Form 1 (ZJC) / History

THE ROZVI STATE

BY THE END OF THE SUBTOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Outline factors that led to the rise of the Rozvi state.

Describe the political, social and economic organisation of the Rozvi state.

Discuss the fall of the Rozvi state.

Origins

Rozvi is a Shona word taken from the word kurozva meaning deprive.

This means taking something by force without intending to return it to the owner.

The Rozvi name means “destroyers”.

They are many stories on how the Rozvi State was established with the evidence based on oral
traditions.

The founder of the Rozvi state was a man called Dombo who was a cattle herder in the Mutapa State.

It is believed that Dombo was given cattle by the Mutapa King as a reward for his loyal services.

Dombo became rich and attracted many followers.

He broke away from the Mutapa State around 1680 and established his kingdom in the south west.

The Dombo name is a short word from Domborakonachingwano.

Some other sources state that Dombo defeated the Torwa people in their kingdom and built his own
kingdom.

Some Torwa people were driven away to other communities while others were absorbed to the new
kingdom of Rozvi.

The Rozvi state was firstly built at Danangombe and later the rulers moved to settle in Khami and
Naletale.

Some historians argue that Rozvi and the Torwa people are the same people.

They changed the state name from Torwa to Rozvi State.

Other historians suggest that Dombo was a local person who gained the power to become a leader of
the Rozvi State.
The Rozvi kings were given the title Changamire or Mambo.

They shared the Moyo totem meaning Tthe heart.

The totem was a powerful spiritual bond between the rich and the poor.

Political organisation of the Rozvin State

The Rozvi people were ruled by Mambos or Changamire’s.

He was the most respected person in the land.

His position was hereditary.

It was usually the eldest son who took over the throne.

The Mambo had to be of the Moyo totem.

The Mambo was the head of State.

He made the final decisions in all cases.

The king was believed to be a God and he could talk to the ancestors.

The Mambo gave cattle to chiefs in order to maintain his power.

The Mambo was assisted by the Tumbare.

The king ruled with the help of a council which was known as the Dare.

The council gave the king advice and it was comprised of the priests, military leaders, and provincial
governors.

Political Structure Of The Rozvi

The Rozvi political structure was organized in the following way:

KING AND THE COURT

CHIEFDOM

SUB-CHIEF

REGION

VILLAGE

HEADMAN

FAMILY
HUTRozvi political structure

The king stayed in his own hut.

His capital was at Danangombe.

Members of the court included some of the king’s wives.

The king’s son-in laws were given other special duties.

Role of the King in the Rozvi State

The Mambo had the following roles:

He was a religious leader of the state.

Distributed land amongst the people.

Kept property for the state such as cattle, prisoners and land.

He declared war on state enemies.

He organized a war against enemies.

The Mambo had the right to tax people.

He installed chiefs.

Military organization of the Rozvi

The Rozvi were organized to form a strong army.

The Tumbare (a close relative of the king) led the army.

The army would raid other neighboring people.

The army made use of assegai’s, wooden clubs, spears and shields.

They also made use of surprise attacks.

They made use of guns that had been obtained from the Portuguese.

Young men would join the army and the army was used to collect tribute for the king.

The Rozvi army had a standing army.This army was used to extend the state by conquering and raiding.
Failure to pay tribute resulted in heavy punishment from the king.

3 Weapons used in warfare.jpg (223 KB) Weapons used in warfare

4 Extent of Rozvi state.jpg (133 KB) Extent of the Rozvi State

Duties of the Tumbare

He was the army commander.

Chief tax collector.

Would stand in place of the King if:

The chosen king was too young.

If there were disputes as to the next king.

This arrangement made sure there would be no disputes over the throne.

ROLES OF THE TUMBARE

Chief Army Commander

Chief Tax Collector

Kings RepresentativeRoles of Tumbare

Social Structure

The Mambo lived in the huts specifically made for Rozvi rulers.

The huts were called the Chitoramano.

He stayed enclosed with his people and livestock.

Mambos were the ruling class and they shared the same Moyo totem.

The non-Moyo were the people who accompanied the Changamire from the North-East.

The group consisted of the Kalanga speaking people who came from South west and the defeated Torwa
people.

The King’s role was to satisfy wishes of the group and to bring peace and unity.
A Tumbare was an army commander who organized the army and made sure that all sub chiefs paid
tribute to the King yearly.

He maintained law and order when the King died and when a new king had not been appointed.

Portuguese paid tribute to the Rozvi mambo.

Rozvi army used arrows, bows and shields in battles.

They got guns from the Portuguese through external trade.

Historians argue that Rozvi people used magic in order to win in battles.

The outstanding army was rewarded with cattle and the young men were encouraged to join the army
so that they will have cattle to pay lobola.

Religion played an important role in the state.

Religion united people and ensured alliance to their King.

They believed in life after death.

They also had faith in ancestors and spirit mediums who communicated with God and the dead.

Installed Chiefs got their blessings from spirit mediums.

At the King’s shrine, there were priests of Mwari or spirit mediums and were served by the King.

People worshiped Mwari through ancestors of the ruling class.

A ceremony was organized to appease the ancestors who were thought to have caused misfortune.

When natural disasters occurred it will be believed that people have committed the sin.

Wrong doers in the society were sentenced to death before the appeasement ritual was done.

The Kalanga and Torwa people who were absorbed by the Rozvi followed the religion of Mambo.

They were allowed to perform their own religious rites under the supervision of the King’s wives and the
Vanyai.

the Vanyai were eyes and ears of the King.

Economic organisation of the Rozvi State

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE ROZVI STATE

AGRICULTURE

HUNTING
TRIBUTE

TRADE

MINING

Agriculture

The Rozvi people practiced subsistence farming.

Each family was expected to grow enough crops to feed themselves.

They grew crops such as sorghum and rapoko.

They used simple tools for farming such as the hoes and axes.

Axes were used to cut trees when clearing the land for farming and hoes were used for planting and
weeding.

They practiced shifting cultivation where the land was left for some years in order for it to gain its
fertility.

Ashes were used as fertilizers.

Royal family benefited from Zunde ramambo, this was a practice where subjects cleared the chief’s land,
cultivated it and harvested crops.

The harvested crops were stored in the chief’s granary.

This food was used to feed visitors in the kingdom and to feed the army as well.

The chief was the custodian of the land and could allocate land.

The Rozvi people also kept goats, sheep and cattle.

Cattle were a sign of wealth, the more cattle one has, the wealthier he was considered to be.

7 Cattle.jpg (318 KB) Cattle

They got more cattle from raiding other weaker ethnic groups.

Cattle provided them with meat, milk and skins.

Cattle were also used to pay lobola or bride price.

Trade

The Rozvi practiced both internal and external trade.

Internally they traded amongst themselves.

They exchanged goods for services or other goods that were useful.

Externally, the Rozvi trading partners were the Portuguese at Zumbo.

The Portuguese were not allowed to advance too far into the Interior of the Rozvi Empire.

African traders who acted as middlemen between the Rozvi and the Portuguese were called
Vashambadzi.

Traders paid tax as they moved from village to village.

Rulers at Danangombe received many pieces of Chinese porcelain and bottles of Dutch alcohol in trade.

The Changamire also received jewellery from the Portuguese.

the Rozvi state was different from the Mutapa state in that trade did not create and support the ruling
class power.

Trade items

8. Trade items_1.jpg (187 KB)Artifacts of Chinese porcelain

8. Trade items_2.jpg (120 KB) Alcohol

Tribute

The Rozvi people and many small states outside the Rozvi paid tribute to Changamire.

The king received tribute from the Chiefs in the form of cloth, beads, hoes, axes, gold, cattle, grain and
tobacco.

Portuguese at Zumbo also paid tribute to the Changamire.

The Portuguese paid tribute in the form of foreign trade goods.

This meant that they accepted Changamire’s rule.

The Rozvi army was responsible for collecting tribute.

It was through tribute not trade that the Rozvi state got much of its gold.

9 A hoe paid as tribute.jpg (114 KB) A hoe paid as tribute

Hunting

The Rozvi men also hunted wild animals.

Hunting teams went out for weeks and dried the meat as a form of preservation and later brought it
home.

The king was the custodian of animals and elephant tusks were surrendered to him.

A Pangolin was considered to be meat for the royal family and was surrendered to the king.

10 Pangolin.jpg (264 KB) Pangolin

The fall of the Rozvi State

The fall of the Rozvi state was a result of conditions within the state and conditions outside the state.

The Mfecane migrations from Zululand affected the Rozvi state.

The Rozvi were defeated by Zwangendaba in 1690.

The royal house scattered to other parts of the country.

The decline can also be attributed to the political system which only served to enrich the royal family at
the expense of ordinary people.

As a result, the state lost the support of its people.

The Rozvi king had lost much power to other Rozvi chiefs especially the Tumbare.

Many people stopped paying tribute to the state.

Drought and civil wars also made the state weak.

To worsen the situation, the gold fields were now exhausted.

People now moved away from the state in search of the better areas in the surrounding communities.

Summary

The Rozvi state is a Southern African society founded by the Changamire Dombo.

The kingdom was named after its regiments.

The Empire maintained power and order by its regiments.

Trade played an important role in the expansion of the state.

The fall of the Rozvi state was a result of the conditions within the state and conditions outside the
state.
THE NDEBELE STATE

BY THE END OF THE SUBTOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Locate the geographical location of Ndebele state.

Describe the origins of the Ndebele state.

Explain the political, economic and social organisation of the Ndebele state.

Origins

The Ndebele are the descendants of the Khumalo clan who lived under the leadership of Tshaka.

They got their name “NDEBELE” from the Sotho meaning “strangers from the coast”.

Mzilikazi was the king of the Ndebele clan.

Mzilikazi was one of Tshaka’s trusted Generals in the Zulu State.

He failed to surrender the loot to Tshaka after a raid.

This angered Tshaka and he sent a regiment to punish Mzilikazi.

Mzilikazi managed to escape with a group of people who included warriors, men, women and children.

The Khumalo people under Mzilikazi fled to settle in Zimbabwe.

Ndebele –Khumalo Migration

1 Ndebele-Khumalo migration route.jpg (152 KB) Ndebele-Khumalo migration route

Mzilikazi’s group crossed the Drakensburg Mountains running away from Tshaka’s warriors.

They first settled at Ekuphumuleni (rest place).

Ekuphumuleni was close to Zululand, they faced regular attacks from the Zulu warriors and ethics groups
like the Pedi and Griqua.

On their way, Mzilikazi absorbed various groups such as the Sotho, Pondo, Swazi and Dhlodos who were
running away from Zulu attacks.

They moved to Emhlahlandlela which was their second settlement.

As they migrated they raided other people and forced them to join their group.
At Mhlahlandlela they faced attacks from Griqua and Rolong warriors.

The Griqua and Rolong almost destroyed the Ndebele people and captured much of their cattle.

The Ndebele moved further west to Mosega.

The Boers became a threat to Mzilikazi since they allied with the Griqua, Tlokwa and Rolong warriors.

Dingane sent his warriors to attack the Ndebele but they were defeated, even though they had heavy
losses.

The reason why Dingane sent warriors was that he wanted to punish Mzilikazi.

Due to Dingane’s attacks, the Ndebele were forced to migrate further north into Botswana.

On their way, they separated into two groups Mzilikazi and Gundwane the Indunankulu.

Mzilikazi’s group moved further north while Gundwane’s group went directly to Zimbabwe and settled
at Gibixhegu.

Political Organisation

ROLES OF THE KING

Chief judge

Ruler of the state

Army commander

Religious leader

Allocated land

Nation builder

Acted as overseer of all - land, cattle and people.

Appointed indunasRoles of the King in the Ndebele State.

The king did not rule in isolation, he ruled with the help from his Indunas, Umphakathi and Izikhulu.

The Ndebele State was recognized as highly unified due to its organization.

UMPHAKATHI

IZIKHULU
IZINDUNA

Role Of Umphakathi

It consisted of the elected chiefs and the royal family.

Umphakathi acted as advisors to the king.

The Umphakathi were known for their wisdom in traditional culture.

Role Of Izikhulu

It was composed of soldiers and Mzilikazi’s wives.

They acted as eyes and ears of the King.

Izikhulu discussed all matters affecting the state and referred issues to the Umphakathi.

Role Of Izinduna

The Indunas also played an important role in the Ndebele state as the administrators.

The Ndebele State was divided into regimental towns.

They would also settle disputes, collect tribute and distribute it to the king.

The Induna’s distributed land on behalf of the king.

Indunankulu were appointed chiefs in each province

Economic Activities

Raiding

Hunting

Trade

Pastoralism

Crop cultivationNdebele economy

Crop Cultivation

The Ndebele grew crops such as sorghum, maize, water melons, sweet potatoes, millet, groundnuts and
a variety of beans and peas.

Both men and women worked together in the fields.

There was a division of labour between men and women.

Men cleared the fields while women cultivated the fields.

Ndebele practiced shifting cultivation to make the land productive throughout the year.

They held communal work together like harvesting and threshing.

Communal harvesting was called ilima (Ndebele) or nhimbe (Shona).

The King owned fields at each major settlements and it was cultivated by people.

Pastoral Farming

Pastoral farming is whereby a farmer rears animals in a large scale.

The Ndebele people kept animals like cattle, sheep and goats.

Cattle played an important role in the state as there were regarded as the backbone of the Ndebele clan.

Cattle were slaughtered only on important occasions such as Inxwala ceremonies.

Cattle were highly valued as a bride wealth and were also kept for food consumption.

They used cattle in exchange for grains during drought times or foreign goods such as guns and gun
powder.

Hunting

They also practiced hunting to supplement their diet.

From the animals they hunted, they got meat, skins and hides.

They hunted animals such elephants for ivory which was used in trade.

Trade

The Ndebele people practiced short and long distance trade.

Short distance trade was conducted by local people and neighbours.

They exchanged items like hoes, spears, knives and grain and this form of trade was also called barter
trade.

The long distance trade was conducted with the Dutch, Portuguese and English traders along the East
African coast.

Trade started when Robert Moffat visited Mzilikazi and asked them to exchange ivory and beads from
the East coast.

Raiding
Raiding was an important activity in the Ndebele state.

They raided other communities for grain, cattle, women and men.

Raiding was done to complement other sources of economy.

Social Organisation

The Ndebele people were classified according to where their ancestors came from.

The Ndebele society was characterised by different classes with different positions in the state.

These groups were:

ABEZANSI 15%

ABENHLA 25%

AMAHOLE 60%Classes in the Ndebele society

1. Abezansi

The Zansi were the foremost group in the state.

They were the original Khumalo people who came from the Nguniland.

This group was small but very powerful.

The Zansi was the most respected group.

They were the upper class of the state.

This group divided itself according to clans in line with their totems.

The ruling class married only ruling class members and in this way, the group remained small.

The marriage alliances in this class were planned.

2. Enhla/Abenhla

‘Abenhla’ is a Zulu word meaning a person from the north.

This group was made up of captured Sotho and Tswana people.

These people were captured by the Ndebele on their way from Zululand.

This class had more people than the Zansi.

They made up about 25% of the nation.

3. Amahole/Hole

The Hole were the Shona people who had lived in Mashonaland before the Ndebele had arrived.

This class comprised of the Shona people who had been absorbed into the Ndebele state.

They were the largest group in the Ndebele state making up to 60% of the population.

Some had done so willingly others had been forced.

The men in this class were not allowed to marry women from the Zansi and Enhla clan.

Religion of the Ndebele

Religion was an important aspect of the state.

The Ndebele were made up of different ethnic groups.

The king officiated at all important religious occasions.

This diversity resulted in different religious practices.

They worshipped the high God known as Unkulunkulu.

The Sotho people worshipped uMlimo.

The Kalanga, Rozvi and Shona that had been absorbed by the Ndebele worshiped the Supreme God
Mwari.

Mwari lived in the Matopos cave.

The Ndebele renamed Mwari to Mlimu.

The Rozvi and the Ndebele believed the King was a rainmaker and also could make the soil fertile.

The ancestors were only reached through the king.

The political power was shown through the religious roles given to the king.

The Ndebele added their own customs to the people within their state.

In times of hardship, the Ndebele would pray to Mlimu through Amadlozi.

Customs Of The Ndebele

The king promoted the use of Ndebele language.

The Ndebele practiced polygamy and they used cattle to pay lobola.
Cattle were a status symbol in the Ndebele state.

ndebele customs2.png (311 KB) Ndebele customs

The practice of ukusisa was done.

This was a cattle loaning system done by the king.

Loaned cattle were only used for milk, manure and also for farming.

7 Cattle.jpg (306 KB) Cattle

The Ndebele practiced the inxwala ceremony which was presided by the king.

During the inxwala ceremony the king prayed for the prosperity of the state and for success in military
campaigns.

The Ndebele consulted traditional doctors before going to war.

8. Ndebele inwxala ceremony.jpg (273 KB) Ndebele inwxala ceremony

The Ndebele had a village system.

They lived in homesteads (imizi).

The imizi were under a local chief (isigaba).

Tribute payment was done in the form of:

Tobacco

Leopard skin

Firewood

Grain

Animals

Tribute, therefore, increased the wealth of the Ndebele state.

9 Ndebele homestead.jpg (381 KB) Ndebele homestead

The decline of the Ndebele State

The decline of the Ndebele state cannot be accounted for.

The decline of the Ndebele state may heve been caused by the disappearance of King Lobengula as well
as the European interference through the colonial system.
Summary

The Ndebele state emerged from the Zulu state.

The Ndebele fought and conqured other states making it powerful.

The political, social and economic systems of the Ndebele state were well organised.

Its decline may have been as a result of the European interference and the colonisation of Zimbabwe.

THE ZULU STATE

BY THE END OF THE SUBTOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Identify the groups of people in Nguniland.

Discuss the rise of Tshaka.

Describe the political, economic and social organisation of Zulu state.

Explain Tshaka’s military reforms.

Origins of the Zulu State

The Zulus were a small tribe that was under the Mthethwa people.

The state came about because of the struggles that were in Nguniland among the Nguni chiefdoms.

The Mthethwa tribe was ruled by Dingiswayo.

Dingiswayo worked on improving the military system of the tribe.

He introduced tactics such as forming age-regiments.

This system ensured that soldiers of a similar age were placed in one group.

Furthermore, the regiments were given their own name, colour and weapons.

The soldiers were to remain celibate until they had proved themselves to be ‘warriors.’

These tactics made sure that the Mthethwa conquered other tribes in Northern Nguniland.

Groups captured included the Qwabe, Msali, Mngadi and the Zulus.

The Zulu state was created by Tshaka.

1 Zulu empire in 1816-1828.jpg (216 KB) Zulu empire in 1816-1828

Nguni groups

These groups wanted to have control of grazing land as they survived on farming.

The Nguni also wanted land for their growing population.

There was constant fighting and raiding amongst the groups.

There were three main groups that were in Nguniland:

GROUP LEADER

MTHETHWA DINGISWAYO

NDWANDWE ZWIDE

NGWANE SOBHUZA

The Rise Of Tshaka And The Zulu State

Tshaka was born in 1787.

He was the son of Nandi and the Zulu Chief Senzangakhona.

Tshaka was brought up amongst his mother’s people, the Langeni.

Tshaka joined the Mthethwa’s army at the age of sixteen and was a good soldier.

He was put in charge of a regiment by Dingiswayo when he was twenty- two years old.

In 1816, he became chief of the Zulu people when his father died with the help of Dingiswayo.

After Dingiswayo’s death Tshaka, destroyed the Ndwandwe and two of Zwide’s generals, Soshangane
and Zwangendaba fled north.

2 Picture of Tshaka 1824.jpg (214 KB) Picture of Tshaka 1824

Tshaka’s Military Reforms

Tshaka improved the military reforms made by Dingiswayo.

He made the following reforms:

Development of total warfare, destroying the enemy.

Use of age-regiments to build a standing army.

Abolished initiation ceremonies in order to make use of young men.

Soldiers who reached forty years were released from duty.

Soldiers were trained to run barefooted instead of wearing sandals.

Introduction of the cow-horn formation, this was a method of warfare were enemies surrounded in
three different positions like that of cow-horns.

The cow-horn formation had the advantage of surprising the enemy.

Tshaka’s enemies were completely destroyed with the use of this method.

3 Cow-horn formation.jpg (104 KB) Cow-horn formation

Young boys were baggage carriers.

4 Zulu warriors with baggage carriers_1.jpg (142 KB)

4 Zulu warriors with baggage carriers2.jpg (142 KB)

Zulu warriors with baggage carriers

The short stabbing spear known as the assegai was used in in warfare.

5 A warrior with a short stabbing spear_2.jpg (176 KB)

5 A warrior with a short stabbing spear_1.jpg (67 KB)

A warrior with a short stabbing spear

6 War weapons.jpg (157 KB) War weapons

Soldiers were given long shields which protected the whole body.

Tshaka made use of spies, surprise attacks, and smoke signals.

In Tshaka’s army soldiers were not allowed to receive wounds in the back, they were to face the enemy.

Cowards were punished by death.

The soldiers were thoroughly trained and disciplined.

The men were not to marry until they reached forty years of age.

Enemy crops were destroyed and cattle were looted.

7. A Zulu Warrior with a long shield.jpg (208 KB) A Zulu Warrior with a long shield

Consolidation of power

Tshaka was able to consolidate his power by :

Making military reforms.

Political reorganization.

Controlling the chiefs and homesteads.

Building the state along military lines.

Placing young females and males who were eighteen to thirty-five years old into regiments.

The regiments were housed in regimental towns and were placed around the state.

Each town was provided with its own cattle that had been looted from war.

Those who were conquered were supervised by the king’s agents.

Tshaka ensured that women and children became part of the Zulu state whilst the men were killed.

Those who were conquered paid tribute to the Zulu kingdom.

Tshaka ruled with absolute power.

He made an emphasis on the unity of the Zulu state and pride.

The inxwala ceremony or First Fruits Ceremony built a strong Zulu nation.

8 Zulu inxwala ceremony.jpg (31 KB) Zulu inxwala ceremony

Economic Organization

The Zulu people practiced a mixed economy.

The Zulu economy was based on cattle rearing.

The cattle were used for hides, meat and for carrying goods.

Cattle were also used in the payment of lobola and during traditional ceremonies.
The Zulu economy was based on payment of tribute from the people who had been conquered.

Crops such as millet, beans, pumpkins, melons, gourds, and other grains were cultivated.

Trade took place between the Zulu and the Boers as well as the Portuguese.

Hunting was also carried out in the Zulu State.

Mining activities also took place.

Minerals such as copper and iron were used to make tools and weapons.

Social Organization

Those who belonged to the same family usually lived together.

The family homesteads formed compounds that were within a larger settlement.

The mother of the family lived in the centre of the homestead.

A homestead could have about forty huts.

The cattle kraal was constructed in the centre of the semi- circle huts.

The Zulu people believed in the supreme God.

The Zulu prayed to God (Unkulunkulu) through the ancestral spirits.

Religion and marriage were unifying factors to the state.

The female and male regiments cultivated the land.

The Zulu people would hold national festivals such as the Inkhatha and Inxwala ceremonies.

9 Zulu village.jpg (492 KB) Zulu village

Political Organisation

The political organization of the Zulu centered on the king.

He was the spiritual and political leader.

Tshaka was a dictator and what he said was law.

There were councilors whom he consulted, but the final decision was his.

He was the only one who conducted the first fruits ceremony.
He nominated all the provincial chiefs as well as the territorial chiefs.

These chiefs were usually very close relatives of his.

Tshaka was the most feared man in the state.

He was the one who passed the final decisions given that he was the head of the judiciary system.

Tribute was expected to be paid to the king.

Close family members were given key military positions.

Tshaka made use of female relatives as spies; they were the eyes and ears of the king.

A female relative was placed in charge of the female regiments.

This relative would keep Tshaka well informed about the activities of the indunas and his regiments.

ROLES OF THE KING

Judiciary leader

Appointing and dismissing chiefs

Military commander

Spiritual leader

Performing Rituals

Role of a Zulu king

The political organization of the Zulu state was centralized.

The king ruled with the help of the advisory council.

Homesteads were organized into individual chieftaincies.

Tshaka killed many people, especially those who opposed him.

Tshaka set up military settlements throughout the state.

Everyone was encouraged to speak Zulu so there could be national unity.

There was the use of national symbols such as inkhatha (woven grass coil in the hair).

SUMMARY
The Zulus were the small tribe of the Mthethwa people.

The Zulu state was formed by Tshaka after the death of Dingiswayo.

Tshaka improved Dingiswayo’s military reforms such as the cow horn formation.

The Zulu state became a powerful state under Tshaka.

SLAVE TRADE AND SLAVERY

BY THE END OF THE SUBTOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Define slave trade.

State different forms of slavery.

Enumerate causes of slave trade in West Africa.

Describe the Great Slave Triangular Route.

Explain advantages and disadvantages of slave trade.

Explain reasons for the abolition of slave trade.

Definition

Slave- a slave is a person who is bought and owned by another person.

Trade- this involves a system of buying, exchanging and selling goods.

Slave trade-this was a system of buying and selling people from Africa to Europe and America.

West African Trade was also known as the Triangular Slave Trade or Trans-Atlantic trade.

The slave trade took place from about 1500-1900 AD.

The first Europeans to trade in slaves were the Portuguese.

The Spanish also took slaves to American colonies.

Most European countries were involved in the slave trade by 1600.

Britain became the leading exporter of slaves.

1. Sources of slave trade in West Africa.jpg (145 KB)Sources of slaves in West Africa
2. Investors in the Slave Trade.jpg (169 KB)Sources of slaves in West Africa

Factors that led to slave trade

The slave trade came about because of the following:

The need for labour to sustain the economies in Europe.

Europeans established plantations for raw materials such as sugarcane, coffee and palm oil.

Discovery of new land such as the West Indies which needed human power.

Africans were very skilled in farming.

Africans were able to adapt to tropical diseases such as malaria.

Africans adapted to the climate in the Caribbean.

This was different from the Indian, Chinese and Europeans that had been used before.

Europeans had the means of transport and advanced technology such as ships and guns.

The great slave triangular route

The slaves from Africa were taken from:

Senegambia region

Upper-guinea coast

Sierra Leone

The Gold Coast

Slave-Coast

The three points were:

1) Europe

At this point, raw materials such as sugar, cotton, coffee and tobacco were sold.

In turn, the merchants got money which they used to buy the following goods:

Guns

Clothing

Alcohol
Mirrors

Beads

Ammunition

Pots and pans

2) The Second Point Was West Africa.

It was known as the Middle passage.

At this point, goods were exchanged for slaves.

3) The Third Point Was America Or West Indies.

Slaves were sold to willing buyers.

The triangle would begin again.

After being sold the slaves worked on the plantations.

At each point, Europeans made much profit.

3. The Atlantic slave trade.jpg (252 KB)

How slaves were obtained from Africa by Britain

Raiding of neighboring villages and chiefdoms.

This was done by powerful chiefs.

At times Europeans themselves went into the interior and raided the Africans.

Enemy attacks were conducted for the purpose of capturing slaves.

Bribery by Europeans in order to obtain slaves.

African leaders would be bribed.

They usually got guns, alcohol and beads.

In turn, they would provide outcasts in their societies.

The kidnapping of Africans in the interior by slave traders or Europeans.

War captives were sold into slavery.

4 A village being burnt during slave trade.jpg (249 KB)Village burnt during slave trade

slaves.jpg (53 KB)Conduct of the slave trade

Conduct of the slave trade

Slaves were captured and chained together.

The Europeans used neck chains or wooden shackles tied together to lead the slaves.

The Europeans used middlemen or slave traders to bring the slaves to the coast.

The Slave Trade was carried out by kings who were in coastal areas.

Those held positions of power in West African states were able to sell slaves.

Those who were suspected to be witches were sold into slavery.

The groups of people that were enslaved were:

6. Groups of Africans that were sold into slavery.jpg (145 KB)Groups of Africans that were sold into
slavery (arrows)

The slave trade increased the number of criminals who were sold into slavery.

Other people who were sold were debtors.

The main source of supply of slaves was raiding.

African kings punished people for small offences.

This was because they wanted to trade people for goods.

After being seized the captives walked to the coast.

They would walk along the traditional routes of trade.

They would be tired by the time they reached the coast.

They were given short rests.

Most often they were beaten so that that they would walk faster.

Captives who became too exhausted or seriously sick were killed.

The slave traders kept the captured people in warehouses or slave pens.

7. Captured slaves.jpg (248 KB)Captured slaves

8. Slaves awaiting shipment.jpg (206 KB)Slaves awaiting shipment

At The Coast

Captured Africans were inspected and branded with hot irons and instruments.

They would be stripped of their clothes and all would be inspected.

Further inspections were made before the ships took off.

They would check for the following:

Physical defects

Mental defects

No obvious illness

Teeth

At Their Destination (America Or West Indies)

The same inspections were made.

The captured people would then be branded with the initials of their buyer.

Branding was done on the chest and at the back.

The Trans-Atlantic Journey

The slaves were chained together in pairs, fours and sixes.

Men would be placed in a different deck from that of the women.

Slaves were tightly packed in these slave ships.

Women and children were not chained but were allowed to move freely.

The journey could take three to five weeks and even longer if the weather was bad.

Diseases, such as malaria, scurvy (lack of vitamin C) dysentery and smallpox were common on the slave
ships.

The conditions were therefore not healthy as the slaves were crowded.

There was poor ventilation.

Those who died or became seriously ill were thrown overboard.

Slaves at times revolted.

These revolts were put down violently and it resulted in deaths of many people.
At times slaves would commit suicide by throwing themselves into the ocean.

9. Picture showing how slaves were packed.jpg (191 KB)Picture showing how slaves were packed

Conditions In The Ship

Slaves were packed in such a way that they would not move.

They were especially- made ships that allowed for slaves to be packed like sardines.

These ships had shelves that were constructed one on top of the other.

The shelves were half a meter apart.

Slaves could only lie down and not sit up.

The compartments were on the lower deck and usually were in darkness all the time.

The slaves were expected to lie in this position for the whole journey.

The slaves would lie in their human waste and urine.

Therefore making them very filthy.

This led to the death of many people.

For example, 20% and 30% of slaves died on their way to America.

Despite the deaths, the slave traders made huge profits from the sales of those who had survived.

In addition to slaves, the ships carried also ivory and gold.

10. Slave ship_1.jpg (114 KB)Slave ship

10. Slave ship_2.jpg (169 KB)Slave ship

Slaves in America

Slaves were sold to plantation owners as soon as they arrived in America.

They would be advertised as if they were goods for sale.

Slaves were sold in an auction way.

The highest bidder bought the slave.

The conditions for the slaves were not favorable.

They would work long hours and would not be paid.

They would work in all kinds of weather hot, cold or rainy.

They suffered from malnutrition.

Food was not sufficient.

They were punished or shot if they tried to escape.

Despite the cruel treatment slaves would rebel.

However, they could not go back to Africa.

At the same time, they could not be employed elsewhere.

11. Aposter showing the sale of slaves.jpg (248 KB)A poster showing the sale of slaves

Ill-Treatment Of Slaves

Slaves were ill-treated in various ways.

They would be tied and held together with a wooden yoke.

They walked for long distances to the coast.

Slaves were treated inhumanely as they were inspected by Europeans.

They would also be branded by their owner so they would not run away.

Branding involved marking slaves with a hot iron as if they were livestock.

Slaves were often beaten and whipped in cases that did not require such punishment.

Europeans began to view Africans as lower people, uncivilized and naturally born to be slaves.

The slave trade led to the deaths of many Africans.

12. Ill - treatment of slaves.jpg (231 KB)Ill-treatment of slaves

13Slaves being led into the lower deck of a slave -ship.jpg (195 KB)Instruments used to chain slaves

14. Instruments used to chain slaves.jpg (323 KB)Instruments used to chain slaves

Abolition of slave trade

Slaves resisted slavery in different forms.

They did this by:

Going on hunger strikes.

They killed their infants so they would not be slaves.

Refusal to accept their master’s religion.

They remained with their traditional beliefs.

For instance, Rastafarianism started a way of protest.

Slaves committed suicide.

Reasons For Resisting The Abolition Of The Slave Trade

Europeans made huge profits.

The system of government in Europe supported slavery.

Europeans practiced merchant capitalism.

This is when a few individuals made a profit at the expense of the rest of the people.

Europeans in Western Europe did not do anything to stop slavery.

They were concerned with protecting property rights.

The plantation owners viewed slaves as their property they had bought.

Reasons For The Abolition Of The Slave Trade And Steps Taken

Many people were against the slave trade right from the start they saw how wrong it was.

By 1830 Britain was getting wealth from industries instead of the slave trade.

Europeans were getting a new type of goods such as palm oil from Africa.

At the same time, there was a need for raw materials such as groundnuts, cocoa, coffee, cotton rubber,
gold, ivory and food crops.

If Africans were enslaved who would produce such materials.

The slave trade caused wars and much disruption of production of African economies.

Most European countries had begun to industrialize therefore they did not need the slave trade.

Europeans who were opposed to slavery formed anti-slavery groups in America and Europe.

These groups would assist slaves and they also campaigned against slavery.
They were known as abolitionist movements.

Those who opposed slave trade were called humanitarians.

Advantages Of The Slave Trade

The slave trade connected continents.

It helped to spread the African people.

It helped in establishing some coastal kingdoms.

Disadvantages Of The Slave Trade

There was depopulation in Africa as the strong and able people were taken away.

The Europeans encouraged war amongst the African population.

The trade benefitted the Europeans.

The goods brought to Africa were for the ruling class and the slave traders.

The goods were not of equal value to the humans exchanged.

The trade brought out dependence on European goods.

Families and at times communities were destroyed because of the slave trade.

The active members of the population were taken.

The Slave Trade resulted in the loss of African culture, as slaves were given new names and not allowed
to speak their own language.

African economic means of production was destroyed.

Africans relied on farming and production of iron tools.

Crafts production was disturbed.

African way of ruling was destroyed because of the slave trade.

Ruling classes were always engaged in wars so as to provide slaves.

There was disunity among Africans and made it easier for colonization.

SUMMARY

Slave trade was the selling and buying of human beings in Africa and other continents.

The slaves were needed for labour.

Different methods such as bribery and kidnapping were used to obtain slaves.

The slaves were ill-treated in various ways and the ruling class always engaged in wars so as to provide
slaves.

THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

BY THE END OF THE TOPIC LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

Define colonisation, scramble and partition.

Name the countries that took part in the scramble and partition of Africa.

Describe the causes of the scramble and partition of Africa.

Outline the aims and the resolutions of the Berlin Conference.

Describe the effects of the Scramble and Partition of Africa on Europeans and Africans.

Debate on the contribution of the Scramble and Partition of Africa on the development of African
societies.

Introduction

The Scramble and Partition was the occupation, division and colonisation of African countries by the
European powers.

Between 1870 and 1914 European countries took control of approximately 90% of African territories.

These European powers aimed at gaining access to natural resources, maintaining trade routes as well
as preventing other European rivals from taking over those territories.

The declaration ownership of many colonies in Africa fuelled the idea of scrambling and fighting for
resources.

Fig. 1.1.1Fig. 1.1.1 Some European representatives scrambling for colonials..png (186 KB)Some European
representatives scrambling for colonials.

Key terms

Colonisation is a process whereby a stronger country or an imperialist establishes political control over a
weaker country and send representatives to live there in order to obtain resources from it.

Imperialism is a policy whereby a powerful country extends its power by colonising a weaker country
through signing of treaties or use of military force.
Scramble means a rush for something in a disorderly manner.

Therefore, Scramble for Africa is a term used to refer to a sudden rush by European powers to Africa for
the intension of acquiring colonies.

Partition means to divide something into parts or separation.

Therefore, Partition of Africa refers to the process of dividing the African continent amongst the
imperialist powers and it was a response towards the sudden rush.

Scramble and Partition of Africa was the process of invading, dividing and sharing of African territories
amongst the European countries.

Countries that took part in the Scramble and Partition of Africa

Fig. 1.1.2Fig 1.1.2 African countries that were colonised by European powers..png (70 KB)African
countries that were colonised by European powers.

Britain

Britain obtained the highest number of territories in Africa with the help of missionaries, explores and
hunters through concessions and military confrontation.

Belgium

Belgium took a part of Congo to which Leopold II enslaved Africans to exploit rubber and ivory.

France

France aimed at occupying from West Africa to the Red Sea but then her plans were disturbed by
Britain’s occupation of Egypt and Sudan.

France’s bigger part was the Sahara Desert but then it was not much of use to her.

She also seized territories like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Mauritania, Dahomey, Ivory
Coast, Senegal, Gabon, Chad, a part of Congo, a part of Somalia and Eritrea.

Portugal

Portugal had already established a relationship with Africa from long back through trading with the pre-
colonial societies.

She could have claimed more territories but she lacked power to do so and so she obtained Angola,
Mozambique and a part of Guinea.

Italy

Italy, due to her unification, she joined colonialism later and only obtained Libya and a part of Somalia.
Germany

Germany had also become a new unified state but then it appeared to be the precipitator of the
Scramble as it called for the Berlin Conference.

She therefore obtained Togo, Tanganyika, Namibia, Rwanda, Burundi and Cameroon.

Spain

Spain only reflected her status in Europe through obtaining a part of Guinea and Morocco.

Holland

Holland which comprised of the Dutch had long history in the Southern Africa and they were known as
the Boers of the Transvaal Region, however their area was then absorbed by Britain.

Only two African countries remained independent by 1914 that is Liberia and Ethiopia.

Causes for the scramble and partition of Africa

The Scramble and Partition for Africa was fuelled by political, social and economic factors that affected
most European countries.

Political factors

National Prestige And Glory

European countries were in a competition for supremacy and the acquisition of colonies were a prestige
and sign of power.

This desire for popularity and glory was fuelled by Britain who was strong because of her colonies in
Asia.

Each country wanted to be valued as superior through colonising many African territories.

Strategic Reasons

Africa was scrambled and portioned for strategic purposes so that the Europeans could control trade in
times of peace and war. African coast countries like Egypt, Mozambique, Angola and the Cape were
obtained so as to control trade routes.

A good example is that of Egypt in which Britain was interested for the Suez Canal which was a swift
route to India.

Balance Of Power

European countries also colonised Africa for the balance of power which referred to a state whereby
some European countries were regarded to be roughly equally military, politically and politically.
These countries realised that in their own continent it was impossible to expand without war hence they
opted for Africa where there was little or no resistance.

Militarism

Africa became the base and source of troops for European countries.

African countries like Senegal obtained by France, South Africa and Zimbabwe obtained by Britain
became bases and source of troops as their people were used to fight in the First World War.

Social factors

To Spread Christianity, Civilisation And Commerce (3Cs)

Europeans viewed Africa as a dark continent characterised by cannibalism and barbarism therefore they
wanted to bring light and civilisation.

This was due to the fact that European countries were already technologically advanced and they felt
superior to Africans.

They felt the need to spread the 3Cs that is Christianity, Civilisation and Commerce therefore Africans
were dragged from their own beliefs, culture and way of life.

To End Slavery And Slave Trade

Some European countries scrambled for Africa to end slavery and slave trade.

Slavery and slave trade was popular in Africa, therefore Europeans wanted to civilise and end all ill-
treatment through the introduction of Christianity.

Need For Living Space

As a result of overpopulation Europeans also needed extra living space and to search for employment
opportunities.

The introduction of machines and wars in Europe resulted to people losing their jobs and some thought
of starting a new life in Africa.

Food and space was not enough for populations which would have caused revolts against those in
power, therefore to avoid this, they had to find space in Africa to cater for the people.

Economic factors

The Need For Raw Materials

The Scramble for Africa was also due to the need for raw materials for production in the European
industries.
The period of industrial revolution in Europe which lasted up to the first half of the 19th century
demanded much of raw materials like gold, oil, cotton and rubber which only could be found in Africa.

Therefore it led to competition for territories in Africa for example the gold which was found in South
Africa and the suspicion of the second rand gold in Zimbabwe.

For Agricultural Purposes

Africa was seen as land without people and therefore the Europeans found themselves land for
agricultural purposes.

European economic land was not available for further investment thus these countries focused on the
areas that could bring huge profit due to the availability of land as well as cheap labour.

Search For Market

Europeans were also seeking markets in Africa. This was due to British’s high tariffs on imported goods
making it difficult to sell goods to other industrialised countries and its poorly waged people.

When European industries downturned from 1875 to 1900, investment of capital became unprofitable.

This pushed European capitalists to invest in Africa which brought lots of profits, for example gold and
diamond mines in South Africa doubled even more than those of Europe.

The Demand For Cheap Labour

The rise or emergence of working class resistance caused a problem of cheap labour as many working
class movements and trade unions demanded better wages and good working conditions.

Their demands could not be easily met by the capitalist who only focused on [profit making.

The only alternative to solve the problem for cheap labour was to seek colonies in Africa.

Local factors

Weakness Of African Leaders

Weakness of Africans also contributed to the Scramble for Africa.

Some African chiefs invited Europeans who brought materials like clothes, jewellery, food and other
things for them. These chiefs thought of themselves other than their own people’s interests.

European Agents

Some African men had become European agents and worked for their companies making it easy for
European penetration into Africa.

Most of these agents were the Mulattoes (those of mixed white and black ancestry).
Slave Trade

Africa was also weakened by slave trade which left them under populated and lacking men power.

Soil Fertility

Furthermore, Africa’s soil was fertile and rich in minerals. Some places were good for recreation for
example the Victoria Falls and Great Zimbabwe ruins in Zimbabwe.

Early Foreign Contacts

Traders, missionaries, hunters, and explorers invited their countries over to Africa and encouraged
colonialism so they could accomplish their missions.

Missionaries like John Smith Moffat and hunters like Frederick Courtney Selous played a great role in the
occupation of Zimbabwe.

Moreover, European imperialist Cecil John Rhodes who had already established a business in South
Africa influenced the involvement of Britain in taking control of more territories in Africa.

Cecil John Rhodes’s dream was to paint ‘Africa red’ from Cape to Cairo.

The Berlin conference 1884-1885

Aims of the Berlin Conference

The main aim of the conference was to create rules on how to peacefully divide Africa among the
Europeans.

To solve conflicts and avoid fighting over African territories.

Countries present and their representatives

The conference was spearheaded by the German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck.

Table 1: The Berlin Conference countries and their representatives.

COUNTRY REPRESENTATIVE

Britain Joseph Chamberlain, Edward Baldwin

France Alphonse de Courcel, Leon Gambetha

Germany Ottoman Von Bismarck, Paul Von Hatzfeldt, Clemens Busch, Heinrich Von Kusserow

Belgium King Leopold II, Gabriel August Van Der Straten-Ponthoz, Auguste Lambermont
Spain Francisco Merry Y Colom

Portugal Antonio Jose Da Serra Gomes, Antonio De Serpa Pimentel

Italy Eduardo De Launay

United States of America John A. Kasson, Henry S. Sanford

Denmark Emil Vind

Note that: The United States of America and Denmark attended as spectators of the conference.

Every leader of these European countries had maps of Africa in front of them as they divided and shared
Africa among themselves.

Africans were not invited to this conference as Europeans powers were to discuss on how to establish
effective control over African territories peacefully.

Fig. 1.1.3Fig. 1.1.3 Imperialists at the Berlin Conference discussing on how they were to share Africa..png
(306 KB)Imperialists at the Berlin Conference discussing on how they were to share Africa.

Terms and agreements of the Berlin Conference

Africa was to be divided into 20 ‘spheres of influence’ or interests.

They agreed that any European power interested in any sphere of influence must effectively establish
control over the colony so that others will be aware of it.

If one had occupied their colony, there was need for notification.

They also agreed to plan effectively when they had a target that is if they failed to colonise, it meant that
any other country had the right to go after the targeted territory.

The intending power had to produce evidence of occupation that is in form of treaties or concessions
that they would have signed with African rulers.

They agreed to end slave trade in which ever territory that they occupied.

Congo region was also recognised to be under the control of Leopold II the king of Belgium.

There was to be freedom of navigation in the major water ways that is Congo, Niger and Zambezi. All
European countries were to use them for trade.

Results of the Berlin Conference

Under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck the conference managed to divide African territories among
the European powers peacefully.
These imperialists power established their full control over their territories of interest leading to
effective occupation of Africa.

Fig. 1.1.4Fig. 1.1.4 A portrait of Bismarck spearheading the sharing of Africa amongst the Europeans..png
(201 KB)A portrait of Bismarck spearheading the sharing of Africa amongst the Europeans.

It authorised the occupation of African territories by Europeans and by 1914 only 2 countries in Africa
had remained independent.

The colonial powers abolished slave trade in their colonies and legitimate trade was introduced which
also led to the exploitation of African resources.

The colonial powers also agreed to protect the missionaries who actually helped in the colonisation
process.

Fig. 1.1.5Fig. 1.1.4 Colonial Africa in 1914..png (188 KB)Colonial Africa in 1914

Effects of the Partition of Africa

To the Africans

Africans lost their political, economic and social freedom; power and independence to Europeans.

As it paved way of colonial rule in the continent, Africa became a source of raw materials needed by
European capitalists.

Therefore Africa was left under developed as resources were sent back to Europe profiting them not
Africans.

Africans lost their mainstay that is land and were forced to produce labour in farms.

They were also driven to infertile and arid areas which led to starvation of people and their livestock.

Africans also lost most of their livestock especially cattle to the European imperialists.

African dignity and status was also lost through creation of boundaries by imperialists which divided
most of the ethnic groups in Africa.

The introduction of Western culture that is Christianity downgraded and destroyed Africans’ culture and
tradition in most areas.

African leaders lost trust and respect from their people.

However, European colonisation brought some technological changes for example bigger ships were
made for trade and industries were opened with machinery.

Introduction of farming equipment and new crops to improve agriculture.

There was development of transport system like railway lines, roads and telegraph lines.

African population shifted as most of them migrated from rural to urban areas due to construction of
industries and markets. Some were actually forced to move to reserves.

Schools and social services like hospitals and clinics were established.

Africans got educated and gained skills in carpentry, metal work, building, sewing and other handwork
that was introduced.

To Europeans

There was a major economic growth in Europe as they fished African resources and raw materials for
their own use.

Their industries and agriculture rose because of the supply of cheap labour and market.

Europeans also gained extra space for living and establishment of their businesses at the expense of
Africans livelihoods.

They also gained status and prestige through possession of colonies in Africa.

Europeans gained unity, confidence and diplomacy which made them superior over Africans hence they
treated Africans as sub humans.

Summary

The Scramble and partition was a process of invasion, occupation, colonisation and annexation of
African territories by European powers.

The Scramble for African territories was mainly caused by political, social and economic interests of the
European countries.

In 1818 the Berlin Conference meeting was held in Germany to solve conflicts and avoid fighting over
African territories.

Activities

Assume you were Bismarck, write a convincing speech on how Europeans countries should mark
territories.

Dramatise the scramble and partition of Africa.

Draw a map of Africa marking the colonial boundaries.