- • A rigid cost-benefit approach (Cooper and McKenna, 2008).
sible, enhancing the value of the coast to the economic, environmental • Action-reaction basis (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2015, 2017a, b).
and social well-being of local communities. Also, the coastal erosion
Both lack ICEC which must be integrated within the activities of all
management strategy choice must be a function of a series of variables
coastal planning departments, rather than taking place in an isolated or
that include: erosion severity, property rights, funding/legislation, and
separate way (Tompkins, 2005). Also, this new conceptual management
aesthetics (Williams et al., 2017). The above seems complicated, but it
strategy should consider the full context in which the impacts of climate
is not impossible.
change arise, and include the consideration of relevant climate-related
Coastal erosion management should be based on strategies that
and non-climate related issues (Tol et al., 2008) because ICEC is not
allow an inherent ability of the coast to accommodate change induced
about just solving a problem by means of conventional engineering, it is
by erosion while maintaining the functions fulfilled by the coastal
also about future livability of our environment.
system over medium and long terms. A short-term vision does not allow
There are many examples where high amounts of public investment
the above to occur. For this to happen, it is necessary to consider the
were urgently approved to mitigate erosion without integrating the
different coast types and their related processes to define the optimal
plans, needs and activities of all planning departments involved (See
intervention (Williams and Micallef, 2009; Pranzini and Williams,
this volume the Italian case: Pranzini, 2017; The Caribbean of Colombia
2013; Pranzini et al., 2015).
case: Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017a, b; USA case: Leatherman, 2017;
Coastal erosion management further demands techniques, knowl-
Kuwait case: Neelamani, 2017). Post-disaster recoveries are often of
edge, equipment and institutional instruments to minimize or avoid
emergency dispensations that override management regulations
coastal erosion, and if that is not possible then to reduce the impacts.
without interagency approvals. Approval of small erosion-control pro-
The management measures should be optimally beneficial in reducing
jects at the local level is usually not coordinated within overall man-
both the vulnerability of the coast or in reducing the effects of coastal
agement plans (Neal et al., 2017).
erosion. Under current and projected future climate change develop-
In most cases, the operational coastal erosion strategy (generally the
ments, management strategies should allow coastal communities to
protection via hard protection structures) was, given the present state-
minimize their detrimental impacts on natural ecosystems while
of-the-art, a sectoral approach and therefore an ill-conceived idea

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generating an “ephemeral” and “weak” local solution that was not a required development of the coast. The above could be based on
adequate to meet its real purpose: Managing Sediment Dynamics along generic ideas about sustainable development and should ideally reflect
the Coast in a real Practical Erosion Management Procedure must be the interdependency of the natural and socio-economic coastal systems.
developed under practical strategies and plans based or founded on real In a “perfect” scenario, these kinds of objectives must be set by gov-
science. An erroneous management strategy can magnify the problem ernments at a national level.
(See as example the Varna, Bulgaria and Cartagena, Colombia case Tactical level: this level requires describing what has to be
studies in Stancheva et al., 2011; Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2015, 2017a, achieved to comply with the strategic objective proposed. For example,
b), thereby impacting society negatively through loss of environmental on a strategic level, the purpose is formulated as “sustainable devel-
quality and amenity, and by requiring additional investments through opment of the coast,” while at the tactical level it is necessary to choose
public funding to correct the unwanted management developments between different options, such as maintaining the coastline at its
(Cooper and McKenna, 2008; Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2015, 2017a, b). current position using a protection scheme or apply a retreat strategy. It
The ICEC concept must be the critical point together with the on- is essential to take into account that tactical objectives can or need to be
going process that demands a constant identification of risks and op- made for different time horizons.
portunities, implementation of coastal erosion reduction measures, and Operational level: when a tactical objective has been set, it may be
especially the review of their effectiveness. The optimal performance of possible to implement it in some different ways. For example, holding
this strategy or any strategy used should be carefully monitored and the line for the Barranquilla - Santa Marta Sector on the Caribbean coast
assessed, and the lessons' feedback through the entire cycle to improve of Colombia can be undertaken using beach nourishment, reprofiling,
use and future interventions. According to Hay (2009) the three ne- and planting mangroves (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017a, b), but it could
cessary steps within this cycle are: have also been conducted using offshore reefs and seagrass, although
the introduction of seagrass is not a trivial issue (van Katwijk et al.,
1. Identification of risks and opportunities: An essential element in 2009). The choice of the solution, taking into account the ICEC concept,
developing a management strategy involves understanding basic is a significant step at the operational level.
facts about erosion and determining what impacts it will have on a In the framework-of-reference approach a coastal erosion manage-
particular area (Tompkins, 2005). Relevant coastal erosion in- ment program can be formulated through an operational decision tree
formation is crucial to inform decision-making, with more relevant, based on four phases:
accurate and up-to-date information enabling more targeted and
efficient interventions (Klein et al., 2001; Hay, 2009). • Quantitative state concept: The first phase of the decision-making
2. Implementing coastal erosion reduction: The selected technology process is to perform an analysis of the current situation of the coast.
or technologies for strategy development must be applied. Pursuing Sutherland and Thomas (2010) refer to this stage as the option se-
an ICEC approach is likely to entail implementation of one or more lection, which should provide an understanding of the behaviour of
complementary technologies; using this method, a region should be the coast, and the management method that should have been se-
able to respond to a wide range of coastal erosion problems. lected (e.g., sediment cells, coastal compartments, barrier island vs.
3. Assessment of the effectiveness of outcomes: Following im- long-reach coasts). This sort of approach also needs to incorporate
plementation of the strategy, an appropriate process of evaluation the more comprehensive view option being the study of the coastal
should be developed. This evaluation allows coastal managers to behaviour under the given situation as compared to a condition of
decide what policy has achieved their specified goals. According to an undisturbed ‘sediment transport path continuum’ because it is
Klein et al. (2001), information gained is also likely to provide an possible that the solution needs to be sought outside the coastal
insight into how well the management is performing. The above system such as in associated river basins that are supplying sediment
may give rise to strategy adjustments or changes as appropriate. to the coast.
• Benchmarking process: This provides a means of assessing whe-
Inside this scheme, it should be possible to provide well-planned ther or not action is required.
and efficient coastal erosion management strategies which allow sus- • Intervention concerning the causes: A detailed definition of what
tainable development of any coastal area. It is important to highlight, actions are needed after knowing of the environment.
that although coastal erosion management strategies can reduce the • Assessment procedure: A critical evaluation of the action taken. If
vulnerability, total elimination of coastal erosion might still be an im- the measure fails, it may be necessary to revise the strategic/op-
possible utopian ideal. But accomplish each of the above three steps, erational objectives.
and a range of approaches and technologies may be used. Also, taking
the broader view by considering the entire continuum (either a river 5. What is needed to realize ICEC?
continuum or another sediment source to coastal area continuum) is
crucial to get full control over the current problematic situation. A Strategic planning for coastal erosion management relies implicitly
generic framework developed by van Koningsveld and Lescinski (2007) upon an understanding of the processes responsible for shaping coastal
is presented in Table 2. Here the most critical issue is the definition of morphology (Reeve and Spivack, 2004). This process not only needs to
clear objectives at suitable strategic and tactical levels and also at an include the local or regional procedures, but also the inclusion of the
operational level that involves the following steps: processes that lead to the formation (even the physical and chemical
Strategic level: this level is determined by a long-term vision about weathering) and the physical supply of the sediments that are of im-
portance for the coast. However, this strategy must be developed within
Table 2 a policy framework that sets clear objectives, and in an institutional
Generic framework developed by van Koningsveld and Lescinski (2007). environment where stakeholders have different defined roles. Ac-
cording to the selection made based on French (2005), the most es-
LEVEL OBJECTIVES
sential minimum requirements for its adequate and local operation are:
Strategic Strategic
Tactical
Operational
Tactical
Quantitative Benchmarking Intervention Assessment
• Manage coastal zones in a sustainable and informed fashion which
accounts for the full range of factors involved in the coastal decision-
state concept process concerning the procedure
making.
•
Desired State causes
Current State Promote compatibility and balance of coastal uses.
• Apply precautionary and preventative approaches with respect to

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coastal development. produce part of the required management information and thus help to
• Account for both the environmental and economic costs and benefits guide adequate management actions.
of coastal management strategies to ensure the beneficial use of the Devices that focus on the physical coastal problems are outlined in
coastal zone. associated papers of this special issue Management Strategies for
• Provide the scope and complexity of the coastal erosion issues se- Coastal Erosion Processes (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2017a, b) and include
lected as priorities for management measures that are appropriate to integrating ecological, economic and social aspects, as follows:
the capacity of all institutions involved. Embedding the ICEC approach in the spatial and temporal
knowledge related to the area of interest: It is of utmost importance
Likewise, specific fundamental principles must be used to imple- to know the historical human-driven developments of the full area
ment an integrated approach to management of coastal erosion. The within the geological context because we need to accept that some
principles presented by the European Commission in 2006 (EC, 2006) solutions can be taken at the shore while others need to be made far
can be an excellent starting point: upstream in associated river basins or far offshore. If for instance a
coastal problem is caused by the building of dams in the river, then we
• Keep close to a broad, holistic approach, considering the total en- need to consider removal of these dams and finding alternatives for the
vironment (thus also the biota) and to taking into account the entire power they generated, or the drinking water or irrigation-water pro-
‘sediment path. ’ vided by the created lakes. This is a somewhat new sort of thinking
• Take into account a long-term perspective. about solving significant environmental problems, but the results are so
• Always think of adaptive management. that we can afford this technically (e.g., solar energy that can be used
• Try to give specific solutions and flexible measures. for power and to convert seawater into drinking water or water for
• Always work taking into account natural processes. agricultural use).
• Include the participatory planning. Conceptual assessment design of the strategy: A precise defini-
• Integration, support, and involvement of all relevant administrative tion of the strategy properties, problems, and goals for achievement is
bodies. necessary, for example, how an ecosystem or ecosystem elements can
• Use of a combination of instruments. be put on to mitigate or counteract coastal erosion (see Escudero-
Castillo et al., 2017; Gracia et al., 2017; Nordstrom et al., 2017;
Importantly, the implementation of Integrated Coastal Erosion Stanchev et al., 2017).
Management can be a slow process, so expected results are likely to be Use of indicators and indices: This step can be developed using
met in the medium- to long-term time frame. In this sense being geological, geomorphological, social, economic and holistic ecological
proactive is key. Flexible strategies instead of reactive measures should food web indices, determining, characterizing, modeling and in-
be adopted to strengthen coastal erosion management and thus improve tegrating different parts of the system (see de Jonge, 2007; de Jonge
the coastal environmental quality. et al., 2012; Bonneti et al., 2017; Micallef et al., 2017).
Combination of indicators and integrating tools: Data from very
6. How to implement ICEC diverse fields are required for a framework to guide the integration.
One approach could be the use of the ‘integral system’ as a starting
Currently, national policies and local actions taking an integrated point to fill the gaps in information and data (See de Jonge et al., 2012;
and holistic approach to address and counteract the downward spiral of Psuty et al., 2017).
increased coastal erosion impacts, and more frequent climate-related Development of social and economic analysis with the help of
disasters, are mostly lacking (UNEP, 2009; Jones and Phillips, 2011). decision support system: Where meaningful, it might be necessary to
Prioritizing the ICEC in all coastal countries is urgent. The current place monetary values on the benefits provided by a particular coastal
conditions of climate change could trigger a broad shift towards a erosion management strategy (see Neal et al., 2017). This is not ob-
sustainable global civilization if humans start evaluating the past from a ligatory but can be beneficial depending on all sorts of circumstances.
broad perspective and placing greater emphasis on planning for the Developing the integration among all aspects involved (i.e.,
future rather than only sticking to the present. World coastal countries, ecological, economic and social): Cheong et al. (2013) highlighted
especially the most vulnerable nations, should try to manage coastal that weak coastal governance, inadequate financial support, poor or
erosion with fresh and innovative strategies, or at least known suc- zero political practices, lack of commitment and the nature of public
cessful approaches if applicable. At the same time they should plan to participation could hinder the formation of Integrated Coastal Zone
replace old and less efficient management processes, particularly those Management regulations. The above is a challenge when looking to
that are known to generate more problems. Here the evaluation of the incorporate coastal erosion management into unstable ICZM regimes
historical changes that occurred in the ‘sediment path continuum’ is the (see Leatherman, 2017).
key to possible restoration, as well as avoiding new actions that will Management is not an easy process and requires a holistic view to
interrupt sediment supply. finding practical solutions that many times go beyond a national issue
De Jonge et al. (2012) suggest combining some developed ap- (Bush et al., 1996; Williams and Micallef, 2009; Cooper and Pilkey,
proaches and tools, so that appropriate information is generated on the 2012). Under current conditions, coastal erosion management is a
state or condition of the environment. These authors suggest connecting worldwide imperative because, for every day that passes, the problem
ecological assessments carried out by Ecological Network Analysis with becomes more intricate, and solutions requiring an investment of large
for instance the DPSIR approach as developed by Friend and Rapport amounts of money or attempting to out-engineer Nature are not always
(1991) and strongly advocated by OECD (1994). In that tool, the Dri- the best answer. As the world coastal population increases and climate
vers-Pressures that cause a change of State and specific impact on the change impacts become more severe, increasing pressure is applied to
natural environment, as well as human society, call for a Response by governments at all levels to resolve the coastal erosion problem. Un-
the operating natural processes in the environment and an additional fortunately, from a governance viewpoint, many coastal erosion man-
Response by human society to mitigate or counteract the effects. The agement strategies fail due to a weak institutional framework, accom-
proposal could even fit the extended DPSIR approach (see Elliott et al., panied by diluted and compromised coastal erosion management
2017). Because the ecosystem can be assessed and the processes re- regulations.
sponsible for changes in the environment can be unraveled, we ‘only’ The coastal erosion management based on ICEC can be introduced
need to convert all of the information into indices that reflect the effect if:
to the state or welfare of the human society. Such a series of tools can

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N. Rangel-Buitrago et al. Ocean and Coastal Management xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

• Coastal erosion is considered in vulnerability assessments of com- • Update current environmental legislation with strong management
munities. rules focused on coastal erosion, and which emphasize im-
• Scenarios and tools are developed that model compound coastal plementation and enforcement.
erosion impacts as part of the whole dynamics of the coastal pro- • Add new measures to better support decision-making, including a
cesses. decision support framework that provides guidelines such as coastal
• Building-decision support systems help communities visualize im- erosion manuals, and financial support for management functions.
pacts and possible solutions. • Raise public awareness about risks associated with the im-
• All stakeholders are firmly engaged. plementation of inadequate and short-term management practices.
• Policies enacted to ensure environmental integrity. • Provide an efficient and sustained response to coastal erosion issues.
• Proven management interventions are incorporated.
• Capacity for implementation are reinforced. Under current climate change conditions, a coastal erosion man-
• The required broad overall system knowledge as the basis for ICEC is agement plan always is required. The steps to follow must take into
available and also used. account the aspects of the integrated coastal management policy cycle
formulated by Olsen et al. (1997). The above must be included in
The above should be included in policies supporting strategies and politics, supporting strategies and must be built with enough scientific
above all, must be constructed with enough robust scientific research research for decision makers to make rational decisions This proposed
for decision makers to make rational decisions. Political support is re- plan can achieve continual improvement of coastal erosion manage-
quired that helps the integration of this strategy into coastal disaster- ment. Governments must be held accountable for developing, sup-
risk reduction, and climate change adaptation policy frameworks and porting, and maintaining strong coastal erosion management programs.
practices. Adequate allocation of financial, knowledge and technolo-
gical resources also are required for integrating ICEC strategy in cli- Acknowledgements
mate-change and coastal-disaster risk reduction portfolios. ICEC must
be included in national policy-setting and raise awareness in planning, This work is a contribution to research groups: “Geology,
practices, and capacity building. Geophysics and Marine - Coastal Process”, Universidad del Atlántico
(Colombia), “Institute of Estuarine & Coastal Studies”, The University of
Hull (United Kingdom) and “Department of Geology”, Grand Valley
7. Final remarks State University (USA). We thank the Institute of Estuarine and Coastal
Studies/IECS (University of Hull, Hull, HU6 7RX, UK) for allowing us to
A considerable level of cooperation is required from all stakeholders reproduce Fig. 2. This figure was originally published by Boyes et al.
to take action using ICEC on the coastal erosion issue. This will help (2016) in a production prepared for East Riding of Yorkshire Council
foster and close existing links between coastal erosion management, (ERYC) by IECS and funded through the Defra Coastal Change Path-
disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation, as well as be- finder project and the East Riding Coastal Change Pathfinder (ERCCP).
tween science and policy.
Coastal countries can use the following four elements as a basis to Appendix A. Supplementary data
define a policy to combat coastal erosion:
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.
• Enlarge coastal resilience by restoring the sediment balance and doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.027.
providing space for coastal processes. Such restoration should in-
clude both restorations of natural protective habitats and removal of References
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