ANDHRA PRADESH STATE COUNCIL OF HIGHER EDUCATION

(A Statutory Body of the Government of A.P.)

BILINGUAL
TEXTBOOK

First Year B.Sc.

PHYSICS
MECHANICS,
WAVES & OSCILLATIONS

AUTHORS
-
:
Dr. D. Sanjeev Kumar
Lecturer in Physics
Government College (Autonomous)
Rajahmundry, AP, India

Ms. B. Durga Lakshmi Dr. M. Padmavathi

Lecturer in Physics Lecturer in Physics
SCIM Government Degree College SKR & SKR GDC for Women (A)
Tanuku, AP, India Kadapa, AP, India

EDITOR
-
:
Dr. P. Anantha Lakshmi
Professor of Physics
University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India

ANDHRA PRADESH
STATE COUNCIL OF HIGHER EDUCATION
(A Statutory Body of the Government 0fA.P)
B.Sc.(First Year - Semester - I) : Physics (Mechanics, Waves and
Oscillations); Authors : Dr. D. Sanjeev Kumar, Ms. B. Durga Lak-
shmi, Dr. M. Padmavathi; Editor : Dr. P. Anantha Lakshmi
First Edition: 2021; No. of pages: 462

All Copyrights @ APSCHE

First Edition: 2021

Published by APSCHE, Atmakur (V), Mangalagiri (M), Guntur,

Andhra Pradesh, Pin - 522 503

All Rights whatsoever in this book are strictly reserved and no

portion of it may be reproduced by any process for any purpose
without the written permission of the copyright owners.
( APSCHE TEXTBOOK
COORDINATING COMMITTEE

Prof. K. Rama Mohana Rao, P~.D

Vice-Chairman
Dr. B.S. Selina, M.A., P ~ . D
Academic Officer
Sri G . Srirangam Mathew, M.Sc., ( P ~ . D )
Academic Officer
Dr. P. Anil Kumar, M.SC.,P ~ . D
Academic Officer
 Foreword
The Andhra Pradesh State Council of Higher Education, in line with the
directions of the Hon'ble Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, introduced English
Medium in all Degree programmes from this academic year 2021-22. As part of
empowering the students joining Degree programmes from vernacular medium,
the AP State Council of Higher Education is bringing out podcasts, video casts
and notably the bilingual text books. These bilingual books are written in
English, with the gist of the content in Telugu t o enable the students t o compre-
hend the content in their mother tongue. The bilingual text book is envisioned on
the core concept of Outcome Based Education, highlighting the learning
outcomes for every chapter. These are better called as bilingual resources rather
than textbooks, as the APSCHE has developed a template for the bilingual
textbooks designing them with concepts and frameworks going beyond the usual
reading material.
M3j +kt.; $1
-,o
Furthering the detailed descr~ptionof the topics, as per the common syllabus
of the Redesigned Curricular Framework for Choice Based Credit System, the
bilingual text book contains Glossary, where certain important terms which the
student might be unfamiliar with are identified and explained in one or two
sentences, which is not a mere dictionary meaning. Links t o online videos or
audios which will be useful for further reading and understanding of the topics are
given under the Interactive links. To foster further reading, information on online
resources, articles or another text book pertaining t o the content are provided. To
make the text book more of a resourceful book, Curricular Activities, wherein
suggested activities that could be taken up in realization of the outcomes are
provided for the benefit of students. To help the students t o assess understanding
of the content, Self Assessment instruments are provided. For Advanced Learn-
ers, caters t o the needs of advanced learners providing them with additional
material about the topics. Finally, for every chapter References are provided.
\
I sincerely appreciate the Authors and the Editors for taking pains in bringing out
this bilingual text book in a record time, replete with knowledge which fosters the
academic progression of students. I earnestly thank my Academic Officers, Dr.
B. S. Selina, Sri. Srirangam Mathew, Dr. P. Anil Kumar for their coordinating ac-
tivities and Prof. K. Rama Mohana Rao, the Vice-Chairman of APSCHE under
whose guidance the publication is brought out.

K. Hemabp an r a Reddy
Chairman, APSCHE
SECTION

I ల చన
క స ం
క సం అ పకృ రహ ల అ ం అనంతౖ నఅ హౖ నప ణం. క సం,

సహజ తత సం ం ఉద ం న ఒక ఉప ఖ. సహజ తత సం పజ పకృ ౖ న

ప లనల ం అరవంతౖ న ం వర దన మ చర ల .

ౖ ం ॓ ంప , అం , సహజ దృ షయం ర రణ సంబం ల సం అ షణ కశ ప

మహ ( క) క తన రత శం 600BC ం 200BC మధ ం .

అత రచన ధర (650AD), గ (500AD) మ ఇతర ద పం ల మ ంత

ఏ కృతం యబ మ అ వృ యబ . ఇ ం అధ య అ

(350BC), ఆ (250BC) మ అ క ఇతర స తంతం

రం ంచబ . రత శం (సంస ృతం ), (ఆ క )

( య ), ప (ఆ కఇ ) (ప య )మ ( )ప న య

ప ంచబ . అవ ధ కౖ న మ ల

ప రత ద త తక నబ .అ నప , య పద ఆ చన క

కమబదౖ న అ వృ .

అ అ (1000AD) అ ల (అర ॓ ) మ ంత అ వృ యబ .

అత అప వర అ వృ న వనల క ప త క ధృ కరణ ప శ

మ ఈ రణం ప తక క స ప ప గ ంచబడవ . ఇం ,

సంగమ ం న ధవ మ లకంఠ (1400AD) రళ ఆ ఆ న

ం మ అత ల ష తక క స ప

ప గ ంచబడవ . అత ప పం ల ర అం ంచబ ంద మ

ట మ ల మ ంత అ వృ యబ ంద ఊ ఉ .
 SECTION
INSTRUCTIONS
TO STUDENTS
I
About Physics
Physics is an everlasting wild quest into the secrets of nature.
The branch of Physics evolved from natural philosophy, where people
used to argue and discuss to arrive at some meaningful conclusions
over the observations made on nature.
Scientific temper, i.e., a search for cause and effect relations
in natural phenomeno was well established by Maharshi
Kasyapa/Kanada in ancient India between 600BC to 200BC. His
works were further consolidated and developed by Buddhist scholars
like Dharmakirthi (650AD), Dignāga (500AD) and others. Similar
studies were begun independently in Greece by Aristotle (350BC),
Archimedes (250BC) and several others. Major scientific
developments were reported in India (in Sanskrit), Mesopotamia
(modern Syria) (in Sumerian), Persia (Modern Iran) (in Persian) and
Greece (in Greek). But all those were most rudimentary and most of
the concepts were later found to be lacking in rigour. However, they
laid the foundations for systematic development of thought in a
scientific manner.
They were further developed in Arabian countries (in Arabic)
by Alhazen (1000AD). He has introduced experimental verification
of the concepts developed earlier and may for this reason be
considered as the founder of experimental physics. Further, Madhava
and Nilakantha of Sangamagrama (1400AD) established Kerala
School of Astronomy and may be considered as the founder of
analytical physics through his calculus. Speculations exist that his
work was passed on to Europe through Jesuit scholars and further
developed by Newton and Leibnitz. But Newtonian and Leibnitz
calculus has turned the face of Physics into a more systematic science.
The work of Newton’s principia is actually a consolidation of a
compendium of empirical physics works of Copernicus, Galileo,
 క స అధ యనం
య మ ల క మ ంత కమబదౖ న సం ం .

ట క క ప ప క , , మ అ క ఇతర

అ క క స రచనల సంకలనం, మ లౖ అదన షణ

ం ంచబ ం . అత అ క థ కౖ న రచనల రణం , ఐ ॓ ట క

॓ ప ప గ ంచబడవ .

తదనంతరం ౖ అ క ప మ 1800ల య

ల కరణ , త ౖ ం కత ం . ఆ క

క సం అ వృ ం న 1890-1925 లం ౖ మ సర గం. ఆల ఐ

మ ॓ ం॓ ల వ స ॓ మ ంటం ॓ వవ ప

ప గ ంచబడవ . ॓ ,వ ల గం ం గం లబ ం ,అ

ంటం ॓ , వ ల ప ణం ఆం లబ ం . వర 1970

ండ డ అ వృ త త, ల పరం పర ౖ ఇంట ల

వ ంచ ంటం య అ వృ ం ం .

1940 ల ండవ పపంచ ద ం కం ట ఆ ష రణ రం గమం ం , ంత లం

ౖ ం క క సం అ వృ ం న ప ధనల ంత ఆటంకం క ం ం ,

ఎం కం మం ప ధ సమస ప ష త క పద ల బ

సం పద ల ౖ .ఆ య ఇం ప చయం , కం ట నవ

మ ల అ గ ం గం మ ఆ చ మ ల ం . ౖ ,

ల మ క ॓ అవ శం ఉన ప తక ప ధన థ కౖ ం క

ప ధనౖ మ ంత దృ తమ ం .

క స అధ యనం
ఈఆ క గం , క స అధ య ప నం శ మ ం ప ర

పరస ర చర వ క ంచవ . య క సం ధ క దృ ష ల శ ,

ంటం మ ం ల ంటం క తత య ల ప ఉం ం .

iv
 క స అధ యనం

Huygens and many others, with an added analysis on geometry and

calculus. Due to his many contributions, which are fundamental in
nature, Isaac Newton may very well be considered as the founder of
Classical Physics.
Subsequently several developments have taken place in
science and lead to industrialization in European countries in 1800s,
thus, adding technology to science. Another golden era in science
happened during 1890-1925 where modern Physics has evolved.
Albert Einstein and Max Plank may be considered as the founders of
relativistic mechanics and Quantum mechanics respectively. In
relativistic mechanics, speed of the objects is comparable to the speed
of light, while in quantum mechanics, the size of the objects is
comparable to angstrom. Finally after the development of standard
model in 1970, Quantum field theory has evolved to deal with high
speed interactions at atomic level in terms of fields.

Fig: Branches of Modern Physics. (Source: Wikipedia commons)

Second world war in 1940s has paved the way to the

invention of computer, that in a sense hindered the flourishing
research in theoretical physics for quite some time, as majority of the
researchers have turned towards numerical methods instead of
analytical methods of problem solving. With the introduction of
Artificial Intelligence, computers also have attained speeds and
thinking abilities that surpass human abilities. Further focus on
fundamental theoretical research took a new turn with supported
experimental research in Nanoscience, Cosmology and Particle
Physics.

v
 క స అధ యనం
క అధ యనం య అ స ం థ క పద " య పద ". అం ,

గమ ం న ఏౖ సహజ దృ షయం థ క దట ప ంచబ ం .అ వం

పశ ల క ప ధ ంతం/అంశం ప గ ంచవ . దృ ష వ ంచ ఒక

ప కల న యబ ం . తదనంతరం, ప కల న ప ల కం ట అ కరణల

ప ంచవ . ఈ ధం క ం న ల ం ంచ

ంచబ ం . ం గమ ం న దృ షయంౖ త ప పశ ల యవ

మ ఈప య న ం .

స కం ష ల అధ యనం య థ క యమం ం ధం ఉం .

వన :

1. థ క య / తత య ఖ తం ం .

2. ప దృ షయం, స కరణం మ ష ల ంచం మ ధృ క ంచం .

3. ష సమయం కప ల మ ౖ న ధృ క ంచం . ఒ

ౖ న క న ఏక ప లబ ం ఉ త ంచవ యవ

అ ం ం .

4. వఇ న స కర ఇ ౖ ఉన ల వ సం ఉండవ .

అ స ం న యమం ఏ టం , స కర ఇ ౖ ఉన ౖ న ఎల

స .

5. ప స కర ప ల ట పయ ంచం .

స కర :

ఉ హరణ , రణ లకం స కర ప గ ంచం .

=2

vi
 Study of Physics

Study of Physics
In this modern era, the study of Physics may be majorly
classified as energy conversions and light matter interactions. The
classical physics deals with conservation laws for energy, momentum
and angular momentum in various physical phenomena.
The basic methodology followed to study Physics is the
scientific method. Here any natural phenomenon observed is
questioned first at the fundamental level. A sequence of such
questions may be considered as a research area/topic. A hypothesis
will be made to explain the phenomenon. Subsequently, the
hypothesis may be put to test through experiments or through
computer simulations. The data thus received will be analysed to
draw conclusions. The conclusions may lead to further questions on
the observed phenomenon and the process continues.

Fig: Scientific method.

A basic thumb rule to study the contents of the book are as follows.
Concepts:
1. Know the fundamental rules/conservation laws precisely.
2. Identify and verify them in each and every phenomenon,
equation and derivation.
3. Verify the units and dimensions of physical quantities during
the flow of derivation. Remember that terms or product of
terms with same dimensions only can be added or subtracted.

vii
 ప ం ం నం:
1. స కర ఉత న ం న నఉ ం ల ంచం , ఉ హరణ ,

ణం, θ న ఉం దౖ న .

2. స కర ం ం ట ప గ ంచబ తత య ల ంచం .

3. ఇ న స కరణం క ం (g, ఒక ంకం ౖ ఉన ంత వర ),

బ ం (2π, ర క ంకం) మ య (l, T) ంచం .

4. LHS య , RHSౖ ఆ రపడ ంచం .. బ ం ల అస

ర ర ం ం మ ఇ న ప క ం ల

ర .

ప ం ం నం:

ADDIE డ ఉప ం ప ం ంచవ . ADDIE అం ఎ ,

ౖ , వల ం , ఇం ం ష మ ఎ ష . ఉ హరణ ప తౖ న

రణ లకం స కర ప గ ంచం .

రణ లకం తం క ప త క ధృ కరణ సం రణ ల

ఉప ం g క గణన సం.

1. య మ ం ల ంచ దట స కర ం .

క ం దవ ,ౖ ల ం, ఘనప ణం, రం, ప ణం దౖ న

ప రఆ త ం వ .

2. ం ం మ ఇం ం ం య ంచం . ఇక డ l అ స తంత

య మ Tఅ ం ం య .

g=4π^2 l/T^2

viii
 Designing Experiments

5. There may be discrepancy with units on either side of an

equation like the one given below. But the rule to follow is
that dimensions on either side of equation must always
match.
6. Try to put every equation into words.
Equations:
For example, consider the simple pendulum equation.

=2

1. Identify the approximations that were made while deriving

the equation, like, the angle, must be very small etc.
2. Identify the conservation laws considered while deriving the
equation.
3. Identify local constants ( , constant as long as we are on
earth ) , Global constants (2 , a universal constant ) and
variables ( , ) in the given equation.
4. Identify the dependence of the terms on LHS, on the
variables on RHS. Remember that one can not change the
global constants at all and also can not change the local
constants in a given situation.

Designing Experiments
Experiments are designed by using ADDIE model. ADDIE stands for
Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation. For
example consider the familiar simple pendulum equation.

Fig: ADDIE Model.

ix
Designing Experiments
3. θ న ం న ణం ఉ ం వం ప గం సమయం అ

అమ య ;స కర ం ం ట న ఉ ం ల ంచం .

4. ప గం క పకల న ఎ ర ల ంచడం మ న వృతం

మ సగ పరం ధమ రఅంత ల ం .

5. మనవద ఖ తం ఖ తౖ న ధ ఉన ట , లకం క ఒ ం క

ఒ లత ఫ ంచవ . మనం లకం డ (స న ం ం

మధ ) ంచ లకం క ధ డ ల సం ప

న వృతం . 10 (అ ం ) ల ల ప సమ ంచడం మ 10

భ ంచడం గ రం క తత ం ల త ంచవ . ఒక లనం సం ప

ఖ తౖ న సమయం 1.2 క అ అ ం ం. గ ద ంశ ం లత

నం న, మనం 10 ల ల సమ గ .అ మన లత స ఉం , మనం 12

క ం . అం వలన, గణన 10 ంచడం, ఖ త 1 ద ంశ

ం ం . 10 ం న త త, గ ఆపడం ంత ఆలస ం వ , ఒక

11 క ంచవ .మ క 13 . . నవ త ల రణం వ ంచ ,

ఇ న డ l వద 10 ల ల సమయం లత క సం ం న వృతం

మ ఆౖ సగ ం .

వల ం గం ఖ తౖ న ఇ ం ష మ ప గం ఉప ం న

న ల ష ల వ వహ ం . ఉ హరణ , ఉప ం న రకం, స న

ం క ణత దౖ న .

ౖ మ వల ం ల ం , అమ గం ం

ం .

ప గం అమ యబ న త త, క ం న ంచబ ం . ల

అర ం వ క షణ అత ంత ఖ తౖ నమ తౖ న షణ.

x
 Designing Experiments

For the experimental verification of the simple pendulum formula, or

the calculation of using simple pendulum.
1. One has to analyse the equation first to identify the variables
and constants. The local constants may sometimes be the
material dependent constants like mass, area, volume, radius,
size etc.
2. Identify the dependent and independent variables. Here is the
independent variable and is the dependent variable.

=4
3. Identify the approximations taken while deriving the equation to
implement the same during the experiment, such as the small
angle approximation, which assumes to be very small.
4. Design of experiment includes identification of the possible
errors and possible ways out in terms of repetition and averaging.
5. If we have perfectly accurate and precise instruments, the result
can be calculated with a single measurement of single swing of
the pendulum. Still we repeat the experiment for various lengths
of the pendulum to avoid error in measurement of length of
pendulum (from point of suspension to center of the bob).
Counting time for 10 (say) oscillations and dividing by 10 reduces
the errors in precision of the clock. Suppose the exact time period
is 1.2sec. for one oscillation. But as the clock does not have
decimal point measurement, we then count the time for 10
oscillations. Then if our measurement is correct, we must get 12
sec. Thus, increasing the count 10 times, increases the precision
by 1 decimal place. Since after counting 10, there may be some
delay in stopping the clock, one may count 11Sec. or 13Sec. any
higher value as per convenience. To avoid the error due to human
mistakes, the 10 oscillation measurement for a given will be
repeated at least two or three times and then averaged.
6. Development part deals with precise instrumentation and
specifications of rest of the components to be used in the
experiment. For example, the thread type used, quality of the
suspension point, etc.
7. Implementation part will be straight forward, if design and
development parts are well taken care of.

xi
 Designing Experiments
క షణ:
లత ఖ తౖ న అ , l Vs.T^2 క ప ం ల ం ం

సరళ ఖౖ ప . సవ ఫ ం వ వ ల క న ల

గమ ంచవ . ఈ ం ధం అర ం వ .

సమయ వ వ ఖ తం మ డ అంచ అ కం యబ ంద అ ం ం.

అం ; అస డ 50cm అ , అ 51cm న . డ ఎల వ

వర లవబ ఉం , ప ం సం, న ం ఒక ం ఎ వ డ

న ద ం . ఆ ధం తం ఖ లం ం ళ ం / వ ం .

లకం క డ క ౖ గం వర , 50cm బ , మన 49cm అ

న .అ తం ఎడమ/ౖ ం .

లం ం , డ లత ఖ తౖ నవ ం .

ల ల రంభ గణన బ 1 ం నట , ఒక 10 ల ల బ

11 . అం వలన T^2 వక త లం ం నప ౖ ం . 9

ల ల ఎల 10 బ ం నట , T^2 వక ఖ క ంద వ ం .

అం వల వక ఖ సరళం క నప , లత లస ం త

అంచ యవ .

వర , ం న స కర ష ప భ ష

తం ఎప ఎ రవవ ం ం . బ ఈఅ ప యల ల ం ఒక

స కర ల ప ష ం పద సం ప ల ం ం పద సం ణ

ఇవ డం. పజ గహ న ం రణ ం నఅ న అ వృ . అ పద

ఈ స కం ల ం భ ష సం ంత రణ ం మ వలం

పకశ ఆ త చరణ త .

xii
 Designing Experiments

8. Once the experiment is implemented, the collected data will be

analysed. Graphical analysis is the most accurate and precise
analysis to understand the source of errors.

Graphical analysis:
If our measurements are accurate, every point on the graph of
. should fall on a straight line that passes through origin. But
one may observe some patterns of deviations from the actual result.
They can be understood as follows.

Fig: Simple pendulum graphical analysis of error.

Suppose the time period is measured accurately and length is over
estimated. i.e.; if the actual length is 50cm, it is noted as 51cm, say.
If the length is always measured up to the bottom of the bob, then
for every reading, the measured point is plotted at one point shifted
to longer lengths. Thus the entire line shifts right/bottom without
passing through origin.
If the length of the pendulum is measured up to the top end of the
bob, then instead of 50cm, we would note down 49cm. Then the
entire graph shifts towards left/upwards.
If the graph passes through origin, that implies the length
measurements are accurate.
If the starting count of the oscillations is counted as 1 instead of zero,
then one counts 11 instead of 10 oscillations. Thus curve rises up
though it passes through origin. If 9 oscillations are counted always
instead of 10, then the slope of curve falls.

xiii
 Designing Experiments
ౖ అం ల గం అ వృ ం న ఈ గం , 10 సంవత ల తం న

వన ఇ ఉండక వ మ అ పద మనం ఈ అం 10

సంవత ల త త ఉప గకరం ఉండక వ . ఇం న ఖౖ న సం శం

ఏ టం , సం ద ం మ య భ ష జ ంచ ౖ ం క,

ప తకమ గణన ధ ల అ వృ .

ఈ స కం , ప అ యం అ సల ,అ సఫ , షఫ మ

భ ష దృక ల రంభమ ం . ఇక డ ల ఉ క ష చరణ

ప క. వ కరణ ం న ధం ఫ 6 ం భ ంచబ .

( వ క చనల ఉ ). భ ష దృక మ షఫ సంబం త

అ యం అం ల సంబం ం న అ సం . ఏౖ అ

రం ంచ ఇ అవసరం, ఎం కం ఇ న అం భ ష దృ ల

అ సం ంచక వడం, మ మ ం .అ 5వ స ం ఒక

స ఇంట సం ఏౖ ప శమ సంప ంచ దం ఉం ల .

అం ల ఏ ఒక ల ం ం . సౖ న ల ం, ఫ తం మ భ ష దృక థం

ం వలం తరగ గ ప ంచవ .

ద ల స గ జత ంద ం ం . గ

ప ల ం త రం ం న ,అ ప న ంట

త న ంట మర ం . బ ద ల

ల ం న స రం సం ఎ వ లం ం ం ౖ ం ంచ

పయ ంచం . ం 15-20 సంవత ల కృ ఉప గం ం ం .

వర ఒక న ఉ గం ర సల క ణ వల వ . ఒక కం

లం , " తం సం ం " వలం స సం .భ ష ఉ గం వృ

తం ప స యం . ౖ మం సౖ న ం

ం క యక క ం . సౖ న ల మ ఫ ల

xiv
 Designing Experiments

Thus though the curve looks linear, the nature of errors in

measurement can be estimated from their graph.
Finally, remember that the equations or derivations or experiments
that you have come across you may never encounter them in your
future life. So the aim of all these exercises is to train you for a
concept, or for a method of solving equations, or for a method of
designing experiments. People have developed atomic model inspired
by the planetary model. In the same manner you should get some
inspiration, from the lessons in this book, for your future career and
not just a mere memory based activity.
In this fast developing era of science and technology, the concepts
learned 10 years back may not be existing now and in the same
manner the topics that we learn today may not be useful after 10
years. The important message to take home is that one should
prepare for the change and develop theoretical, experimental and
computational tools to conquer the unknown future.
In this book, every chapter starts with the learning
objectives, learning outcomes, outcomes specific to program and
future perspectives. Here objectives are the specific plan of action of
the teacher. Outcomes are divided into 6 levels of learning as
suggested in Bloom’s taxonomy. (Details are contained in the
instructions to faculty). Future perspectives and specific outcomes
link the topics in the respective chapter with the program, which the
student is a part of. This is most essential to begin any chapter with,
as not connecting a given topic with future perspectives, leads to
forgetfulness. Also at the end of 5th semester you are expected to be
ready to approach any industry for one semester internship. Hence
learn the concepts with some goal. Don’t just enter the class room
without proper objective, outcome and future perspective.
Remember that brain attaches an expiry date to the
information that it stores. If you set the expiry date as end of exams
or start of new course, it forgets immediately after the end of exams
or at the joining of new course. So try to attach a longer standing time
stamp for the information you wish to store in your brain. Otherwise
all your 15-20 years of effort in academics will lead you to nothing.
Finally one may have to take a short term training to join a small job

xv
 Designing Experiments
ద సౖ న శ మలచట క వలం దృ క స ర డం

ఉప ంచడ అ ర వ .

సం షం ల ం

- రచ త

E - Corner

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_considered_fat
her_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field
https://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/news/indians-
predated-newton-discovery-by-250-years/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_techn
ology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_
S%C5%ABtra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_physics
http://dev.physicslab.org/document.aspx?doctype=3&filena
me=oscillatorymotion_pendulumshm.xml

xvi
 Designing Experiments

leaving behind years of effort aimlessly. In one sentence,

“Learn for life” not just for a certificate. Map every information that
you learn with a future job or career or life. Even Diamond, if not cut
without proper planning, looks like an ordinary stone. It is your
choice to shape your brain with proper objectives and outcomes or
just use it as a mere random information dump yard.
Wishing you happy learning
- Authors

xvii
xviii
Instructions to faculty
ఉ ల చన
SECTION

II ఉ ల చన
॓ ంచడం ం

క ంచడం అ క స అ ప ల అత ంత ఉ జకరౖ న ప ణం,

ఎం కం పకృ రహ ల కమపద ఆ ష ంచడం ఆనం ందవ . ప

ఉ స ల ంచ మ కం ం ఆ ష ంచ తమౖ న స ంత

క ఉన ప ,ఈ ం చన మ ంత రణ ర శ ల అం ,అ

ధన ం ఉ అమ య ఉప గకరం ఉండవ .

1. ఉ ఒక స య సం త:

స ర టనం క నఅ సం క ఈ ట గం , ఉ ట

త ం . అం ; వద అం ఉన ప స తరగ గ

ఉ ల మ ర శం . ర ర ,

క రణ వ అం ఉన స ర వన లౖ ప మ సౖ న

త ం స షం యడం ణ ఇవ సౖ న ల ల దం .

2. ౖ న తరగ గ :

ఐ న , "క ల ద క వ - అ క స ల వడం ,

ఆ చన ణ ఇవ డం."

ఠ స కం కం ం వ యడం ఎ వ తరగ సమయం వృ వ .

బ ఇం పఠనం సం ఒక ం చ ం న ॓ ॓ కం ం

అంద , తమ మన థ కస రం మ పశ ల తరగ

గ ప . అ ప ఉప సం రంభం అ పశ ల క ంచవ , త

న సమయం సం ల ం వృ ధం ఉప అం ంచడం ల ం
 SECTION
INSTRUCTIONS
TO FACULTY
II
About Teaching Physics
Teaching Physics is the most exciting ride for physics faculty
as one can experience the joy of unveiling the secrets of nature in a
systematic manner. Though every teacher may have her/his own way
of establishing facts and presenting content, the following
instructions provide a more general sequence of events/guidelines
that the teachers may find useful to implement for a smooth journey.

Fig: Einstein’s quote

1. Teacher is a facilitator:
In this digital era of information explosion and learning, teacher has
to play the role of facilitator. i.e.; every information available with
the student should be well filtered and guided by teacher in the
classroom. In order to fulfil this, one has to work on possible sources
of information available to the common reach of student and
prepare proper filters to train them on clearly differentiating the
right from wrong.
2. Flipped class room:
As told by Einstein, “The value of college education is not the
learning of many facts but the training of mind to think.”
 Bloom’s taxonomy
వ , ఇ సౖ న ల ధన సమర వంతౖ న ధనం అత ంత సమయ-ప వవంతౖ న

పద ప ం .

3. వ కరణ:

ఇ ధ లఅ క అం ం , ప రం ఆ లఅ స

రక ఉ .అ ం వడం, అర ం వడం, అ యడం, ంచడం,

ంకనం యడం మ సృ ంచడం. వ కరణ మ చ క

ఆ క వ కరణ యల భ యబ .

ఉ హరణ యమం క అధ య ప గ ంచం .

ం వడం: ఇ అ "ఏ " రకం పశ ల స నం ఇ ం . అం ; క

యమం ఏ మ అ ఆ రప ఉం ఏ , దౖ న

ఆ ధం

sin
= = = = =
sin
అవ హన: ఈ ం అ "ఎం "మ "ఎ " రకం పశ ల స ల సం

ం . ఉ హరణ ఈ వ భవన దృ షయం ఎం రం ఉం ? ఈ పశ

స నం ఏ టం , రం ం , స హ ఇ ౖ ఉన ల ల సంఖ

అస నం ం మ క ॓అ ం . బ తరం స హ వద క ॓

య , స హ రం ఉం . λ_Red>λ_Blue ⇒r_Red>r_Blue అ

గమ ంచవ .

వ ంప యడం: ం మ య అం ఏ మ ఎం

ఎ పవ అ ౖ సౖ న అవ హన స కర ల అ వృ నత త, ష

స ల వ ంప యవ . ఉ హరణ , యం ం క తరంగౖ ర ం λ,

λ=5893Å , వ భవన ణకం μ=1.333 ం ం . అం λ_2=λ_1/μ

=5893/1.33 =4419.8Å. ఈ ఉ హరణ ం , ం తరంగౖ ర ం యం ం

xxii
 Bloom’s taxonomy
But majority of the class time may get wasted in delivering the content
from the text book. Instead of that if the student is given the text book
content to be discussed a day earlier for home reading, then students will
enter the class room with some basic information and a set of questions
in their mind. The faculty may then gather all the questions at the
beginning of the lecture so that the rest of the time can be aimed at
delivering the lecture in such a manner as to clear all their doubts which
could work as an effective tool for proper goal attainment, in the most
time-effective manner.

Bloom’s taxonomy
This gives a standard flow chart for various levels of learning,
according to which there are six levels of learning activities. These
are Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analysing, Evaluating
and Creating. The nouns in Blooms taxonomy are replaced by action
verbs in the modern definition of Bloom’s taxonomy.

Fig: Bloom’s taxonomy Old and New terminology.

For example consider the study of Snell’s law.

Remembering: This answers all “What” type of questions. i.e.; what
is Snell’s law and what are the parameters that it depends on, etc.
Thus
sin
= = = = =
sin

Understanding: This level of learning looks for answers to all

“Why” and “How” type of questions. For example why frequency
should remain constant in this phenomenon of refraction? The
answer to this question is that if the frequency were not constant,
then the number of oscillations on either side of the boundary

xxiii
 Bloom’s taxonomy
యం ంద ంచవ . యం ం తరంగౖ ర ం λ=5893Å

త ం . ఆ ధం అ ష అ ష సంద ల స కర ల

సంఖ ల ప పం యడం త వ వహ ం .

షణ: ఈ దశ , స కరణం క ర ప అ ప క సంద ల ప గణన

వడం మ అ ర ల పశ ల స ల తకడం

ంచబ ం . స కరణం ం , ధ రం ల వ భవన ణం నం ఉం ంద

ఊ ంచవ . బ ధ రం ల వ భవన ణకం ఇ నప నం ఉం ం .

ఇ త పశ ఏ టం : ం క ఏ రం సం, ప ర ం క వ భవన ణకం

ర ంచబ ం ? ఇ అ క ం కం క RI క సగ ? అం , ౖ క

RI? స నం ఏ టం , వ భవన క యం ఆ పం λ=5893Å సం

ర ంచబ ం , ఎం కం ఇ దట అ వృ యబ న ఏౖ క ఏకవర ం జనకం. RI ౖ

ఉ గత మ డన ప ల ం ఏ ? ఇక డ RI అ STP ( ండ ంప చ అం

జ ) వద ర ంచబ ం .

స కరణం ం , i=0°, sin r=sin 〖 i 〗 /μ_12 =0⇒r=0°. అం వలన i=0°,r=0°.

అ రణ సంఘటనల సం వ భవన ణకం ఏ అ ం ? μ_12=0/0

( ర ంచబడ ).

ఆ ధం , షణ గం ఇ న వన క ప మ ప బంధ ల

ం . అం , అ ఎక డ ప ం మ ఎక డ ఫలమ ం అ ం

ంకనం యడం: షణ గం నత త, ౖ ప క ఉం

మ ధప ల క ంచగల . ఉ హరణ , ఒక

ం ర కట దవ ధ మం ం న ం ర క ?

బయ ధ మం ందం ఉం ం బ , ం ర కటకం; ం ర

xxiv
 Bloom’s taxonomy
becomes unequal and the wave gets disconnected. So to keep the
wave connected across the boundary, the frequency must remain
constant across the boundary. One can also observe that >
⇒ > .
Applying: Once the equations are developed with proper
understanding of what are constants and what are variables and why
the parameters behave the way they do, one can apply them to
specific systems. For example, what is the wavelength λ of sodium
light, with = 5893Å in air, when passed through water of
refractive index = 1.333 . That is = / = 5893/1.33 =
4419.8Å. From this example, one can identify that the wavelength
of light changes from medium to medium. The wavelength =
5893Å for sodium light is valid only in air or vacuum. Thus
application only deals with mere substitution of numbers into
equations for specific cases.
Analysing: At this stage, the equation is analysed in and out, by
considering all the special cases and by searching answers to all
“What if” type of questions. From the equation, one can infer that
the angle of refraction for different colours is different. Thus
refractive index for different colours is different for a given material.
The question that arises now is: For what colour of light, is the
refractive index of material defined? Is it the average of RI of all the
visible spectrum? i.e., the RI of green light? The answer is that the
refractive index was defined for sodium vapour lamp = 5893Å as
that was the only monochromatic light source first developed. What
about temperature and pressure effects on RI? Here RI is defined at
STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure).
From the equation, when = 0°, sin = =0⇒ = 0°. Thus
when = 0°, = 0° . Then for normal incidence what is the
refractive index? = 0/0 (undefined).
Thus, Analysis part gives the limits and limitations of the given
concept. i.e., where it works and where it fails.
Evaluating: Once Analysis part is over, one can have full grip over
the concept and be able to judge the validity of the concept under
various circumstances. For example, do the light rays converge or
diverge when a hollow convex lens is immersed in liquid medium?
Since the outer medium is denser, the hollow convex lens behaves

xxv
 Bloom’s taxonomy
దం పవ ం . ఆ ధం ం ర దవ ధ మం ఉన ఒక
ం ర కటకంౖ .

సృ ంచడం: ఒక వన క ప మ ప బంధ అర ం న త త,

బ వ వసల అ వృ యవ ప యం , ప మ

ప బంధ ల అ గ ంచ వనల అ వృ యవ . ఉ హరణ , రణ

సంఘటనల షయం వ భవన ణక వ ంచ , ఒక స కర అవసరం

వ . స కర ల అ వృ న త త, వ భవన ణం అ నప ,

వ భవనం రణం ధ రం ల ర ఉం ంద లభం ంచవ . ర

మ ట అ వృ ఈ వన మ ంత ఉప ంచవ .

ఈ వనల ం ఒక ,అ నౖ న కమం చ ం ఉండవ .

న ఉన ప జనం ఏ టం , సం ష త దశల దల ఒక

కమబద ం ఉం ం .అ ఏ క అ భ మ ఏ

వర ప యగలడ ౖ ॓ యవ .

ధన, అ సం మ ంకన ధ :

ప అ సం సం, క వ కరణ స అమ య ,

ఉప ంచ ధన, అ సం మ ంకన ధ ఏ ఖ తం

ర ం .

అదనం , క వ కరణ క ప తరగ ఉప అ ఉ ,అ

ౖ ,ఎ ౖ మ ౖ ట / స ॓ ౖ .

ఇక డ ౖ ద చరణ వ వహ ం . హృదయ

చరణ ప తౖ న ౖ వ వహ ం .ౖ క ౖ క

చరణ వ వహ ం . క వ కరణ క ధ ల ఉప ం న

ంట ల ఇ ం.

xxvi
 Bloom’s taxonomy
quite opposite to that of a glass convex lens in air. Thus the light rays
diverge on a hollow convex lens immersed in liquid medium.
Creating: Once the limits and limitations of a concept are
understood, one can develop systems within the limits and
limitations or alternately, concepts to overcome the limits and
limitations. For example, To explain refractive index in case of
normal incidence, one may need Fresnel equations. Once Fresnel
equations are developed, one can easily identify that there will be
lateral shift of various colours due to refraction, though the angle of
refraction is zero. One can use this concept further in development
of Quarter wave plates and Half wave plates.
One might have discussed all these concepts in a course, in the same or
different order. But the advantage with Blooms Taxonomy is that there
will be a systematic step by step level of increment in complexity of
learning. Also one can put check marks on the exact level at which the
student feels difficulty and up to what level the student is able to work
with.
Teaching, Learning and Evaluation tools:
For each level of learning, one has to precisely define what are the
teaching, learning and evaluation tools that are going to be used, for
proper implementation of Bloom’s taxonomy.
In addition, there are three sub levels of learning in each class of Bloom’s
taxonomy, namely cognitive domain, Affective domain and
Psychomotor/ Systemic domain.

Fig: Domains of learning.

xxvi
i
 Bloom’s taxonomy
ం : ం , అ చరణ సం, ఒక ర చనం

చదవమ అడగవ .ఎ సం ఒక ష మననం యమ

అడగవ .ౖ క చరణ సం, ర చనం యమ అడగవ . ం వడం

ధన సం, ఒక PPT ఉప ంచవ రచ ల య

ల ఉప ంచవ . ంకన ప జనం సం ఒక ఎం వ

ప ల జతప చరణ ఎం వ .

అవ హన : అవ హన , ఒక దమ రకం ధన ఉప ంచవ .

అవ హన ం సం, ఒక సష థ సం

యవ మ ంకన ప జనం సం ఇ న క ంచమ

అడగవ .

అ ష :అ ష ం సం, ఒక ౖ డ ల అ వృ యవ

తరగ గ సమస ల ప ష ంచవ . అభ సన అంచ య ఒక

సమస ల అౖ ం ఇవ వ .

షణ :ఈ ఒక అధ యన క యమ అడగవ , ఒక త పర టన

సం యవ మ వర త పర టన ప లనలౖ క దం ల

ప బట వ . ష ం ఆ ం న అవసరౖ నస ం ల ం ష

పశ ల తప ర ంచవ .

ంకనం :ఈ ఒక ॓ప ఇవ వ ఇప ఉన ॓ప

ంకనం యమ అడగవ . ఒక సష ఒక ప వ మ

షణ మ ంకనౖ ల గమ ంచవ .

సృ :ఈ ఒక ॓ ఒక చరణ మ ॓ viva ంకన ధనం

అవసరం వ .

https://www.monroe.k12.ky.us/userfiles/905/bloom
spres.ppt

xxviii
 Bloom’s taxonomy
Here cognitive domain level deals with brain level activity. Affective
domain level deals with heart level activity. Systemic domain level deals
with the physical level activity. Let us now identify some pointers to use
at various levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Remembering level: In remembering level, for Cognitive level activity,
one may ask the student to go through a definition. For Affective level
activity one may ask to recite a definition. For Systemic level activity,
one may ask to write the imposition of the definition. For teaching at
remembering level, one may use PPT or one may use display cards to
write definitions. For evaluation purpose one may choose a quiz, or an
activity involving matching the words.
Understanding level: For understanding level, one may use chalk and
board type of teaching. For learning activity at understanding level, one
may plan for a group discussion or flipped class room method and for
evaluation purpose one may ask to summarize the given concept.
Application level: For Application level of learning, one may develop
prototype models or one may solve problems in class room. One may
give problems sheet or assignment to evaluate the application level of
learning.
Analysing level: At this level one may ask to write a study report, one
may plan for a field visit and finally may insist on preparing a report on
the observations during the field trip. One may also conduct a written
test with specific questions aimed at eliciting the required information
expected from that particular field trip.
Evaluating level: At this level one may give a project work or ask to
evaluate an existing project work. One may also plan Group discussion
as a task and observe their analysis and evaluation skills.
Creation level: At this level one may need a project as an activity and
project viva as an evaluation tool.
Here is a PPT containing a list of teaching, learning and evaluation tools
one can use at various levels of learning.

Usage of computer has become mandatory in all fields nowadays for

proper understanding and for saving time. Hence selection of activities
and assessment tools based on computer activity would be a great choice

xxix
Bloom’s taxonomy
ఈ సౖ న అవ హన సం మ సమ ఆ యడం సం కం ట డకం అ

రం తప స అ ం . అం వల కం ట చరణ ఆ రం రక మ

ంకన ధ ల ఎం క అ ప మ ఇద బ ర తం మ

ం ం ం ప ఎం క.

వర , ఇ క నౖ న అ ం నప , ఇ మన యౖ న ప త గం క స

ఉ ల ం ప ద . బ అత దృ ణం ం , న రం

క హం అ ఉండవ .

ఈ స కం , ప అ యం ల మ ఫ ల దౖ షఫ మ భ ష

అవ ల రంభమ ం .ఇ ంత ఉ సృ ంచ ఉ ల

స యప ం .

ప చయ గం , అ యం ష ల సం స ృతౖ న తక పథ ం ఇవ బ ం . ఇ

ంతమం ల స హం ఆస ం . ప త లబ కం ం

వడం ఆ చన క దశల అ వృ అర ం వడం ఇ స యప ం .

xxx
 Bloom’s taxonomy
that enhances the exposure and confidence in both the faculty as well as
the student.
Finally, though it may sound harsh, it is a famous quote from our beloved
current era physics teacher Walter Lewin. Probably from his point of
view, the crime committed could be against physics itself.
In this book, every chapter starts with objectives and outcomes
followed by specific outcomes and future prospects. This would help
teacher to create some enthusiasm in the student.
In the introduction section, extensive historic background has
been given for the chapter contents. This also would trigger interest in
some group of students. This also helps in understanding the step by
step development of thought in arriving at the current syllabus content.
Some chapters like ultrasonics are provided with extensive
details on applications. They may not be helpful at this instance; but
presented now, keeping in view of the future perspectives like
internships and project works that the student may need to take up in
the future semesters.
Every topic is provided with supporting web links for further
reading. For some topics interactive simulation links are also provided.
Relevant activities and facts are also provided wherever it is
possible. Some thought provoking questions are also posed to enhance
the interest of the students.
The exercise section yet to be developed further to meet the
requirements of Bloom’s taxonomy framework. But still some relevant
IIT JAM, HCU, AU, AKNU etc. entrance exam questions are provided to
give an exposure to students in that direction. Some of the MCQs are
provided with hints and solutions wherever it is possible. The evaluation
part may be presented on par with Bloom’s taxonomy framework in the
subsequent editions.
We earnestly hope that, this book may succeed in providing
some direction and create interest in the subject in both the teacher and
the student. If the book adds a pinch of salt and pepper to the entire
purpose of “the ocean of learning” as quoted by Einstein, (training of
brain to think), our efforts would have not been a waste, after all.
Thank you all very much.
- Authors

xxxi
 Bloom’s taxonomy
అ ॓ వం అ అ ష లౖ స ృతౖ న వ ల అం ంచబ . ఈ

సందర ం అ స యపడక వ ; అ భ ష స ల ప న

ఇంట మ ॓ వ ల వం భ ష దృ ల దృ ఉం ఇ

పద ంచబ ం .

ప అం మ ంత చదవ స ం ం॓ అం ంచబ . అం ల సం

ఇంట ష ం॓ అం ంచబ .

ధౖ న ట సంబం త రక మ స అం ంచబడ . ల

ఆస ం ం ంచ ఆ ంప పశ ఉ .

క వ కరణ వ అవస ల ర అ స గం ఇం అ వృ

యబడ . ఇప సంబం త IIT JAM, HCU, AU, AKNU దౖ న ప శ ప

పశ ల ఆ శ అవ హన క గ య అం ంచబ . MCQ

ధౖ న ట చన మ ప ల అం ంచబ . త ప సం కల

క వ కరణ వ స నం ంకన పద ంచవ .

ఈ స కం ంత శం యడం జయం ంచగలద మ ఉ

మ ఇద స ౖ ఆస క ంచగలద హృదయ ర కం ఆ .
ఐ ఉ ం న "అ స మ స ద ం" క తం ఉ ( ద
ఆ ం ణ ) స కం ఒక ఇ మంౖ , పయ వృ వ ఆ .

అంద ధన .

- రచ త

xxxii
Future Perspectives
భ ష అవ కనం
 భ ష అవ కనం
SECTION

III
క స ఖ

B.Sc. త త, ంద వ ం న ధం క సం ధ ఉప ఖ భ ంచబ ం .

1. క ॓

2. క మ థర ॓

3. దయ ంత ంతం మ ఎల ౖ న ॓

4. ఆ ॓ మ

5. ఘ భ ం న ప ర క సం / ఘన క సం

6.ౖ ఎన ॓ మ ల

ఇక డ క ॓ ॓ ఆ య వ వహ ం అం ; ౖ న ॓,
ౖ న ॓, ౖ న ॓, క మ క నఖ ళ క సం. అక డ ఖ ళ వ ల
ౖ న ॓ మ ౖ న ॓ అధ యనం యబడ .

క ॓ , స ల క థ ౖ న ॓ పవర న వ వసల క ౖ ॓
(పర / ల గ ష ) ప గణన వడం వ ంచబ ం .
ఆౖ ॓ ,అ స ఒ ఉం మ వలం ం క త
ఉం , అ ం సరడం యబ ం . 6అ క ఉం , అ
కల సమస యబ ం . అం వల గ ంక ॓ ప సమస
మ ం యబ ం మ ఆశ ర కరం , గమ ం న
ప తకఫ ం న ఫ తం క ంత కల క యబడ .ఇ
ద ఎ న గ ంక వ వస ల ఫ ల అ క ం ం కం ట ఉప ంచబ .

ఎల ౖ న ॓ మ దయ ంత ంతం ళ మ ఖ ళ వ ల ం
ష అధ యనం యడం తప స ఉప గప ం .క ష స సం
ధ ల ం ంచడం ఇ ఉప గప ం . త ప క ల

అ వృ యడం ఇ ఉప గప ం .
FUTURE

SECTION
PERSPECTIVES III
Branches of Physics
After B.Sc., physics divides into various sub branches as described
below.
1. Classical mechanics
2. Statistical and thermal physics
3. Electromagnetic theory and Electrodynamics
4. Optics and spectroscopy
5. Condensed matter physics / Solid state physics
6. High energy physics and cosmology
Here classical mechanics deals with mechanics of materials i.e.;
dynamics, kinematics, fluid dynamics, another extreme of this is the
astrophysics. There dynamics and kinematics of astronomical objects
is studied.
In statistical mechanics, the thermodynamic behaviour of
the systems is explained by considering the microscopic
(atomic/molecular level configuration) of the systems. At that
microscopic level, all systems are identical and if there are only two
particles, it will be mapped onto tossing a coin. If there are 6 atoms
or molecules, then it will be mapped on to the dice problem. Thus
every problem in statistical mechanics is mapped on to some multiple
coin tossing and astonishingly, the observed experimental results
map on to some combination of the outcome of the coin tossing. Now
a days computers are used to simulate the outcome of large scale
statistical systems.
Electrodynamics and electromagnetic theory is essentially
useful in studying radiation from terrestrial and celestial objects. It is
also useful in designing tools for communication system. It is useful
in developing innovative electrical components.
 Physics Career
ఆ ॓ గ త ఆ ॓, ఆ ॓ మ ॓ వ క ంచబ ం . ప ం
॓ , జ పకల న, అ వృ మ అ ష స ృత ర
రణం ప క ఆక ం . తప స ం ప ర పరస ర చర ల
వ వహ ం . నఆ ॓ ం ప ర పరస ర చర క రణ ప మం.
అక డ ం స వం అధ యనం యబ ం . , ప రం క స వం
అధ యనం యబ ం .

ఘ భ ం న ప ర క సం ఘనప మ ద ల క ఘ భ ం న దశ
వ వహ ం . అక డ క , ఆ క , ఎల క , అయ ంత, త వ ఉ గత మ
ప ల అ క ఉ గత పవర న అధ యనం . ల అ ఘ భ ం నప ర
క సం క ఉప ఖ, ఇ ధ ,ల మ అ వర ల పరం
ప కత ం ం .

అ క శ క సం అ మ థ క క ల వ వహ ం . ఉత , పవర న,
ౖ ం మ అంత ం ం వ ంచడం దౖ న శం క
అధ యనం య ం . ల ర మ న ల ం
వ ష అధ యనం లక ర అ వృ అంచ ం .

ంటం ॓ అ క సం అ ఆ క ఖల అ సం ం అంత న
రం. ఇ అ ప గణన వడం స ల క పవర న
అధ యనం ం . అం వల ంటం ॓ ౖ న న అ ం ఉప ఖల
సృ ం ం అ ంటం ॓, ంటం ఎల ౖ న ॓, ంటం ఆ ॓ దౖ న .
ఘ భ ం న ప ర క సం మ థ క కణ క సం తప స ంటం
॓ క పత అ వర .

॓ ॓ ల చనల న ధం క సం క అ క గం
వత వ ం . అక డ ఒక ఎల ౖ న ॓, య ॓, ంటం
॓, ంటం ఎల ౖ న ॓ దౖ న డవ .

క సం ధ ఖల న త త, B.Sc త త ధ రం ల
ప ంచవ . అ అకడ ॓, మ ఎం ం అ ర
వ క ంచబ .

xxxvi
 Physics Career
Optics is classified into geometrical optics, wave optics and
photonics. Especially in photonics, lasers have occupied a special place
due to their wide range of varieties in their design, development and
application. Spectroscopy essentially deals with the light matter
interactions. The rest of the optics is also a simple consequence of light
matter interaction. But there the nature of light is studied. In
spectroscopy, the nature of material is studied.
Condensed matter physics deals with condensed phase of solids
and liquids. There mechanical, optical, electrical, magnetic, low
temperature and high temperature behaviour of materials is studied.
Nanotechnology is a sub branch of condensed matter physics which
established its uniqueness in terms of variety of structures, properties
and applications.
High energy physics deals with nuclear and elementary
particles. Their production, behaviour, detection of them from on earth
and those coming from outer space etc. leads to the study of origin of
universe. Cosmology deals with the study of radiation from distant
galaxies and stars in order to estimate their chronological development.
Quantum mechanics is the underlying thread that connects all
the modern branches of physics. It studies the microscopic behaviour of
systems by considering uncertainty principle into account. Thus
quantum mechanics has created its sub branches in all of the above
namely Quantum statistics, quantum electrodynamics, quantum optics
etc. condensed matter physics and elementary particle physics are
essentially direct applications of quantum mechanics.
Relativistic mechanics describes high velocity extreme of
physics as mentioned in the instructions to students. There one may see
relativistic electrodynamics, relativistic classical mechanics, relativistic
quantum mechanics, relativistic quantum electrodynamics etc.

Physics Career
After knowing various branches of physics, one may look into
various fields of career after B.Sc. Physics. They are broadly classified
into three namely, Academics, Research and Employment.

xxxvii
 Physics Career
షయకం:
B.Sc. త త, M.Sc ళవ . క సం . M.Sc. సం ం ,అ IITల M.Sc సం ఒక
రణ ప శ ప అ న IIT JAM ం ధ సంస తమ స ంత ప శ ప
ర . ఇం M.Tech . PhD. వ స GATE CSIR-NET యడం
వ .

23 IIT , 31 NIT , 47 ం య శ ల , 7 IISER , 3BITS , 1 IISc మ

20+ య ఖ తక న ఇతర సంస M.Sc అం . క సం . IIT ,
NIT , IISc మ IISER IIT JAM ఆ రం ప అం . తమ
స ంత ప శ ప ర . ం య శ ల CU-CET
ఉమ ప శప ర . ఆ రం ధఇ ల ప క .
BITS, BITSAT ప శ ప ర ం .

DST ( ం ఆ ౖ అం ల ) B.Sc వ ప ల INSPIRE

ల అం ం . ఉన త చ ల లం . ఆ ల ఎం ౖ న త త,
మం ం తమ న ం నంత లం ం .

M.Sc. త త, ప ధన షయకం ఉ ఎం క ఎం వ .
ధన లం NEP ( తన నం) ప రం 12వ తరగ వర ంచ .ఇ ;
12వ తరగ ంచ , UGC ప రం PhD మ NET/SET అవసరం. బ ం
ఎం లం త నప క .

స (M.Sc./M.tech.) ల ॓ ం షౖ ష ం ధం
ఉ . ఆ ॓, ॓ , ఓష గ , అ య ౖ॓ , ఎ ంట ౖ ,
అ కల ర ॓ (iari.res.in), బ ॓, య ౖ , ఆ ఎల ॓ , కం షన
॓ దౖ న .

ప ధన:

ప ధన సృతం ర వ క ంచబ ం , అ ౖ ం క క సం, ప తక

క సం మ గణన క సం. ఇక డ కం షన ॓ గ ం ం మధ
ర ప ం . ప ధన ఎం వ , ఒక M.Sc . అ PhD
ర ౖ న న సంసల ళవ . క ప ధన సం అ ష అం ం
ప కౖ నప ధ సంస తం ఉ . య ఖ తక న ప ధ సంస ,
DST ( ం ఆ ౖ అం ల ), DAE ( ం ఆ అ ॓ ఎన ), DRDO
( వల ం ఆరౖ ష ), CSIR ( ఆ ౖ ం ॓ అం ఇండ య ),
DoS ( ం ఆ

xxxviii
 Physics Career

Academics:
After B.Sc., one may go for M.Sc. in physics. To go for M.Sc.,
various institutes conduct their own entrance exam apart from IIT JAM,
a common entrance exam for all IITs M.Sc. program. Further one may
take up M.Tech. or PhD. By writing GATE or CSIR-NET respectively.
There are 23 IITs, 31 NITs, 47 Central universities, 7 IISERs,
3BITSs, 1 IISc and 20+ other academic institutes of national importance
that offer M.Sc. in Physics. IITs, NITs, IISc and IISERs offer admission
based on IIT JAM Score. Some of them also conduct their own entrance
exam apart from that. Central universities also conduct common
entrance test named CU-CET. Based on the score, they offer admission
in various institutes. BITS conducts BITSAT entrance exam.
DST (Department of Science and Technology) offers INSPIRE
scholarship to university toppers in B.Sc. to go for higher studies. Once
get selected for that scholarship, students get it as long as they continue
their academics without a break.
After M.Sc., one may choose research or academics or
employment as their options. To go for teaching, one needs B.Ed. to
teach up to 12th class according to NEP (New Educational Policy). To
teach beyond 12th class, one needs PhD and NET/SET according to UGC.
So one should plan accordingly to opt teaching field as career.
Some specializations apart from regular Physics at Masters level
(M.Sc./M.tech.) are as follows. Astrophysics, Geophysics, Oceanography,
Atmospheric sciences, Environmental sciences, Agricultural Physics (
iari.res.in ), Biophysics, Materials science, Optoelectronics,
Computational Physics etc.

Research:
Research is broadly classified into three types, namely
theoretical physics, Experimental physics and computational physics.
Here computational physics acts as a bridge between the other two. To
opt for research, one has to do M.Sc. Then one may go to above
mentioned academic institutes to join PhD. Otherwise there are a whole
host of exclusive research institutes that offer admission for research.
Some of the research institutes of national importance are, DST
(Department of Science and Technology), DAE (Department of Atomic
Energy), DRDO (Defence Research Development Organization), CSIR
(Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), DoS (Department of

xxxix
Physics Career
). ఎవౖ తమ సం గత సంసల ంద రణ ల
డవ . ఆ కస ర త ం 250 ౖ ఇ ఉ . GATE/JEST ( ం
ఎంట ం .) ఆ రం JRF ( య ) ప అం .ఆ
ఇ ల న ప ంద , అ బం త సంస ఏౖ ఒక
ఎ॓ టర ల న .ప ధన తల మద ఇవ
DAE శ ల లప క క ఉం . ఎవౖ ఆప ధ సంసల ం PhD
నట , ఇప ప జనం సం ణ ం న అ సంస ప ధ
సహచ రవ . రణం JRF+SRF+RA 5-8 సంవత ల స త త,
ప సంతృ కరం ఉం , క ల శ తఉ రవ .

సం ల త ంచ DST KVPY ల ప అం ం . ఆ
ప అర త , . అ . 5000/- B.Sc. సమయం , . స
సమయం 7000/- మ త ప PhD సమయం INSPIRE అ .

ఇ ం , ఇం య అ డ ఆ ౖ BSc మ MSc ల ల
రంభం ం ప ధ ప భ ం ం ంచ స ప ధన రక ల
ర ం .

ఇం య అ ష ఆ ॓ చ (IAPT) NSEP ( షన ండ ఎ ష ఇ
॓) ర ం , 10 ంకర ॓ వ ల
అం ంచబడ .

ఉ :

BSc త త ఉ . ॓ ల ప కం ఉ అం ం సంస తప
రణం ంచబడ . స వ ంట ( )-ఇ B.Sc MPC ల సం
ప కం క అ ం ప సంవత రం 30 ఉ ల అం ం . BHEL ( ర
ఎల క ), HAL ( ం ఏ ॓ ), ఆ క వం మ
సంస ॓ స త తఉ ల ఆఫ .అ యం ప శ మ
MPC ల క అ ం ఉ ల అం . BARC ( అ ॓
ంట ) ంౖ BSc మ MSc ॓ ల సం ఫ రక
అం ం .

బ స ంత భ ష సమ అర వంతం ం వ ం
ం .

భం

- రచ త

xl
 Physics Career
Space). One may see simple Wikipedia pages to get the list of their
constituent institutes. There are, in total, more than 250 institutes in
those clusters. They offer admission as a JRF (Junior Research Fellow)
based on the score in GATE/JEST (Joint Entrance Screening Test.) They
also give admission based on JEST (Joint Entrance Screening Test)
score. To get a PhD degree for the work done in those institutes, one
need to register as an external research scholar in any of the associated
academic institutes. DAE has an exclusive set of three universities to
support academics apart from research. If anybody completes PhD from
those research institutes, they may join as research associates in the
same institutes as they are already trained for the purpose. Usually after
5-8 years of service as JRF+SRF+RA, if their performance is satisfactory,
they may get absorbed as permanent employees through some standard
procedures.
DST offers KVPY scholarship exam to promote students for
PhD. If qualified in that test, students are eligible for a fellowship of Rs.
5000/- during B.Sc., Rs. 7000/- during masters and further they are
eligible for INSPIRE fellowship during PhD.
Apart from this, Indian Academy of Sciences conduct summer
research programs for BSc and MSc students to inculcate research
aptitude from the beginning of Bachelor’s degree.
Indian Association of Physics Teachers (IAPT) conducts NSEP
(National Standard Examination in Physics) of which top 10 rankers will
be offered scholarships to take up Physics as career.
Employment:
Employment after BSc. is usually not suggested except for a few firms
that offer exclusive employability exclusively for Physics graduates.
Satish Dhavan Space Center (SHAR) - ISRO offers 30 jobs as technical
assistants exclusively for B.Sc. MPC students every year. There are some
other firms like BHEL (Bharath Heavy Electrical Limited), HAL
(Hindustan Aeronautics Limited), Ordinance factories athat offer jobs
after a Master’s degree in Physics. Aluminium industries offer technical
assistant jobs for MPC students. BARC (Babah Atomic Research Center)
Mumbai offers radiographer training program for BSc and MSc level
physics students.
So plan well beforehand to make a meaningful utilization of time for
your own future life.
All the best
- Authors

xli
Physics Career

xlii
LEARNING RESOURCES
అభ సన ధన
 అభ సన ధన
SECTION

IV
For basic understanding of concepts and for enhanced visualization of
the concepts, several online resources are available and a few more
effective resources are presented here.
Reading Resources:
Sl No Resource Link QR Code
1. Hyper Physics: HyperPhysics is an
exploration environment for concepts in
physics which employs concept maps and
other linking strategies to facilitate smooth
navigation. http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
2. Physics Hyper Textbook: The Physics
Hypertextbook is the intellectual property of
Glenn Elert https://physics.info/
3. Lumen learning: Lumen Learning provides
a simple, supported path for faculty members
to adopt and teach effectively with open
educational resources (OER)
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/
4. Libre texts: Classical Mechanics (Tatum).
University of Victoria, 31 Dec. 2020,
https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/6924.
5. Libre Texts: Classical Mechanics.
https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/13940.

6. Internet Archive: The Internet Archive, a

501(c)(3) non-profit, is building a digital
library of Internet sites and other cultural
artifacts in digital form. https://archive.org/
7. National Digital Library: National Digital
Library of India (NDLI) is a virtual repository of
learning resources which is not just a repository
with search/browse facilities but provides a host
of services for the learner community.
https://ndl.iitkgp.ac.in/
LEARNING

SECTION
RESOURCES IV
Video Lectures:
SN
Title and Link QR Code
1. 8.01x - MIT Physics I: Classical Mechanics
Lectures by Walter Lewin.
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLyQ
SN7X0ro203puVhQsmCj9qhlFQ-As8e
2. 8.03 - MIT Physics III: Vibrations and Waves
Lectures by Walter Lewin.
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLyQ
SN7X0ro22WeXM2QCKJm2NP_xHpGV89
3. MIT 8.03SC Physics III: Vibrations and Waves,
Fall 2016 by Yen Jie Lee
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLUl4
u3cNGP61R5sPDPKVfcFlu95wSs2Kx
4. Fundamentals of Physics with Ramamurti
Shankar
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLFE
3074A4CB751B2B
5. Introduction to Classical Mechanics Prof.
Anurag Tripathi IIT Hyderabad
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLyqS
pQzTE6M_d9f-9fKxUQYR1qI5YEnSz
6. Classical Mechanics – 1 by H. C. Verma
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLWw
eJWdB_GuLYUIxyXQswOt6JEPhphrrR

7. Waves and Oscillations by M.S. Santhanam

IISER Pune
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLyqS
pQzTE6M9X7oRXliYM8t0aaR_N0Csd
8. OscillationsWaves byProf. S.Bharadwaj,IITKgp
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL30
D1917C52D9F9B9
Reference Books
Simulation resources:
Sl Title and Link QR Code
No
1. Amrita V Lab
https://vlab.amrita.edu/

2. JAVA Lab
https://javalab.org/en/category/mechanics_en/

3. Molecular Workbentch
http://mw.concord.org/modeler/showcase/

4. My Physics Lab
https://www.myphysicslab.com/

5. Physics Classroom
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics-
Interactives
6. Physics Classroom
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics-
Interactives/Waves-and-Sound
7. O-Physics
https://ophysics.com/

8. Edumedia
https://www.edumedia-sciences.com/en/node/68-
vibrations-and-waves
9. Daniel A. Russel
https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos.html

10. University of Maryland

https://lecdem.physics.umd.edu/component/tags/
tag/oscillations-waves.html

xlvi
 Reference Books
Full Course links with supporting material.

1. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01sc-classical-
mechanics-fall-2016/syllabus/

2. https://ocw.aprende.org/courses/physics/8-01sc-physics-
i-classical-mechanics-fall-2010/

3. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc21_ph32/preview

4. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/115/105/115105098/

5. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-03sc-physics-iii-
vibrations-and-waves-fall-2016

6. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/115/106/115106119/

7. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/122/105/122105023/

8. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc19_ph18/preview

xlvii
 Reference Books

Reference Books
1. Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman - Sears and Zemansky's
University Physics with Modern Physics-Pearson Education
(2015)
2. A. N Matveev - Mechanics and theory of relativity, Mir Publishers
(1989)
3. Kleppner D., Kolenkow R. - An Introduction to Mechanics,CUP
(2013)
4. Pancella P.V., Humphrey M. - Idiot's Guides – Physics
5. [Undergraduate lecture notes in physics] Hafez A . Radi, John O
Rasmussen (auth.) - Principles of Physics_ For Scientists and
Engineers, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (2013)
6. John R. Taylor - Classical Mechanics-University Science Books
(2004)
7. Mario Campanelli - Classical Mechanics-IOP Publishing Ltd
(2020)
8. Stephen Hawking - The Illustrated On the Shoulders of Giants_
The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy, Running Press _
Perseus Book (2004).
9. [The Open Yale Courses Series] R. Shankar - Fundamentals of
Physics_ Mechanics, Relativity, and Thermodynamics, Yale
University Press (2014).
10. L D Landau, E.M. Lifshitz - Mechanics, Third Edition_ Volume 1
(Course of Theoretical Physics)-Butterworth-Heinemann (1976).
11. L D Landau (Eds.) - The Classical Theory of Fields. The Classical
Theory of Fields, Pergamon (1975).
12. [Pure and Applied Mathematics] Clifford Ambrose Truesdell - A
First Course in Rational Continuum Mechanics_ General
Concepts Vol 1, Academic Press Inc (1991).
13. [A.P.-French]-Vibrations-and-Waves-The-M.I.T.-Int. (1971)
14. The Physics of Waves and Oscillations. N. K. Bajaj. Tata McGraw-
Hill Education, (1988)
15. (CRC series in pure and applied physics) J. David N. Cheeke -
Fundamentals and applications of ultrasonic waves-CRC Press
(2002)
16. Beiser, Arthur. Concepts of Modern Physics. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1973.

xlviii
 PART-1
MECHANICS
ం క
CHAPTER

ం క ప చయం
0
ర రణ సంబంధం

సహజ తత సం రణ దం ప దృ షయం ర రణ సంబంధం సం అ షణ

( ధన) క థ క తం అ వృ ం ం . మహ కశ ప/క ద తన “ క
త”అ , 10 స ల కరణ 600BC రణం మ ప వ సంబంధం ం
వ ం .ఈ స కం ట క చలన య ల రదర క చలనం
క థ ల వ కప ం .

E - Corner
https://indianculture.gov.in/rarebooks/vaisesika-sutras-
kanada-commentary-sankara-misra-and-extracts-gloss-
jayanarayana
https://archive.org/details/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER
TO MECHANICS 0
Introduction
Cause and Effect relation
The natural philosophy has evolved with the basic principle of
causality or the quest (search) for cause and effect relation in every
phenomenon. Maharshi Kanada in his “Viseshika Sutra”, a collection
of 10 books has described about the cause and effect relation around
600BC itself. The book also manifests some of the fundamentals of
motion which stands as guiding principles for Newton’s laws of
motion.
Book-1 and Book-5 in them are more connected to mechanics
and dynamics of systems. Book-2 especially deals with space and
time. There both space and time were considered as substances.
Instead if they are read as entities the description will be more
meaningful. The interesting part is that, some of the descriptions
made at around 2500 years back are on par with the modern science
resolutions made out of detailed experimental and theoretical
confirmations. Thus one needs a serious look back into these
scriptures in a more systematic and scientific manner to make more
meaningful resolutions on whether to accept or reject them.
Introduction
॓-1 మ ॓-5 స క ॓ మ ౖ న ॓ మ ంత
అ సం ంచబ ఉ . స కం-2 ఖం సలం మ సమయం వ వహ ం .
అక డ సలం మ సమయం ం ప ప గ ంచబ . బ
ఎం చ వరణ మ ంత అర వంతం ఉం ం . ఆస కరౖ న షయం ఏ టం ,
2500 సంవత ల తం న వరణ వర త క ప తకమ ౖ ం క
రణల ం ంచబ న ఆ కౖ ల స నం ఉ . అం వల, ఈ
గం ల అం క ం రస ం అ ౖ మ ంత అరవంతౖ న
య మ ంత కమబదౖ నమ య పద ప ం న అవసరం ఉం .

అ స పత త ల క - -అ అ మ తయం
ఆ క సం ౖ మ ంత కమబదౖ న పయ , ఇ ॓ అ
.అ ఈ ం పశ ల ల 4 వ క ం .

ట ఈ గ ల అ డల అ స ం మ వ ల కద క
వ ంచ మ ంత కమబదౖ న ల అ వృ .ప ల సృ ంచడం పకృ
ఎ సం ష ం ఉండద ఆయన అ . రణ ర త గమ ం న ప ల
ధత వ . ఒక దృ ష వ ంచ జౖ న మ స ర ల
క నడం అవసరం.

ఆ ధం పం తం ట క ॓ మ ంత కమబదౖ న మ
లవగల ల రణం మ ప వ సంబం ల అధ యనం ం .

E - Corner

https://www.umass.edu/wsp/method/history/outlin
e/simplicity.html
https://archive.org/details/newtonspmathema00ne
wtrich

4
 Introduction
In the just later generations Socrates - Plato – Aristotle trio of a
teacher and a disciple has made a more systematic efforts towards the
modern science which is now called as Metaphysics. Aristotle has
classified cases into 4 levels with the following questions
Sl Cause Question Details Example
No
1 Material What is it Material Wood.
cause made of? details
2 Formal How does it Design With 4 legs and
cause look like? details a plank.
3 Efficient Who made it? Maker Carpenter.
cause details
4 Final What is its Application Dining.
cause purpose? details

Newton also followed the footsteps of these giants and

developed more systematic principles to explain the motion of bodies.
He said that nature would never be complicated in generating effects.
Simple causes are only responsible for the observed effects. One need to
find out those which are true and sufficient to explain a phenomenon.
Thus entire Newton’s mechanics boils down to the study of
cause and effect relations in a more systematic and measurable ways.

Did You Know?

Newton gave the above quote, while describing his

optics research.

5
Introduction
థ క క సం ర మ ప ఉం . ఆ రం స తంత మ
ం ం య ఉ . గ త పరం , అ ర ఫం ౖ వ
మ అ ప ఫం ం వ . ప వం ఎల రణంౖ ఆ రప
ఉం ం . (ఉ : ంటం అ వ తబ అ తం ఉం ంద
ట ండవ యమం ం . అన , dP/dt∝F⇒dP/dt=1/k F F∝dP/dt .) ఈ
అంశం ద అ యం వరం చ ంచబ ం . .

అ ॓ ల న , ఎల ' రణం' x- అ ం ంట బ ం
మ 'ప వం' y- అ ం ంట బ ం . ఖ తం లం ఇం ం ం
య x- ంట బ ం మ ం ం య y- ంట
బ ం . ఉ హరణ నభంశం Vs సమయ వక ఖ ఏక గం సం
ప గ ంచం . ఇక డ “ నభ ంశం అం ఏ ?” అ అ ఒక ంట , “ఏ సమయం ?”
అ అ . అం వలన నభ ంశం స రం సమయం ద ఆ రప ఉం ం .మ
ట లం , నభ ంశం అ సమయం క ప యం. ఆ ధం సమయం x-అ ం
ంట బ ం మ నభ ంశం y-అ ం ంట బ ం . ఓం యమం
షయం ఇ . అక డ క ం ం ం య మ అ ఇం ం ం
య . య ఫ ఉన ట ,క ం పవ ం .క ం ౖ ఆ రప
ఉం ం . ౖ . ఆ ధం (I∝V) మ I=1/R V. మ క ధం V∝I
క సం అర వంతౖ న వ కరణ .

పకత మ సంబంధం ఇ ం . అన ; ∝ . మ
=1/( ల ) . ఇక డ అ ౖ లం వ ం బలం మ
అ ఉత యబ న కృ క త ం. అం వలన అ స తంత
య మ ం ం య . రణం మ ప వం.
ఆ ధం x-అ ంౖ మ y-అ ంౖ క ఉం . మన వ
తరగ ల మనం వక ఖ మ క ధం ఉం . అన ; x-అ ం ంట
బ ం మ y-అ ం ంట బ ం . ఎం కం ఆ సందర ం క
క / వ వస క పకత క ల ఇ ం .
ఇంజ ర ఇ మ ంత ఉప గకరౖ న పదం, ఇ క పత గణన ందవ .
ఈ ధం క క స ఠ స మ ఇం ం ఠ స వ
న ధం - .

కృ సడ ం వం ప ల , త సమయం రౖ న కృ ర ంచ
అవసరౖ న ఎ త ం అధ యనం యబ ం . ఆ సందర ం , అ
ం ం య మ ఇం ం ం య .

6
 Independent and Dependent variables

Independent and Dependent variables

In basic physics there will be causes and effects. Based on that
independent and dependent variables exist. In mathematical terms, all
causes fall in domain and all effects fall in range of a function. Always
effect depends on the cause. (eg: Newton’s second law says rate of change
of momentum is proportional to applied force. Means, ∝ ⇒ =
but not ∝ .) This topic is discussed in the first chapter in detail.

Also in physics while plotting graphs, always ‘cause’ is taken

along x-axis and ‘effect’ is taken along y-axis. To be precise independent
variable is taken along x-axis and dependent variable is taken along y-
axis. For example consider displacement Vs. Time curve for uniform
velocity case. Here if it is asked “What is the displacement?” one would
immediately ask, “at what time?” Thus displacement information
depends on time. In other words, displacement is a function of time.
Thus time is taken along x-axis and displacement is taken along y-axis.
Similar is the case with Ohm’s law. There current is the dependent
variable and voltage is the independent variable. If there exists potential
difference, current flows. Current depends on voltage. But not vice versa.
Thus ( ∝ ) and = . But the other way ∝ is not a meaningful
expression in Physics.

Fig: Plot of displacement Vs. time for uniform velocity and

V-I for Ohm’s law.
Similar is the case with stress and strain in elasticity. Ie;
∝ . And = . Here stress is the
applied force per unit area and strain is the relative amount of
deformation produced. Thus stress is the independent variable and
strain is the dependent variable. Or Stress is the cause and Strain is the
effect. Thus the plot should have stress on x-axis and strain on y-axis.

7
శ క వన
శ క వన
క ఉ శ ం ప రం, ఒక ధౖ న శ శ మ పపం ఏర రచ
అ ల బం ం . ఘటన సమయం , ఈ శ దల యబ ం . పకృ అ
రక ల ఇ ధ తవ ం .అ ప రం మన క శ తం
క ంశం. శ ఆ క ర చనం ౖ త ఇవ బ ం , - అ .
అర ం వ శ అ . ఎన అ మ యం 1802 ఉప ం .

E - Corner

https://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/energy-
fundamentals/01.htm

తత య
ధ దృ ష ల శ క స వం ఆ రం తత య ఉ .అ ఈ
ం ధం ఉ .

సమ స యత: ఇ ప లన ఉన వ వస క శ అ ల ఒ ధం
ఉం ల ం . అన ; ∂E/∂t=0⇒E సమయం రం ఉం ం .

F అ ష ం -1 ం ం -2 ఒక వ తర ంచడం నప
ప గ ంచం . ఇక డ నప ఇ యవ .

1
= . = . = = = −
2

8
 Concept of Energy
But in our lower classes we might have come across the stress strain
curve in the other way. Ie; strain is taken along x-axis and stress is taken
along y-axis. This is because in that case the slope of the curve
/ directly gives the of elasticity of the system.
This is more useful term for Engineers which can be obtained by direct
calculation of slope. Thus standard Physics textbooks and Engineering
text books plot the stress-strain curve as shown below.

Fig: Stress-Strain curve Physicist’s version and Engineer’s version.

In some experiments like stress relaxation, how stress required reduces

to maintain a constant strain over a fixed time is studied. In that case,
stress is dependent variable and strain is independent variable.

Fig: Stress Relaxation experiment.

Concept of Energy
According to Kanada, some sort of energy binds atoms to form
body and the world. At the time of dissolution, this energy will be set
free. It is also responsible for all activity in the nature. According to

9
Concept of Energy
బలం త త బలం అ , య క గ యం యవ .

= . = − = − = − | = −( − )

= −
ఆ ధం

− = − ⇒ + = + ⇒ + = .
వ వస క తం శ ధ సమ ఒ ధం ఉం ంద ఈ స కరణం ం .
అ శ అ , T_2-T_1=0 అం ; హ బలం అ గ శ తం
త త ంఅ ం .

ఉ : డౖ ఉంచం . ఆ ఎ ఉం నంత లం క గ శ అ ఉం ం .
ఆ ధం సమయ శ రం ఉన ట ,శ ఆ అ ంద పవ . ం
మ త త ర యన ప చర ల ఇ వ ం ; పక సం తం ం
మ త త తం శ రం ఉం ం .

2. సల స యత: ఒక సలం ధప ల శ ఒ ఉం ల ఇ ం . వ వస
క బ శ య ఎన అం బ ,ఇ యవ

=0⇒ − =0⇒ =0⇒ =

శ క గ యం యవ అ షర ఇక డ ఉప ం .
అం వలన సల స యత ంటం క త ం .మ ట లం ,
ధప ల బలం రక , స క ంటం ఆ అ ల రం ఉం ం .

ఉ : ఏక యబ న ఉంచం . అ భ ం య
ప అ ఉం ం . బ ప ం ట అ ఎ ం బ
అ భ ంచ .

3. సల సమ న : సలం శ ఐ ॓అ ఇ ం . అన ; ఒక ం ం
ష రం వద శ అ శల రం ఉం . శ , ణం ద ఆ ర పడ ం ఉం

1
=0⇒ =0⇒ =0
2

⇒ ( )=0⇒ =0⇒ = .

బ శ , ణం ద ఆ రపడ ం ఉం , ం ల ంటం త త ం అ ం .

10
 Conservation Laws
Aristotle also energy of mind is the essence of life. Modern definition of
energy was given by Leibnitz but with the name vis-visa which means
living force. The name energy was coined by Thomas young in 1802.

Conservation Laws
There are three conservation laws based on the nature of energy
in various phenomenon. They are as follows.
1. Homogeneity in time: This implies that the energy of the system
under consideration must remain same for all times. Ie; =0⇒
is constant in time.

Consider the work done in moving an object from point-1 to point-2 by

the application of force F. Here the work done is given by

1
= . = . = = = −
2
If the force is conservative, one can write it as negative gradient of
potential

= . = − = − = − | = −( − )

= −
Thus − = − ⇒ + = + ⇒ + = .
This equation tells us that the total energy of the system remains same
at various times. Also if force is zero, then − = 0 ie; Kinetic energy
alone conserves if external force is zero.
Eg: Keep a stone on a wall. The potential energy of the stone remains
same as long as it is kept at that height. Thus if homogeneity
(uniformity) of energy in time exists, one can say energy conserves. The
same applies even for chemical reactions before and after; Elastic
collisions before and after, i.e.; the total energy remains constant.
2. Homogeneity in space: This implies energy must remain same at
various locations in space. Since the energy by virtue of its state of a
system is called potential energy, One can write

=0⇒ − =0⇒ =0⇒ =

11
 షవ యమ ల
ఉ : ం ప గ ంచం . ం ఏౖ
అ భ ం శ శౖ ఆ ర పడ . ( ర ష వ సం వ త). అ
క ఆ ట ం ల ంటం రం ఉం ం . (ఒక ళ అ ం
వృ రక ఉం .)

ఇక డ య ంటం అ ప ణం. శ మ సమయం క లబ అ న

" "Sఅ ం ల ంటం వ అ ౖ నన ప ణం
ఉం . (చర ) క ఖ త "క సం చర క తం " వ ంచబ ం .
ప క దృ షయం చర క షం ఉంచడం జ ంద ం .

E - Corner

https://archive.org/details/Mechanics3eLandauLifshitz
https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/II_19.html

షవ య
ం క వ వస ల యం ం షవ య మ సమ పత మ సమయ పర
సమ పత.

మ సమ పత

క క మంౖ . మ ఆప ష అ క
ఆ ల ర ఇ ఆప ష . x-అ ం ంట ఒక వ క నభంశం క
ప గ ంచం . ౖ మ ఆప ష వ ంచం . అన ; x-అ ం ంట ప ంబం త త y-
అ ం ంట ప ంబం త త z-అ ం ంట ప ంబం. ఫ త క ఆ అ ల
ర ఇ ఆప ష లౖ ం .

12
 Symmetry laws
Here we have used the condition that Force can be written as negative
gradient of potential. Thus homogeneity in space leads to conservation
of momentum. In other words, if the energy at various locations is space
doesn’t change, then the momentum of the system remains constant at
all those locations.
Eg: Keep a charge on a uniformly charged sheet. The potential
experienced by the charge remains same everywhere on the sheet. So it
won’t experience any force while traversing on the sheet.
3. Isotropy in space: This implies that the energy is isotropic in
space. Ie; if the energy remain constant in all directions at a
particular distance from a point. Or energy must be independent of
angle. Then
1
=0⇒ =0⇒ =0
2

⇒ ( )=0⇒ =0⇒ = .

Thus if energy is independent of angle, angular momentum conserves.

Eg: Consider a point positive charge. The force experienced by any test
positive charge, around the point charge is independent of direction
(spherically symmetric potential). Then the orbital angular momentum
of the test charge remains constant. (if at all if it executes circular motion
around the point charge.)
4. Here Angular momentum is a vector quantity. There exists a scalar
quantity with same dimensional formula as angular momentum
namely “Action” which is a product of Energy and time. The
significance of action was well described in Principle of least action.
That says every physical phenomenon take place keeping action to
be minimum.

Symmetry laws
The symmetry laws that govern the mechanical systems are the
inversion symmetry and the time reversal symmetry.

13
 Symmetry laws
మ ఆప ష ౖ క ర . క ం క క డ॓
ఫ తం ఉం .ఉ : య ంటం. వ త ప ం ం నత త క శ
ర ంచబ ంద ం ం .

ౖ వర సమ పత

సమ స స నం ఉం క సమయ మంౖ ర మ సమయం

క ఆర ఫం ౖ న క సమయం మంౖ .

Eg: We have ( ) = ⇒ ( ) = (− ) = =− =
( )
− ( )

and ( ) = ⇒ ( ) = (− ) = ( )
= ( ) ( )
=

+ =+ ( )
ఈ వర ఒక దృశ ం క యడం మ క
యడం ప త కం ధృ క ంచవ . అ వం వ , ం క
వ క క న ( గం వ ) మ అస వ ం
నట ,అ కబ న శ ( గం త ంచడం) త న క ం . త రణం
ఇప ం శ మ ంచబ ంద ఇ ం .

ఈ రణం మ ప వ సంబం ,ప ర ణచ ల సమ పచ య
॓ క మ ల పవర న యం . ర ట ంచ
ష మ ఎ క ప దశ ధృ క ం . అన ; రణం
మ ప వం స ష ం ంచబ ం అ తప స ధృ క ం . ఒక ప య
ం మ త త ఒక ం అ
తప స ధృ క ం . ఇ న స అ తత య ల ఏ వ
ధృ క ం మ ప ప య అమ య ం మ త త తత
య లవ ం ధృ క ం .

14
 Symmetry laws
Inversion symmetry
Polar vectors change sign upon spatial inversion. Inversion
operation is the mirror image operation along all the three spatial
coordinates. Consider displacement vector of an object along x-
axis. Apply inversion operation on it. Ie; refection along x-axis
followed by reflection along y-axis followed by reflection along z-
axis. The resultant vector changes sign upon the three mirror
image operations along the three coordinate axes.

Fig: Inversion operation on Polar Vector

Pseudo vectors do not change sign upon inversion operation. Pseudo

vectors are resultant of cross product of two polar vectors. Eg: Angular
momentum. Remember that the vector direction is decided after mirror
imaging the object alone.

Fig: Inversion operation on a pseudo vector

Time reversal symmetry

The vectors which are even order in time do not change sign
upon time inversion and the vectors which are odd order functions of
time do change sign upon inversion of time.

Eg: We have ( ) = ⇒ ( ) = (− ) =
( )
=− =
− ( )

and ( ) = ⇒ ( ) = (− ) = ( )
= ( ) ( )
=

+ =+ ( )

This time reversal can be verified experimentally by recording a

video of a scene and by playing it backwards. In such reverse play,
forward moving objects look as if they are moving backwards (velocity

15
 Symmetry laws
In IIT JAM There will be one question on these symmetry elements.
Sl No Physical Quantity Parity T-Symmetry
1 Displacement − +
2 Velocity − −
3 Acceleration − +
4 Angular momentum + −
5 Torque + +
6 Energy + +
7 Curl, Gradient + +
8 D, E, P, V, Magnetic current − +
9 B, H, M, A, Electric current − −
10 Poynting vector + −
11 , , , , , + +
12 Electric conductivity + +
13 Magnetic Conductivity − −
క క థ క అం

క అ ప ణం మ శ ం ం క ఉం క .

ఒక A,A ⃗,A ̂, మ ప ణం |A|,|A ⃗ |,|A ̂ |,A ంచబడవ .

క క ప ణం ఎ త కం ఉండ .

న ప ణం క ఉం ం . ఇ ఒక ం
ంచబ ం .

న క ఏౖ క స ంతరం (A ⃗×0 ⃗=0 ⃗) లంబం (A ⃗.0 ⃗=0)

ప గ ంచబ ం . ం ఏక లం జరగ బ , అ ఏ జరగ .

శ +ve -ve ఉండవ . అన ; +/-ౖ శ త వ ం .

క శమ ప ణం ఒ ధం ఉన ంత వర , ౖ , ం , ఎడమ
రవ .ఇ క క స వం క ప తం య .

ఆ , రణం ౖ , ౖ స శ ఉం . వమ ఎడమ
ౖ గ స శ ఉం . ప రం క ౖ ం . ఆ స
నం ర ంచబ , ఆ స రచ ల అ ణం ఒక ౖ క న
ఉండవ .

లం యమం షయం , శ క ప ణం మధ రం క
భ ంచబ న ల ల లబ ం ఇవ బ ం .

16
 Basics of vectors
reverses) and if the original object is accelerating in forward direction, it
looks as if it is decelerating (velocity reducing) in backward direction.
This implies acceleration is still directed in forward direction.
These cause and effect relations, symmetry laws along with
conservation laws govern the behaviour of vectors and scalars in
Newtonian mechanics. One must verify these at every stage of
derivations and analysis in order to avoid mistakes. Ie; one must verify
whether cause and effect are clearly identified or not. One must verify
whether a pseudo vector remains as a pseudo vector or not, before and
after a process. One must also verify what all conservation laws are
applicable to a given system and verify their applicability before and
after the execution of every process.

Basics of vectors
A vector is a Physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

1. A vector may be represented as , ⃗, , and its magnitude as

| |, ⃗ , , .
2. Magnitude of vector will never be negative.
3. A null vector has a magnitude zero. It is represented as a point
in geometry.
4. A null vector may be considered parallel ( ⃗ × 0⃗ = 0⃗ ) or
perpendicular ( ⃗. 0⃗ = 0 ) to any vector. Since both cannot
happen simultaneously, it is assumed neither.
5. Direction could be positive or negative. Ie; sign comes only by
direction.
6. As long as direction and magnitude of the vector remains the
same, one can shift it up, down, left or right. This doesn’t affect
the nature or physics of the vector.
7. In coordinate space, usually up, right are positive directions.
Down and left are negative directions. Accordingly vectors also
take sign. If the coordinate system is defined differently, one
may have sign convention in accordance with the coordinate
system definitions.
8. In the case of Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of force is given by
product of magnitudes of charges divided by the square of
distance between them.

17
Basics of vectors
| || |
| |=

శ ం ల క ఖ ంట ఉం ం మ శ
ర ంచబ ం .ౖ ॓ ల సం, e ̂_12 క శ ఉం ం మ

ౖ క ఉం , e ̂_12 క వ క శ ఉం ం .

ఎల ॓ శమ సం తం మ ంత గమ న . ం ఉన
తం ర ష వం ఉన ం న, సం తం త ఖల శ ర ంచబ ం .

| |
| |= ⃗=| | ̂

ఇక డ r ̂ అ ర సమ పత న క . అన ; ఒక ళ య
బయ మ , ఉన అ శల తం +ve ఉం ం ,. య
ప ( ౖ ) మ ంచబ తం -ve ఉం ం .

యబ న ణం: ఇ న ఉప తలం సమత సంబం ం ఇ న

యబ న ఉప తలంౖ ఉప తలంౖ రణ ం ం యడం
ందవ . WRT ం ం ఉప తలం నఅ న అ ంశ ణం అం .
ఉ : ణం. WRT లంబ ఉప తలం యబ న అ న సహ-అ ంశ
ణం అం .ఉ :ప ంబం మ వ భవన .ఈ వ 0°-90° మధ ఉం ం

ం క ల మధ ణం: ం క క న ం ఉన త
ం క ల మధ ణం ర ంచబ ం .అ క , ఒక కన ం ౖ వ ం జత
ఏర వర క ల ర వల ఉం ం .ఈ వ 0°-180° మధ ఉం ం . ం క ల
మధ ణం 180° అ న , ం ర ంచవ .అ ఇతర సంద ల ,
ం క మధ ర ంచ ఒ ఒక అవ శం ఉం ం .

ఉ హరణ : ంప ఎ ॓ మ థ ట ం ,ఇ ం ర
క ల ఉత య స ంచబ .

స - ర ప గం , పతన రణం మ ప వర న ర ల మధ ణం
ర ంచబ ం . ఇక డ సవ ఆ వ ణం పతన ర ల ం క లం మధ
ర ంచబ ం . మ గ త సరళత సం, పతన రణం ల ం క లం స ంతరం
ఉం ం .

Activit

Check the vector directions in symmetric top topic.

18
 Basics of vectors
| || |
| |=
The force is along the line joining the two charges and direction
is decided by their sign. For like charges, force is along the ̂
vector and for unlike charges, force is opposite to ̂ vector.
ℎ : ⃗ =| | ̂ ⃗ =| | ̂
ℎ : ⃗ = −| | ̂ ⃗ = −| | ̂
Here ̂ is the direction of unit vector from to . is the
force on due to .

Fig: Coulomb force

9. Electric field vector direction and sign are even trickier. Since
the electric field around a point charge is spherically symmetric,
the sign of it is decided by the direction of field lines.
| |
| |= ⃗=| | ̂
Here ̂ is the unit vector with spherical symmetry. Ie; electric
field is positive for all directions around the charge, if the field
is directed radially outwards. Electric field is negative if the field
is directed radially inwards (towards the charge).

Fig: Electric field lines of force.

19
Basics of vectors
10. Angle made by a vector: The angle made by a given vector with
respect to a given surface or plane can be obtained by drawing a
tangent to the surface or normal to the surface. The smallest
angle made by the vector WRT tangent to the surface is called
latitude angle. Eg: Bragg angle. The smallest angle made by the
vector WRT the normal to the surface is called co-latitude angle.
Eg: reflection and refraction angles. This value lies between 0° −
90°

Fig: Angles defined in reflection, refraction and Bragg

diffraction.
11. Angle between two vectors: Angle between two vectors is
defined only when both of the vectors are either converging or
both diverging. If that is not the case, one has to shift the
vectors till a converging or diverging pair occurs. This value lies
between 0° − 180°. When angle between two vectors is 180°,
one can define it in two ways. In all other cases, there will be
only one possibility to define angle between two vectors.

Fig: Angle between 2 vectors a) Given pair b) Top vector

shifted left (diverging pair) c) top vector shifted down
(converging pair)

Some examples: In Compton effect and Rutherford scattering,

the incident ray is extended to produce diverging pair of vectors.

20
 Basics of vectors

Fig: Compton scattering and Rutherford scattering.

In Davisson – Germer experiment, the angle is defined between

an incident ray and an emergent ray. Here the actual emergent
angle is defined with respect to the normal to the target. For
further mathematical simplicity, the incident ray is made
coincide with the normal to the target.

Fig: Davisson-Germer experiment.

https://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.30.705

12. Dot product of two vectors: The dot product of two vectors give
the component of one vector along the other vector. Dot
product of two vectors is a scalar.
⃗. ⃗ = | || | cos
13. The projection of vector ⃗ along vector ⃗ is given by
multiplying the component of ⃗ along ⃗ with the unit vector
along ⃗.
⃗ ⃗. ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ = | | cos =
| | | || |
Similarly for projection of vector along ⃗, one can write
⃗

21
Basics of vectors
12. ం క క డ॓ : ం క క డ॓ ద క క అంశం
ండవ క శ ంత ఉం ఇ ం . ం క క డ॓ ఒక
అ ం .
⃗. ⃗ = | || | cos
క B ⃗ ంట A⃗ క అ A⃗ క అం B⃗ శ
B⃗ ంచడం ల ం .
⃗ ⃗. ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ = | | cos =
| | | || |
అ ధం A⃗ ంట B⃗ సం, ఇ యవ
⃗ ⃗. ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ = | | cos =
| | | || |
ఆప ష ఫ తం మ ఒక క .
14. ం క క డ॓ : ం క క డ॓ ఒక క . ఎం కం
ఈ సందర ం , ఫ తం క శఏ రక ంచ . బ అ రక
ఫ త క లంబం సమతలం ఉం . అం వల ఫ తం క శ ం య ల
ఇవ వ . టన యమం మ ఎడమ టన యమం.
ఉత ల సం తర యమం అ స ంచబ ం .
ఇక డ ళ క ద క ండవ క ॓ ణం శ ం మ
టన శ డ॓ ఫ త క క శ ఇ ం .
r ⃗×p ⃗ క ఫ ంచ , ం కన ం ౖ వ ం జత క
దం మ ద క ం ండవ క వర ళ క ణం క శ
ఇ ం .అ టన శఫ త క శ ం . (ఇక డ య క ఎల
ంద ం ం వ ౖ ఉం ం .)
మ క మధ డ॓ క ఫ తం ంద ఇవ బ ం
ఉ : L ⃗=r ⃗×p ⃗ ఇక డ L అ క . r,p . υ=r×ω , υ,r క
మ ωఅ క . B ⃗=∇ ⃗×A ⃗ మ A ⃗=1/2(∇ ⃗×B ⃗), ∇ ⃗,A ⃗
క మ B ⃗ ఒక క .
య ఇన ర ంద క రవ ం ం ,అ , క
.ప గణన సమయం , డ॓ క ల ఉత ం
క ల ఉత ం , అ గణన అంత క క ఉం
ధృ క ం .

22
 Basics of vectors
⃗ ⃗. ⃗ ⃗
⃗
⃗ = | | cos =
| | | || |
The result of projection operation is a vector again.

14. Cross product of two vectors: Cross product of two vectors is a

pseudo vector. Because in this case, the direction of resultant
doesn’t represent any activity. Instead all activity will be in the
plane perpendicular to the resultant vector. Hence direction of
resultant can be given by two conventions. Right hand thumb
rule and left hand thumb rule. Most often right hand
convention is followed for cross products.

Fig: Right hand thumb rule and Left hand thumb rule.

Here curl of fingers represent the direction of angle

connecting first vector to second vector and direction of thumb
gives the direction of the cross product resultant vector.

Fig: Angular momentum cross product.

To identify the resultant of ⃗ × ⃗ one need to prepare

either converging pair or diverging pair of vectors out of it and
the curl of fingers from first vector to second vector gives the
direction of angle. Then thumb direction represents the

23
Basics of vectors
direction of resultant vector. (Here radial vector is always
directed from center to object.)
The resultant of cross product between real and pseudo
vectors is as given below
× =
× =
× =
× =
⃗
Eg: = ⃗ × ⃗ Here is pseudo vector. , are polar
vectors. In = × , , are polar vectors and is pseudo
vector. ⃗ = ∇⃗ × ⃗ and ⃗ = (∇⃗ × ⃗) , ∇⃗, ⃗ are polar vectors
and ⃗ is a pseudo vector.
Remember that pseudo vectors do not change sign under spatial
inversion, whereas, real vectors do. One has to verify during every
calculation, whether cross product is generating real vectors or pseudo
vectors as well as whether a pseudo vector remains as pseudo vector
throughout the calculation or not etc.
Some vector identities:
× =− ×
∇. ( × ) = (∇ × ). − . (∇ × )
×( × )= ( × )× = ( . )− ( . )
∇ × ( × ) = (∇. ) − (∇. ) + ( . ∇) − ( . ∇)

References:
Vector Analysis, J. W. Gibbs, E. B. Wilson; Charles Scribner's Sons,
(1901). https://archive.org/details/vectoranalysiste00gibbiala
Vectors and their applications, A. J. Pettofrezzo; Prentice Hall, (1966).
Thomas Calculus, J. Hass, C. Heil, M. D. Weir; 14th Ed. Pearson, (2018).
University Physics with Modern Physics, H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman;
Pearson, (2015).

24
 UNIT-1
CHAPTER-1
MECHANICS OF
PARTICLES
కణ ం క
CHAPTER

కణ ం క
1
ణల
॓ అ క (కణ ం క స )అ ఈ ప

1) ట గమన య ల ం లంకషం ం .

2) య (స యం ) సం ం ం .

3). ఈ ష మ మ ం ం .

4) ట ం మ థ ట ం ఈ ష ం
ం .

అభ సన ఫ
ఈ ఠం ర స

1) య సం మ ట ం సంబం ం న ధ క అం ల
ంచగ .

2) య సం మ ట ం సంబం ం న దృ ష ల
వ ంచగ .

3) క అం మ , క క ట ం ం ంచగ .
సం క గమ ంచ ధ కన ష ఉప ంచ గ .

4) ట గమన య ఫలౖ న న సవరణల . ట గమన

య లహ ప ం .

5) వల న అం మ గం, మ ట ం క వల న ం అవసరౖ న
ఆరంభ గ ల అంచ యగల .

6) య సం మ ట ం సం ల సంబం ం న ధ అ ష
ౖ డ త యగల .
MECHANICS

CHAPTER
OF PARTICLES 1
Syllabus
Review of Newton’s Laws of Motion, Motion of variable mass system,
Motion of a rocket, multistage rocket, Concept of impact parameter,
scattering cross-section, Rutherford scattering-Derivation.

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn in detail
1. Newton’s laws of motion
2. Variable mass system
3. Rocket equation and details of multistage rocket
4. Scattering cross section concept and Rutherford’s scattering
derivation.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Identify specific properties of variable mass system and
scattering phenomenon.
2. Describe the dynamics of variable mass system and
scattering phenomenon.
3. Calculate the terminal velocity of rocket and scattering angle
of charged particles. Apply various conservation laws to
study the dynamics of system.
4. Identify various correction terms required to apply Newton’s
laws to various systems where direct application fails.
Identify the limits and limitations of Newton’s formalism.
5. Justify the initial conditions required to attain a required
momentum for the given variable mass system and
scattering system.
6. Develop prototype models for various applications of
variable mass system and scattering problem.
 Syllabus
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ
ఈ ప ర స ధ ంల ం న ఈ ం ష ల
క ౖ న ॓ క ఆవశ కత .
1. ॓: య కౖ ష ॓ ఉప ం SEM మ DLS
ం ల ట ం అ అవసరమ ం .ౖ న ల న
అ తర జ ప య. య సం ఈ ష
ఉప గపడ .
2. : అ అ క ల ౖ ం ం
ల జ నం ష ల ం ం .
3. కం ట ౖ : ప శ మల యం ల ఆ ట ధ ర ల
య సం ల ం వల వ ం . అం మ ఖం
అవసరమ ౖ ం య స ం.
4. ల : కంప తరం ౖ ర ప ఉన .ఆ
ట ం అధ యనం యటం యం, న ర ల
ంచవ .
5. ఎల ॓ : ప శమల ఉం ధ ర ల య సం ల ప
ట ం నప నం అవసరమ ం .
6. వ స : ం ఎన ఓష ఎన ం చ ట
మ స ద అలల య సం ఊ ం ష
.
7. ॓: క ॓ ట ం సంబం ం న క
క ఎ అ అ త ంజ అ ఖౖ న ప య.

ప తం ం అప తం వర
9వ తరగ , అసమ ల బ ఏ ధం గమ రణమ
. అ ధం ట గమన య , ఇన ం , చర -
ప చర య మ ంట కన ష ం .అ
11వ తరగ ట గమన య , ంట కన ష ం , ధ
ర ల ల ం , మ డ గ అ క సంఖ
ఉన జ ం నం . ఈ ఫ ట
గమన య ల ద ౖ న స ఉం ం . మ య స ం,
ంగ -మ , థ ట ం ం
ం .

28
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would
be see the:
1. Physics: Scattering is used in several material
characterization techniques like SEM, DLS etc. Heavy
celestial bodies like binary stars undergo mass transfer that
requires variable mass system equations.
2. Chemistry: Law of mass action in chemistry deals with time
variation of concentration of reactants.
3. Computer Science: Industrial automation requires
programming of variable mass systems like powder
dispensers and boiler taps. Especially vibrating variable mass
systems are more prominent.
4. Geology: Seismic waves get scattered by hydrocarbon
materials. Thus study of scattering of seismic waves gives
information about petroleum and natural gas reserves.
5. Electronics: Several variable mass systems that we come
across in industry like powder dispensers, boiler taps etc.,
need a knowledge of variable mass system.
6. Renewable Energy: Study of wind energy and ocean energy
harvesting considers wind/water as a variable mass system
during conversion process.
7. Statistics: Statistical analysis of scattering cross-section is
one of the major activities in particle physics.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In your 9th class, you might have learned about how
unbalanced forces result in a change of motion of an object. You
might have also learned about Newton’s laws, the concept of inertia,
action-reaction principles and the concept of conservation of
momentum. In your 11th class, you might have learned about
Newton’s laws, law of conservation of momentum, various types of
frictional forces and the method of solving for net force acting on
objects using free-body diagrams. In this chapter you will be given a
critical review on Newton’s three laws of motion, the variable mass

29
 ఉ త
ఉ త
ౖ ంత పరౖ న వనల అ వృ అం జ ం . ద సహజ తత
స . ఇం పజ ం /త ం ష ల ద ఒక లంకషౖ న అవ హన
వ . త త అ భవ ర క అవ హన ర యబ ం . అం ప
అ భవ ర కం న త త ఒక అవ హన వ . అ ,
ఆ ల దౖ న ఈ న త లం ప క , ప , , ల
మ ంత అ వృ యబ ం . రం ఎ వ గ త ఉప ం . డవ
తరం ల ఉప ంచటం మ ంత ధ క ం అ వృ
యబ . ట మ ఆ .

ట తన ॓ పధమం అ ప ం ప ణం ఉ య
ఊ ం . వలన ల మ ంత ౖ ం . ఇక డ ప ల ం ప ణం
ఉ అం అర ం అంత న ఉ అ .అ గ త స క ల , ఆ ఎజంష
స ప ల . న కల ఒక
ం ప ణ వ ఊ ంచవ .అ ద ప న ఆ పం ం
చ ట ఆ పం ం ప ణవ ఊ ంచవ .ఆ
ం ప ణవ ఊ ంచ .త పర వ ప ణ ౖ న ॓
మ ౖ ॓ ఏ ధం ప తం ం .అ త త అధ యనం ఖ ళ
ప ల ఆ ంచబ ం .

॓ ఉప ం ర - రక ( మ ఎ ॓) రణం
ం . 1901 మ ల ల అ వృ నత త
॓ మ ంత ఉ జకరం న . ॓ ఆ క ర వలన
ంత ష తరమ . అ క సంఖ ఉన స ంౖ న ॓ఈ యం ఉం ,
ల ష ఒ క ఆన ఇవ వ .అ ం ప ల వటం
ద ఉన ఉ హం ంత త ప దం ఉం . ॓ అ వృ ం న వంద
సంవత ల ఒక స నం రక . అప ం , ల ట ర-
రణ సంబం ల ర నక ఉన రణం ం దకటం ద . అన
ఉన ర ల ం .ఆ రణ య . య ఉత న ం
అ ం . య రం ఉం వ . మ య ల మధ
సంబంధం ఇ ఉం ం . ⃗ = −∇⃗ . య ం న అధ యనం వ ఖౖ న
ఏమం , అ ల . అం వలన శ ం ప ం వల న అవసరం
ఉండ . ఈ ం య మ య ౖ న ॓ ం త చ ం .
గ , ప క , ప లప ల ల ఉప ం ఇ న వరణ ట
1687 .త తఅ 1728 ఇం అ వ ంచబ ం . అ ట ,
ఉప ం న ల రత శం 1400 సంవత ఉ య

30
 1.1 Introduction
system, single stage and multistage rockets and the details of
Rutherford scattering cross-section.

1.1 Introduction
Theoretical developments in science came in three levels. The
first and foremost methodology was natural philosophy where people
argue and come to logical conclusions on any topic. Later the research
turned out to be empirical in its nature. Here, people look for
experimental evidence for every phenomenon and concept. Aristotle,
Archimedes era comes into this category. The so called modern
science has started with the contributions from Copernicus, Kepler
and further by Ptolemy and Galileo. They have developed geometrical
studies in physics. Attributing calculus to empirical theories of
physics started with Isaac Newton and Leibnitz. Subsequently more
fundamental theories were evolved.
Newton considered all the systems to be point-like particles
at the primary level. This makes the calculations simpler and more
effective. Here point-like object does not mean that the object is of
point size. But for all mathematical and physical considerations, the
object may be considered as a point object. For example, for the
revolution of earth around the sun, earth may be considered as a
point like object. But for apple falling on earth, earth cannot be
considered as point like object. In the current exposition, in later
chapters, the effect of finite size of objects on the statics, dynamics
and kinematics of the system is described, which can be considered
as an improvement over the earlier treatments. Subsequently the
studies are extended to astronomical objects.

The causes and effects that we come across in Newtonian

mechanics are majorly vectors. Therefore the development of vector
analysis by Gibbs and Wilson in 1901 made Newtonian mechanics all
the more exciting. This provided a geometrical approach to the
Newtonian mechanics. But the major problem with Newtonian
mechanics arises when multiple forces act on a body which
sometimes may result in dynamic equilibrium. In such a case, solving

31
 ట గమన యమ ల ౖ ప నః స
. సంగమ ం న స ర-II మ ధవ ల సంబం న
షౖ నప .

E - Corner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama
https://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/news/indians-
predated-newton-discovery-by-250-years/

ట గమన య లౖ నః స
ద గమన యమ : హ బలం ప యనంత వర , వ శల , సమ
గ ఉం ం .

ండవ గమన యమ : ంట వ దఅ న (బలం) న

ప రన ఉం ం .

1 ( )
∝ ⇒ = ⇒ = = = =

ఇక డ k అ ప ర ం . ఒక ళ 1kg ద అ ఐన 1m/sec2
ల ష గ ఆ 1 ట అం . ఈ తం m అ
ఆ ॓అ ం ం .

డవ గమన యమ : ప ఒక చర స నం వ క శ ప చర ఉం ం .

=−
ఇక డ చర ప చర వ ల దప య టం అ ఎన అవ .ఒ
వ దవ క శల బ ప నట అ అ .

ప లన-1
ట ఫ అ ఇన అ అం .అ 3వ శ బం BC న
ఇం ట య ప రం వ దబ ప ం న అ చలనం వ ం .బ
అ ఆ ం . అన బలం ప ంచటం వలన గం ఫ తం ల ం .
1463 ల తన " "అ గంధం ఇంప ం ఈ ధం .
ఇంప అ వ ప న ంత తగ ం అ ఉం ం . వలన గ

32
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
multiple analytical or geometrical equations may result in a zero
which may dampen the enthusiasm of the learner. Hundred years
after the formulation of Newtonian mechanics, Lagrange and
Hamilton had come up with a study of cause of the cause in
Newtonian mechanics. i.e.; they have started studying about the
cause of the force. That is, the potential which may be related to force
as ⃗ = −∇⃗ . Here the potential is a scalar. Thus the difficulties in
handling direction information are circumvented. Discussion on the
details of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian dynamics may be found in
your higher studies.
The observations of Galileo, Copernicus and Kepler and a few
others have been consolidated and a profound calculus based
explanation was given by Sir Issac Newton in his book ‘Principia’
which was published in Latin in 1687 and later translated into
English in 1728. It is believed that the calculus presented in Newton
and Leibnitz approaches may have their origins in Indian
astronomical and mathematical studies of Bhaskara II and Madhava
of Sangamagrama, Kerala, India during 1400AD.

1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion

First law: Every body continues to be in its state of rest or uniform
motion as long as there is no external force acting on it.
Second law: The rate of change of momentum produced in a body is
directly proportional to the applied force.
1 ( )
∝ ⇒ = ⇒ = = = =

Here , the proportionality constant, becomes 1 when force is

measured in Newtons. i.e., when 1 massive body experiences
1 / acceleration upon application of the force. Here mass is
considered to be constant always.
Third law: For every action, there will be an equal and opposite
reaction.
=−

33
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
ఆగ ం రగగ . వలన ఇంప అ త ం .త వ గం
త ం . నంత వర , వ గం ఉండ . ఆ ధం
బలం ప ంచటం వలన గం (త రణం / ల ష )అ ఫ తం వ ం అ
. ఆ ధం అ క ంతం స యబ ం .

ఇన ఖ త వ ం . ఎంత ఎ వ ఉం ఇన అంత ఎ వ
ఉం ం . న కద ం లన /ఆ ల వల న బలంక , ద బ ౖ న ట॓
క ంచ /ఆప ఎ వ బలం అవసరం అ ం .

ల న ఇం ట ంతం ఇం ం అ 6వ శ బం BC రత శం
కశ ప మహ న ౖ క ల ఉండటం షం. అం ం
ప బడ . ఇం ట తగ రణం పబ ం .

Fig: Stanzas from Vaiseshika Sutras.

E - Corner
https://jasper-hopkins.info/DeLudo12-2000.pdf
https://archive.org/details/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft

34
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
Here action and reaction forces work on two different bodies.
Hence they will never get cancelled.

Think …
If mass remains constant always in Newton’s laws, do
we need to modify or make any approximation to apply
them to rocket motion?
Observation-1:
The Newton’s first law is also called law of inertia. According
to Aristotle’s theory of impetus (impulse/force) in 3rd century BC,
object comes into motion when there is an external impetus and
stops when the impetus is stopped. Thus according to Aristotle force
produces velocity. Without force velocity becomes zero. But a
German philosopher Nicholas Cusanus, in his De Ludo Globi (The
game of Bowling) (1463) explained that the impulse is carried by the
body throughout its journey. He also described friction as a cause of
Aristotle’s observation. This laid the stepping stone for Galileo’s
experimentation on inertia. According to him, once force is applied
and the body is set to free motion, the velocity remains forever. This
is what drives planets around the sun. When there is a friction, the
impetus reduces and body comes to rest. Thus it was concluded that
the force causes a change in velocity. As long as force is not applied,
there will not be any change in velocity. Nicolas Kuzans concepts of
Inertia were similarly described in Kanada’s Viseshika Sutras in
600BC itself. But the concept of friction was not well described,
except for the gravitational pull.
Mass is the control parameter for inertia and inertia is more for
heavy objects. It is easier to bring a small four wheeler into motion
and to stop it as compared to moving or stopping a heavily loaded
truck.
Observation-2:
In second law, the proportionality constant becomes 1 when
force is measured in Newtons. i.e., when a force produces 1 /
acceleration in a 1Kg object, then that force is equal to 1Newton.

35
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
ప లన-2
ట ండవ గమన యమం ma = F/k. ఇక డ ప ర ం అ ట
వ న .మ 1kg వ 1m/sec2 ల ష వ న 1 ట అ ం
మ k=1 అ ం . ట ఉం ప ర ం రౖ జష
ఉప గప ం . ఉ హరణ ఒక ల తన న ల 4అ ల డ న ఒక గడప
డ 12 అ ం అ ం ం. అ ల లత ం సౖ న లత
లం k'= 12/4=3 అ ఒక రౖ జష ం ం ఉం ం .అ
ఒక అ 2అ ల అ ం .ఈ లత ం సౖ న
లత బ లం k'=2/4=0.5 ం ఉం ం . (ఇక డ రౖ ష అం య ర
వ ప న ప స త ). ఈ ధం రౖ య
ర ం ఉప గప ం . ఒక ఆk వ ॓ నత త LHS
అ RHS అ యవ . ఎం కం అక ం ఈ ష అ
థ క బ .

త ప SI సం వ న త త ం మ ట మ
ట ఉం న అవసరం వ ం . ఖం ఎల జం
ఈ ష అ ణం ర టం సం అ ం ం మ ట మ
ట ఉప ం .

ప లన-3
ట ండవ గమన యమం mఅ ఎ ప ల ం ఉం .
అం వలన F=ma అ ఒక ష కం ష ం కౖ న ట కం
ప గ .అ ం ప ల ం య సం ం అధ యనం
ట ట ఉప ం లం , + య ట ం అ
. క ట ఉప ంచ . అం వలన య సం ల
కన ష అ ఈ ష అ ం అ కం ష భ ం .

ప లన-3
ట ద మ ండవ గమన య నట , ండవ గమన య F=0
స ద గమన యమం వ ం . మ అ వం ప ల ఒక ప క
యమం ఎం ర ం ? మ ట ండవ యమంక ఎం అ క
నత ?

అర ం లం , ం ట ద గమన యమం ఎక డ ఫలమ ం

. సం, ఒక 60KMPH గం న ఒక బ , అం ఒక
ం న ప (P1) ఊ ంచం . అ బ 40KMPH గం ౖ ॓
ంబ న మ క ఆబ ర (P2) అ పక న రం లబ న మ క ఆబ ర (P3)

36
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
Here the proportionality constant comes in the denominator so as to
ensure that it normalizes the physical quantity. Suppose a kid
measures the width of a door as 12 feet (12 )with his small foot.
But with the actual foot scale measures it as 4 feet (4 ). Then
one has to compare the foot size of the kid with the actual scale and
define the constant = = 3. Then the measurement made
by the kid is standardized by dividing it with . Thus Width of door
= = = 4 . Suppose a giant measures the width of the
door as 2 with his giant foot, then = 0.5 . Thus the
proportionality constant plays the role of standardizing units, apart
from its actual purpose of proportionality. Hence it comes in the
denominator of the independent parameter. Once the
proportionality constant is fixed, the equation may be rewritten in
any order as the rest will be purely mathematical.
Later, after the establishment of SI unit system, some
proportionality constants were kept in numerator and some in
denominator, especially in electromagnetism, in order to fit them
into Maxwell’s equations.
Observation-3:
In Newton’s second law, it is strictly considered that the mass
remains constant. Hence = is not just a special condition but a
valid form of Newton’s second law. While considering the variable
mass systems like rockets, for applicability of Newton’s laws, the total
mass of the system (Rocket+Fuel) is assumed to be constant.
Otherwise, in the strictest sense, one cannot apply Newton’s laws to
variable mass systems. Thus in variable mass systems, constant mass
required by Newton’s laws will be ensured by considering
conservation of mass equation.
Observation-4:

From the first law, = 0, =0⇒ = .

⇒ = .( ) as is already a constant.

37
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
ఉ ర ం . గం ఎంత అ పశ P1 0KMPH అ , P2 20KMPH అ P3 60KMPH
అ స నం .అ బ పక న ఆ ఉన ట , P1 0KMPH అ , P2 -
40KMPH అ P3 0KMPH అ స నం . అ దఎ వం అ
య నంత వర , అబ ర ం ఉంద గమ . (ఆ ం
).

అ బ హ ఆ , ఆ న బ హ క ఎ వం అ
య ం ం క క ం . బ గం ఉన
రణం ంచ . ఎం కం ద వ ల చల ం చ ం ట
మనం ప గణన . అ ం ప ల బ
ం ం క క ం . అన ట ద గమన యమం
ఫలమ ం .

ట ద గమన యమం ఫలౖ నం వల ఎ వం న వ ?

ట ద గమన యమం ఫలౖ న ండవ గమన యమం ఫలమ ం .

ఉ హరణ బ ॓ సమ ం ఉన ప జరప
ౖ అ ం .అ నం జ ం క ॓
నం జ ం య అ మయ ప ఏర ం . అన ంత అ
ంత ల ష వ ం అ ట ఈ ష స ప
అవ శం ం ం . ఎం కం అంతక ఎ వ క త వ ల ష
న ద ం . అన ట ండవ గమన యమం ఫలమ ం .

ఆ ధం ట ద గమన యమం ండవ గమన య గప ం .

ఎక ౖ ం గం సంభ అక డ ట గమన య
ప య .స గమ ం నట ,వ ప ల మధ గం క రం
ఉన ంత వర ట ద గమన యమం ప ం .ఎ ౖ వ ప ల మధ
గం ం , అన ఎ ౖ ఇద మధ అ ల ష క ల ష ఉం ం అ
ట గమన య ఫలమ .

అ గవ ప ల మధ గం క రం ఉన అ ఫ
ఇన య అం . అన అక డ ట అ ఇన ప ం . ట ద
గమన యమం ప య ఇన య అం . అన అక డ వ
ప ల మధ ల ష క ల ష ఉం ం .అ ట గమన య ల
క (సవరణ ) అవసరమ . ంద .

ఆ ల ం / ల ం బ :ఈప ల స ం (ఇక డ ) దఅ అ తం
Fa అ అ న Fc అ బ క ల ష క ల ష వలన వ
క ట .ఈక త త ట స ప .

38
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
Thus, it looks as if, Newton’s first law is a special case of Newton’s
second law. Mathematically it is true. Then why is it defined as a
separate law? And why is it given higher priority than its original?
To understand that, one needs to look for the failure of first law. i.e.,
are there any systems which exhibit a change in velocity even when
the external force is zero?
Consider a person (Observer-1 (P1)) travelling in a bus with a bag in
front of him/her. The bus is moving at a speed of 60KMPH. Suppose
a person (Observer-2 (P2)) is chasing the bus on a bike at a speed of
40KMPH. There is a stationary observer (Observer-3 (P3)) on the
road who is observing the situation.
Now the speed of the bag as seen by P1 is zero, as seen by P2 is
20KMPH and as seen by P3 is 60KMPH. Thus when there is no
external force, every observer attributes a constant velocity to the
object (which could also be zero).
When the bus stops suddenly, the bag moves without application of
force, as seen by observer P3.
If the bus is at rest, P1 reports the speed of the bag as 0KMPH while
P2 reports it as -40KMPH and P3 reports as 0KMPH. If the bus starts,
suddenly from rest, then the bag moves backwards without
application of any force.
One should not attach the acceleration or deceleration of the bus
with the jerk produced in the bag. If that is the case, we should also
feel some jerks while walking on earth without application of any
external force as earth is in motion already.
Thus one may conclude that if there is any acceleration or
deceleration between object frame and observer frame, Newton’s
first law fails.
What could be the problem if Newton’s first law fails?
If Newton’s first law fails, newton’s second law also fails. Suppose by
the time brakes are operated on the running bus, the observer P1
touched the bag with a wish to push it forward a little bit. The bag
moves forward due to both break operation and the push by P1. But

39
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
ౖ ంద క న : ౖ , ంద క న ద పల మ రం
క అ .ప ణం ద క ల ష క ట

ం వ ంచవ . = × , = ×
(− )
క క : క క ఉన లంబం ॓
ఏర ం . క గం మ ॓ ఒక ఒక లంబం ఉండటం వలన ఉత
అ త అ త ం శ ఏర ం .( ం యమ ). ॓

వలన వ అ ⃗ = ( ⃗ × ⃗ ). ఈ ట - ॓

న ఉం ం ≪ .
ట ష : ఒక న ద ఒక వ ంట ం సర ంఫ వర
ౖ ప ం అ ం ం. బయట ం అబ ర అ రం
న క ం . ద అ స ల న
క ం . మన ఒక వ స ల ష అం ద ం ట
లంబ శ ప . ఇక డ ఆ అ రగటం వలన వ ం .
అం . ద ఉత ర ళం పవ ం న ౖ॓ రగ ఇ
రణం. (పటం ం న ధం ).

The force that come as correction term to Newtons laws when the
observer is accelerating is called fictitious force or pseudo force. This
is a real force and is a polar vector. But since it has no cause with-in
observer frame of reference, it is called pseudo force. Here cause
comes from outside. (Just like effect of motion of earth on rivers.)
One may observe that the correction force arising as a result of cross
product is also a polar vector as the cross product involves one polar
vector and another pseudo vector. The effect of earth rotation on
pendulum was firs demonstrated by Foucault by his pendulum
experiment.
ఆబ ర ల అ న ట క వ ల క
య అం .ఇ య మ ఒక .
అ ఎం అం అం , ఆబ ర జ న ప రణం రక . ( రణం
ం ప జ ం .) ఇక డ రణం బయ ం వ ం . (న ౖ
రగ చలనం రణౖ న ). స గమ ం నట , డ॓ న
ల ఒక &మ క . అం జ అ డ॓ అ
. ం లం ద చలనం ప తన ం లం ఎక ం
ం . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums

40
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
one cannot distinguish the real cause of the observed displacement
in the bag. In other words, Newton’s second law fails. i.e., one
cannot estimate the change in momentum produced just by
substituting applied force into Newton’s second law equation. This
suggests that Newton’s second law needs corrections.
Thus first law defines the arena where Newton’s second law is valid.
Hence it is considered as an independent law and is given higher
priority over second law. The frame of reference where Newton’s first
law (Law of inertia) is valid is called inertial frame of reference. An
inertial frame of reference of observer is the one which maintains a
constant or zero speed difference with the object frame.
Corrections to Newton’s second law:
1. Accelerating or decelerating bus: When a bus is moving
with constant or zero velocity and suddenly decelerated or
accelerated, then the correction term for force is given by
= × If the applied force is , then the total
force is = + .
2. Lift moving upwards or downwards: When the lift moves
upwards persons in the lift feel heavier and when it moves
downwards, the persons feel lighter in the beginning. Thus
the correction terms to force are = × ,
= × (− )
3. Charged particle in motion: When a charged particle is in
motion, it produces magnetic field given by = × .
When two such moving charges interact, there will be force
due to electric field as well as force due to magnetic field. The
force due to magnetic field is given by ⃗ = ( ⃗ × ⃗). But
this term is negligible in non-relativistic cases, where ≪ .
4. Rotatory motion: Suppose an object is travelling from the
center towards the circumference along the radius of a
rotating disc. For the observer outside, it looks as if it is
travelling along a straight line along the radius. But for the
observer on the disc, it looks like travelling in circular path.
As we already know, to bring an object into circular motion,

41
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion

Fig: Wind patterns due to Coriolis effect.

Fig: Coriolis force and direction of Earth’s magnetic field.

Fig: Rivers turning right due to Coriolis effect.

42
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
one needs to apply a force which is directed always
perpendicular to the velocity, called the centripetal force.
Thus there exists a centripetal acceleration between object
frame and observer frame. Hence Newton’s laws fail. How do
Newton’s laws fail in this case? They fail because, one
observer reports that the object is moving in straight line
with constant velocity (F=0), whereas another observer
reports that the particle is moving in circle, which implies
some centrifugal acceleration is observed in the particle. The
corresponding force is called inertial centrifugal force. The
correction term for this circular motion is = + × .
Or = × . This correction force is also called Coriolis
force. This is responsible for the turning of rivers towards
right in northern hemisphere.

Fig: Pseudo force in rotatory motion.

Is Newton’s second law considered as definition of force?

No! Because, a force may do so many other things as well other than
producing acceleration in the object. For example, deformation, heat,
vibrations etc. Hence Newton’s second law is only one possibility of
application of force on objects. It is not to be considered as definition
of force.
Does Newton’s second law act as definition of mass?

Newton’s law is defined for constant mass. i.e.; = . Then can we

use it as definition of mass? The answer is No. Because, with velocity,
mass changes in relativistic cases. In such case, the correction to mass

43
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion

E - Corner
https://byjus.com/physics/pseudo-force/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YwF58NrKao
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-7BeEkYwgk
https://www.britannica.com/science/Coriolis-force
https://geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/mag_fld/fld2-en.php
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-
technology/collisions-and-conservation-laws/content-section-7.1

Activity
Perform Foucault pendulum experiment in your institute.
Record the pattern for a long time and consolidate.

ట ండవ గమన య క ర చనం నవ ?

దర . ఎం కం , వలన ంటం వటం అ ఒక త .అ

క వలన అ క ఇతర ఫ ఉం . ఉ హరణ వ ఆ రం రటం,
ఉత అవటం, ౖ అవటం. ట , ట ండవ గమన యమం అ ఒక
త . బ ర చనం .

ట ండవ గమన య క ర చనం నవ ?

ట ండవ గమన యమం అ ం ఉం న .అ m=F/a యటం

ర ంచవ ? స నం అ . రణం, క
॓ న , అ హం రగ అవ శం ఉం . అ ట
ండవ గమన యమం ం ం . ఇక డ m అ ॓ . ఈ ష
ం m ప య . అ m ర చన ఇ ం . బ ట ండవ
గమన యమం ॓ ప గల .

44
 1.2 Review on Newton’s laws of motion
is given by = Then the correction to Newton’s second law
/
( )
is given by = where is the relativistic mass.

The variation of mass = as a function of velocity of the object is

given by

Fig: Variation of inertial mass with velocity.

Thus Newton’s second law cannot be used as a standard definition of

mass. This type of definition of mass is called inertial mass. The other
one is the gravitational mass given by = / . Here is the
acceleration produced by gravity.
Is Newton’s second law universal?
Newton’s second law is not a universal law. This is because the law
works only when mass remains constant. But when the velocity of
the object reaches relativistic limit, mass also changes with velocity.
This law also fails when friction or any other form of energy losses
occur in the system, or when fictitious forces exist in the system.
Hence corrections are to be made even in non-relativistic regime to
make it universal.
Is Newton’s third law Universal?
Newton’s third law of motion with a little rearrangement of
terms can be written as + = 0 ⇒ ∑ = 0. Thus, it gives a
ఇ గ ర ం న ఇన య అం . మ క రకం అ m=F/g అ
ర ంచ వ . షన అం .

45
 1.3 యబ మ ిసం క గమనం
ట ండవ గమన యమ ర జ కౖ న (అ సంద ల ప ం )?
ట ండవ గమన యమం ం ం , అ
॓ త ప ం .అ ం శ నష ప చర ఉన ,
మ య ఉన ట ండవ గమన యమం ప య . బ
త ప ల త నక నట ట ండవ గమన యమం
ర జ కమ ం .
ట డవ గమన యమ ర జ కౖ న (అ సంద ల ప ం )?

ట డవ గమన యమం ప ల సవ ం న + =0⇒

∑ = 0, అన ఇ సం క ౖ న ॓ఈ యం ం ం . ట

ండవ గమన య ం న , ∑ = అ అ కన ష అ
ంటం ం . ఇ జర లం అ ఉం . అన
అ ఉన ంత వర , ట డవ గమన యమం ప ం . ఆ ధం ట డవ
గమన య , త ప లవర , ర జ క యమం అ వ . ॓
ఎల ॓ ఇంట ల క ॓ ల ప న ,అ
॓ ఉత ం . ఆ ఒక సందర ం తం ట డవ గమన య
సవరణ అవసరమ .

1.3 య సం క గమనం
m క v ప న ం ఒక వ t సమయం వద ఊ ంచం . ం
dt సమయం dm ౖ vrel అ బయట వ ంద ం . అన బయట
వ న dm v-vrel ం ప ఉం ం . వలన న m-dm
క గం v+dv అ ంద ం .

అ t అ సమయం వద స ం క ఇ య ంట

= − − − (1)
మ t+dt అ సమయం వద స ం కౖ న ంట

= ( − )+( − )( + ) − − − (2)
హ బలం నంత వర ంటం కన ష ం . అన =

= − + + − −
dm, dv న ఐనం వలన వ ప ఉ ంచవ . ఆ ధం mdv = vrel dm ---(3)

46
 1.3 Motion of variable mass system
condition for dynamic equilibrium of systems. By using second law
on this equation, one can write ∑ = . Thus Newton’s
third law also ensures law of conservation of momentum. As long as
homogeneity of space exists, momentum is conserved and Newton’s
third law finds its validity. Thus Newton’s third law can be
considered as a universal law, within non-relativistic regime. This
law fails in relativistic electromagnetic field interactions. i.e., when a
charge moves with relativistic speeds and produces magnetic force of
considerable strength.

1.3 Motion of variable mass system

Consider an object of mass moving with velocity at time
t. In a mean time d , let a small mass be ejected out of it with
relative velocity . Still the ejected mass moves forward with
reduced velocity − . This activity results in a rise in the velocity
of the remaining mass − . Let the final velocity of remaining
mass be + . Then

Fig: Variable mass system

the momentum of initial system at time is

= − − − (1)
The momentum of final system at time + is
= ( − )+( − )( + ) − − − (2)
If there is no external force, momentum is conserved. i.e., ( = )
which gives
= − + + − −
Since , are small, the last term may be neglected. Thus
= − − − (3)

47
 1.3 Motion of variable mass system
ం హ బ ప న సం క ఈ ష అ ష ం ధం
యవ .

−
= ⇒ =

⇒ = + = + − − − (4)

ౖ ఈ ష dm ఒక గ ంబ . అవసరౖ న సంద ల గ ౖ
ంచవ .మ వ పదం Freaction అ dm vrel అ గం బయట వటం
వలన స ం ద ఏర ం .

E - Corner
https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/PT.3.1865
https://vamfun.wordpress.com/2013/03/27/water-jet-
skyboard-thrust-physics/
http://www.iitg.ac.in/physics/fac/saurabh/ph101/Lecture6.pdf
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786444108
520786
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-
07-dynamics-fall-2009/lecture-notes/MIT16_07F09_Lec14.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-mass_system

Activity
Consider a variable mass system with mass capturing
instead of mass ejection and derive equation of motion.

48
 1.4 Rocket Equation
If there is any external force like gravity that acts on the system,
then the equation of motion is given by
−
= ⇒ =

⇒ = + = + − − − (4)

This is the equation of motion of a variable mass system.

Here is a negative number, as it represents a reduction in mass.
Hence it may be indicated with a negative sign, if necessary, to avoid
confusion. The last term in the equation is the reaction
force generated in the main system due to the exhaust of a mass
with velocity .

1.4 Rocket Equation

Consider a rocket of mass travelling with velocity at
some instant of time . After some time , let a mass be ejected
out of the system with relative velocity . This results in a rise in
the velocity of the remaining mass − by a factor of . The
ejected mass actually travels forward with reduced velocity −
and the resultant mass − travels with velocity + .
The initial momentum of the system at time is,
= − − − (1)
Final momentum of the system at time + is
= ( − )+( − )( + ) − − − (2)

Let there be an external force, say gravity, =− , acting on

the system; then
−
= ⇒ =−

[( − + + − − )− ]
⇒ =−

Since and are small, their product may be neglected.

49
 1.4 ా ఈ ష
1.4 ఈ ష
m క v ప న ం ఒక t సమయం వద ఊ ంచం . ం
dt సమయం dm ౖ vrel అ బయట వ ంద ం . అన బయట
వ న dm v-vrel ం ప ఉం ం . వలన న m-dm
క గం v+dv అ ంద ం .

అ t అ సమయం వద స ం క ఇ య ంట

= − − − (1)
మ t+dt అ సమయం వద స ం కౖ న ంట

= ( − )+( − )( + ) − − − (2)

ద అ హ బలం =− ప న ,

−
= ⇒ =−

[( − + + − − )− ]
⇒ =−

dm మ dv న వ ఐనం వలన, ల ఉ ంచవ .

⇒ = −

ఇ ప ౖ క న ఈ ష . dm త న వ ఐనం వలన, -ve

ౖ ంచటం జ ం .ౖ ఈ ష ం గం న ,

⇒ =− −

సమయం 0 ం t వర , గం v0 ం v వర , m0 ం m వర ఇం
నట

= + ln −

ఈ ష అం .

క అం మ ఎ మ న క అం మ గం అ ం
ఈ ష ఇవ బ .

ℎ=∫ = + ( ln − − ln + )−

50
 1.4 ఈ ష

⇒ = −

This is the equation of motion of rocket moving under the influence

of gravity. Here is a negative quantity. Hence a − sign may
be introduced. From this, the change in velocity is given by

⇒ =− −

Integrating over time from 0 , velocity from and mass

from , gives
1
=− −

⇒( − )=− (ln − ln )−

⇒ = + ln −

This is the velocity equation of the rocket, with being initial

velocity and , the initial mass of the rocket. This is called
Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
The height reached by rocket is given by
1
ℎ=∫ = + ( ln − − ln + )−
2
In the absence of gravity, (in outer space), one may write
Δ Δ
Δ = − = ln ⇒ = ln ⇒ = − ln

Fig: Rocket mass ratio vs. change in velocity.

51
 1.4 ా ఈ ష
Δ Δ
Δ = − = ln ⇒ = ln ⇒ = − ln

క ల అ ణం గం వ ల ఇక
డవ . సంబం ం న ఈ ష .

ంగ క ట

ంగ క సకర ms, ౖ ం క md మ
ం క mp అ నట , క ఎం మ ల ఈ
ధం ర ంచవ .
= + − − − (1)
= + = + + − − − (2)
ం : ం ఉన మ న ఉన
ం అం . వ1 అంతక ఎ వ ఉం ం .

+
= = =1+ − − − (3)

:ఇ క క గ ం .

= = − − − (4)
− +
సక : సంబంధం ం క ం ఉన , న ఉన
సక క ష ఇ ం .

= − − − (5)
+
ౖ ఈ ష ల ం ,
= + (1 − ) − − − (6)
ఈ రచ ఉప ం , శల ం బయ సందర ం ప ం
క గం ఈ ం ధం యవ .

Δ = − =− ln =− ln( + (1 − ) ) − − − (7)
ష (λ) ఎ వ ఉం మర ం ఎ వ ఉం ంద ఈ స కరణం
ం . సక (ε) త వ ఉన అ ధమ ం . ఇక డ,సమర త
అన నబ , ంత ళగల ం .

52
 1.4 ఈ ష

=
The variation of final mass of rocket as a function of change in
velocity is shown in the figure above.

Parameters of single stage rocket

Consider a single stage rocket with empty structural mass
(mass of a stage) , payload mass (mass of satellite or other higher
stages if any) and propellant mass (mass of fuel) . Then the
empty mass of the rocket is defined as
= + − − − (1)
Full mass of the rocket is defined as
= + = + + − − − (2)
Other useful parameters are
Propellant mass ratio, which is defined as the ratio of full mass to
empty mass of the rocket. i.e., the ratio of rocket mass with and
without propellant. Its value is always greater than or equal to 1.
+
= = =1+ − − − (3)

Pay load ratio which is defined as the ratio of payload mass to rest
of the mass of the rocket

= = − − − (4)
− +
Structure ratio which is defined as the ratio of mass of empty
structure to the mass of structure with propellant. i.e.; this ratio
doesn’t take into account the payload mass ( ).

= − − − (5)
+
Substituting Eq. (4), Eq. (5) in Eq. (3), one obtains
= + (1 − ) − − − (6)

53
 1.5 మ ా
, ం క బ భ ంచ మ అ సమయం హ ఒ
త వ మధ స ం అ క సక అవసరం బ ఏకప ం త ంచటం
దర ప . ప Δυ/υrel ష ర ంచబ ం . అం , అ ఎంత గం
అవసరౖ న గ ష ందగల అ ష ం .. λ=0 ఉన ప
అత కం ఉం ం . λ=1 అ న ప అ ం . అన , దవ
క న దవ స నం అ న . అం వల, ష పరం
క మర ం మ ప మధ -ఆ ఉం . ధప ల ష ౖ ల
ఇక తం పబ ం .

1.5 మ
సమర త మ ప ం ం సౖ న పద పరచ మ
ఉప ంచబడ . బ ఎ వ గం ం మ
ఉం ం . మ ంత ఎ ఎ న , ం ంచబ ం
మ అ ం . అ నప అనవసరం
వ ం ., ఈ సమస ల అ గ ం ం మ ట ం ం .మ
థ కం ం ర వ క ంచబ .

1. య ం 2. ర ం .

య ం , ప దశ, ఒక త తమ క ల ంచబ ం .స ంతర

ం , అ క న దశ ంట స న ౖ కట బ ఉం .ఎ అ గ ంచ
రంభ థ ఉత య ర ఆ ఉప ంచబ ం . ,
స ంతర దశ త త, అవసరౖ న ఎ మ వ ం అమ
యబడవ . రణం ం దశల , ఘన దవ ద ల ఉప . ద దశ
రణం అ కఎ త వ డనం వద నం ప .
సం, త వఒ దహన యం ఉప ంచవ . ఇంధనం క ॓ దవ
రకం వ . ఇ సం షౖ న యంత ల త ం , ఇ
గణ యౖ నబ త ం ం .

బ ళ దశ అంత ల అవ ల త , ఎం కం
ౖ వ మ న గం సం క ంచబడ . వ దశల సం
ం ం స ర బ ర ల న గమ ఉ .

1. ం రకం: ఈ రకం , యబ న వ దశ యడం స దం

పడ . ॓ ప త ంచ , రణం ట ఉప . ఈ
పద ం ం సమయం న ప వం రణం త వ ం
తౖ నన ఎ ం ం .

54
 1.5 మ ా

With these definitions, the change in velocity of the ideal rocket,

which starts from rest, in the absence of gravity, is given by
Δ = − =− ln =− ln( + (1 − ) ) − − − (7)
This equation tells us that the rocket efficiency will be more
if the payload ratio ( ) is more. That is possible only when the
structure ratio ( ) of the rocket is low. Here, efficiency deals with the
amount of payload the rocket can carry, compared to the rest of its
weight.
But one cannot reduce the structure ratio arbitrarily as a
moderately high structure factor is necessary to bear the weight of
the payload, propellant and at the same time to withstand the
external pressure.
The performance of the rocket is defined by the ratio
Δ / . i.e, how fast it can attain the required maximum speed.
Performance will be highest when = 0. Performance will be zero
when = 1. i.e., when payload mass equals to rest of the mass of the
rocket.
Thus, there is a trade-off between the efficiency and
performance of a rocket in terms of payload ratio. A plot of payload
ratio variations as a function of performance is shown in the figure
below.

Fig: Plot of payload ratio vs performance of single stage rocket.

2. రకం: ఈ రకం , హ నం మ ఉప ంచవ .
అం వలన, ఇ క వరణం క మ న ల మ హ

55
 1.5 Multi stage rocket
అంత ం ల ఉప ం . క వరణం
ప ం ట ఉష ర ణ వ వస ఈ రకౖ న పద ఖౖ న . ఇం య
ఆరౖ ష (ఇ ) తన ఆ ఎ - ( జ ం ం క ౖ )
జయవంతం ప ం ం .
3. వ క ం ం రకం: ఈ రకం , ద దశ గం ప ణం సం జ
యబ న అదన 10% ఇంధ క ఉం ం . ఈ పద త వ ధర మ
ల అ క భదత క ం రణం అత ంత జయవంతౖ ం . ప
యం ంచ కం స (RCS) ం కత ఉప .అ
క పక అదన ల క ఉం ,ఇ క వరణం
ప ం ట మ ం ం ట క కద క యం ంచ
, మ రకం కద కల ఉత యగల .
రణం మ - స ఎ వ ర , ఎం కం అ
వ దశ య మ త ప దశ ల అదన యం ల
క ఉం .ప ం ం ణ త ణత రణం బ ళ గం ధం క వ ,
ఫ తం త ప ఉప గం సం న ద ం .
మ క ష ంద ఇవ బ న ధం అంతర త ష ల
ర ంచవ .

=
ఇక డ = ( ) / ()అ ith క ష .మ
ఉత యబ న గం Δv ఈ ం ధం యవ .

Δ = ln[ + (1 − ) ]

మ క ప - ష కౖ ధం క ంద పబ ం .
దశల వర , ప గణ యౖ న దల ఉంద మ 4వ దశ ం
ప ౖ దశల సంఖ క గణ యౖ నప వం ద డవ .

Activit
Plot graphs of performance and efficiency for single-
stage and multi-stage rockets using MATLAB.

1.5 Multi stage rocket

Multi stage rockets are used to enhance both efficiency and
performance in an optimal manner. The majority of the weight of the

56
 1.5 Multi stage rocket

rocket is contained in the propellant and the empty rocket. As the

rocket rises higher and higher, its propellant gets consumed and the
rocket becomes empty. However, it still has to carry the empty
rocket, which is unnecessary. Multi stage rockets are designed to
overcome these problems. Multi stage rockets are basically classified
into two types.
1. Serial staging
2. Parallel staging.
In serial staging, each stage is fired one stage after the other in
series. In parallel staging, several small stages are strapped onto a
central sustainer. The strap on stages will be used to produce an
initial thrust to overcome air drag. Sometimes, after a parallel stage,
there may be a series stage implemented in order to reach the
required height and velocity.
Usually in lower stages, solid or liquid propellants are used. The
higher stages come into operation usually at high altitudes or at low
air pressures or sometimes in vacuum. For this purpose, they can use
low pressure combustion engines. Fuel also can be cryogenic liquid or
gaseous type. This reduces the usage of complicated machinery parts
which in turn gives rise to considerable weight reduction.
Multi stage rockets reduce the amount of space debris, as
majority of the components fall back on to earth and can be collected
for reuse. There are three types of reusable multistage rockets,
depending on the type of landing system for the lower stages.
1. Breaking type: In this type, the detached lower stages fall
back into sea or ocean by making a splash. To reduce the
impact, they usually employ parachutes. In this method the
capsule may encounter little to moderate damage due to
splash impact while hitting water bodies during landing.
2. Space plane type: In this type, the vehicle can be used both as
an aeroplane and as a rocket. Thus, it uses wings and

57
 1.5 Multi stage rocket

Fig: RLV-TD of ISRO.

Fig: Discovery space shuttle.

Fig: Falcon-9 vertical landing space shuttle.

58
 1.5 Multi stage rocket

aeroplane principles in earth’s atmosphere and rocket

principles in outer space. The thermal protection system
while entering back to earth’s atmosphere is highly
important in this type of systems. Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) has successfully tested its RLV-TD
(Reusable Launching Vehicle Technology Demonstrator).
3. Vertical landing type: In this type, the first stage empty part
will carry an extra 10% fuel reserved for its return journey.
This method is most successful due to its low cost and high
safety to the returned rocket parts. They use Reaction
Control System (RCS) technology to control the return
journey. They have additional nozzles on the side ways of the
capsule that can generate roll, yaw and pitch type of motion
to control the movement of the capsule while re-entering
into earth’s atmosphere and while landing.
Usually multi stage rocket systems are more prone to failure risk,
as they involve additional machinery to separate the lower stage and
fire the next stage on the fly. Multiple usage may not be possible due
to quality deterioration in each landing, as a result of which they
need to be refurbished for next usage.
The payload ratio for the multistage rocket is obtained by the
product of individual stage payload ratios, as given below.

Here = ( ) / () is the payload ratio of the stage.

The change in velocity Δ , produced by a multistage rocket,
is given by

Δ = ln[ + (1 − ) ]

A plot of variation of payload ratio with performance for a

multistage rocket is shown below. One can see that up to three
stages, there is a significant improvement in performance and from

59
 1.5 Multi stage rocket

Fig: RCS Mechanism for vertical landing.

E - Corner
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/rocket/rktstage.html
https://www.isro.gov.in/launchers/isro%E2%80%99s-scramjet-
engine-technology-demonstrator-successfully-flight-tested
https://www.clearias.com/scramjet-engine/
Atmospheric and Space Flight Dynamics_ Modeling and Simulation
with MATLAB® and Simulink® -Ashish Tewari , Birkhäuser Boston
(2006).

Activit
Prepare a study report on various types of technologies
and jet engines used in reusable launch vehicles.

60
 1.6 Rutherford scattering

the 4th stage onwards there is no significant effect of the number of

stages on the performance of the rocket.

Fig: Payload ratio vs Performance of multistage rocket.

1.6 Rutherford scattering

Rutherford − is the
ground breaking experiment that opened doors to a new era in
mechanics namely old quantum mechanics. The phenomenon has
been dealt at such a fundamental level that even simple conservation
laws can be able to explain the observed experimental results. Thus
stands as an evidence of simplistic fundamental characteristic of
wonders of nature.
To begin with, consider an particle of charge 2 with initial
velocity incident on a nucleus of charge . The particle
approaches the nucleus and repels back in a smooth hyperbolic path
as shown in the figure. Let be the velocity at , let be the velocity
at point and at point B velocity again attains a value of . At point
, the velocity of the particle is perpendicular to the radial vector
connecting it with the nucleus. Let be the distance of closest
approach. i.e., the direct shortest distance between the nucleus and
the particle at any instance. Let be the ⊥ distance between the

61
 1.6 ర థ ా ట ం
1.6 థ ట ం
థ α- క ట ం ప గం అ ॓ త ంటం ॓ అ త
శ త న ం ం ప గం. ఈ దృ షయం ంత థ కౖ నదం ,
రణ తత య ఈ ప గ ఫ ల వ ంచగల . ఆ ధం పకృ
అ ల క సరళత అ థ కల దర నం ం ఈప గం.

Ze క న య Nౖ రంభ గం υ0, 2e క న α కణo నం ంద

ఊ ంచం . α కణం ంద కం వద ం ం మ తం న ధం ఒక
మృ ౖ నౖ ప ॓ రం ం . A వద υ0 గం ఉం ం , C వద గం υ
అ ం B వద గం మ υ_0 వ ం ం . ం C వద, α కణం క
గం ంద కం అ సం ం య లంబం ఉం ం . bఅ ఏౖ
సందర ం ంద కం మ α కణం మధ పత అ త వ రం మ pఅ ంద కం
మ α కణం మధ ఉన ⊥^lr రం. ఇం ॓ ట అం .ϕఅ ట ం
ణం . అన , α క ల పతన మ ర మ ర ల మధ ణం.

స ౖ ఎ వం హ బ ప యనం న మ ప య శ నష ం నం న, శ
మ ంటం క కన ష వ ంప యవ . య ఉన అ
శల α కణం క పవర న ఒ ధం ఉం ం బ , సలం క స యత ఉం
మ ం ల ంటం కంజ అ ం .Aమ C వద ం ంటం
కన ష ఉప ం న

= ⇒ = / − − − (1)
A, C ల వద శ తత య ఉప ం న ,

1 1 2
+0= + − − − (2)
2 2 4
α కణం య శ పతనౖ , -ఆ అం మ ఆ
సందర ం ప వప (p=0) అ ం మ పత అ త వ రం (d≠0)
తం ం ఉం ం .అ ,శ తత యమం ఉప ,

1 2 2
= ⇒ = − − − (3)
2 4 4
ఇక డ T_0 అ α కణం క రంభ గ శ .. Eq. (1) మ Eq. (3) ల Eq. (2)
ప , ం అధ ల ఉప ం న య మధ సంబం బట వ .

1 −
= − −(4)

62
 1.6 థ ర్ ట ం

nucleus and the particle at any instance. This is called the impact
parameter. Let be the scattering angle. i.e., the angle between
incident and emergent ray of particles.

Fig: Rutherford scattering.

Since there are no external forces acting on the system and

since there is no energy loss in the process, one can apply laws of
conservation of energy as well as momentum. Since the behaviour of
particle is same in all directions around the nucleus, homogeneity
of space exists and angular momentum also conserves. Applying
angular momentum conservation at and yields
= ⇒ = / − − − (1)
and application of law of conservation of energy at and gives
1 1 2
+0= + − − − (2)
2 2 4
If the particle is incident along the radial vector, then it is called
head-on collision and in that case impact parameter becomes
zero( = 0) and only distance of closest approach ( ≠ 0) exists.
Then, conservation of energy yields
1 2 2
= ⇒ = − − − (3)
2 4 4
where is the initial kinetic energy of the particle.

63
 1.6 ర థ ా ట ం
ౖ ప క సమ పత రణం , C మ M ం O ంద ం ఉన వృత ంౖ
వ . అం వలన OC=OM=a (అ ం ), ఆౖ ΔMNO ం ,

= cot ⇒ = tan − − − (5)

పటం ం

= + = / cos + = (sec + 1) − − − (6)

Eq. (5) ఉప ,

cos 1
= (sec + 1) = cot (sec + 1) = +1
sin cos
(1 + cos )
=
sin

2 cos
⇒ = 2 = cot
2 sin 2 cos 2 2

Eq. (5) మ Eq. (6) Eq. (4) ప ,

( + sec ) − ( tan )
=
+ sec
( + sec + 2 sec − tan )
=
+ sec
2 (sec + 1)
=
(sec + 1)
⇒ = 2 − − − (7)
Eq. (5) మ 2 + = 180° ఉప ,

⇒ = 2 cot = 2 cot 90° − = 2 tan − − − (8)

2 2
అం వల, ఇం ॓ ప p క న వల ట ం ణం ϕ ఎ వ ఉం ం .

ౖ పటం ం ఎ ం ఈ ధం ర ంచవ .

/
= = = sec = √1 + tan = 1+ − − − (9)
వర లం ండవ పదం ఎల ధన సంఖ క వర బ ఇక డ ఎ ం ఎల
ε>1. అం వల 1+ క వర లం ధ త క సంఖ ఎల 1 కం ఎ వ ఉం ం ,
త α కణం క పథంౖ ప అ ం .

64
 1.6 థ ర్ ట ం

Substituting Eq. (1) and Eq. (3) in Eq. (2) gives a relation between the
variables from the two studies as,
2 1 2 2 2
= + = +
4 2 4 4 4
1 1 1
⇒ = + ⇒ = + ⇒ = + ⇒
−
= − −(4)

Due to symmetry of the hyperbola, the points and fall on a circle

with as the center. Thus = = ( ), then from Δ ,
= cot ⇒ = tan − − − (5)
From the figure
= + = / cos + = (sec + 1) − − − (6)
Using Eq. (5) gives
cos 1
= (sec + 1) = cot (sec + 1) = +1
sin cos
(1 + cos )
=
sin

2 cos 2
⇒ = = cot
2 sin 2 cos 2 2

Substituting Eq. (5) and Eq. (6) in Eq. (4) results in

( + sec ) − ( tan )
=
+ sec
( + sec + 2 sec − tan )
=
+ sec
2 (sec + 1)
=
(sec + 1)
⇒ = 2 − − − (7)
Using Eq. (5) and the observation that 2 + = 180° gives

65
 1.6 ర థ ా ట ం
Eq. (6), Eq. (8) మ Eq. (9) ల ఉప ం , పత అ త వ రం క ం ,

= (1 + sec ) = (1 + )
2
= 1 + 1 + (2 / ) − − − (10)
2
అ లంబ తం , p=0⇒d=b, త Eq.(4) సంబం ధృ క ం .b వ Eq (3)
ఇవ బ ం .

ట ం
ట ం అ , తం ట ఐన క ల ం ష ఘన ణం ట ఐన
క ల సంఖ ఇ ం . పతన రణం క వత I0 అ , ఇం ॓ ప ప p పల
పతనం అ న క ల వత

= − − − (11)
pమ p+dp ప వ క ల సంఖ

=2 − − − (12)
ల ం ం r రం ఉన ప గ ంచం . అ ϕమ ϕ+dϕ మధ ఘన ణం
ట అ క ల సంఖ

= 2 sin − − − (13)
Eq.(12) మ Eq.(13) ం ,

2 sin = −2 − − − (14)
ఇక డ -ve p త దల ϕ దల ం . ట ం - క
ప ణం న ,

−2 −
= = − − − (15)
2 sin sin
Eq.(8) ం

1
= cot ⇒ = − cosec /2 =−
2 2 4 4 sin /2
ఆ ధం

=( ) /
= /
− − − (16)

66
 1.6 థ ర్ ట ం

⇒ = 2 cot = 2 cot 90° − = 2 tan − − − (8)

2 2
Thus, the scattering angle will be more for smaller values of impact
parameter .
From figure, one can define eccentricity as

2
= = cos = sec = 1 + tan = 1+ − − − (9)

Here eccentricity > 1 always, since the second term in the square
root is square of a number which is always positive. Thus square root
of 1+ a positive number will always be greater than 1, so that the
trajectory of the particle is a hyperbola.
Using Eq. (6), Eq. (8) and Eq. (9), the distance of closest
approach is given by

= (1 + sec ) = (1 + )
2
= 1 + 1 + (2 / ) − − − (10)
2
For head on collision, = 0 ⇒ = , thus verifying the
relation in Eq.(4). The value of is given by Eq. (3).

Scattering cross section

The scattering cross section gives the number of particles
scattered into the given solid angle, out of all the scattered particles
or the incident particles. Let be the intensity of incident beam.
Then the intensity of particles that are incident, within impact
parameter range , are
= − − − (11)
The number of particles that fall within the range of and + is
=2 − − − (12)

67
 1.6 ర థ ా ట ం
ఇక డ ట ం - గ శ క వ మ ట ం ణం కౖ క
4వ పవ తం ఉం ం ..ౖ స కరణం ం , గమ ంచవ

1. ద ంద ల , Z క వ ద మ అం వల పణ ణం ద
అ ం .
2. అ కగ శ క ల , పణ త వ ఉం ం .
3. ట ం ϕ ణం ఎ వఅ , ట ం త వఅ ం .
4. అ లంబ తం , ట ం అత ల ం ఉం ం .

E - Corner

https://personal.math.ubc.ca/~cass/rutherford/r.pdf
https://www.scirp.org/pdf/JMP_2019061815405467.pdf
http://www.olabs.edu.in/?sub=75&brch=12&sim=88&cnt=1
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/rutherford-
scattering
https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/RutherfordScattering/
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/Ap
plets1/rutherford/rutherford.html

Activit
Derive scattering cross-section for relativistic case of
Rutherford scattering problem.

68
 1.6 థ ర్ ట ం

Fig: Scattering Cross-section.

Consider a screen at a distance of from the target. Then the number

of particles that scatter within the solid angle between and +
is
= 2 sin − − − (13)
From Eq. (12) and Eq. (13),
2 sin = −2 − − − (14)
Here − sign indicates an increment in with a decrement in .
Thus the magnitude of scattering cross-section is given by
−2 −
= = − − − (15)
2 sin sin
From Eq.(8),
1
= cot ⇒ = − cosec /2 =−
2 2 4 4 sin /2
Thus
cos /2 1
2 sin /2 4 sin /2
=− = =
sin 2 sin /2 cos /2 16 sin /2
Or
4
= = − − − (16)
(4 ) 16 sin /2 16 sin /2

69
 1.7 Future insights

1.7 Future insights

E - Corner

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1935ZA......9..258B
https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/35697.
https://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/energy-fundamentals/15.htm

https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Seismic_attenuation

E - Corner

Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman - Sears and Zemansky's

University Physics with Modern Physics-Pearson Education (2015)
A. N Matveev - Mechanics and theory of relativity, Mir Publishers
(1989)
[Mathematical and Analytical Techniques with Applications to
Engineering] Livija Cveticanin (auth.) - Dynamics of Bodies with
Time-Variable Mass, Springer International Publishing, (2016)
Kleppner D., Kolenkow R. - An Introduction to Mechanics,CUP
(2013)
[Modeling and Simulation in Science, Engineering and Technology]
Ashish Tewari - Atmospheric and Space Flight Dynamics_ Modeling
and Simulation with MATLAB® and Simulink®, Birkhäuser Boston,
(2006)
[Aerospace Series] Craig A. Kluever - Space Flight Dynamics, Wiley,
(2018)

70
 Solved Problems & Exercises

Here the scattering cross-section is inversely proportional to square

of kinetic energy and to the 4th power of sine of scattering angle.
From the above equation, one may observe that
1. For larger nuclei, larger is the value of and hence larger is
the scattering angle.
2. For high kinetic energy particles, scattering cross section will
be low.
3. Larger the angle of scattering , smaller is the scattering
cross section.
4. For head on collision, scattering cross section is the lowest.

Solved Problems & Exercises

Problem 1 .Astronaut’s tug of war : Two astronauts A
and B on a spacewalk decide to play tug of war by pulling on
either end of a rope. Suppose A is stronger than B and mass
of the rope is neglected. Find the motion of the rope if each
astronaut pulls on the rope as hard as possible.
Sol: The force diagram is as follows.

Let are forces exerted on the rope by the

Astronauts A and B respectively. And ′ ′ are the
forces exerted by the rope on the astronauts A and B
respectively.
Hence from Newton’s third law , = ′ and = ′
Now the equation of motion of the rope is − =
= 0 => =
 ′ = ′ ie the astronauts must pull with the same
force. No matter how much stronger the astronaut A
than B, A is unable to pull harder than B!!

71
 Solved Problems & Exercises
Problem 2. String of N cars : Consider a string of N cars,
each of mass M and pulled by a force . Find the force that
pulling last n cars.

Sol: Given mass of each car is M hence total mass of the

system is NM
and the cars are joined and thus constrained to have same
acceleration ‘a’. is the force of pull of the cars

Hence from Newton’s second law, =( ) => =

The net force experienced by each car to the right is =

= × =

∴ The force that pulling last n cars = sum of all net forces
experienced by n cars = ×

From above force diagrams, we can observe that, the normal

force exerted by the floor and weight of the car cancel each
other in each case of the masses because there is no vertical
acceleration.
Hence equation of motion for the 3rd car or the force on 3rd
car is

= = × =
3 3
Equation of motion for middle car is
Force by 1st car – Force by 3rd car = − =

72
 Solved Problems & Exercises

But from Newton’s third law, = => − = ×

=
2
=
3
Equation of motion for the 1st car is
Force by 1st car – Force by 3rd car = − =

But from Newton’s third law, = => − = ×

= = )

Problem 3. A block of mass 2 kg is at rest on a horizontal table. The

coefficient of friction between the block and the table is 0.1. A
horizontal force of 3 N is applied to the block . Find the speed of the
block after it has moved a distance 10m.
IIT JAM 2015

Solution: The speed of block at 10m distance = √2 =

√2 × × 10
The net force acting on block
= − =3−
= = 0.1 × 2 × 9.8 = 1.96
.
= 3 − 1.96 = 1.04 => = = 0.52 /
∴ = √2 × 0.52 × 10 = 3.22 /

Problem 4: A raindrop falling vertically under gravity gather

moisture from the atmosphere at a rate given by = , Where
is the instantaneous mass, t is the time is a constant. The
equation of motion of the raindrop is

+ =

If the drop starts falling at t is equal to zero, with zero initial velocity
and initial mass (given =2 , = = 1000 /
) , Find the velocity of the drop after 1 sec.
IIT JAM 2011

73
 Solved Problems & Exercises

Sol: Given = => ( )= + = + [ Since here

at t=0 , m= ]
×
At =1 , (1) = +2 = 6
+ = => ( )= => − =
=> = = 1000 /
(Here at t=1 sec, instantaneous mass = and dt = 1 sec)
Problem 5. Show that greater the value of Mfuel/Mvehicle, the greater
be speed attained by rocket.
Sol:
We know that

= +

When the fuel is burnt out completely, the remaining mass

corresponds to the mass of the vehicle (Mvehicle= ).
Above equation can be written as

= + +1−1

= + 1+ −1

−
= + 1+

We know that
Mfuel = Mo-Mv
Therefore

= + 1+

It clearly shows that, if > 1 then only final velocity v of the

rocket increases.

74
 Solved Problems & Exercises

i.e. greater the value, then the greater is the speed attained by
the rocket
Problem 6: The first and second stages of a two stages rocket have
weight 100kg and 10kg and carry 800kg and 90kg of fuel supply. The
velocity of the ejected gases relative to the rocket is 1.5km/sec. Find
the final velocity attained by the rocket. Given (loge 10 = 2.3 and log10
2= 0.3)
Sol:
The velocity of the rocket at an instant of time is given by

= +

First stage
Mo = 100 +10+800 + 90 = 1000kg
M = 100 +10+ 90 = 200kg
Rocket initial velocity vo =0.
And gasses ejecting velocity u=1.5km/sec

= +

1000
= 0 + 1.5
200
= 2.41 /
For second stage
Mo = 10+ 90 = 100kg
M = 10kg
Rocket initial velocity vo = vo= 2.41 / .
And gasses ejecting velocity u=1.5km/sec

= +

75
 Solved Problems & Exercises
100
= 2.41 + 1.5
10
= 2.41 + 3.45
= 5.48 /
Problem 7: A rocket having an initial mass Mo starts form rest. When
it attains a velocity v, its mass becomes M. What is the ration of
(Mo/M) when the velocity of exhaust gases is equal to v (numerically).
Sol:
The velocity v of the rocket at any instant of time t is given by

= +

ℎ =0 =

ℎ , =0+

= = 2.717

Problem 8. 5 Mev particles are scattered back from a metal foil

with z= 79. Calculate the maximum volume in which the positive
charge of the atom is likely to be concentrated.
Sol: Given the alpha particles are scattered back. Ie at the point of
closest approach ‘b’, the particle kinetic energy is converted in to
potential energy
1 2
∴ . = . => =
2 4
2 × 79 × (1.69 × 10 )
=> 5 × 10 × 1.69 × 10 =
1
9 × 10
× × . × × ×
 = = 480 × 10 =
× × . ×
0.048

76
 Solved Problems & Exercises

 Maximum volume = = × 3.14 × 0.048 =

0.000463
MCQs
1. The scattering cross section has dimensions of
a) Volume b) Area c) Mass d) Density
AUCET 2020
Ans: b
2. In a Rutherford scattering experiment, the number of scattered
particles per unit area is proportional to

a) 1/ sin b) c) d)

AKNU 2020
Ans: a and c

3. In a Rutherford’s scattering experiment of −particles by

metallic foils, with the increase of atomic number of nucleus,
the scattering angle is
a) Remains unchanged b) Decreases c) Increases d)First
decreases and then increases
AKNU 2020
Ans: c
4. A rocket burns 0.05kg of fuel per second and ejects the burnt
gases with a velocity of 5000 m/s, the reaction is
a) 250 N b) 225 N c)210 N d) 230 N
AKNU 2020
Ans: a

77
 Solved Problems & Exercises
5. A rocket of mass ,takes off with a constant velocity , in a
uniform gravitational field. The rocket losses fuel mass, as it is
propelled by the gas, which is ejected with a velocity relative
to the rocket. At a later time , is given that the mass of the
rocket is the velocity of the rocket is equal to

a) − b) − ( ) c) ( ) d) −

HCU 2019
Ans: a
6. A particle whose mass varies with the time, moves under the
influence of a force ⃗. If T is the kinetic energy and ⃗ is the
momentum of this particle, which of the following equation is
valid
⃗. ⃗ ( ) ⃗. ⃗ ( ) ( )
a) = b) = c) = ⃗. ⃗ d) = ⃗. ⃗

HCU 2016
Ans: a
Hint : As per the dimentions option a is correct

7. Consider a Rutherford’s scattering experiment in which 2 MeV

alpha particles were incident on a thin gold foil. The
distance of closest approach is
a) 228 fm b) 567 fm c)114 fm d)197 fm
HCU 2016
Ans:c
× × . ×
Hint: = = × × . ×
× 9 × 10 = 114 Here
= 9 × 10

and =2 = 2 × 10 × 1.6 × 10

78
 Solved Problems & Exercises

8. If the distance between two bodies of masses and is a

doubled ,the gravitational force between them becomes
a) double b) half c) one forth
d)Unchanged
HCU 2014
Ans :c
9. Consider two particles moving along the x -axis. In terms of
their coordinates and , their velocities are given as =
− , = − respectively. When they start moving
from their initial locations of (0) = 1 = −1, the
time dependence of both and contains a term of the form
,where is constant. The value of ( an integer) is
IIT JAM 2017
Ans: a= -2

Hint: Let = and = . Given = =>

= − ----(1)

= => = − -----(2)

(1) – (2) gives a ( − )= 2( − ) => a = -2

10. A particle moves in a circular path in the xy- plane centered at

the origin. If the speed of the particle is constant, then its
angular momentum
a) About the origin is constant both in magnitude and
direction
b) About (001) is constant in magnitude but not in
direction
c) About (001) varies both in magnitude and direction

79
 Solved Problems & Exercises
d) About (001) is constant in direction but not in
magnitude
IIT JAM 2016
Ans: a and b
11. A rod is hanging vertically from a pivot. A
particle, travelling in horizontal direction,
collides with the rod as shown in the figure.
For the rod- particle system, consider the
linear momentum and the angular
momentum about the pivot. Which of the
following statement are not true

a) Both the linear momentum and angular momentum are

conserved
b) Linear momentum is conserved but angular momentum is
not
c) Llinear momentum is not concerved but angular
momentum is conserved
d) Neither and linear momentum nor angular momentum are
conserved

IIT JAM 2015

Ans: a

12. Two points N and S are located in the Northern and

Southern hemisphere ,respectively, on the same longitude.
Projectiles P and Q are fired from N and S respectively,
towards each other. Which of the following options is
correct for the projectiles as the approach the equator?
a) Both P and Q will move towards the East
b)Both P and Q will move towards the west
c) P will move towards the east and Q towards the west
d) P will move towards the west and Q towards the East

IIT JAM 2014

Ans: b

80
 Solved Problems & Exercises

13. A 400kg rocket is set for vertical firing. Exhaust speed of the
gases is 490m/s. The rate at which gas is to be ejected to give an
upward acceleration of g to the rocket
a) 160kg/s b) 16kg/s c) 1.kg/s d) 80kg/s
Ans: b
14. If M is mass of rocket, r is rate of ejection of gases and u is
velocity of gasses with respect to rocket then acceleration of the
rocket is
a) ru/(M-rt) b)(M-rt)/ru c)ru/(M+rt) d)ru/M
Ans: a
15. A rocket takes off from Earth and reaches a speed of 100 m/s in
10.0 s. If the exhaust speed is 1500 m/s and the mass of fuel
burned is 100 kg, what was the initial mass of the rocket? (neglect
the gravity on rocket)
a) 1501 kg b) 1601 kg c)1551 kg d)1651 kg
Ans: c
Grade your understanding
1. In a variable mass system, the ejected mass( ) [ ]
moves opposite to the remaining mass( − ∆ )
2. Rocket motion needs modified Newton’s laws of [ ]
motion
3. Newton’s Laws of motion are universal [ ]
4. The rate of change of momentum of uniformly [ ]
moving variable mass is zero
5. Cryogenic liquid or gaseous type fuels reduces [ ]
considerably the weight of the rocket
6. The trajectory of particle in Ruthe ford scattering is [ ]
either hyperbola or a straight line
7. Mass of satellite or other higher stages excluding [ ]
empty structural mass is called payload mass
8. Performance of the rocket will be zero when, when [ ]
payload mass equals to rest of the mass of the rocket
9. The angle between incident and emergent ray of [ ]
particles is called impact parameter
10. For high kinetic energy particles, scattering cross [ ]
section will be low

1. No 2. Yes 3. No 4. No 5. Yes 6. No 7.Yes 8. Yes 9.No 10. Yes

81
 Glossary

Glossary
Glossary: Mechanics of particles
Centripetal An actual force acts on the mass towards the
force center in curved motion by any field /system
An apparent/pseudo force acts by the mass
Centrifugal
outwards to the center in curved motion
force
against any field /system
The property that does not depends on any
Homogeneity
specific location/time
The property that does not depends on the
Isotropy
direction of the location/time
The distance of closest approach that would
Impact occur for the colliding particles if they
parameter followed their initial straight line
trajectories
A force that acts on a body for a short period
Impulse
of time
Intensity of
particles The number of particles per unit area
Laws of Relationship between an object’s motion and
motion the forces acting on it
The load carried by a
vehicle(aircraft/rocket) exclusive of what is
Payload
necessary to the purpose of
flight(passengers/satellite)
Point like An ideal small mass without any shape or
Particle any internal structure
Something that propels(an explosive/fuel &
Propellant
oxidizer/gas under pressure)
Any vector that point straight towards or
Radial vector
away from the origin the center of the cause

Review A general survey or a critical evaluation

Rocket The combination of several rocket sections

staging that fire in specific order and then to detach

82
 Glossary
Relativistic Variable mass quantity that depends on the
mass velocity of the mass and observer
The deviation from a straight trajectory of
Scattering moving particles or radiation by localized
non uniformities
A measure of the amount of the field of view
Solid angle
from some point that a given object covers
Strapping Mounting strongly
A force or a push acting perpendicular to the
Thrust
surface of the body

83
 Glossary

84
 UNIT-I
Chapter-2
Rigid body Dynamics
దృఢ వ లగ
CHAPTER దృఢ వ ల
2 గ
ణల
ఈఅ యం ఈ ం ష ం ,

1. దృఢవ ర చనం, భమణ చలనం కౖ న ॓ సంబం .

2. ం ల ంటం మ ంటం అ ఇన న ం ,.

3. భమణ చలనం క చలన స కరణం.

4. ఆ ల స కర మ క ష

5.ౖ , అయ ంత తం పర ల ష ,ఈ ॓ క ష .

అభ సన ఫ

అ యం సమ , ఈ ం యగల

1. ల భమణ చల సంబం ం న ధ క ల ర ంచగల .

2. ధౖ నన ల ం ల ంటం వ ంచగల .

3. ధ స ల సం ం అ ఇన న ంచం .

4. ఆస ఉన ధ వ వసల ఆ ల ల ంచగల .

5. ఆస ఉన ధ స ల ష ప ల ంచగల .

6. దృఢవ ల ం అ ఇన మ ష ప ల సం ౖ న

మ స కర ల అ వృ యగల .
RIGID BODY

CHAPTER
DYNAMICS 2
Syllabus
Rigid body, rotational kinematic relations, Equation of motion for a
rotating body, Angular momentum and Moment of inertia tensor,
Euler equations, Precession of a spinning top, Gyroscope,
Precession of atom and nucleus in magnetic field, Precession of the
equinoxes

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn about,
1. Rigid body definition, kinematic relations of rotatory
motion.
2. Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor.
3. Equation of motion of rotating body.
4. Euler equations and precession of top
5. Gyroscope, Precession of atoms in magnetic field, Precession
of Equinoxes.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Define various physical quantities related to rotatory motion
of regid bodies.
2. Explain angular momentum in various dimensional spaces.
3. Calculate moment of inertia tensor for various systems.
4. Analyze Euler angles in various systems of interest.
5. Justify the effects of precession in various systems of iterest.
6. Develop prototype models and equations for momentum of
inertia and precession effects in rigid bodies.
 Syllabus
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ
ఈఅ యం సమ ష ల ం ం రం ల దృఢవ

ౖ న ॓ క అవస ంచగల .

1. క సం: వ ల రస రణ , పర ల రస రణ ; ఆ ల

స కర ౖ ం అంత క వర ఉం దృఢవ ల కద క ర శం .

2. : ల ం ఆ ఇన మ ష ప న త

3. కం ట ౖ : ల ద వ ల వర చల య

ం ఆ ఇన మ ష ం నం అవసరం.

4. గర సం: ధ క ల దవ పం అర ం వడం ం

ఆ ఇన అధ యనం ప న త ం .

5. ఎల ॓: ధ భమణ యంత ల ంచబ న ల ం ంచ

ం ఆ ఇన మ ష ం నం అవసరం.

6. న దక శ : శ ల వ వస ం ఆ ఇన తంౖ ప ం .ౖ డ

శ అంచ యడం వ ల రస రణ ం న నం అవసరం.

7. గ ం : ధ క యం ల గ ంక షణ ం ఆ ఇన మ

రస రణ ం నం అవసరం.

. ప తం ం అప తం

8వ తరగ ర వ వస, గ , సహజ మ కృ మ ఉపగ ల ం ప చయం

11వ తరగ దృఢవ , దవ ంద ం, ం అ ఇన షవ మ

అస నవ , భమణ చలనం కౖ న ॓మ ౖ న ॓ స కర ల , ం

అ ఇన క గణన ం ఉండవ ;.ఈఅ యం , ౖ న న నం

మ వనల క అ వర ల ం ం .

88
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would
be able to identify the need of rigidbody dynamics in the following
fields.
1. Physics: besides Precession of equinoxes, precession of atoms;
Euler equations guide the motion of rigid bodies ranging from
bicycle to spaceship.
2. Chemistry: Moment of inertia and precession plays a major
role in molecular spectroscopy.
3. Computer Science: simulation of video games to mars rovers
require knowledge about moment of inertia and precession.
4. Geology: Study of moment of inertia plays a major role in
understanding the mass distribution in various geological
structures.
5. Electronics: Designing sensors that are attached to various
rotating machine parts requires knowledge about moment of
inertia and precession.
6. Renewable energy: Flywheel energy storage system works on
the principle of moment of inertia. Knowledge about
Precession of equinoxes is required in estimating the tidal
energy.
7. Statistics: Statistical analysis of various industrial machinery
requires knowledge of moment of inertia and precession.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In your 11th class you might have learned about the concept
of rigid body, center of mass, moment of inertia; calculation of
moment of inertia for symmetric and asymmetric objects, kinematic
and dynamic equations of rotatory motion. In this chapter, we shall
be building on the above knowledge and some applications of the
concepts.

89
 ఉ త
ఉ త
అ దం క రంభ ం రత శం మ ల క ఉ .
బృహ రణ క ఉప ష ఉదలక అ 8వ శ బం BC పర ల (అ /కణ)
అ జత ం వ ం . అత ప రం, ప రం అ / ం , మ ఆ రం /
క అ ల ల ఉం ం . ర ం 7వ శ బం అ వక మ
క ఠ లల ఆయన ఆ చన మ ంత అ వృ ం .
ల ల ప గ ం , అ , , , అ అ ప క ఉం .
తదనంతరం, . . 5వ శ ం నక కశ ప మహ , , , ,అ
మ ఆ శం/ఈథ ల నప ప గ ం . క ద పర (అం మ అ )
శనం య ప ం .ప ర ం ఉం పర ర
ఉం య ఆయన ప ం . 4వ శ బం BC తత త య మ
ట ప త పర య మ ప ఏర ధఆ
మ ప ల అనంతౖ న ర ల పర ఉ .ద మ ల
దవ మ ఘనప త వ నత రణమ అ ల మధ సలం
( న త) ఉం ల ప ం .ఈ ం పకృ , ,అ మ
అ 4 ల ల న ప గ .త త, 3వ శ బం BC , అ ప దన
పర లఉ త ం పకృ ,అ , మ అ థ క
ల ల కల క ఉం ం అ ఉం . ట ఆ చన 2000 సంవత ల
అ ఆ చనల పక న ట బ . 18వ శ బం య ప త కం
ౖ జ మ ఆ జ ఉం ంద మ భ ంచవచ ం .
ఫ తం ట ఆ చన మ వ .ఇ ల త మ ంత అ వృ
యబ ం , ఇ పర బ ల ఆ రం ల ల వ కరణ ం .ప త
అవ హన ప రం, ప రం క థ క ఉ , అ ఘనప ,ద ,
మ . త వ ఉ గతల వద ఎ వ శ ల వద
గమ ంచగ అ క ఇతర ఉ .

E - Corner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter
https://www.sutori.com/story/atomic-theory-timeline--
GtGsBHe8bqzrzFeP6tEng4Vo
https://www.mcgoodwin.net/pages/otherbooks/tlc_rerumnat
ura.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismhttps://wiki.seg.org/
wiki/Seismic_attenuation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=shdLjIkRaS8

90
 2.1 Introduction

2.1 Introduction
The earliest theories of atomism have their origins in India
and Greece. Uddalaka Aruni in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes
about indivisibility of atoms (anu/kana) in 8th century BC. According
to him, matter is composed of three elements namely Fire/light,
water and food/plants. His ideas were further developed by Ajivaka
and Charvaka schools in 7th century BC. They considered four
elements, which are the earth, water, air, fire that constitute matter.
Subsequently, Kanada or Kasyapa of 5th century BC considered
matter constituted of earth, water, air, fire and sky/ether. Kanada
proposed paramanu (the ultimate atom) as indestructible. He also
proposed that atoms will be of four types that constitute matter. In
4th century BC Greek philosophers Lucretius and Democritus
proposed atoms are indistinguishable and there are infinite types of
atoms with different shapes and sizes that constitute matter. They
have proposed that there must be open space (void) between atoms
which is responsible for fluidity of liquids and gases and for solids to
have very less void. These theories consider the nature to be
composed of 4 elements namely air, water, fire and earth. Later, in 3rd
century BC, Aristotle proposed atoms do not exist but the entire
nature is composed of some combination of four fundamental
elements namely earth, fire, water and air. Democritus’s ideas were
set aside by Aristotle’s ideas for about 2000 years. In 18th century
Lavoisier proved experimentally that water is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen and can be decomposed. This resulted in Democritus
ideas coming into lime light again. This was further developed by
John Dalton leading to classification of elements based on their
atomic weights. According to the current understanding, there are
four fundamental states of matter, namely, solids, liquids, gases and
plasma. There are several other states which are observable at
extremely low temperatures or at extremely high energies.

91
 2.1 Introduction
ఘనప ల ॓ య ,ఆ ల - ం మ ల జ ల
అధ యనం .ద ల ॓ ౖ న ॓ అధ యనం యబ ం .
ల ॓ క గ స కర ల అధ యనం యబ ం .
ౖ న ॓ ౖ న ॓ ౖ ॓ స కర ల
ం ంచబ . ౖ న ॓ థ క కల న ఏ టం ద ల (దృఢ )
ల . ఘన ప ల , (ప బలం) అ ( కృ ) క ప య ;
ద ల , అ క సమయ క ప య .ద ల అత ంత
ఆదర వంతౖ న మ సరళౖ న న య ద వం. ఈ ద ల , స
( గ కృ ) అ అ తం ఉం ం . రణం ,
ద ఆసం డ ప గ ంచబడ అం , ందత ఒ ర .ఉ : .
ల సం డ ప గ అం ఒ ందత ం .
ఉ : .

ఒక దృఢవ హ ఒ , బలం దౖ న ౖ న ఆసం డ

ప గ ంచబడ . అన ; దృఢౖ నవ ల ఏౖ ం ం ల మధ రం రం
ఉం ం . ఆచరణ , ఇ షప త ప ఉ ం . త న ధం అ క
తం ఒ ప ఏౖ య ౖ కల ం ం ం . దృఢవ క
॓ దవ ంద ప శ ట డం సర కృతం యవ . దవ క
ద మక ంచడం దవ ంద ం ందబ ం . క సం , ఇ న
కప య రం ంచడం మక ంచబ ం .

1
= =( + + ⋯) ⇒ =

ఇక డ m_1,m_2... అ దవ . r_1,r_2... అ లం ం సంబం త

దవ య . M=m_1+m_2... స క తం దవ ం
మ Rఅ దవ ం లం క య ం .

ఇక డ ద వ క ద మకం ద వ ం ఇ ం మ దవ క ండవ
మకం జడ ఇ ం . అం , ద వ ంద ం క మకం. ద వ ంద ం
వ వహ ం ట ల అర ం వ , ం సంద ప గ ంచం .

92
 2.1 Introduction

Mechanics of solids is studied by using Newtonian and

further by Euler – Lagrange and Hamilton mechanisms. Mechanics of
liquids are studied by fluid dynamics. Mechanics of gases are studied
by Maxwell’s kinetic gas equations. Plasma dynamics are also
modelled similar to fluid dynamics or kinetic gas equations. The
fundamental assumption in fluid dynamics is that the shear modulus
of fluids is zero. For solid materials, stress is a function of strain; but
for fluids, shear stress is a function of time rate of change of strain.
The most ideal and simplest model for fluids is the Newtonian fluid.
In these fluids, viscous strain is linearly proportional to rate of
change of stress. In general, liquids are considered incompressible
i.e., their density does not change with stress. Eg: Water. But gases
are considered compressible i.e., their density changes with change in
stress. Eg: air.
A rigid body is considered as incompressible under the
application of external stress, force etc. i.e.; the distance between any
two points remains constant in rigid bodies. In practice, this is an
approximation that would work out in specific limits only. Any
material body can be deformed if suitably high amounts of pressure
is applied. Mechanics of rigid body can be simplified by the
introduction of center of mass. Center of mass is obtained by
calculating the first moment of mass. In physics, moment is
calculated by multiplying the given physical quantity with radial
distance.
1
= =( + + ⋯) ⇒ =

Here , … are individual masses. , … are the radial

distances from origin to the respective masses. = + …
indicate the total mass of the system and represents the radial
distance of origin to the center of mass.
Here first moment of mass gives center of mass and second
moment of mass gives moment of inertia. i.e., the moment of center
of mass. To understand the flexibility while dealing with center of
mass, consider the following case.

93
 2.1 Introduction
రం r యబ న m_1, m_2 ం దవ ల ప గ ంచం . r_1 మ
r_2 ఏౖ ప ల ల ఆ ఫ ం ల ఆ ప గ ంచం . R వ వస
క దవ ంద ం ప గ ంచం . అ క తం ం ,

= − − − − (1)
దవ ంద ం అ య ॓ అ ం క ఊహనల సం వ వస
క తం దవ ం కృతౖ ఉన ప గ ంచబ ం . ఈ ధం

+ = +
ఈస కరణం అర ం ఏమం , m_1 ద వ r_1 వద మ m_2 ద వ r_2 వద
ఉంచడం అ , ం దవ R వద ఉంచ స నం. అం వలన ఒక దృఢవ
ం రవ .ఈస కర ం ం నర వ క ం న

+ +
= = − − − (2)
+
ఇక డ

= + − − − (3)
తం ం , ఆ స క ల ందవ , ఇక డ ద వ ం
లం ఉంచడం లవబ న ంద ఇవ బ

+ ( − )
= − = − = =
+ + +
+ ( − )
= − = − = =−
+ + +
ం దవ ల మధ ఆకర ణ బలం కర ణ బ ప గ ంచం మ అ తప
వ వసౖ హ బ ఏ ప యవ ంచం . అ , ప దవ మ క ౖ
ప ం బలం స నం మ దం ఉం ం .

( )=− ̈ = ̈
or
( )
̈ =− − − − (4)

( )
̈ = − − − (5)

94
 2.1 Introduction

Fig: Center of mass and relative coordinates.

Consider two masses , separated by a distance . Let
and be the coordinates of the masses from some observer frame
of reference. Let be the center of mass of the system. Then from
the vector diagram,
= − − − − (1)
Center of mass is the point at which the entire mass of the
system is considered to be concentrated for all point particle
assumptions in Newtonian mechanics. Thus
+ = +
This equation means, keeping mass at and mass at
is equivalent to keeping both the masses at . Thus one can
convert a rigid body into a point particle. This equation can be
rearranged to obtain
+ +
= = − − − (2)
+
where
= + − − − (3)
From the vector diagram, one can obtain the vectors in
relative coordinate system, where distances measured by keeping the
center of mass as origin are as given below
+ ( − )
= − = − = =
+ + +

95
 2.1 Introduction
Eq.(1) Eq.(4) మ Eq.(5) ప

1 1 ( )
̈= ( ) + = − − − (5)

ఇక డ

= − − − (6)
+
వ వస క త దవ

ఈ రచ ల ,ఈ ం లభం ధృ క ంచవ

= + = + − − − (7)
ఇ ప దస ంతర అ ంతం, ప రం ఏౖ ఆ స ఒక వ క
ం అ ఇన అ వ క దవ ంద ం క ం అ ఇన
మ దవ ంద ం ం న క ల ం అ ఇన క
స నమ ం .

వ క దవ ంద ం రం ఉం , ం అ ఇన I=μr^2
ఇవ బ ం .

స క తం శ E అ ఇ యవ

1 1
= ̇ + ̇ + (| − |)
2 2
1 1
= ̇ + ̇ + ( ) − − − (7)
2 2
అబ ర ఆ స మ ంట ఆ , ఆ స ల స క
ం వ స ఇ యవ

= ̇, = ̇ = ̇ = ̇ − − − (8)
ఈ ర చ ల , వ వస క గ శ ఇ యవ

= + = + − − − (9)
2 2 2 2
ధ ఆ స ల ం మధ సంబం లభం ఈ ధం ధృ క ంచవ

= ̇ = ̇+ ̇ = ̇ = ̇− ̇ − − − (10)

96
 2.1 Introduction

+ ( − )
= − = − = =−
+ + +
Consider a gravitational force of attraction between the two
masses and except for that assume that no external forces act on the
system. Then, the force exerted by each mass on the other will be
equal and opposite.
( )=− ̈ = ̈
or
( )
̈ =− − − − (4)

( )
̈ = − − − (5)

Substituting Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) in Eq. (1) gives

1 1 ( )
̈= ( ) + = − − − (5)

where

= − − − (6)
+
is the reduced mass of the system.
With these definitions, one can easily verify that
= + = + − − − (7)
This is the famous parallel axis theorem, which states that
the moment of inertia of an object in any coordinate system is the
sum of the moment of inertia of the center of mass of the object and
moment of inertia of the rest of the particles about the center of mass
of the body.
If the center of mass of the object is stationary, then the
moment of inertia is given by = .
The total energy E of the system is given by

97
 2.1 Introduction
అం వల హ సమన య వ వస ం దవ మ సమన య వ వస
మధ ప యడం ప జనకరం ఉం ం . ఐల హ సమన య వ వస కం
వ ౖ సమన య వ వస ప గణన వడం ॓ల అ వృ .ఇ
ష , ప వం దౖ న త క దృ ష అరం వ ం .
రణ లకం ప గంౖ క భమణ ప 1851 తన ప ద లకం
ప గం పద ం .

E - Corner

https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/PT.3.1796
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-
07-dynamics-fall-2009/lecture-notes/MIT16_07F09_Lec26.pdf

భమణ చలనం సంౖ న ॓ సంబం ల ం ం ఇక డ భమణ గ సం క ప ష

ప చయం యబ ం .అ ఈ ం ధం ఉ

య నం: ఒక వ క య నం అ ర ం ం న ర ఖ
చన , వ ర ం క ఖ న ణం ర ంచబ ం .

య నం రణం ఫ ౖ మ ఆ ॓ ఫ ం క ॓ ఖ
క ఉన సమత లంబం అ ం వ ల వ ం .

య నం అ ప ణం, శ టన యమం
ఇవ బ ం , ఇక డ ళ క రఅ ం ం రంభమ భమణ శ ఇ ం మ
టన య నం క శ ఇ ం .ఈ క ఎల భమణ త లంబం
ఉం ం .

య వ ంచ , ణం య ల .ఇ ఆ క డ మ
వృత ం క రం క డ క ష .

అం వలన ఇ ఒక క ,ఇ ఇ నఆ డ స ర డ ల
సంఖ ఇ ం , య .

= − − − (1)

98
 2.2 Rotational Kinematic relations

1 1
= ̇ + ̇ + (| − |)
2 2
1 1
= ̇ + ̇ + ( ) − − − (7)
2 2
The momenta of the system in the observer coordinate
system and center of mass, relative coordinate systems respectively
are given by
= ̇, = ̇ = ̇ = ̇ − − − (8)
With these definitions, the kinetic energy of the system is
given by

= + = + − − − (9)
2 2 2 2
One can easily verify the relation between the momenta in
various coordinate systems as
= ̇ = ̇+ ̇ = ̇ = ̇− ̇ − − − (10)

Thus it is advantageous to work in center of mass and relative

coordinate system rather than in some external coordinate system.
Euler has developed mechanics by considering the coordinate system
on the object rather than some external coordinate system. This lead
to the understanding of new physical phenomenon like precession,
Coriolis effect etc. The effect of rotation of earth on the simple
pendulum experiment was demonstrated by Foucault by his famous
pendulum experiment in 1851.

2.2 Rotational Kinematic relations

Here the terminology of rotational kinematics will be
introduced in order to derive the kinematic relations for rotational
motion. They are as follows
Angular position: Angular position of an object is defined
as the angle made by the line joining the object to a fixed point, with
reference to a fixed line passing through the same fixed point.

99
 2.2 Rotational Kinematic relations
ణం అపసవ శ ధ త కం ఉం ం మ తఅ ం ం సవ శ
త కం ఉం ం .

య నభ ంశం: ం ష సమ ల వద య నం య
నభ ంశం అం .ఇ ఇ ర ంచబ ం

Δ = − − − − (2)
ం - ౖ॓ ష య నభ ంశం ధ త కం ఉం ం మ ౖ॓
ష త కం ఉం ం . య నభ ంశం క క శ
టన యమం ఇవ బ ం .

య గం మ య గం: ఇ య నభ ంశం క . య గం
క సగ వ ఇవ బ ం

Δ −
= = − − − (3)
Δ −
త ణ య గం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= − − − (4)

య గం క ప య వ అం .

య త రణం: య గం క య త రణం అం . సగ య
త రణం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

Δ −
= = − − − (5)
Δ −
మ త ణ య త రణం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= − − − (6)

ౖ న ॓స కర :

Eq.(6) ం

= ⇒∫ =∫ ⇒ − =
⇒ = + − − − (7)
Eq.(4) మ Eq.(7) ం

= =( + ) ⇒∫ = ∫( + )

100
 2.2 Rotational Kinematic relations

Angular position usually describes the position of rotating

objects about an axis perpendicular to the plane containing the
reference line and the line connecting the object to the reference
point.
Angular position is a vector quantity whose direction is given
by the right hand thumb rule, where curl of fingers gives the direction
of rotation starting from fixed axis and thumb gives the direction of
angular position vector. This vector is always perpendicular to the
plane of rotation.
To describe angular position, angle is measured in radians. It
is the ratio of length of the arc to the length of the radius of the circle.

Fig: Radian

Thus it is a dimension less quantity, which gives the number

of radius lengths that fit into the given arc length, the units of which
are radians.

= − − − (1)

Angle is positive if measured in anticlockwise direction and

is negative if measured in clockwise direction from the reference axis.

Fig: Angular position and angular displacement.

101
 2.2 Rotational Kinematic relations
1
⇒ − = +
2
1
⇒ = + + − − − (8)
2
t వ Eq.(7) ం Eq.(8) ప ంచటం ,

− 1 ( − )
− = +
2
− 1 + −2 −
= + =
2 2
⇒ − = 2 (Δ ) = 2 ( − ) − − − (9)

E - Corner

https://scripts.mit.edu/~srayyan/PERwiki/index.php?title=M
odule_1_--_Angular_Kinematics
https://www.usna.edu/Users/physics/rittenhouse/_files/Ch10
summary.pdf
Pancella P.V., Humphrey M. - Idiot's Guides – Physics
[Undergraduate lecture notes in physics] Hafez A . Radi, John O
Rasmussen (auth.) - Principles of Physics_ For Scientists and
Engineers (2013, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg)
Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Peter M. McGinnis 3rd Ed. ,
Human Kinetics (2013).

102
 2.2 Rotational Kinematic relations

Angular displacement: The change in angular position at two

different time stamps is called angular displacement. This is defined
as
Δ = − − − − (2)
Angular displacement is positive for anti-clockwise rotation and
negative for clockwise rotation. The direction of angular
displacement vector is also given by the right hand thumb rule.
Angular velocity and Angular speed: It is the rate of change of
angular displacement. The average value of angular velocity is given
by
Δ −
= = − − − (3)
Δ −
Instantaneous angular velocity is given by

= − − − (4)

The magnitude of angular velocity vector is called angular speed.

Angular acceleration: The rate of change of angular velocity is
called angular acceleration. The average angular acceleration is given
by
Δ −
= = − − − (5)
Δ −
and the instantaneous angular acceleration is given by

= − − − (6)

Kinematic Equations:
From Eq. (6),
= ⇒∫ =∫ ⇒ − =
⇒ = + − − − (7)
From Eq. (4) and Eq. (7)
= =( + ) ⇒∫ = ∫( + )

103
 ం ల ంటం మ ం అ ఇన య
ం ల ంటం మ ం అ ఇన
గం v సరళ ఖ క న m దవ క నవ మ చలన శ లంబం
ఒక శల ప ల ఉన ప గ ంచం . అ ం ల ంటం ఇ
ఇవ బ ం

= × = ( × )= sin = − − − (1)
అం వల ం ల ంటం ప ల ౖ ఆ రప ఉం ం . కద క శ
లంబం య క ఉం , అ ం ల ంటం గమ ంచబ ం .వ
సరళ ఖ దప న , ం ల ంటం ప ణం ఒక నం ం మ క
ఉం ం . శ ఎల వ మ ప ల క ఉన త
లంబం ఉం ం .ప ల క దవ ఉన శ ఉం (ఇ ఒక ౖ నన
స నం), అ ం ల ంటం ఉండ .

Think …
In 2 dimensions, the motion exists in 2d, but the
result of cross product of two vectors lies in a
direction perpendicular to the plane. Then does
angular momentum exist in 2d?

Did You Know?

In 2 dimensions, angular momentum is a scalar. Its

value is given by = −

https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/556299/if-you-live-
in-a-two-dimensional-world-would-it-be-possible-to-explain-the-
angu

104
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

1
⇒ − = +
2
1
⇒ = + + − − − (8)
2
Substituting the value of from Eq. (7) into Eq. (8) gives,
− 1 ( − )
− = +
2
− 1 + −2 −
= + =
2 2
⇒ − = 2 (Δ ) = 2 ( − ) − − − (9)

Translational Rotational

Equations of motion: in kinematics Equations of motion: in kinematics

a) = + 1. ω = +
b) = + + 2. = +ω +
c) − =2 ( − ) 3. = +2 ( − )

2.3 Angular momentum and moment of

inertia tensor
Consider an object of mass m moving in a straight line with
velocity v and that there is a stationary observer perpendicular to the
direction of motion. Then the angular momentum is given by
= × = ( × )= sin = − − − (1)

Fig: Angular momentum in rectilinear motion.

105
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor
య పపంచం , చలనం 2d ఉం ం ,అ ం క క డ॓ ఫ తం
సమత లంబం ఉం శ ఉం ం .అ యం ల ంటం 2d ఉం ం ?

య పపంచం , యం ల ంటం ఒక . వ L=xp_y-yp_x

ఇవ బ ం .

వృ ర చలనం అ ఒక ప క సందర ం, ఇక డ య క క స ంతర గం

ఎల ఉం ం . య క ఎల గం లంబం ఉం
సందర ం. ఉ : ం , ం టౖ దౖ న .

వ సమతలం ఉం , భమణ చలనం ఒక ం రం ఉం ం .అ స మధ

ఉం ం . ఆ ॓ 3D ఉన ట , భమణ చలనం సమయం ం ఉం ౖ
ఉం ం .

క ల వ వస ఉన , యం ల ంటం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= × + × +⋯ = ∑ × =∑ ( × ) − − − (2)
ల ం ం దవ ంద ం క య R ప గ ంచం మ r_ic
అ దవ ంద ం మ i^వ కణం మధ య రం అ ంచం . అ ఇ
యవ ,

= + = + − − − (3)
Eq.(2) Eq.(3) ప ,

=∑ ( + )×( + )
=∑ × +∑ × +∑ × +∑ × −−
− (4)
దవ ంద ం ర చనం ప రం

∑ =∑ ⇒∑ =∑ ( − ) = 0 − − − (5)
ౖ స కరణం సమయం అవకలనం ( ఫ ష ) నట ,

∑ ̇ =∑ ̇ ⇒∑ =∑ ̇ − ̇ = 0 − − − (6)
Eq.(4) Eq.(6) మ Eq.(5) ప ,

= ×∑ + ×∑ = × + ×∑
= × + − − − (7)

106
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

Thus angular momentum is purely observer dependent. If

there is a radial vector perpendicular to the direction of motion, then
angular momentum is observed. If the object executes rectilinear
motion, angular momentum varies from point to point in magnitude.
Direction always will be perpendicular to the plane containing object
and observer. If the observer is in the same direction as the moving
mass (which amounts to a one dimensional case), then angular
momentum does not exist.
Circular motion is a special case, where parallel component of radial
vector is always zero. Or it is the case where radial vector is always
perpendicular to the velocity vector. Eg: Ceiling fan, wind turbine etc.

Fig: Angular momentum in Circular motion.

If the object is planar, then there will be a point invariant in

the circular motion. That would be the center of the circle. If the
object is in 3D, there will be a line that will remain invariant during
circular motion.
For a system of particles, angular momentum is given by
= × + × +⋯ = ∑ × =∑ ( × ) − − − (2)
Consider the radial vector of center of mass from origin to be
and let be the radial distance between the center of mass and
the particle. Then one can write,
= + = + − − − (3)
Substituting Eq. (3) in Eq. (2) gives
=∑ ( + )×( + )

107
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor
అం వల క ల వ వస క తం యం ల ంటం అ దవ ంద ం క
యం ల ంటం మ న క ల యం ల ంటం త ం W.R.T. ద వ
ంద ం. ఇక డ ద పదం ద వ ంద ం క కద క రణం యం ల ంటం
ం . ండవ పదం దవ ం రం ఉం న క ల భమ ం .
ఎం కం దృఢవ , దవ ంద ం రం ఉం , నక ల ధమ ఏౖ క ఇతర
చలనం ద వ ంద ం రగడం; ఇతర కద క వ క దృఢత ం ప తం
యబడ .

స ఒక కం ఎ వ భమణ అ ల క ఉం , ఆ అ ల ఖండన ర ం
యవ . ఆ ధం ఒక వ క 3D భమణం అ త వ ధమ సమ ప
లకం ఒక ర ం రగటం. ఉ : .

మ ంత ర కరణ యబ న ం ల ంటం ఇ యవ

=∑ × =∑ × ( × ) − − − (8)
A×(B×C)=(A.C)B-(A.B)C అ మన ; ౖ స కరణం ఇ అ ం ,

=∑ [( . ) − ( . ) ]
=∑ −∑ ( . ) − − − (9)
ఇక డ = . = ̂+ ̂+ . ̂+ ̂+ = + +
ఉప ం , ం ల ంటం క x-కం ం ఇ యవ .

=∑ + + −∑ + +

=∑ + −∑ −∑ .
అ ధం

=∑ + −∑ −∑

=∑ + −∑ −∑
॓ పం ఇ యవ

∑ + −∑ −∑
= −∑ ∑ + −∑
−∑ −∑ ∑ +

108
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

=∑ × +∑ × +∑ × +∑ × −−
− (4)
By the definition of center of mass
∑ =∑ ⇒∑ =∑ ( − ) = 0 − − − (5)
Differentiating the above equation WRT time, gives

∑ ̇ =∑ ̇ ⇒∑ =∑ ̇ − ̇ = 0 − − − (6)

Fig: Center of mass coordinates.

Substituting Eq. (6) and Eq. (5) in Eq. (4) gives

= ×∑ + ×∑ = × + ×∑
= × + − − − (7)
Thus the total angular momentum of system of particles is
the sum of angular momentum of the center of mass and the angular
momentum of the rest of the particles W.R.T. center of mass. Here
the first term represents the angular momentum due to the
movement of center of mass. The second term represents the
rotation of the rest of the particles keeping center of mass stationary.
This is because for a rigid body, if center of mass is stationary, the
only other motion possible for rest of the particles is rotation about
center of mass; as other movements are restricted by the rigidness of
the body.

109
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor
క

ఇక డ

=∑ + , = −∑ , = −∑

=∑ + , = −∑ , = −∑

=∑ + , = −∑ , = −∑
I క ఈ క జడత మక క( ం అ ఇన ॓ ) అం . ఇ ఒక
షవ క. ఈ ॓ ప రం ఒక ష అ ం ంట ఉన ం ల ంటం
ఇతర ం పరస ర లంబ శల ం ల ంటం ప తం య ం .
ఆ డ న ల ల ఉన ఈ క న అ అం . వ క ష ,
న అ బ ళౖ నన క . న క ం॓ చ క సంఖ ౖ న
ప ల సంఖ ర ంచబ ం . ఇక డ I ఒక ం॓-2 న . ఎం కం వ వస
3-ౖ నన (3 ల చ)మ ఒక ర ం (ఒక ప .)

Do You Know?

A rank one tensor is called a Vector and a rank zero

tensor is called a scalar (But not vice versa). There are some
other physical quantities that spread, are usually tensors in
Physics. Eg: Thermal & electrical conductivity,
Polarizability, stress, strain.

ం॓ వ న క అ మ ం॓ న అం ( ౖ
). ం ఇతర క , రణం క సం న ఉం .
ఉ : థర & ఎల క కండ , లౖ జ , , .

110
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

Fig: Rotation about an axis and about a point.

If the system has more than one axis of rotation, then the
intersection of those axes may lead to a stationary point. Thus the
least possible symmetry element in the 3D rotation of an object is the
rotation about a fixed point. Eg: Table fan.

Fig: Rotation about a fixed point.

A more general expression for angular momentum of rigid

body is given by
=∑ × =∑ × ( × ) − − − (8)
We know that × ( × ) = ( . ) − ( . ) ; with this
the above equation becomes,
=∑ [( . ) − ( . ) ]
=∑ −∑ ( . ) − − − (9)
Here = . = ̂+ ̂+ . ̂+ ̂+ =
+ + using this, the − of angular momentum
is given by

=∑ + + −∑ + +

111
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

E - Corner
https://machinelearningmastery.com/introduction-
to-tensors-for-machine-learning/
https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=1
0.1.1.552.4933&rep=rep1&type=pdf
https://justincfeng.github.io/Tensors_Poor_Man.pdf
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-
12/Numbers/Math/documents/Tensors_TM2002211716.pdf

112
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

=∑ + −∑ −∑ .
Similarly

=∑ + −∑ −∑

=∑ + −∑ −∑
These can be written in matrix form as

∑ + −∑ −∑
= −∑ ∑ + −∑
−∑ −∑ ∑ +
or

where

=∑ + , = −∑ , = −∑

=∑ + , = −∑ , = −∑

=∑ + , = −∑ , = −∑
This matrix of is called moment of inertia matrix. This is a
symmetric matrix. This matrix indicates that the angular momentum
variations along a particular axis can affect the angular momentum
along the other two mutually perpendicular directions as well. This
matrix with off diagonal elements is also called a Tensor. In colloquial
language, a tensor is a multi-dimensional vector. The rank of the
tensor is decided by the number of degree of freedom minus the
number of constraints. Here is a rank-2 tensor. This is because the
system is 3-dimensional (3 degrees of freedom) and there is one fixed
point (One constraint.)

113
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor
ర భమణ అ ం ఉన స ల , ω మ r_i ఒక క లంబం ఉం , ఆౖ

. = . = . = . = . = . = 0.
అ ం ల ంటం ॓ ఇ ఇవ బ ం
∑ + 0 0
= 0 ∑ + 0
0 0 ∑ +
అం వలన ఈ సందర ం , ం అ ఇన ఒక క అ ం . ఒక సరళ ఖ
ంచ క సం ం ం అవసరం అ . అం వలన ఇక డ ప
ం ఉం మ త అ ం॓-1 న క అ ం . యం ల
ంటం ఇ యవ .

= . = + +
x,y,z అ భమణ వ వస క ప నఅ అం . భమణ అ ం స క ప న
అ ం ఏ భ న , జడత న క ఆ - కర ల .
అం ; వ ప న అ ల ఒక ంట ం , ఇతర ప న అ ల ంట ఉన
య ంటం స తంతం రబ ం .ప నఅ వ దవ ందం ం
, " ంద ప న అ " అం .

జడత ం క సమ ప క , ఏౖ ం కర ల స నం ఉం , ॓
అం మ కర ల స నం ఉం , ర అం .
కర ల ల ం స నం ఉం మ డవ అ , య ట
అం . కర ల ల ఏౖ ఒక క స నం ం , ఎ ॓
అం .

Two ladybugs rest without slipping on a rotating platter that

is increasing its angular velocity. Ladybug A is closer to the rotation
axis than bug B. Which statement correctly describes the relationship
between the bugs’ angular accelerations (a) and centripetal
accelerations (arad)?
1) aA>aB and arad,A>arad,B
2) aA<aB and arad,A<arad,B
3) aA=aB and arad,A<arad,B  https://open.umich.edu/sites/d
4) aA=aB and arad,A=arad,B efault/files/downloads/physics1
40-f07-lecture15.pdf
5) aA=aB and arad,A>arad,B

114
 2.3 Angular momentum and moment of inertia tensor

For systems with fixed axis of rotation, and will be

perpendicular to each other, then . = . = . =
. = . = . = 0. Then the angular momentum matrix is
given by

∑ + 0 0
= 0 ∑ + 0
0 0 ∑ +

Fig: Rotation about a fixed axis.

Thus in this case, the moment of inertia tensor becomes a

vector. Since the description of a line requires at least two points to
be fixed, the constraints will be two and thus it becomes a rank-1
tensor or a vector. One can write angular momentum as,
= . = + +
The axes , , are called the principle axes of the rotating
system. When the rotational axis coincides with the principal axis of
the system, then the off-diagonal elements of the inertia tensor
becomes zero. i.e.; if the body rotates along one of the principal axes,
then the angular momentum along other principal axes can be altered
independently. If the principal axes pass through the center of mass
of the body, then they are called “central principal axes”.
In a symmetric matrix of moment of inertia, if any two of the
diagonal elements are equal then it is called symmetric top and if all
the three diagonal elements are equal, then it is called spherical top.
If two of the diagonal elements are equal and if third one is zero, then
it is called linear rotor. If any of the three diagonal elements are not
equal to each other, then it is called asymmetric top.

115
 భమణ వ చలన స కరణ
భమణ వ చలన స కరణ
భమణ చల అమ ం క ప గ ంచం . అ ం ల ంటం
ఇ ఉం ం

= ×
ం ల ంటం క సమయౖ ధ ంఇ ఉం ం

= ( × )= × + × = × + ×
=0+ × =
ఈ ధం ఒక ం క , ం ల ంటం క వ వస ఉత
యబ న τ ఇ ం . ఇ భమణ చలనం సం ట క ండవ య
పం ఉం ం .
క ల వ వస , ం ల ంటం ఇ ఉం ం

=
మ ం ల ంటం క సమయౖ ధ ంఇ ఇవ బ ం

= ( )= +
ఇక డ ఆ ॓ ఆ దవ పం య తధం క ఉన ంత లం జడత ం
క ం స తంతం ఉం ం . అం వల ౖ స కరణం ద పదం
అదృశ మ ం ,ఇ ం .

= = =
అం వలన దృఢవ , చలన స కరణం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= =
ఇక డ 3 ౖ నన ఆ ॓ ల I ఒక ం॓-2 న .

E - Corner

https://www.lehman.edu/faculty/anchordoqui/chapter19.pdf
http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/PHY235/LectureNotes/Chapt
er11/Chapter11.htm
https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Engineering/Courses/E
n4/notes_old/RigidKinematics/rigkin.htm

116
 2.4 Equation of motion for a rotating body

Fig: Types of rotors in three dimensions.

2.4 Equation of motion for a rotating

body
Consider a point particle executing rotatory motion. Then
angular momentum is given by
= ×
The time variation of angular momentum is given by

= ( × )= × + × = × + ×
=0+ × =
Thus for a point particle, the rate of change of angular
momentum gives the torque τ produced in the system. This is
analogous to Newton’s second law for rotatory motion.
For system of particles, angular momentum is given by
=
and the time variation of angular momentum is given by

= ( )= +
Here moment of inertia remains independent of time as
long as the object retains its shape or mass distribution. Thus the
first term vanishes in the above equation, giving rise to

= = =
Thus for a rigid body, the equation of motion is given by

= =

Here is a rank-2 tensor for 3 dimensional objects.

117
 ఆ ల స కర
ఆ ల స కర
ప ల ం ఉన ప ం ఫ ట /త రణం
ఉన ,వ ల చలన స కర ఆ ల ప ం .అ యడం , అత
య వ ర - రణ సంబం ల వ ంచ బ ల
ప శ .

ఆ స ౖ ఏకప A ప గ ంచం మ క సమయం క

ప యం రడం ద ప గ ంచం . అ క హ ర ం గమ ంచబ ంద
అ ం ం, అ క A క సమయ వ క భమణ
రణం ఉం ం . ఇ యవ

= ×

ఇక డ ω అ క య గం.

అ క ఫ క క సమయ సం రణ స కరణం
ఇ యవ .

= + ×

ఇక డ dA/dt అ / ం ఆ ఫ క A క క సమయ
.

ఈ సంబం ఉప ం , భమణ చలనం సం ట క ండవ యమం ఇ

అం ంచబ ం

( )
= + × = +( × )

ఇక డ

× = (̂ − ) + (̂ − )+ ( − )
అ

= + − = +( − )

= + − = +( − )

118
 2.5 Euler Equations

2.5 Euler Equations

Euler proposed equation of motion of objects when the
observer is in moving frame or especially in rotating/accelerating
frames of reference. In doing so, he has introduced pseudo forces
which can’t be explained by cause and effect relations of Newtonian
framework.
Consider an arbitrary vector A on a rotating body coordinate
system and consider that the vector is not changing as a function of
time. Suppose the same vector is observed from an external fixed
frame, then the time rate of change of vector A is purely due to the
rotation of the body frame. That is given by

= ×

here is the angular velocity of the rotating frame.

Then a general expression for the time rate of change of vector in the
space frames of reference is given by

= + ×

here / is the time rate of change of vector A in the body/rotating

frame of reference.
Using this relation, the Newton’s second law for rotatory motion is
given by
( )
= + × = +( × )

here

× = (̂ − ) + ̂( − )+ ( − )
then

= + − = +( − )

= + − = +( − )

119
 2.5 Euler Equations

= + − = +( − )

ఇ దృఢవ ం నఆ ల క చలన స కర .

ౖ ॓ ఎన మ ం ల ంటం ల త త ం:

హ అ న , (τ=0) ం ల ంటం మ అం వల భమణ గ

శ తతం ఉం ,

అ ఆ ల స కర ఇ

+( − ) =0

+( − ) =0

+( − ) =0

ఆ ల స కర లౖ న వ స ω_1, ω_2, ω_3 ంచడం మ ంచడం

+ + =0

1 1 1
⇒ + + =0
2 2 2
1 1 1
⇒ + + =0⇒ ( )=0
2 2 2
⇒ = = .
ౖ ఆ ల స కర ల I_1 ω_1,I_2 ω_2,I_3 ω_3 ంచడం మ ంచడం

+ + =0

1 1 1
⇒ + +
=0
2 2 2
1 1 2
⇒ ( + + )=0⇒ ( )=0⇒ =0
2 2 2
L=0 అ , భమణం జరగ , బ dL/dt=0 ⇒L= రం.
ంటం త త ం ఉన , భమణ గ శ త ం అం సమయం
ం స తంతం ఉన త ఇ జ ం .

120
 2.5 Euler Equations

= + − = +( − )

These are called Euler’s equations of motion for rigid body.

Conservation of Kinetic Energy and Angular momentum:

When external torque is zero, ( = 0) Angular momentum and hence
rotational kinetic energy conserves,
Then Euler equations become

+( − ) =0

+( − ) =0

+( − ) =0

Multiplying above Euler equations with , , respectively and

adding gives,

+ + =0

1 1 1
⇒ + + =0
2 2 2
1 1 1
⇒ + + =0⇒ ( )=0
2 2 2
⇒ = = .
Multiplying the above Euler equations with , ,
and adding gives,

+ + =0

1 1 1
⇒ + + =0
2 2 2
1 1 2
⇒ ( + + )=0⇒ ( )=0⇒ =0
2 2 2
If = 0, rotation does not take place, so / =0 ⇒ =
.
While momentum conserves, rotational kinetic energy also conserves
only when moment of inertia is independent of time.

121
 ంగర రస రణ
ంగర రస రణ
మ క రఅ ం వ క భమణ అ ం మ భమ ష అం .
అ ం న ంగ ప గ ంచం . అ య ంటం క L
అ ం ంట ఉం ం . ంగరం క భమణ అ ం ఇ అ ం θ
ంద అ ం ం. అ వం సందర ం , ంగరం క కర ణ ంద ం ల
ౖ న ఉం , అ ం ప కర ణ ౖ గం ఉత ం .rఅ
ం కర ణ ంద ం క రం అ ం ం.
ఉత యబ న ఇ ఇవ బ ం
= × = sin = sin(180° − ) = sin .
ఇక డ డ॓ ంచ ,r ౖ mg క స ంచడం అవసరం, అ ం
కన ం ం ౖ వ ం క అ .అ మధ ర ంచవ .
ఫ తం వ తలం , భమణ అ ప ం .ప ం వద
rమ mg క ఉన సమత లంబం ఉం ం . అం వలన ర అ ం L
క భమ ం .
తం ం , ష స క రం L sinθ ఇవ బ ం .
కర ణ ఉత యబ న ం ల ంటం క L క శ
ం . ΔL అ య ంట ంచం . అ సంబం త
ష య గం ఇ ఇవ బ ం
Δ ℎ/ Δ sin
= = = = = =
Δ Δ Δ sin sin sin
= = =
Ω Ω Ω
ఇక డ R అ ంగరం క ర ం, ఇ ంగరం క ఉ త ల నం ఇ ం .
Ωఅ ంగరం క భమణ య గం. బ r ద ఉం , ష ద . అం ;
కర ణ ందం ల రం ఉం , ష ప ఎ వ ఉం .
Ωఎ వ ఉం , ష ప త వ ఉం . అం , ంగరం అ క భమణ గం
ఉం ం . అ రంభ దశ ఉండ . భమణ గం గణ యం త వ ఉన త ,
ష ఆ ప ం ం .
ష ప వం వ క దవ సంబంధం ం ఉం ం దవ పం
ఎ వ ప తమ ం . అం ; r/R^2 ష . ఇం , ఇ ప నం R
వ యం ంచబ ం , ఎం కం ఇ ట క ం . అం వల ంగరం
ఉ ఉం , ష త వ ఉం ం . మ ట లం , ంగరం ఉ
ఉం , ంగరం ష జర లం కర ణ ం ౖ .

Did You Know? precision: The quality of being accurate

Precession: Rotation of axis of rotation around another axis.

122
 2.6 Precession of spinning top

2.6 Precession of spinning top

The slow rotation of axis of rotation of a body around another fixed
axis is called precession.
Consider a top spinning about a vertical axis. Then the
angular momentum vector will be along the vertical axis. Suppose
the axis of rotation of the top now makes an angle with the vertical
axis. In such a case, if the center of gravity of the top is above the
ground level, then the gravity that acts downwards produces a torque
on the top. Let be the distance of center of gravity from the ground.

Fig: Precession of top

The torque produced is given by

= × = sin = sin(180° − ) = sin .
Here to calculate the cross product, one needs to extend upwards
or backwards to make them both converging or both diverging
vectors. Only then the angle between them can be defined.
The resultant torque will be pointing into the plane and thus
pulls the axis of rotation inwards. At every point the torque will be

123
 ౖ (భమణ ద )

E - Corner

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GeyDf4ooPdo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tLMpdBjA2SU

ౖ (భమణ ద )
ౖ ం క స త . ౖ ర అ ప భమణం
మ అం పద ం అ అర ం. లకం క భమ
పద ంచ ౖ ఉప ంచబ ం . అం ఆ వ ం .ౖ అ
థ కం చక ం, భమణ అ పరస రం లంబం పవ .మ ట
లం , ఇ ం పరస రం లంబం ఉం ంబ అమర బ న . ంట
ఉన ం న, అ భమణ అ ం ఎ ం అ మ ంచ .

Mఅ ౖ క దవ ఉండ వ ం . R రం మ Ω
భమణ నః న ం అ ం ం. అ య ంటం =IΩ=MR^2 Ω
ఇవ బ ం .

ౖ కర ణ ందం ం r రం ఉంచబ న ం ఆ ౖ॓
యబడ వ ం . ఇక డ Mg చక ం క దవ ం ప ం .అ అ L
మ Mg ం ం లంబం భమణ శ ( ) ం .

= × = sin = (∵ = 90°)
ఈ రణం , ౖ వ ం .ౖ వ ఉన ౖ
క ష ఇ ఇవ బ ం .

ℎ/ /
= = = = = =
Ω Ω
ౖ మ ం , dϕ క న వల , ΔL న ం మ L లంబం
ఉం ం .అ

| ± Δ /2| = | + . Δ + Δ /4| ≃ (∵ . Δ = 0)

124
 2.7 Gyroscope

perpendicular to the plane containing and . Thus results in a

rotation of the vector around the fixed axis.
From the diagram, the radius of the precession circle is given
by sin .
The torque produced by gravity results in a change in the
direction of the angular momentum vector . Let Δ be the change in
angular momentum produced. Then the corresponding precession
angular velocity is given by
Δ ℎ/ Δ
= = = =
Δ Δ Δ sin sin
sin
= = = = = .
sin Ω Ω Ω

Here R is the radius of the top, that gives a measure of the bulginess
of the top. Ω is the angular velocity of rotation of top.
Thus if is larger, precession is larger. i.e.; if the center of gravity is
far away from ground level, precession effects will be more.
If Ω is higher, precession effects will be low. i.e., if the top has high
rotational velocity it will not precess. Only when the rotational
velocity is considerably low, precession takes dominance.
The precession effect is independent of the mass of the object but is
more affected by the mass distribution. i.e.; by the ratio / .
Further, it is majorly controlled by the value of , as it appears as a
squared term. Thus if the top is bulgy, precession will be low. In other
words, if the top is bulgy, center of gravity should be shifted up
enormously to make it precess.

2.7 Gyroscope
Gyroscope was named so by the French physicist, Leon
Foucault. In Greek the word gyrus means rotation and scope means
the one that displays. The gyroscope was used to demonstrate the
rotation of earth, along with Foucault’s pendulum. Hence the name.

125
 2.7 Gyroscope
అం వల ౖ క ం ల ంటం ౖ వ ష
ఉన ం న ర . అం ; న ంత లంౖ వ ం ప .

అదనం , Ω ద వ యబ ,అ ω_p దగర ఉం ం .మ

ట లం , ష ంద . ఈ ధం ౖ ప ఉన ఏౖ
వ శ ల సంబంధం ం శ రం ఉం ం . ఏౖ హనం
క శ రం ం చ ల అ సం ంచబ ఉం మ ౖ చక ం అస
శ ం న యం మ ంచబ ఉం , అ క అస శ
న ద ంచ ంబ చ వ క శ క .అ తం హనం ంబ
చ ల క ం . ఈ జం క ం య టం
ఉప ంచబ ం , అక డ ట మ మ వ ఎ వం ఆ రం
య యం ఉండ బ .

అంత కల , ౖ న న స కర ల కర ణ బ న య బ
వ ంప యడం అవసరం. అ ఉత యబ న ం బలం, ం ల ంటం
మ అ వ త బలం శ ం ం క సమత లంబం ఉం ం .

E - Corner

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eTjGTxSevHE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cquvA_IpEsA
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
osuniversityphysics/chapter/11-3-precession-of-a-gyroscope/

Fig: Lunar nodes

126
 2.7 Gyroscope

A gyroscope is basically a rotating heavy wheel whose axis of rotation

can be rotated in mutually perpendicular directions. In other words,
it is a flywheel fitted with two mutually perpendicular gimbals. Since
the central wheel is heavy, it won’t allow any change in its axis of
rotation.

Fig: Gyroscope

Let be the mass of the flywheel in the gyroscope. Let be

the radius of it and Ω be its rotational frequency. Then its angular
momentum is given by = Ω = Ω.
Let the gyroscope axle be pivoted on a point object kept at a
distance of from its center of gravity. Here the mass of the wheel
acts downwards. Then it results in a rotational force (Torque)
perpendicular to both and .
= × = sin = (∵ = 90°)

Fig: Gyroscope working principle

Due to this torque, the flywheel disc rotates around the pivot.
The precession frequency of the gyroscope wheel around the pivot is
given by

127
 2.7 Gyroscope

Did You Know?

The line joining earth moon usually makes an angle of 5°..

Only twice in a year, all the three orbs coincide. The crossing
points are called lunar nodes. During that time only eclipses
are observed. That is the only time when sun, moon and earth
fall on the same line. In Indian astronomy as well as in indian
astrology, they are named as Rahu and Kethu. They are 180°
apart. The orbit of the moon precesses around earth with a
period of 18.6 yaers. i.e.; the date os solar/lunar eclipse
coincides for every 18.6 years. Every year eclipse date shifts
back nearly by 20 days. That is why in Indian astronomy and
astrology it is said that all planets revolve round the sun in
anticlockwise direction and Rahu, Ketu revolve round the sun
in clockwise direction. Also during eclipse time, people on
earth experience higher gravitational pull and thus
highest/lowest tides. The component of those highest gravity
vectors on to every day vectors connecting earth, sun and
moon system is called the Rahu Kaala and Kethu Kaala. That
is the time on earth when higher gravitational effects will be
observed in a day. That includes high tide and low tide time as
well at a given place. Solar eclipse occurs during Rahu kaala
and lunar eclipse occurs during Kethu Kaala.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_solar_eclipses_in_t
he_21st_century
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_node

128
 2.7 Gyroscope

ℎ/ /
= = = = = =
Ω Ω
From the above figure, since for small values of ,Δ
becomes small and remains perpendicular to . Then
| ± Δ /2| = | + . Δ + Δ /4| ≃ (∵ . Δ = 0)
Thus the angular momentum of the flywheel in the gyroscope
doesn’t change as it precesses around the pivot. i.e.; the flywheel
doesn’t fall from the pivot as long as it rotates.
In addition, if Ω is set to a very large value, then tends to
zero. In other words, the flywheel doesn’t even precess. Thus any
object tied to the gyroscope wheel keeps its orientation irrespective
of fluctuations in the orientations. If the body of any vehicle is
connected to the gimbal wheels and if the gyroscope wheel is
distracted from its original direction manually, then the gimbal
wheels will move in opposite direction to restore the original
orientation of the flywheel. Then the total vehicle moves along with
the gimbal wheels. This mechanism is used in steering space vehicles
where there won’t be any support or material medium to push and
take a turn.
In space ships, manual force is needed to be applied, instead
of gravity in the above equations. Then the steering force generated
will be in a direction perpendicular to the plane of both the angular
momentum and the applied force direction.

Fig: Gyroscopic navigation

129
 అయ ంత తం పరమ ణ వ మ య ందకం క ిష

చం క ఖ రణం 5° క ఉం ం .. ఏ ం త ,
ఒ ఖౖ వ . ం ంట చంద అం . ఆ సమయం
త గహ క . , చం మ ఒ ఖౖ ప సమయం అ
ఒక . ర య ఖ ళ సం అ ర య ష సం , మ
అ . అ 180° రం ఉ . చం క 18.6 సంవత లవవ
ష అ ం . అం ; ప 18.6 సంవత ల ర /చంద గహణం
ఎ భ ం . ప సంవత రం గహణం 20 న ం . అం
ర యఖ ళ సం మ ష సం అ గ అపసవ శ
య మ , సవ శ య .
అ గహణ సమయం , ౖ ఉన వ అ క కర ణ శ అ భ మ
త అత క/అత ల అలల . , మ చం వ వసల క
ప ల అత క కర ణ క క అం లమ
అం . ౖ ఒక అ క కర ణ ప ల గమ ం సమయం అ . ఇం
అ కఆ మ త వఆ ఉన సమయం అ ష ప శం ఉం .
లం ర గహణం, ల లం చంద గహణం ఏర ం .

అయ ంత తం పర మ ందకం క
ష
యబ న కణం క న , అ అయ ంత ఉత ం . కణం క రం
వృ రం ఉం , అయ ంత వ మకం ఇ యవ

= = = = = =
. 2 2 2
( ) ( )
.
=
2
ఈ అయ ంత మక ఒక , శౖ ల క శ ఉం ం . అం ;
టన యమం ఇవ బ న భమణ సమత లంబం .
యబ న కణం హ అయ ంత తం ఉంచబ ంద అ ం ం, అ
క అ భ ం బలం ం క ఎడమ యమం ఇవ బ ం . తం కణం
క స ంతరం ఉం , అ కణంౖ ఎ వం శ ఉండ . లంబం ఉం ,
లంబం ఉన తలం వృ ర రం క ం . కణంౖ అయ ంత
బలం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= ( × )= ( × )= ( × )

130
 2.8 Precession of atom and nucleus in magnetic field

2.8 Precession of atom and nucleus in

magnetic field
When a charged particle moves, it produces magnetic field. If the path
of the particle is circular, then the magnetic dipole moment is given
by

= = = = = =
. 2 2 2
( ) ( )
.
=
2

Fig: magnetic moment of charge in circular loop

This magnetic moment is a vector whose direction is along the

direction of the area vector. i.e.; perpendicular to the plane of
rotation given by right hand thumb rule.
Suppose a charged particle is kept in external magnetic field, then the
force experienced by charged particle is given by the Fleming’s left
hand rule. If the field is parallel to the velocity of the particle, then
there will not be any force on the particle. If the field is perpendicular,
the charge moves in circular path in a plane perpendicular to the field.
The magnetic force on the charged particle is given by

= ( × )= ( × )= ( × )

The torque produced on the charged particle due to magnetic field is

given by
= ( × )= ×

131
 2.8 Precession of atom and nucleus in magnetic field
అయ ంత తం రణం యబ న కణంౖ ఉ ంచబ ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= ( × )= ×
ఇప వృ ర చలనం ఉన ఎల వం అ ల కణం హ అయ ంత
తం ఉంచబ న ,అ ష న ం .అ

= × = × = × = sin
2
అ వబ ష ఇ యవ
Δ Δ sin
= = = = =
Δ Δ sin sin sin
ఎల సం, γ త కం ఉం ం (-e/2m), అం
=−
ఇక డ g అ స క ం g- రకం.
వ వస ఆ , ం ం అ య ॓ ం ఉం
( + 1) − ( + 1) + ( + 1)
=
2 ( + 1)
( + 1) + ( + 1) − ( + 1)
+
2 ( + 1)
g_L=1 మ g_S=2 ఉప ంచడం
ఇక డ L అ ఆ ం ల ంటం మ Sఅ ం ల ంటం
మ Jఅ ఎల క తం ం ల ంటం.
ంద కం ఉన హ తం ష ం
( + 1) − ( + 1) + ( + 1)
=
2 ( + 1)
( + 1) + ( + 1) − ( + 1)
+
2 ( + 1)
ఇక డ I అ ల ం ల ంటం మ F=I+J పర క
తం ం ల ంటం. అ , μ_B=-e/2m_e అ ఎల క అయ ంత
మకం ( ట అ )మ μ_N=+e/2m_p అ క
అయ ంత మకం. ఎల దవ ద బ , μ_N≪μ_B. బ
ౖ స కరణం ఇ అ ం ,
( + 1) − ( + 1) + ( + 1)
≃
2 ( + 1)

132
 2.8 Precession of atom and nucleus in magnetic field

When a charged particle in atoms, like electron, which is already in

circular motion is kept in external magnetic field, it undergoes
precession. Then

= × = × = × = sin
2

Fig: Precession of electron in magnetic field.

The precession frequency, known as Larmor frequency, is given by

Δ Δ sin
= = = = =
Δ Δ sin sin sin
For electron, is negative (− /2 ), hence
=−
If there are multiple charged particles in the given atom, then the
resultant precessional frequency is given by

=
2
here is the Lande − of the system.
If the system involves orbital, spin angular momenta as well as
nuclear magnetic momenta then

133
 2.8 Precession of atom and nucleus in magnetic field

E - Corner

Larmor Precession. 16 Aug. 2020,

https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/1822.
http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/larmor.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larmor_precession
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%C3%A9_g-factor

134
 2.9 Precession of Equinoxes

( + 1) − ( + 1) + ( + 1)
=
2 ( + 1)
( + 1) + ( + 1) − ( + 1)
+
2 ( + 1)
or by using = 1 and = 2 one can get
( + 1) + ( + 1) − ( + 1)
=1+
2 ( + 1)
Here is the orbital angular momentum and is the spin angular
momentum and is the total angular momentum of the electron.
If the nuclear charge also precesses in the external field, then
( + 1) − ( + 1) + ( + 1)
=
2 ( + 1)
( + 1) + ( + 1) − ( + 1)
+
2 ( + 1)
Here is the spin angular momentum of nucleons and =
+ the total angular momentum of the atom. Also, = − /2
the magnetic moment of electron (also called Bohr magneton) and
= + /2 is the magnetic moment of proton. Since mass of
proton is very large compared to that of electron, ≪ . Thus the
above equation becomes,
( + 1) − ( + 1) + ( + 1)
≃
2 ( + 1)

2.9 Precession of Equinoxes

Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with a tilt
of 23 ° of the axis of rotation. Due to this tilt, around June 21st in
northern hemisphere it will be longest day. This is called summer
solstice. For Indians, the Sun rays seem to be coming from north
corner. Or sun rises in the northeast corner and sets in the northwest
corner. Around December 21st, in northern hemisphere longest night
will be recorded. This is called winter solstice. For Indians, Sun rays

135
 ఈ క ్ క ీ ష
ఈ ॓ క ష
భమణ అ ం క 23 1/2° వం ర వృ రక ం .
ఈ వం రణం , ఉత ర అర ళం 21వ న డ ఉం ం .
స షవ లం అం . ర ల , ర ర ఉత ర ల ం వ న
క ం . ఈ న ల ఉద ం వ ల అస .
ంబ 21వ న, ఉత ర అర ళం రౖ న యబ ం . ల
అయ ంతం ( షవ ) అం . ర ల , ర ర ద ణ ల ం వ న
క ం . ఆ య ల ఉద ం ౖ ల అస . ం
ంబ వర దయ నం ఈ న ల ం ఆ య ల ం . ంబ
ం వర దం జ ం . ఉత రం ం ద ఆ శం
ఈ ప “ద యన” (ద ౖ ప ణం) అ మ మ క
“ఉత యణం” (ఉతరంౖ ప ణం) అ అం .

ంబ మ మధ , 21 మ ంబ 23 మధ , స న
ఉద మ స ప న అస . ఈ ॓ అం .అ
అంత పగ మ స నం ఉం ం .

క ఈ వం ణం స మ క రఅ ం క భమణ అ ం
క ష గం. క క మ చం క కర ణ
శ ల పరస ర పరస ర చర రణం ఈ ష ఏర ం .

ఈౖ న న రణం , 14,000 సంవత ల , క ఉత ర వం న తం

ౖ ం . ప తం ఇ ౖ ం . ఈ ష ల వవ 25,772
సంవత .మ ట లం , ప 72 సంవత ల 1° ఉం ం .

ప తం ఈ ॓ ంబ 23 మ 21 సంభ ం .

ఈ ధం 3221 సంవత ల త త, వ నవంబ 12 మ 10

ర .

6443 సంవత లత త, వ ంబ 21 మ 21 ర .

12886 సంవత లత త, వ 180° ం . అం వల ఉత ర అర ళం

ంబ స లం మ లం ఉం ం .

25,772 సంవత ల త త, మ వ ల గ ష ప త ఆకృ కరణ స నం

ఉం ం .

136
 ఈ క ్ క ష

seem to be coming from south corner. Or sun rises in the south east
corner and sets in the south west corner. From June to December sun
rising point shifts from north-east corner to south-east corner. From
December to June the opposite happens. This journey of sun in the
sky from north to south is called “Dakshinayana” (A journey towards
the South) and the other one is called “Uttaraayana” (A journey
towards the North).

Fig: Solstices and Equinoxes.

In between December and June, around March 21st

and around September 23rd, the sun rises exactly in the east
and sets exactly in the west. They are called Equinoxes. Then
there will be equal day and night throughout the earth.
But this tilt angle of earth is actually a part of
precession of earth’s axis of rotation around another fixed
axis. This precession occurs because of the mutual
interaction of gravitational forces of the sun and the moon
on the earth’s orbit.

137
 ఈ క ్ క ీ ష

Fig: Precession of earth

Due to this precession, by 14,000 year, north pole of earth

would point towards Vegas star. At present it is pointing towards
Polaris. This precession time period is 25,772 years. In other words,
there will be a shift of 1° for every 72 years.
At present Equinoxes occur at around September 23rd and
st
21 March.

Fig: Equinoxes at present

Thus after 3221 years, the equinoxes shift to around 12th

November and 10th May.

138
 ఈ క ్ క ష

Fig: Equinoxes after 3221 Years.

After 6443 years, the equinoxes shift to December 21st and

June 21st.

Fig: Equinoxes after 6443 years

After 12886 years, the equinoxes precess by 180°. Thus in

northern hemisphere during December, there will be summer and
during June, there will be winter.

139
 ఈ క ్ క ీ ష

Fig: Equinoxes after 12,886 years.

After 25,772 years, again the configuration of equinoxes will

be similar to the present configuration.

E - Corner

https://www.britannica.com/science/precession-of-the-
equinoxes.
https://personal.math.ubc.ca/~cass/courses/m309-
01a/tsang/precession.html
Further reading
https://cefrc.princeton.edu/sites/cefrc/files/Files/2015%20Lec
ture%20Notes/Hanson/pLecture4.pdf
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ter.12003
https://www.ijert.org/research/determination-of-moment-of-
inertia-of-electrical-machines-using-matlab-
IJERTV1IS10452.pdf

140
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Did You Know?

Three Georges dam built in China on Yangtze River

is able to slow down the earth motion around the sun by 0.06
microseconds. This is just similar to the slowdown of a half
filled rolling water bottle.
https://www.kinetica.co.uk/2014/03/27/chinese-dam-
slows-down-earths-rotation/
https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/3433

Solved Problems and Exercises

1. In the early 20th century, the standard format for music
recording was a plastic disc that held a single song and rotated
at 78 RPM. What was the angular velocity of such a disc?
Sol.
If we measure angles in units of revolutions and the time in units of
minutes then 78 RPM is the angular velocity using standard physics
units of radians per second, however, we have
×
Angular velocity = 78 = = 8.2 ⁄

2. What is your radial acceleration due to the rotation of the

Earth if you are at the equator?
Sol:
We Know that, The distance from the axis of rotation of the Earth to
a point on the equator where you stand is the same as the radius of
the Earth.

141
 Solved Problems and Exercises
= 6.4 × 10
Your angular velocity = =
⁄
× ×
2 × 3.14
⁄ = 7.3 × 10 ⁄
86,400
Hence your radial acceleration due to the Earth’s rotation is
=
=6.4 × 10
=0.034 ⁄

3. A neutron star is initially observed to be rotating with an

angular velocity of 2.0 , determined via the radio pulses
it emits. If its angular acceleration is −1 × 10 which
is assumed to be constant. How many rotations will it
complete before it stops? ( in reality the angular acceleration
is not always constant, sudden changes occur and are referred
to as starquakes)
Sol:
We know that, If and be the angular velocities at time =
0 respectively and = at initial position then

= +2 ( )
Given , ❑ =0 and =
2.0 , = −1 × 10
−4
⇒ =− ⁄2 =
2 × (−1 × 10 )
2 × 10
= 2 × 10 =
2
= 3.2 × 10

[In general neutron stars are formed from the supernova explosion
of a massive star.But after formation they continue collapsing due to
neutron degeneracy pressure(described by Pauli exclusion principle )
to form a balck hole]

142
 Solved Problems and Exercises

4. Your arm has a mass of 3.0 kg, and its center of mass is 30
cm from your shoulder. What is the gravitational torque on
your arm when it is stretched out horizontally to one side,
taking the shoulder to be the axis?

Sol: The total gravitational force acting on your arm is

| |= (3.0 kg)(9.8 ⁄ ) = 29 N.
For the purpose of calculating the gravitational torque, we can treat
the force as if it acted at the arm’s center of mass. The force is straight
down, which is perpendicular to the line connecting the shoulder to
the center of mass, so
| | = ⊥ = 29 N.
This force acts at the center of the arm,
= 30 cm = 0.30 m,
so the torque is
= r ⊥ = 8.7 Nm.

5. The barbell shown in the figure consists of two

small ,dense,massive balls at the end of a very light rod. The
balls have masses of 2.0 kg and 1.0 kg and the length of the rod
is 3 m. Find the moment of inertia of the rod (1) rotation
about its centre of mass and (2) for rotation about the centre
of the More massive ball.
( This example shows that the moment of inertia depends on the
choice of axis. For example ,it is easier to wiggle a pen about its Centre
than about one and)

143
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Sol: 1) Moment of inertia of the rod about its centre of mass:

From figure, 2 kg mass is at a distance 1m and 1 kg mass is at a
distance 2m from centre of mass.
= + =2×1+1×4=6
Here the less massive ball contributes more to moment of inertia.

2) Moment of inertia of the rod about its centre of mass of more

massive ball.
Here the big ball itself also theoretically contributes to moment of
inertia.Since the balls are said to be small and dense, we can neglect
their small contribution.
Hence moment of inertia about more massive ball
= =1×3 =9

6. In the men's Olympic hammer throw a steel ball of radius

6.1 cm is hung on the end of a wire of length 1.22 m .What
fraction of the ball's angular momentum comes from its
rotation as opposed to its motion through space?
Sol:Given radius of the ball = 6.1 and length of the wire =
1.22
Let T be the time taken for the ball to complete rotation once around
the circle,⇒ = 2 ⁄ ⇒ = 2 ⁄
⇒Angular momentum due to its motion through space =
=2 ⁄ --(1)
Also the time it takes to revolve once around its own axis is same as
T,
Then Angular momentum due to its rotation about its own axis
= =( ) × ( )----(2)

144
 Solved Problems and Exercises

The fraction of the ball's angular momentum comes from its rotation
as opposed to its motion through space is =
( )×( ) ( )
( ⁄ )
= = ×

7. Suppose two objects have the same mass and the same shape,
but one is less dense, and larger by a factor k. (1)How do their
moments of inertia compare?
(2) What if the densities are equal rather than the masses?

Ans: (1) This is like increasing all the distances between atoms by a
factor . All the r’s become greater by this factor, so the moment of
inertia is increased by a factor of
(2) This introduces an increase in mass by a factor of , so the
moment of inertia of the bigger object is greater by a factor of .

8. Consider a simple rigid body consisting of two particles

of mass m separated by a massless rod of length 2l. The
midpoint of the rod is attached to a vertical axis that
rotates at angular speed ω around the z axis. The rod is
skewed at angle α, as shown in the sketch.Find the
angular momentum of the system

(source-Kleppner D., Kolenkow R. - An Introduction to

Mechanics (2013, CUP) - libgen.lc)

145
 Solved Problems and Exercises
Sol: Given length of the rod is2 The rod is massless and the given
masses with mass m are particles of negligible size.
To find the value of ,first let us resolve angular momentum along
the rod and perpendicular to the rod ⊥ as shown.

Because the masses are particles with negligible size, produces no

angular momentum. Consequently, the angular momentum is due
entirely to ⊥. Because L is parallel to ω⊥, we can use the result
from fixed axis rotation = ⊥ , where the moment of inertia
about the direction of ⊥ is + =2 .
The magnitude of the angular momentum is
= ⊥= 2 cos
L points along the direction of ω⊥. Hence L swings around with the
rod; the tip of L traces out a circle about the z axis called precession

(This reveals the fundamental property that angular momentum is

not necessarily parallel to angular velocity, in contrast to the case of
fixed axis rotation where L and ω are parallel and related by L = Iω.

9.Show that , a freely falling coin wobbles twice as fast as it spins as

shown in fig.

146
 Solved Problems and Exercises

We know that for a thin coin ,moments of inertia are as follows.

So for a coin spinning along the z-axis =2 =2 =2

( )
The rotational speed relative to coin axes is =
The rotational speed relative to an observer fixed in space is

=( + )= =2
Thus, a freely falling coin wobbles twice as fast as it spins.

10. A particle of mass m is located at x = 2, y = 0,z = 3. Find its

moments and products of inertia relative to the origin.
(Source:Kleppner D., Kolenkow R. - An Introduction to Mechanics
(2013, CUP) - libgen.lc)

147
 Solved Problems and Exercises

11.As a bicycle changes direction, the rider leans inward

creating a horizontal torque on the bike. Part of the torque is
responsible for the change in direction of the spin angular
momentum of the wheels. Consider a bicycle and rider system
of total mass M with wheels of mass m and radius b, rounding
a curve of radius R at speed V. The center of mass of the system
is 1.5b from the ground.
(a) Find an expression for the tilt angle α.
(b) Find the value of α, in degrees, if M = 70 kg, m = 2.5 kg, V =
30 km/hour and R = 30 m.
(c) What would be the percentage change in α if spin angular
momentum were neglected? (Source:Kleppner D., Kolenkow R. -
An Introduction to Mechanics (2013, CUP) - libgen.lc)

148
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Sol :

MCQs
Section A

MCQs
1. If angular momentum (h),velocity(c) and mass(M) are taken as
fundamental units,the dimension of length in this system is

149
 Solved Problems and Exercises
a)[ℎ] [ ] [ ] b) [ℎ][ ][ ] c) [ℎ][ ] [ ]
d) [ℎ] [ ][ ]
HCU 2020
Ans:c ( Hint : = )
2.The position coordinate of an object of mass m are given by =
, = ,z= constant .The z component of angular
momentum is
a) b) c) d)
HCU 2020

Ans:b(Hint : ⃗ = ̂+ ⃗= ⃗ ⃗̇)
3.The mass per unit length of a rod of 2m length as = 3 / .
The moment of inertia in of the rod about a perpendicular
axis passing through the tip of the rod(at x=0)is
a)18 b)14 c)12 d)8
HCU 2020

Ans:d( ∶ = = )

4.The angular velocity of the Earth about its axis increases then the
value of ‘g’ at equator
a) Does not change b) Increases c)Decreases
d) Become zero

AUCET 2020
Ans:c (Hint : = − = 0 => =
− )
5. The moment of inertia of a circular disc R about its centre is

a) b) c) d)
AUCET2020
Ans: a
6. The rate of precession of spinning top is inversely proportional to
the(AUCET 2020)

150
 Solved Problems and Exercises

a) Angular momentum b)Angle

c)Mass d)Torque
AUCET 2020

Ans:a( ∶ = )

7.Which of the following is an example for axial vector

a) Displacement b) Torque c) Linear velocity
d) Force
AKNU 2020
Ans: b

8.When inertia tensor operates on angular velocity , it produces ---

----vector
a)Force b) Torque c) Angular momentum d)
Angular velocity
AKNU 2020
Ans: c
9. An acrobat obeys
a) Law of conservation of energy
b) Law of conservation of mass
c) Law of conservation of momentum
d) Law of conservation of angular momentum
AKNU 2020
Ans:d
10. The precessional period of Earth’s axis of rotation is about
a) 440 years b) 26000 years c) 365 days
d) 24 hours

Ans: b

Section B

151
 Solved Problems and Exercises
11. An automobile develops 100 HP power when rotating at a speed
of 1000 rpm. The torque acting is
a)712.7 N-m b)74.6N-m c)643.4 n-m
d)314 N-m
Ans:a

Hint: = 1 = 746

12.A wheel is rotating at a frequency of about a fixed vertical

axis. The wheel stops in seconds, with constant angular
deceleration. The number of turns covered by the wheel before it
comes to rest is given by

a) b) 2 c)
d)

IIT JAM 2020

Ans: c

Hint : =2 = − → = Then substitute

value in the equation
= − Hence no. Of turns =

13. If the diameter of the Earth is increased by 4% without changing

the mass, then the length of the day is _______ hours. (Take the
length of the day before the increment as 24 hours. Assume the
Earth to be a sphere with uniform density). (Round off to 2 decimal
places)
IIT JAM 2019
Ans: 25.95hours
Hint: Use law of conservation of angular momentum =
14. The rotational kinetic energy of a thin disc, of mass 20 kg and
radius 70 cm, rotating like a merry go round at an angular speed of
120rad/min,is
a) 5.9J b) 9.8J c)19.6 J d) 21.6J
HCU 2019

152
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Ans:B

Hint: . = = 1/2

15. If a rigid body with N particles is constrained to be fixed at a

single point, then the number of degrees of freedom is
a) 3 b)6 c)N d) 0
HCU 2012
Ans: a
Hint: Ringid body without any constraint has 6 degrees of freedom,
3 translational 3 rotational. If translation is blocked, it will have
only 3 degrees of freedom.
16.

IIT JAM 2012

Ans:
Hint: about center of mass due to p and q are same
17.

IIT JAM 2016

153
 Solved Problems and Exercises
Ans: b

Hint: = 12 , = and = +

18.
A uniform disk of mass m and radius R rolls, without slipping, down
a fixed plan inclined at an angle 30° to the horizontal. The linear
acceleration of disc(in / ) is
a) 5.25 b)3.26 c)2.5 d)5.5

IIT JAM 2015

Ans: b
Hint: Equation of motion is − = and torque= =
and =

19.A particle moves in a circular path in the xy-plane centred at the

origin. If the speed of the particle is constant,then the angular
momentum
a)about the origin is constant both in magnitude and direction
b) about (0,0,1) is constant in magnitude and but not in direction
c)about (0,0,1) varies both in magnitude and direction
d)about (0,0,1) is constant in direction and but not in magnitude
IITJAM 2014
Ans :a and b
Hint : Angular momentum will be constant in xy-plane :
20.Seven uniform disks, each of mass and radius r are inscribed
inside regular hexons,as shown. The moment of inertia of this
system of seven disks, about an axis passing through central disc
and perpendicular to the plane of disks, is

154
 Solved Problems and Exercises

a) b) 7 c)
d)

IIT JAM 2015

Ans: d

Hint: +6× +4 =

Section C:
23.

IIT JAM 2014

Ans:C

Sol: Mass density = , =∫ . => =

155
 Solved Problems and Exercises

24.

IITJAM2017
Ans: b

Sol: =∫ = ∫ 2 . =

+ = and by symmetry, = => = =

25.
IIT JAM 2017

156
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Ans:B

( )
Sol: = − = −

= = =
2 2 4 2
1
= [1 − ]
2 48

26. A spherical ball of ice has radius and is rotating with an

angular speed about an axis passing through its centre.At time
t=0,it starts acquiring mass because the moisture(at rest) around it
starts to freeze on its uniformity. As a result its radius increases as
( )= + . is constant. The curve which best describes
its angular speed with time is

IIT JAM 2014

Ans: B
Sol: ( ) ( ) = and ( ) ( )=

( )= ( )[ ]
=> ( ) 1/

Grade Your Understanding

1. Angular momentum vector and angular velocity [ ]
vectors are always in all cases, points along the

157
 Glossary
direction axis of rotation

2. In general ,rotational quantities depend on [ ]

more factors than linear quantities
3. Precession becomes slower as the spin of top [ ]
slows down
4. In general, the change in an axial vector is [ ]
perpendicular to that vector itself
5. A spinning top has zero total momentum ,but [ ]
have finite kinetic energy
6. Finite angular displacement is a vector quantity [ ]
7. The tensor of inertia with respect to principal [ ]
axes has a diagonal form
8. The angular momentum vector ⃗ depends on [ ]
the choice of origin of the coordinate systems

9. The mass and the radius of a flywheel that aids a [ ]

car should both be smaller to get the car upto
speed by giving almost all its kinetic energy
10. Reducing the mass of the tires and wheel rims of [ ]
a racing bike rather than an identical reduction
in the mass of bike’s frame would allow the racer
to achieve greater accelerations
11. Flying spacecraft cannot be in the shape of a [ ]
cylinder because the cylinder is inherently
unstable about its axial axis
12. Work and torque have same dimensions N-m [ ]
,hence torque is a form of energy

Check: 1. No 2. Yes 3 .No 4. Yes 5 .Yes 6 .No 7. Yes

8. Yes 9 .No 10.Yes 11.Yes 12. No

Glossary
Glossary: Rigid body dynamics

158
 Glossary

Angular Property of any rotating body that gives Moment of

moment momentum about an axis of rotation
Bulginess The property possessed by a round shape that is
flattened at the poles

Coordinate
system A system that specifies each point in space
uniquely by a set of coordinates
A parameter that the system must obey throughout
Constraint
the problem
Centre of The point where the gravity appears to act. It
gravity focuses on weight of the body
Centre of The mean position of the mass in an object .It
mass focuses on mass of the body
Degrees of
freedom The number of independent parameters that define
the state of a mechanical system

Dynamics The branch of mechanics concerned with the

motion of bodies under the action of force
Equation of The equations that describe the behavior of
motion physical system in terms of its motion as a function
of time

Equinoxes An event in which a planet’s subpolar point passes

through its equator
A mechanical heavy wheel having high rotational
inertia ie most of its weight is well out from the
Fly Wheel
axis.The high inertia opposes the speed
fluctuations of an engine.
An automatic non magnetic compass to find
Gyro
geographical direction. Based on fast spinning
compass
top/disc and the rotation of the Earth
The branch of mechanics concerned with the
Kinematics
motion of bodies without considering the force
Magnetic A magnet with two poles S &N or magnet
dipole equivalent to a current loop
An uneven wobbling/Nodding motion in the axis of
Nutation
rotation of a largely axially symmetric object
Principal Any of three mutually perpendicular axes about
axes which the moment of inertia of a body is maximum

159
 Glossary

Point mass Any material body with negligible dimension and

internal structure
A physically apparent but nonexistent force felt by
Pseudo an observer in a non- inertial frame(A frame
undergoing acceleration)

Precession Rotation of rotational axis of a rotating body

another fixed axis
An SI unit of measuring angle whose
Radian corresponding arc in a circle is equal to the radius
of the circle

An object has a rectilinear motion when it moves

Rectilinear
along a straight line

A solid body which does not undergo any change

Rigid Body in shape or size (Stretch, compress or bend)by the
application of external force
Solstice Latin words Sol for Sun and sister for To stand still
A line, a plane or a point in or through an object
Symmetry
about which a rotation leaves the object in an
element
orientation same as original
Translational An object has a Translational motion when it shifts
motion from one point to another along any possible path
Generalization of scalar and vectors which are to
Tensor be used to describe any physical quantity
mathematically

160
 UNIT-II
Chapter-3
MOTION IN A CENTRAL
FORCE FIELD
ం చలనం
CHAPTER ం
3 చలనం
ణల
ఈఅ యం ఈ ష ం ,

1. ం య బ ల ల ,మ తత స వం.

2. ం య బ ల రణ చలన స కరణం.

3. ప య ల

4. GPS క థ క వన

5. మ ల ర త మ రక ప .

అభ సన ఫ

అ యం సమ , ఈ ంద యగల .

1. ం య బ ల ల ల మ ప య ల వ ంచగల .

2. ఇతర త త య ల ఆ రం ప య ల వ ంచగల .

3. ఆస ఉన ష వ వసల ం యబ లల ల వ ంప యగల .

4. ఉపగ హ చలనం మ ర త ల వ ప య ల

ంచగల .

5. ర త ఉన మ లౖ రక ప ల సమ ంచగల .

6. ధ ర ల ఉపగ మ మ కల అ ౖ న సౖ న అంత ప యన సం

ౖ న ల అ వృ యగల ..
MOTION IN A

CHAPTER
CENTRAL FORCE FIELD 3
Syllabus
Central forces, definition and examples, characteristics of central
forces, conservative nature of central forces, Equation of motion
under a central force, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion- Proofs,
Motion of satellites, Basic idea of Global Positioning System (GPS),
weightlessness, Physiological effects of astronauts

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn about,
1. Central forces properties, and their conservative nature.
2. General equation of motion under central forces.
3. Proofs of Kepler laws
4. Basic ideas of GPS
5. Weightlessness and physiological effects of astronauts.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Describe the properties of central forces and also the Kepler
laws.
2. Interpret Kepler laws based on the other conservative laws.
3. Apply central force properties to specific systems of interest.
4. Analyse Kepler laws to arrive at satellite motion and
weightlessness conditions.
5. Justify the physiological effects on astronauts in weightless
state.
6. Develop prototype models for proper space flight maneuver
suitable for various types of satellites and space crafts.
 Syllabus
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ

ఈఅ యం సమ ష రక ల ం న ం రం ల
ం య బ ల అవస ంచగల .

1. క సం: ఖ ళ సం అ వబ క స ఖ ప సమస మ ఇతర

ం య బ ల సమస ల ల క ఉం .

2. : య త ఉప ం ట ం పద చలన ం య
బ ల చలన స కరణం ం వడం అవసరం.

3. కం ట ౖ :అ లౖ నఆ ట ం య ంట సమస ల
ం నం అవసరం.

4. గర సం: ఆ ల , గహశక , చం ౖ ఉన ట దౖ న
వ వహ ం గర స గం.

5. ఎల ॓: ధ ర ల ఉపగ ల త నక ఎం క ం య బ ల సమస ల ం
ప నం అవసరం.

6. న దక శ : ఏ డ ౖ అం న రశ స అంచ య
ప సమస అవసరం.

7. గ ం : గహ ణం క న ల గ ంక షణ ం యబ ల ం నం
అవసరం

. ప తం ం అప తం
8వ తరగ ర వ వస, గ , సహజ మ కృ మ ఉపగ ల ం ప చయం
. 9వ తరగ గహ చలనం ం న ప య ల ప చయం
యబ . ం ప చయం ం . 11వ తరగ , ప
చ , షన మ ౖ ల వం ఉపగ మ ర తం
ం వరణ ఇవ బ ం . ఈ అ యం , రక ల గహ చల రణమ
ంద శ సమస ం ం . ప ఉ .మ ధ ర ల కృ మ
ఉపగ మ క ల ప చయం . మ అంత ప ణం
ర త ంమ ధ రక ల ం ప చయం యబడ .

164
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would
be able to identify the need of central forces in the following fields.
1. Physics: The branch of physics called astronomy has its
origins in Kepler problem and other central force problems.
2. Chemistry: Planetary ball milling method, which is used for
nanomaterial preparation, requires knowledge of central
force equation of motion.
3. Computer Science: programming optimal orbital maneuver
requires knowledge about central force problems.
4. Geology: Astrogeology, a branch of geology that deals with
asteroids, craters on moon etc..
5. Electronics: Selection of suitable orbit for various types of
satellites requires knowledge about central force problems.
6. Renewable energy: Kepler problem is required for the proper
prediction of solar energy received on earth through out an
year.
7. Statistics: Statistical analysis of models of planet formation
requires knowledge about central forces.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In your 8th class, you are introduced about the solar system,
planets, natural and artificial satellites. In your 9th class you are
introduced with Kepler laws for planetary motion. You are aso
introduced about free fall. In your 11th class, you are given detailed
explanation of Kepler laws, satellites like geo stationary and polar
satellites and also about weightlessness. In this chapter, you would
learn about central force problem which is responsible for planetary
motion in fixed orbits. You would derive Kepler laws and introduced
with various types of artificial satellites and their orbits. You would
also be introduced with weightlessness and various physiological
changes that astronauts undergo during their space travel.

165
 ప చయం
ప చయం
ఆ న లం ం ఖ ళ స అధ యనం ఎ మ హరౖ న . అప ం
న ల , చం మ న సహజ సమయ చ . చం దశ మనం
ఏ ఉ అ స అం ం ,అ ఆ శం దయం క
నం ల ం స అం ం . స షౖ న ఆ శం న ల నం మనం ఉన
సంవత రం ం ం . ప అ యం మనం ఇప న ,
నం 14,000 సంవత ల ం .అ ధం ఆ శం ధన ల
కద కల ప ంచడం సంవత రం ం నస ందవ .
ఈ ॓ సమయం ( 21 & ంబ 21) న ఉద మ
ప న అస సంవత రం ం త జ ం . రత శం , స
అయ ంతం ( 21) న, ఆ య( -ద ణ) ల మ ల
అయ ంతం ( ంబ 21) న, ఈ న ( -ఉత ర) ల ఉద .
ల అయ ంతం ం స లం వర ఆ శం ప
ఉత యణం (ఉత రం ౖ ప ణం), సంబం త ప ద యనం (ద ణ ౖ
ప ణం) అం .
ఈ ప వరణ ల ప లన న ల మ ట ళ వన ౖ ం వవ య
సంఘ ం .ఇ 12,000 సంవత ల తం జ ం .ఇ తం
ఆ ర ఉత ం ,త పకృ ఇతర రహ ల క న పజ సమ
ందగ .
చ ఉంద , ౖ ంద ద పజ ం . ర య
ఇ ష వ ం .అ ఖ ళ సంౖ అం ఉన
స కం, . . 1000 లగ న ంగ ష, ర , చంద
మ అ క సం దౖ న ౖ సమగ వరణల క ఉం . ఖ ళ సం
ప న ప 7వ శ బం BC ంచబ . మ
పలక / తల ద సం వ ం . 5వ శ బం BC
ఆర భ య మ ఆర భట ంతం ం ఈ అంశం మ ంత గ వ ం .
ౖ ఖ ళ సం 6వ శ బం BC . ర ం 4వ శ బం ం
న గహ చలనం క 3D న ల అ వృ . ర ం 2వ శ
ం న ఆం ఇ అం ఉన అ వం న . 3వ శ ం న
ఈ య ర అప వ న తం అ ఖం ంచబ .
8వ శ బం AD ర య గం అర ॓ Zīj al-Sindhind అ వ ంచబ మ
అర ॓ ల ఖ ళ సంౖ అధ య ల త .

166
 3.1 Introduction

3.1 Introduction
Study of astronomy is ever fascinating since the caveman’s times.
Sun, moon and stars are the natural time keepers for human beings
since then. The phase of moon gives the information about which
date we are in, while the location of sun rise on eastern sky gives the
information about month. The location of stars in clear night sky tells
us about the year we are in. As we have already come across in the
previous chapter, the pole star location shifts to Vegas by 14,000
year. Similarly observation of various star movements in sky can be
used to obtain information about the year.

Did You Know?

Sun rises in the east and sets in the west only twice in a year
during Equinoxes. In India, on Summer solstice day, sun rises
in the southeast corner and on Winter solstice day, sun rises in
the northeast corner. The journey of sun in the eastern sky
from winter solstice to summer solstice is called Uttaraayana
(The journey towards north), the corresponding return
journey is called Dakshinayana (The journey towards South).

Observation of these environmental changes slowly converted

human beings from a life style of hunter-gatherer to that of an
agricultural colony man. This had happened around 12,000 years ago.
This lead to production of surplus amount of food thus enabling
people to find time to discover other secrets of nature.
At first people have thought that earth is flat and floating on water.
Some of the Indian Puranas also described the same. But the earliest
full fledged text available on astronomy, the vedanga Jyothsha by
Lagadha from 1000 BC, contains descriptions on solar months, lunar
months and leap month (Adhimasa) etc., in detail. Major
developments in astronomy were reported in Babylonia also during
7th century BC. They have described the transit of Venus across the
sun on earthen slates/tablets. Further breakthrough in the subject
came from Aaryabhatiya and Aryabhata Siddhanta in 5th century BC.
Chinese astronomy dates back to 6th century BC. In 4th century BC
Greeks have developed 3D working models of planetary motion as

167
 3.1 Introduction
ర ంద ంతం ర య త ం , 5వ శ బం BC ఆర భ , 3వ
శ బం BC య తం 3వ శ బం BC , తం అ క 3వ
శ బం ంచబ ం . త త 1వ శ బం AD , క ం ॓ డ
ంతం వ ం . అత ం న గ మ సం ష
కద క వ ంచ ఎౖ ల ఉప ం . తదనంతరం, 15వ శ బం
రత శం రళ సంగమ ం న ధవ, లకంఠ మ జయ వల
సం ష త మ ఖ తత ం నఅ తన ఆ క గ గణన , ర ంద ం
మద ప ంచబ .త తౖ , ప మ ప క స తంతం , ఈ
ఉప ం గహ చలనం సం న ల ప ం .ఈఆ క గం మనం
ఉప ం ల ఆ త షణ ట అం ం .అ సంద
ఫ తం ద ంశ ల ఖ తం ఉం ం . అం వల ర ంద న ర వ వస
క గ త సపరం ం ం లభౖ న న అం ం , అ ం ॓
ంతం ర వ వస క ం సం ష న అం ం . ం ఒక క
స నం.

E - Corner
https://archive.org/details/VedangaJyotisha
https://archive.org/details/vedicchronologya033083mbp
https://archive.org/details/Aryabhatiya1976
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_Revolution
https://tinyurl.com/Heliocentrism-htm

Activity
Simulate the path of the sun at your place during
various months using the last link in the e-corner.

168
 3.1 Introduction

seen from earth. Antikythara of 2nd century BC is one such model

available now. Egyptian pyramids of 3rd century were built with
alignment towards, the then pole star, Thuban.
Indian scriptures were translated to Arabic as Zīj al-Sindhind in 8th
century AD and opened doors to studies on Astronomy in Arabic
countries.
Heliocentric theory was reported in Indian literature, in Aryabhatiya
in 5th century BC, in Babylonian literature by Celucus in 3rd century
BC, in Greek literature by Aristacus in 3rd century BC. Later in 1st
century AD, Ptolemy’s theory of geocentric model came into lime
light. He used epicycles to explain the complex motion of planets and
sun as seen from earth. Subseqnently, sophisticated modern era
calculations, supporting heliocentric theory, were proposed by
Madhava of Sangamagrama, Neelakantha and Jayadeva from Kerala,
India in 15th century, with full complexity and accuracy. Later Tycho
Brahe, Kepler and Copernicus have proposed independently, rather
crude models for planetary motion using equants. Further Newton’s
work on gravity and planetary motion, which gave a complete
calculus based analysis that we use in this modern era, came into
picture. In all the cases the end result is accurate to a few decimal
places. Hence heliocentric model gives slightly mathematically easier
model of solar system while the geocentric theory gives a relatively
complex model of solar system. But both are equivalent to each other.

169
 3.1 Introduction
Fig: Ptolemaic epicentre model of solar system

Fig: Epicenter model of Ptolemy

E - Corner
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2679675.stm
https://www.ebookarchive.org/details/bhumiilavundanielakanip
ettaruhowpeoplediscoveredtheshapeofeartha.tomilin
https://www.bighistoryproject.com/chapters/4
https://www.shockingscience.com/the-found-the-worlds-oldest-
calendar-from-8000-b-c/
https://physics.weber.edu/schroeder/ua/sunandseasons.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_model
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_astronomy
http://andrewmarsh.com/apps/staging/sunpath3d.html

170
 3.1 Introduction

https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap201221.html

171
 ంట ర ్ ల ణ ల & ఉ హరణల
ంట ల & ఉ హరణ
ం య బలం అ ఎల ర ం ౖ మ ం బలం. ఆ ధౖ న బ ఇ
యవ .

⃗= ( ) ̂ − − − (1)
అం ; బలం అ r క ప య మ r̂ శ ఉం ం , అన అ ర ం
ౖ ఉం ం .

అ ల

1. శ సమయం ద ఆ ర పడనంత వర , ం య బ తత బ
ఉం . అన క ఒక సంవృత రం కద ంచ వల న
అ ం . అన ∇×F = 0. Eq.(1) ం F ప ,

̂
1 1
∇× = ∇ × ( ( ) ̂) = =0
sin
( ) 0 0
∇×F=0 బ ,బ -ve యం అ య యవ .

2. తత బ ల సంబం ం న ం ల ంటం తత క
ఉం ం . అర ం వ ం .

̂
= ⃗× ⃗ = ̂ × ( ( ) ̂) = 0 0 =0
( ) 0 0
https://math.libretexts.org/@
go/page/2241.
https://www.cpp.edu/~ajm/
materials/delsph.pdf
τ=dL/dt=0 బ , ం ల ంటం రం ఉం ం తతం ఉం ం ..

3. తత ం యబ ల చలన తలం రం ఉం ం . ం ల ంటం

రం ఉం ం బ , క క శ మ ప ణం రం ఉం .
ం ల ంటం చలన త లంబం ఉన ం న, తలం రం
ఉం . గ త సపరం ధృ క ంచ ,ఈ ం ధం యవ .

. = .( × ) = .( × ) = .0 = 0
.( × ) = .( × ) = .0 = 0

172
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples

3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples

A central force is a force which is directed always towards a fixed
point. Thus one can write the force as
⃗= ( ) ̂ − − − (1)
i.e.; the force is a function of and is directed along ̂ , that is
towards a fixed point.

Characteristics
1. If the potential energy is not time dependent, then the
central forces are conservative. That means, the net amount
of work done by the force in moving a particle in a closed loop
will be zero. i.e.; ∇ × = 0.
Substituting the form of from Eq. (1) gives,

̂
1 1
∇× = ∇ × ( ( ) ̂) = =0
sin
( ) 0 0
Since ∇ × = 0, one can write force as a negative gradient of
potential. i.e.; = −∇ .
2. For conservative central forces, angular momentum also is
conserved. To understand this, consider the torque
produced.

̂
= ⃗× ⃗ = ̂ × ( ( ) ̂) = 0 0 =0
( ) 0 0
Since = / = 0, angular momentum remains constant
or is a conserved quantity.
3. Plane of motion remains constant for conservative central
forces. Since angular momentum remains constant, the
direction and magnitude of the vector must remain constant.
Since the angular momentum vector is perpendicular to
plane of motion, the plane also should remain same. To verify
it mathematically, one may consider
. = .( × ) = .( × ) = .0 = 0

173
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples
డ॓ , ఫ ప తం య ం క ల పరస రం వ
అ స ఇక డ ఉప ంచబ న .

ఈ ధం rమ p ం L లంబం ఉ య డవ . అన rమ p
ం ఒ సమతలం ఉం . అం ; కణం క నం మ గం ఒ సమతలం
ఉం . మ ట లం , కణం క త ం కద క ఒక సమత ప తౖ
ఉం ం .

ంద బల ల సం, ౖ ల గం ( య లక యబ న ంతం)
రం ఉం ం . ఒక కణం సంవృతం ఉన క క న ప గ ంచం . అం ; త త
ం య బలం ప తౖ ం . న నభ ంశం dr రణం క ం క య
స శ ంతం OAB జం కౖ లం ఇవ బ ం .

1 1
= | × |= | × |
2 2
1 1
⇒ = | × |= | × |=
2 2 2
L,m సమయం ం బ , ం య బ ల వలన జ కణ చలనం వలన వ
ౖ లం సమయం రం ఉం ం . అం ;ౖ ల గం రం ఉం ం .

ం యబ ల ఉ హరణ
1. కర ణ బలం

2. ర బలం

3. పక బలం

1. కరణ బలం
Mమ m దవ క ం వ ల మధ కర ణ బలం దవ క
ల అ తం ఉం ం మ మధ రం క వ
తం ఉం ం . M మ m దవ ఉన ం వ r రం
యబ

⃗∝ (1)
1
⃗∝ (2)
⃗
స కర ల (1) మ (2) ం

⃗∝
⃗

174
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples

also
. = .( × ) = .( × ) = .0 = 0 .
Here we have used the fact that in scalar triple product,
vectors can be interchanged without effecting the end result.
Thus one can see that both and are perpendicular to the
vector . i.e.; both and remain in the same plane. i.e.; the
position and velocity of the particle remain in the same
plane. In other words, the entire movement of the particle
confines to a plane.
4. For central forces, areal velocity (area swept by radial vector
as a function of time) remains constant. Consider a particle
is moving in a closed orbit. i.e.; influenced by a conservative
central force. Then the small area covered by the line joining
center to the particle, due to a small displacement , is given
by the area of the triangle OAB.

Fig: Areal velocity of central forces

1 1
= | × |= | × |
2 2
1 1
⇒ = | × |= | × |=
2 2 2
Since , are constants in time, the change in area of the
particle motion under central force is a constant in time. i.e.;
the areal velocity remains constant.

Examples of central forces

1. Gravitational forces
2. Electrostatic forces
3. Elastic forces

175
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples

⃗= (3)
⃗
ఇక డ G అ త ంకం, శ కర ణ ంకం అ .

⃗= ̂ (4)

2. ఎ ॓
ం ల q1 మ q2 మధ ఎ ॓ లల అ తం
ఉం ం మ మధ రం క వ తం ఉం ం .

q1 మ q2 అ ం r రం యబ

⃗∝ (1)
1
⃗∝ (2)
⃗
స కర ల (1) మ (2) ం

⃗∝
⃗
1
⃗= (3)
4 ⃗
ఇక డ 1/4πε అ త ంకం మ εఅ ధ మం క ప శ లత.

3. పక బ :
ం ంచబ న ద వ ౖ ప పక బలం సమ ల నం ం దవ
అ తం ఉం ం .

⃗∝ (1)
⃗=− , (2)
ఇక డ k అ ల ంకం క ం ంకం

అయ ంత ధృ మధ బలం మ వర య న , అయ ంత బలం
ం య బలం ఎం ?

అయ ంత తం ఒక క . కణం కద క ఉన త ఇ ఉం ం . అయ ంత
తం రణం వ బ య ంచ య
ంచవ . అయ ంత ల ం క ప గ ం నప , అయ ంత
ల ల రణం త శ లంబతలం క ల వృ ర కద క. బ అ ం య
బలం .

176
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples

1. Gravitational Forces
The gravitational force between two objects of mass M and m is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. If the
two objects having mass M and m are separated by a distance r
then

M m

⃗∝ (1)
1
⃗∝ (2)
⃗
From equations (1) and (2)
⃗∝
⃗
⃗= (3)
⃗
Where G is proportionality constant, also called the universal
gravitational constant.
⃗= ̂ (4)

2. Electrostatic Forces
The electrostatic force between two charges q1 and q2 is
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
If the two charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r
then

q1 q2

⃗∝ (1)
1
⃗∝ (2)
⃗
From equations (1) and (2)

177
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples
Non-conservative central force
When the potential corresponding to central force is time
dependent ( = ( , )), then, though ∇ × = 0, and = −∇ ,
the force cannot be conservative. They can not produce closed orbits.
Eg: Dissipating electric charge. Though it obeys Coulomb’s law, the
force dissipates with time. Another example is damped harmonic
oscillator. Though it is a central force, the energy dissipates. Another
example is mass exchanging binary stars. They exchange mass during
their interaction. Thus the force between them changes as a function
of time. Also conservation of energy fails in all these cases.

E - Corner
John R. Taylor - Classical Mechanics-
University Science Books (2004) Topic 4.5

-కన ంట
ంద బ సంబం ం న య సమయం ౖ ఆ రప న (U=U(r,t)), అ ,
∇×F=0, మ F=-∇U అ ం , బలం త ం .అ ం బ సంవృత
క ల ఉత య .
ఉ :ఉ న ( ం ) .ఇ లం య ం నప ,శ లక
దజ ం . మ క ఉ హరణ ం ॓ ఆ ట . ఇ ం య బలం
అ నప ,బలం ఉం ం . మ క ఉ హరణ ౖ న న ల జ దవ .
పరస ర చర సమయం అ దవ ం . ఆ ధం మధ బలం
సమయం క ప యం ం . ఈ అ సంద ం య బ ల తతత
ఫలమ ం .

Did You Know?

In your 9th class you might have come across the inverse
square nature of central forces. This was derived from
Kepler’s third law and central force equation. ∝ , =
/ ⇒ ∝ / and = 2 / ⇒ ∝ / .
From all these, ∝ 1/ . Bertrand in 1873 proved that only
inverse square forces and harmonic oscillator kind of forces
result in closed orbits in planetary motion. Any deviation
from it will lead to orbits which will never close.

178
 3.2 Central force Characteristics & Examples

⃗∝
⃗
1
⃗= (3)
4 ⃗
Where is proportionality constant and ε is permittivity of
the medium.
1
= ̂ (4)
4
3. Elastic Forces
The elastic force acting on the mass attached to spring is
proportional to the distance of the mass from equilibrium
position of the spring.
⃗∝ (1)
⃗=− , (2)
where k is force constant or spring constant.

Think …
If force between magnetic dipoles also exhibit inverse
square law, why not force due to magnetic field a central
force?

Did You Know?

Magnetic field is a pseudo vector.

This exists only when the particle is in motion.
Force due to magnetic field can’t be represented as a scalar
potential but as a vector potential.
Though magnetic poles are considered as point particles, the root
cause of magnetic poles is the circular motion of charged
particles in the plane perpendicular to the field direction. Hence
it can’t be a central force.

E - Corner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand
%27s_theorem

179
 ం య బ ల ఆ నంల చలన స కరణ ల
ం య బ ల ఆ నం చలన స కర
r య రం ఉన ం O దవ m క న కణం క భమ
ప గ ంచం . వ క సవ శ θ భమణ ణం ఉన ట .

అ త అ ల (x,y) సంబం ం న త ఆ ల (r,θ) ఈ ం ధం

ర ంచవ

̂ cos sin ̂
= − − − (1)
− sin cos ̂

త స ఈ క క ౖ ఇ ఉం

̂
̇̂ = = ̇ (− sin ̂ + cos ̂) = ̇ − − − (2)

̇ = − ̇ (cos ̂ + sin ̂) = − ̇ ̂ − − − (3)

అ కణం క గం ఇ ఉం ం

ఇక డ ద పదం య గం మ ండవ పదం గం క య గం.

త రణం ఇ ఉం ం

v⃗
⃗= = ̇ ̂+ ̇ = ̈ ̂ + ̇ ̂̇ + ̇ ̇ + ̈ + ̇ ̇

or

⃗= ̈ ̂+ ̇ ̇ + ̇ ̇ + ̈ − ̇ ̂
= ̈− ̇ ̂+ ̈ +2 ̇ ̇ − − − (5)
ౖ న న , ద పదం య త రణం మ ండవ పదం య త రణం.

180
 3.3 Equation of motion under central force

3.3 Equation of motion under central

force
Consider rotation of a particle of mass about a point
located at a radial distance of ⃗. Let be the angle of rotation in anti-
clockwise direction.

Fig: Motion in central force field.

Then one can define a new set of coordinates ( , ) which can

be related to the old axes ( , ) as
̂ cos sin ̂
= − − − (1)
− sin cos ̂
The time derivative of these unit vectors in the new system
is given by
̂
̂̇ = = ̇ (− sin ̂ + cos ̂) = ̇ − − − (2)

̇ = − ̇ (cos ̂ + sin ̂) = − ̇ ̂ − − − (3)

Then the velocity of the particle is given by
⃗
v⃗ = = ( ̂) = ̇ ̂ + ̂̇ = ̇ ̂ + ̇ − − − (4)

Here the first term is the radial component and the second term is
the angular component of velocity.
Acceleration is given by
v⃗
⃗= = ̇ ̂+ ̇ = ̈ ̂ + ̇ ̂̇ + ̇ ̇ + ̈ + ̇ ̇

181
 3.3 Equation of motion under central force
ం యబ ల , య ల ష త ఉం ం మ య త రణం
అ ం . అన

1
̈ +2 ̇ ̇ =0⇒ ̇ =0⇒ ̇ = ℎ − − − (6)

ఇక డ h ంకం ంచబ ం . భమణ చలనం ౖ ల ప గణన

వడం Eq.(6) ంకం క ప అర ం వ . సం, ంద
ఇవ బ న తం ం ప గ ంచం :

1 1 1 1 ℎ
= . = . = ⇒ = = − −−. (7)
2 2 2 2 2
అం వల ం య బల తం ౖ ల గం రం ఉం ం .

దవ ౖ ప బలం (త రణం) ఇ ర ంచబ

( )
= ( ), − − −(8)

అ య త రణం త ఇ య

̈− ̇ = ( ) − − − (9)
మ ల ప యడం మ ంత కర వంతం ఉం ం , ఎం కం
య రంౖ మం ఆ రప ఉం .అ ౖ ల బ ,
ం సంబం ం ల పరం స అధ యనం యడం మ ంత
ప వవంతం ఉం ం . అం వలన ఈ ం ధం ర

అం వల Eq.(6) ఉప ంచడం మ hఅ ంకం అ స ఉప ంచడం

1 1 1 1
̇= = =− =− =−

⇒ ̇ = −ℎ

ℎ
̈ = −ℎ = −ℎ = −ℎ

ℎ
⇒ ̈=− − − − (11)

182
 3.3 Equation of motion under central force

or

⃗= ̈ ̂+ ̇ ̇ + ̇ ̇ + ̈ − ̇ ̂
= ̈− ̇ ̂+ ̈ +2 ̇ ̇ − − − (5)
In the above, the first term is the radial acceleration and the second
term is the angular acceleration.
For central forces, only radial acceleration exists and angular
acceleration becomes zero.
i.e.;

1
̈ +2 ̇ ̇ =0⇒ ̇ =0⇒ ̇ = ℎ − − − (6)

here ℎ is assumed to be a constant. The effect of constant in Eq. (6)

can be understood by considering areal velocity in rotatory motion.
For that, consider the following in the figure given below:
1 1 1 1 ℎ
= . = . = ⇒ = = − −−. (7)
2 2 2 2 2
Thus the areal velocity remains constant in a central force field.

Fig: Areal velocity

If the force per unit mass (acceleration) is defined as

( )
= ( ), − − −(8)

then the radial acceleration alone becomes equal to,

̈− ̇ = ( ) − − − (9)
It is more convenient to work with inverse distances, as most
potentials are inversely dependent on distance. Also instead of time

183
 3.3 Equation of motion under central force
Eq.(9), Eq.(11) మ Eq.(6) ఉప ం

ℎ ℎ
− − = ( )

Eq.(10) ఉప ంచడం మ ం ౖ h^2 u^2 భ ంచడం ,

( )
+ =− − − − (12)
ℎ
ఇ ం య బల తం చలన స కరణం.

మనం y=u+f(r)/h^2 u^2 ర ,ౖ స కరణం ఇ అ ం

+ = 0 − − − (13)

ఇ ం ॓ ష క స కరణం. ప రం శ ం ఆవర నం
ల ల ం .

E - Corner
https://books.google.com/books/download/An_Elementary_Tr
eatise_on_Theoretical_Me.pdf?id=8FHvAAAAMAAJ&output=p
df
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-
07-dynamics-fall-2009/lecture-notes/MIT16_07F09_Lec15.pdf
https://iopscience.iop.org/book/978-0-7503-2690-2.pdf

184
 3.3 Equation of motion under central force

derivatives, it is more effective to study the system in terms of

derivatives with respect to angle. Let us define
1
= − − − (10)

Hence using Eq. (6) and using the fact that ℎ is a constant gives
1 1 1 1
̇= = =− =− =−

⇒ ̇ = −ℎ

ℎ
̈ = −ℎ = −ℎ = −ℎ

ℎ
⇒ ̈=− − − − (11)

Using Eq. (9), Eq. (11) and Eq. (6) one can get,
ℎ ℎ
− − = ( )

or by using Eq. (10), and dividing with ℎ on both sides gives,

( )
+ =− − − − (12)
ℎ
This is the equation of motion in central force field.
If we define = + ( )/ℎ , then the above equation becomes,

+ = 0 − − − (13)

This is the equation of simple harmonic motion. The solution of it

represents a periodic motion without loss of energy.

185
 3.4 ప గహ గమన యమ ల :
3.4 ప గహ గమన య :
న రత శం 1000BC , 6వ శ బం BC , 5వ శ బం BC
ర ంద న స ృతం క ఉ .త త 1400AD , ॓న
ంద ం అమ ం . పర వ నం , ప క ం ॓ డ మ ంత
బలం ప ం ,ఇ ర వ వస క అప ఉన ం ॓న ల
కం మ ంత సర కృత పద వ ం . ప క ఆ చనల ఆ రం , బ ( .శ.
1546-1601) మ అత ర ప ( .శ. 1600) ర వ వసౖ అ రౖ నప లన
మ ర వ వస క వ ం అ కన ల అ వృ .

ప య ఈ ం ధం నబ .
క ల యమం: ప గహం రవృ రక ం ,
ం ల ఒక ఉం .
ౖ ల యమం: గ మధ క ఖస న లవవ స నౖ ల
ఆక ం .
ఆ : ఉన గహం క ల వర న లం క వర జ
అ ం డ క ఘన న అ తం ఉం ం . (T^2∝a^3).

ప క ద యమం:
r రం క నక M దవ కల న m దవ కల గ
ప గ ంచం . అ మధ ఆకర ణ బలం ట కర ణ తం
ఇవ బ ం

( )=− =− , − − −(1)

ఇక డ μ=GM. గహం క చలన స కరణం ఇ ఉం ం .

( ) ( )
+ =− =− − − − (2)
ℎ ℎ
Eq.(1) మ Eq.(2) ం ,

+ =+ − − − (3)
ℎ

= − − − − (4)
ℎ
ర ం న ,

+ = 0 − − − (5)

186
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

Heliocentric models were wide in use in ancient India as far back as
1000BC, also in Babylonia during 6th century BC, in Greece during 5th
century BC. Then in 1400AD, Ptolemaic model has enforced the
geocentric theory. Consequently, Copernicus strongly proposed the
Heliocentric model further which explains the structure of solar
system in a more simplified manner than the then existing geocentric
models. Based on Copernicus ideas, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601 AD) and
his descendent Kepler (1600 AD) have made enormous observations
of solar system and developed empirical models that explain the
structure of the solar system. The three Kepler laws are stated as
follows.
1. Law of Orbits: Every planet revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit, with sun at one of its foci.
2. Law of Areas: The line joining the planet to the center of the
sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
3. Law of Harmony: The square of time period of planet around
the sun is proportional to the cube of semi major axis length.
( ∝ ).

Kepler’s First Law:

Consider a planet of mass revolving around the sun of mass in
an orbit of radius . Then the force between them is given by
Newton’s law of gravity as

( )=− =− , − − −(1)

where = . The equation of motion of the planet is given by

( ) ( )
+ =− =− − − − (2)
ℎ ℎ
From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),

+ =+ − − − (3)
ℎ
Define

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 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion
ఈస కరణం క రణ ప రం ఇ యవ

= cos( + ) − − − (6)
ఇక డ A,ψ సంకలన ం . Eq. (4) మ Eq. (6) ం

1
= = + cos( + ) = (1 + cos( + )) − − − (7)
ℎ ℎ
ఇక డ e = Ah ^ 2 / μ. r క క ష వ θ = 0 ° వద ఏర లం , ψ
తప స స నం ఉం .అ

ℎ /
= − − − (8)
(1 + cos )
ఇ ంఖ ం , ఇక డ ంఖవ య (2D) ( ) గ త
. ఇక డ ర ఖ ( యత ఖ) (ౖ ॓ అ )మ ర ం
( ) ( క అ ). మ ట లం , శం ర గం అ రౖ న
ఉ ంద త న ం ల క , ఇక డ ఉ ంద త అ క ం మ ౖ ॓
ం ॓ ఉన రం క ష .

= = = =
− − cos
క

− cos = ⇒ (1 + cos ) =

⇒ = − − − (9)
(1 + cos )
Eq. (8) మ Eq. (9) ల డం ,

ℎ
= − − − (10)

ఇక డ p అ ॓ క ట క అ వబ ం ,ఇ θ = ± 90 ° ఉన
స నం. cosθ రం ( ట ) ఉన మ e ధన సం ఐనం వలన, r
= r_min ఉన cosθ = + 1 అన .; θ = 0 ° ఉన . cosθ = -1 అ న r = r_max.
అన .; θ = 180 °. ఇక డ

188
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

= − − − − (4)
ℎ
Then

+ = 0 − − − (5)

The general solution of this equation is given by

= cos( + ) − − − (6)
Here , are integration constants. From Eq. (4) and Eq. (6),
1
= = + cos( + ) = (1 + cos( + )) − − − (7)
ℎ ℎ
Here = ℎ / . For minimum value of to occur at = 0°, must
be equal to zero. Then
ℎ /
= − − − (8)
(1 + cos )
which describes a conic section, where conic sections are two
dimensional (planar) geometric structures with a fixed line (called
directrix) and a fixed point (called focus). In other words, a conic
section is a locus of points with fixed eccentricity, where eccentricity
is the ratio of distance of conic from focus to that from the directrix.

Fig: Conic sections

From the above diagram and by using the definition of eccentricity,

189
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion
= , ర ఉఛ న − − − (11)
1+

= (ర చ న ) − − − (12)
1−
అ జ ఇ యవ

+ 1 1
= = + = − − − (13)
2 2 1+ 1− 1−
Eq. (11), Eq. (12) మ Eq. (13) ం

= (1 − ) = (1 + )
ట ఎన ంద , ం బలం స కరణం ం య ఎన ం

( )=− = ⇒ ( ) = −∫ = =−

అ L / m = h ఉప ంచడం , తం శ ఇ యవ

1 ℎ 1
= + ( )= − = − = ℎ −
2 2 2 2
క

1
ℎ − − =0
2
u సంౖ స కర ప ష ంచడం

ℎ
1 ± +4 2
= =
2. ℎ /2
2 ℎ
= 1± 1+ − − − (14)
ℎ

Eq. (14) , ప ప గ ం న r వ క షం ఉం ం మ Eq. (7),

ౖ పదం గ ష ం ఉన r వ క షం ఉం ం . ఆ ధం Eq. (7) మ Eq.
(14) ం ,

1 2 ℎ
= (1 + ) = 1+ 1+
ℎ ℎ

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 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

= = = =
− − cos

or
− cos = ⇒ (1 + cos ) =

⇒ = − − − (9)
(1 + cos )
Comparing Eq. (8) and Eq. (9),
ℎ
= − − − (10)

Here is called the latus rectum of the conic which is equal to radius
when = ±90°. Since cos occurs in the denominator, and is
positive, = when cos = +1 i.e.; when = 0° . Also =
when cos = −1. i.e.; when = 180°. Here

= ,( ℎ ) − − − (11)
1+

= ( ℎ ) − − − (12)
1−

Fig: Elliptical Orbit

Then the semi major axis is given by

+ 1 1
= = + = − − − (13)
2 2 1+ 1− 1−
From Eq. (11), Eq.(12) and Eq.(13),
= (1 − ) = (1 + )

191
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

2 ℎ
= 1+ − − − (15)

ఈ ధం

E> 0, ఆౖ e> 1 అ , రంౖ ప

E=0అ , e = 1, అ రం

E <0 అ e <1, అ రం ర వృత ం.

E = -μ^ 2 m / 2h ^ 2 అ e = 0, అ ర ం ఒక వృత ం.

ఆ ధం గహం క శ , ప యం గహం క ఉ ంద త గహం

క ర ం .

Did You Know?

The center of mass of a two object system, lies on the line

joining the two particles. If one object is extremely heavier, then
the center of mass lies within the heavier object. In such case
only, in planetary motion, one object will be revolving around
the other object. In all other cases both the objects will be
revolving around their center of mass. The center of mass in that
case is called Barycentre. Since the centre of mass of Sun-Jupiter
system lies outside the sun, sun also revolves around that
barycentre. This makes the orbits of planets in solar system
elliptical, though circular orbit is the most symmetrical orbit.
https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/barycenter/en/

ం ఆ ॓ స క దవ ందం, ం క ల క ఖౖ ఉం ం . ఒక వ
బ ఉం , ద వ ంద ం బ ౖ న వ ఉం ం . అ వం సందర ం
త , గహ చలనం , ఒక వ మ క వ ఉం ం . అ ఇతర
సంద ల ం వ దవ ందం ఉం . ఆ సందర ం
దవ ం ంట అం . -బృహస వ వస క దవ ంద ం
పల ఉన ం న, ఆ ందం . ఇ ర
వ వస గ లక ల ర వృ రం ం ,అ వృ రక అత ంత షవ క .

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 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

To obtain the total energy, one needs to obtain potential energy

from force equation as

( )=− = ⇒ ( ) = −∫ = =−

Then by using / = ℎ, total energy is given as,

1 ℎ 1
= + ( )= − = − = ℎ −
2 2 2 2
Or
1
ℎ − − =0
2
Solving the above equation for , gives

ℎ
1 ± +4
2
= =
2. ℎ /2
2 ℎ
= 1± 1+ − − − (14)
ℎ

In Eq. (14), value will be minimum when plus sign is considered

and in Eq.(7), value will be minimum when cosine term is
maximum. Thus from Eq. (7) and Eq. (14),

1 2 ℎ
= (1 + ) = 1+ 1+
ℎ ℎ

Or

2 ℎ
= 1+ − − − (15)

Thus
If > 0, then > 1 then the path is Hyperbola
If = 0, then = 1, then the path is Parabola
If < 0, then < 1, then the path is an ellipse.

193
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

Activity

Observe the change in shape of orbit with change

in mass of planet and its gravity. Also observe the epicentre
based movement of moon around the sun.
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/gravity-and-
orbits

ౖ ల యమం
S నం ప గ ంచం మ P అ గహం క య r రంభ
నం. య Δθ Δt సమయం న మ త య క r+
Δr అ న .

య క ఆక ంచబ న ంతౖ ల

1 1 1 1
Δ = ×ℎ ℎ = Δ ⃗ × ⃗ = ⃗Δ × ⃗ = ⃗ Δ
2 2 2 2
అ ౖ ల గ ,

Δ 1 Δθ 1 1 ℎ
= lim = lim = = = =
→ Δ → 2 Δt 2 2 2 2
ంట సమస ల , h రం ఉం ం . అం వలన గహం కౖ ల గం రం
ఉం ం .

బవ ల 28/29 ఉం , ఎం కం ర వృ రక
ం . ంబ 21న మ 21న వ సంభ . 21 ం
ంబ 21 వర 184 మ ంబ 21 ం 21 వర 181 .
ఎం కం జనవ ( య ) దగ ర ఉం ం మ ౖ
(అ య ) అత ంత రం ఉం ం . ప క ండవ యమం ం ,L=
mυr = const. m రం ఉన ం న, υ∝1 / r. అన .; య వద , గవంతౖ న
క ఉం ం మ అ య వద, మ
క ఉం ం . ఈ ధం ంబ ం వర , గం న ం మ
ం ంబ వర మ న ం . 3 . జనవ ద ల
అ నం న అ వర బవ ం యబ ం .

194
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

If =− /2ℎ then = 0, then the path is a circle.

Thus the energy of the planet, or alternately the eccentricity of the
planet decides the path of the planet around the sun.

Law of areas
Consider be the location of the sun and be the initial position of
the planet with radial vector ⃗. Let the radial vector sweep an angle
of Δ , in time Δ and let the new radial vector be ⃗ + Δ ⃗.

Fig: Kepler’s Second Law

Then the area swept by the radial vector is given by

1 1 1 1
Δ = ×ℎ ℎ = Δ ⃗ × ⃗ = ⃗Δ × ⃗ = ⃗ Δ
2 2 2 2
The areal velocity is obtained as
Δ 1 Δθ 1 1 ℎ
= lim = lim = = = =
→ Δ → 2 Δt 2 2 2 2
But for central force problems, ℎ is a constant. Thus the areal velocity
of the planet remains constant.

Law of Harmony
Consider a planet is revolving around its star in an elliptical orbit.
The area of the ellipse is given by
= − − − (1)
where is the length of the semi major axis and is the length of
the semi minor axis.
Areal velocity of the planet is given by Kepler’s second law asx

195
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

Did You Know?

February month has 28/29 days because the earth revolves

around the sun in an elliptical orbit. On September 21st and
on March 21st Equinoxes occur. The gap from march 21st to
September 21st is 184 days and that from September 21st to
March 21st is it 181 days. This is because during January earth
will be nearest to the sun (Perihelion) and during July earth
will be farthest to the sun (Aphelion).From Kepler’s second
law, = = . Since is constant, ∝ 1/ .
i.e.; at perihelion, earth has its fastest speed and at aphelion,
earth has its slowest speed around the sun. Thus from
September to march, earth runs faster and from March to
September earth runs slower. The difference is 3 days. That
was most probably deducted from February as January is the
first month.
https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/perihelion-
aphelion-solstice.html

అ
ఒక గహం రవృ రక న తం న ప గ ంచం . ర వృ ర
ౖ ల ంఇ యవ

= − − − (1)
ఇక డ a అ జ అ ం క డ మ bఅ ౖ న అ ం క
డ . గహం కౖ ల గం ప క ండవ యమం ఇవ బ ం

ℎ
= − − − (2)
2
ఈ ధౖ న గహం క ల వర న ల ఇ యవ

2
= = = − − − (3)
/ ℎ/2 ℎ

196
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion

ℎ
= − − − (2)
2
Thus the time period of the planet is given by
2
= = = − − − (3)
/ ℎ/2 ℎ
For an ellipse, the semi-latus rectum is given by

= ⇒ = − − − (4)

From Kepler’s first law,

ℎ
= − − − (5)

Substituting Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) into Eq. (3) gives

2 2 ℎ / 2 √
= = = =2 − − − (6)
ℎ ℎ √
From the above equation,
∝
Thus, square of time period of planet varies as the cube of the semi
major axis of the orbit.

Alternative method
Consider a planet of mass is revolving around the sun of mass
in a circular orbit of radius , with velocity . Then the gravitational
pull is balanced by the centrifugal force, which can be expressed as

= ⇒ = − − − (1)

The time period of the planet, given by using the above equation, as

2
= = =2 − − − (2)
/
From the above equation,

197
 3.4 Kepler laws of planetary motion
ర వృత లంబ డ ఇ యవ .

= ⇒ = − − − (4)

ప ద గమన యమం ం

ℎ
= − − − (5)

Eq. (4) మ Eq. (5) ల Eq. (3) ప

2 2 ℎ / 2 √
= = = =2 − − − (6)
ℎ ℎ √
ౖ స కరణం ం

∝
బ , గహం క ల వర న లం క వర జ అ ం డ క
ఘన న అ తం ఉం ం

ప య పద
m దవ క న గహం M ద వ క న r రం క న వృ రక υ
గం న ప గ ంచం . అ కర ణ బలం ం గ
సమ ల ం యబ ం , ఇ వ క ంచవ

= ⇒ = − − − (1)

గహం క ల వర న లం,ౖ స కర ఉప ంచడం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

2
= = =2 − − − (2)
/
ౖ స కరణం ం

∝
బ , గహం క ల వర న లం క వర జ అ ం డ క
ఘన న అ తం ఉం ం

198
 3.5 Motion of Satellites

∝
Thus square of time period of planet varies as the cube of the semi
major axis of the orbit.

Modern data (Wolfram Alpha Knowledgebase 2018)

Semi-major (10-6
Planet Period (days)
axis (AU) AU3/day2)
Mercury 0.38710 87.9693 7.496
Venus 0.72333 224.7008 7.496
Earth 1 365.2564 7.496
Mars 1.52366 686.9796 7.495
Jupiter 5.20336 4332.8201 7.504
Saturn 9.53707 10775.599 7.498
Uranus 19.1913 30687.153 7.506
Neptune 30.0690 60190.03 7.504

3.5 Motion of Satellites

A satellite is an artificial object that is placed to orbit around
earth or moon or any other planet to gather information or for
communication.
Consider a satellite of mass is revolving around the earth of mass
in a circular orbit of radius with velocity . Then the
gravitational pull is balanced by the centrifugal force.

= ⇒ = − − − (1)

The time period of the satellite is given by using the above equation
as,

2
= = =2 − − − (2)
/

199
 3.5 ఉపగ ల చలనమ
3.5 ఉపగ ల చలన
ఉపగ హం అ ఒక కృ మ వ ,ఇ స క ంచ క ష సం
చం ఏౖ ఇతర గ హం క ఉంచబ ం .

m దవ క న ఉపగహం M ద వ క న r రం క న వృ రక υ
గం న ప గ ంచం . అ కర ణ బలం ం గ
సమ ల మ ం .

= ⇒ = − − − (1)

ౖ స కర ఉప ంచడం ఉపగహం క ల వర న లం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

2
= = =2 − − − (2)
/
ఇక డ r = R + h అ క దవ ంద ం ం ఉపగహం క రం, R అ
క రం మ hఅ క ఉప తలం ం ఉపగహం క ఎ .

ఇక డ G మ Mల క త త రణం భ యవ ,

= − − − (3)

Eq. (3), Eq. (1) ఉప ం Eq. (2) ఇ యవ .

= = = = ( + ℎ) − − − (4)

+ℎ
=2 = = = − − − (5)

ఉపగ హం క ప యన గం
ప యన గం అ వ క గ శ మ కర ణ ఆకరణ బలం సమ ల ం
ఉన ఉం క స గం. వ క గం ప యన ం ఉం , గ శ
కర ణ శ ౖ ఆ పత ం ం మ వ కర ణ బలం ం
త ం ం ం . బ ప యన గం సం,

200
 3.5 ఉపగ ల చలన

Here = + ℎ is the distance of the satellite from the centre of

mass of the earth, is the radius of the earth and ℎ is the height of
the satellite from the surface of the earth.
Here can be replaced by the acceleration due to gravity of
earth, by using,

= − − − (3)

Using Eq. (3), Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) becomes,

= = = = ( + ℎ) − − − (4)

+ℎ
=2 = = = − − − (5)

Escape velocity of the satellite

Escape velocity is the minimum velocity where the
gravitational attraction force is balanced by the kinetic energy of the
object. If the velocity of the object exceeds escape velocity, then
kinetic energy dominates the gravitational force and the object
escapes the gravitational pull. Thus for escape velocity,

1 2 2
=− − ⇒ = = = 2 − − − (6)
2

Thus the escape velocity of the satellite is √2 times the

orbital velocity of the satellite.
There are basically 3 levels of orbits that are used by satellites
and other space orbiters. They are as described below along with
other orbits
1. LEO that is Low Earth orbit. This ranges from 160KM to
2000KM. international space station, revolves at a height of
400KM. all earth observing satellites like remote sensing and spy
satellites revolve in these orbits. Objects that orbit around 80-
600KM decay in height due to the atmospheric drag in those

201
 3.5 ఉపగ ల చలనమ

1 2 2
=− − ⇒ = = = 2 − − − (6)
2
అం వలన ఉపగహం క త ం గం ఉపగ హం క క గం కం √2 ఎ వ.

ఉపగ మ ఇతర అంత క ల ఉప ం థ కం 3 లక

ఉ . అ ఇతర క ల ంద వ ంచబ న

1. ఎ ఆ అ న LEO. ఇ 160KM ం 2000KM వర ఉం ం . అంత య

అంత ంద ం, 400KM ఎ ం . ం మ ఢ ఉపగ
వం అ ప ం ఉపగ ఈక ల . 80-600KM
వ ఆక ల వరణ రణం ఎ . ఎ ర ంచ
అదన ఇంధనం అవసరం.

2. యం ఎ ఆ అ న MEO. ఇ సగ స ద మట ం ం 2000KM ం
35.786KM మధ ఉం ం .అ బ ష ం ఉపగ మ ష ఉపగ
ఈక ల .ఇ ర రణ డనం ఎ వ ప తమ .

3. అం షన ఆ . ఇ 35,786 టర ఎ ఉం . అ క ష
ఉపగ ఈ . ఎం కం ఈ సమయ వ వ స 24 గంట .
అ మధ ఖ త ఉం .ఇ వ ం ల స పం త వ గ బలం
క ం .

4. స నక .ఇ రక ం వందల టర ఎ ఉం . ఇ యబ న
క ష ఉపగ ల డం య ఉప ంచబ ం .

5. క అ ఉతర వ ం దగర క య అ
ఉపగ హం ఉప ం క ష ఉపగ హ క .

6. వక ల వద య కరణ సం, ం అ ష ల సం మ
వ ం లస పం క ష సం ఉప ంచబడ .

7. HEO అం ఎ న క . 35,786KM ఎ ఉన ం న ఆ ౖ న ఉన ఏౖ
క ౖ ఎ ఆ అం .

8. “క మ గం 4π ^ 2R ^ 3 = T ^ 2GM మ V ^ 2R = GM సంబం ల
ఉప ం ంచబడ , ఇక డ R, టర క క ర ం; T, కన క లం;
V, m/s క గం; G, కర ణ ంకం, 6.673 × 10−11 Nm ^ 2 / kg ^ 2;
M, దవ , 5.98 × 1024 kg.

202
 3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)

orbits. They require additional fuel to maintain their height.

2. MEO that is medium earth orbit. This ranges between 2000KM
to 35,786KM from mean sea level. All global positioning
satellites and navigation satellites revolve in these orbits. These
are highly affected by the solar radiation pressure.
3. GEO that is the geo stationary orbit. This is at a height of
35,786KM. All communication satellites revolve at this level.
This is because at this level the time period is exactly 24hrs. They
are positioned around equator only. This causes low signal
strength near to poles regions.
4. Graveyard orbit. This is a few hundreds of kilometres above the
geostationary orbit. This is used to dump the decommissioned
communication satellites.
5. Molnia orbit is the communication satellite orbit used by the
satellite named Molnia to communicate nearer to north pole
region.
6. Polar orbits are used for scientific data collection at poles, for
remote sensing applications and for communication near poles
region.
7. HEO that is the high earth orbit. Any orbit above the geo
synchronous orbit of height 35,786KM are called high earth
orbits.
8. “Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations
4π2R3 = T2GM and V2R = GM, where R, radius of orbit in
metres; T, orbital period in seconds; V, orbital speed in m/s; G,
gravitational constant, approximately 6.673×10−11 Nm2/kg2; M,
mass of Earth, approximately 5.98×1024 kg.”

3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)

GPS stands for global positioning system. These satellites revolve in
medium earth orbit. i.e.; around 20,200KM from the surface of the
earth. Each data point that is to be positioned by GPS system requires
data from 4 satellites for accuracy. Here 3 satellites fix the position
of the object and the 4th satellite fixes the accuracy of the time
information. Thus GPS contains 24 satellites that are revolving in 6

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 3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)
బ ష ం స (GPS)
GPS అం బ ష ం స .ఈ ఉపగ మధ స క . అన .;
క ఉప తలం ం 20,200KM. GPS స ఉంచబ ప
ం ఖ తత ం సం 4 ఉపగ ల ం అవసరం. ఇక డ 3 ఉపగ వ క
రప మ 4వ ఉపగహం సమయ స రం క ఖ త ం .
ఈ ధం GPS 6 న ఈక య త ల న 24 ఉపగ ల
క ఉం . ౖ ఉన ప ం ఒ క సం 4 GPS ఉపగ .
24 గంటల వ వ షన క ల బ , ఆ ఉన ఇతర క ష
ఉపగ ల ం భద సమస ల ంచ , GPS ఉపగ ల 12 గంటల క ల వద
ఉం . త వ క ల ఎం నట , ప ల అ గ ంచ
ఎ వ ఇంధన గం ఉం ం . LEO క ఉపగ ల కవ ప త .
ఈ ఉపగ హ వ వస ఉ . అంత గం, ii. యంతణ గం మ
iii. గ గం.
అంత గం: ఇ క సం 24 మ సగ న 31 చరణ ఉపగ ల క ఉం ం .
ఆ గ ప ల ఆ రం గణన స యబ ం . అంత గం
అత ంత ఖౖ న గం పర గ రం. మ ంత కర ణ, గ రం మ
అ ం . ఈ ధం GPS ఉపగ ల గ ప 24 గంటల 38μSec గం
॓ . ఇ అంచ న నం క ఖ తత ం 10KM పం ఏర ం . అం వల
పర గ అ ॓ ॓ల ఉప ం ౖ కం ఖ తత ం కం త వ
సమ సమ క ంచబ .
యంతణ గం: ఇ 4 ఉప ల క ఉం ం , అ a. స కం ష (MCS) b.
ప య స కం ష . ం ం మ . ట ం ష .
ం ం ఉపగ హ ం ల ం సం ల అం ం మ
ప రం .L ం (1-2GHz) ష సం ఉప ంచబ ం మ
S ం (2-4GHz) ర హణ గ ప జ ల సం ఉప ంచబ ం .
ఉపగ ం (4-8GHz) ఉప మ అ రక ల ఉంచబడ .
ట ష ఉపగ తలౖ ం ట ం క . క ం న
స కం ష పంపబ ం .ప య స కం ష ర హణ
సమయం స కం ష క ప ం . ఇ ౖ ష క
ఆ పర ం . ఉపగ ల ష సం ల అ ం .
గ గం: అ GPS క ప క L- ం గ ల GPS వ ల క
ఉం . GPS ం ర ల వ అం ంచబడ .
a. ఖ తౖ న ష ం స : ఇ ట ప జ ల సం మ ప ల ౖ ం
య ఖ తౖ న ష ం మ ష గ సం అం తం యబ ం .

204
 3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)

different equatorial planes around the earth. Every point on earth is

seen by at least 4 GPS satellites at a time.
Instead of geo stationary orbits with time period of 24 hours,
GPS satellites are placed at 12 hour orbits, to avoid security issues
from other communication satellites at that level. If low earth orbits
are chosen then there will be more fuel consumption to overcome air
drag effects. LEO orbits also reduce the coverage range of satellites.
There are three segments for this satellite system. i. Space
segment, ii. Control segment and iii. User segment.
Space segment: It consists of at least 24 and on average 31
operational satellites. Their count is adjusted based on their health
conditions. The most important component of space segment is the
atomic clock. More the gravity, slower the clock ticks. Thus the clocks
in GPS satllites tick 38 faster for every 24 hours. This results in
a 10KM error in the accuracy of the estimated position. Hence the
atomic clocks must be time synchronized to less than micro second
accuracy using atomic clocks.
Control segment: This has 4 sub parts namely a. Master control
station (MCS) b. Alternative master control station c. Ground
antennas and d. Monitor stations.
The ground antennas receive and transmit signals from and to the
satellite antennas. L band (1-2GHz) is used for data transmission and
S band (2-4GHz) is used for maintenance signal purposes. Dish TV
satellites use C band (4-8GHz) and they are placed in the
geostationary orbits.
Monitor stations collect data from satellites while they pass over
head. The collected data will be transmitted to the master control
sation. Alternative master control station acts as a back up of master
control station during its maintenance. It also monitors the health of
the satellite constellation. Uploads navigation messages to satellites.
User segment: They carry GPS tracker devices or GPS receivers of L-
band signals. There are two types of services provided by GPS.

205
 3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)
. ండ ష ం స :ఇ ర, జ మ యప జ ల సం అం తం
యబ ం . య షణ సం వరణ ం గ ల వ గత ,
జ ఉప ం ష ప క ఇం ఉ .
అ తమ న సమ ఉపగహం సమ క ంచ స గ క ఉం .
ఇతర పద గవంతౖ న సమ కరణ సం గ సమ ఉప .
A-GPS ప క అం .
ద సమయం , శ కద కల ॓ య GPS ఉప ంచడంౖ US
ప త ం ఆం ం ం . ఇం ఇ ఎ ం తమ స ంత బ
ష స అ వృ ల ర ం .ఇతర అ వృ న
బ మ జన ష ౖ స (GNSS / RNSS) ం ధం ఉ .
Sl Short Full name Country Type Operat Orbit
N name of NSS ion al
o startin perio
g yar d
1. GPS Global The GNSS 1993 12
Positioning United Hrs.
System staes of
America
2. GLONA Global RUSSIA GNSS 1993 11
SS navigation Hr.
Satellite 15
System min.
3. GALILE Europia GNSS 2016 14.08
O n Union Hrs.
3. COMPA BeiDou People GNSS BDS-1
SS Navigation of 2000
BDS Satellite Republi BDS-2
System c China 2012
BDS-3
2020
4. IRNSS Indian RNSS India RNSS 2018
NAViC Navigation
Indian
Constallation
(sailor/Naviga
tor)
5. QZSS Quasi-Zenith Japan RNSS 2018
Satellite
System

206
 3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)

a. Precise positioning service: This is dedicated for accurate

positioning and navigation signals for military purposes and for
guiding missiles.
b. Standard positioning service: This is dedicated for civil,
commercial and scientific purposes. That includes navigation devices
used at personal level, commercial level in addition to the weather
reporting data signals for scientific analysis.
They also carry a crystal clock to synchronize their location time with
the satellite. Other methods use cell phone signal time also for faster
synchronization. They are called A-GPS devices.
During Kargil war time, US Government has imposed restrictions on
usage of GPS data to track the enemy movements. Further it lifted
the ban but many nations decided to develop their own global
navigation system. Some of the global and regional navigation
satiloite systems (GNSS/RNSS) developed by other countries are as
follows.

Applications:
Navigation: GPS based receivers are used for both general public and
commercial navigation purposes. Self driving cars also have been
designed to use GPS signal for navigation. They are also used in
Railway, aviation and marine navigation.
Surveying and Mapping: the implementation of GPS technology in
surveying made the process faster and cheaper and without loss of
accuracy.
Environment: Weather reporting for marine navigators and
fishermen as well as for general public. GPS also tracks cloud
movements and air flow rate for a better weather prediction.
Cell phones communication: GPS technology in cellphones enabled
the cell phone operators to synchronize time among all the receiver
devices. That enabled faster and accurate communication.
Geotagging and virtual tours: When pgotographs and videos are
tagged with the geographical map of a particular location, the
communication, social ease, internet security has been improved. At

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 3.6 Global Positioning system (GPS)
ష : GPS ఆ త వ రణ ప ॓ మ జ ష ప జ ల సం
ఉప ంచబడ . ష సం GPS గ ఉప ం ౖ ం
ం ంచబ . ౖ ,ఏ ష మ ౖ ష ఉప .
స ం మ ం : స ం GPS ం కత అమ ప య గవంతం
మ క మ ఖ తత ం ం ం .
ప వరణం: స ద మ మత ల సం అ రణ పజల సం వరణ
క. ౖ న వరణ అంచ సం GPS కద కల మ ప హ
॓ ం .
ల క ష : ల GPS ం కత ఆప ట అ వ
ప క ల మధ సమ సమ క ంచ క ం ం . ఇ గవంతౖ న మ
ఖ తౖ నక ష రం ం ం .
ం మ వ వ : మ ష ప శం క
క యబ న , క ష , క లభ ం, ఇంట భదత
పడ . అ సమయం ష స రం క ప
త ంచబ .
॓ ౖ ం : GPS ఆ త ॓ ఇ న సలం పత ॓ అంచ ల అంచ
ం .
ట : ట అ ష ల క తౖ న ష ం వల ప శ ట డం శ ల
కద కల ం , ౖ ౖ ం మ క , య ష సర కృతం
యబ .
॓: కం ం మ త త GPS ల డం క లౖ
కం ల ప అధ యనం యవ .

E - Corner
https://qzss.go.jp/en/technical/satellites/index.html
https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Main_Page
https://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/

208
 3.7 Weightlessness

the same time privacy levels of information on social media has been
reduced.
Traffic data mining: GPS based traffic data gives an estimate of the
live traffic predictions at a given place.
Militery: Enemy movement tracking, missile guiding and navigation
in dark unknown terrains have been simplified by the introduction of
precise positioning services in military applications.
Tectonics: The effect of earthquakes on the geographical structures
can be studied by comparing the GPS data before and after the earth
quake.

Fig: Frequency bands of various of GNSS

3.7 Weightlessness
Weightlessness is experienced when the body experiences zero
gravitational force.
Consider a person with mass , standing in a lift that is moving with
acceleration . The weight of the person acts downwards. As a
reaction, the floor of the lift also pushes the person upwards. That is
called the normal force .
If the net acceleration of the lift is upwards, then the terms that
contribute to it are as follows
∑ = + (− )= − − − (1)
From this, the normal force is
= ( + ) − − − (2)

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 3.7 Weightlessness
ర త ం:
శ రం కర ణ శ అ భ ం న ర త ం అ భ ంచబ ం .
త రణం a క న లబ న m ద వ ఉన వ ప గ ంచం . వ క
బ mg ం ప ం . ప చర , క వ ౖ ం .
ర n అం .
క ల ష ౖ ఉం , హదప బంధన ం ధం ఉం
∑ = + (− )= − − − (1)
ం , లంబ బలం

= ( + ) − − − (2)
క కర త రణం ం ఉం ,ౖ ప ర ఇవ బ ం
ఈ సందర ం , క ం ఉన త రణం త తర స నం , కర
ర అ ం .అ వ బ అ భ ంచ . ఈ సందర ం ,
క త రణం త రం సమ ల మ ం .
ఆ ధం ఏౖ ఇతర హ యం ం ల వ ౖ ల ర నం
అ న ర త త అ భ ంచబ ం .
అం వలన ఈ సందర ం , ల a = g త రణం ం ప ం . అన .; అ
పత న ం .
వ ౖ ఉన మ వ ౖ హ త రణం న త
అ భ ంచబ ం . ఆ సందర ం , Eq. (3) gమ a ం స నం.
అంత ంద ం షయం , క , కర ణ బలం ప మ హ
శ అప ంద బలం ఉం ం . అం వలన Eq. (3) ఇ అ ం ,

= − = − − − − (4)
( + ) +
ఇక డ R అ క రం మ rఅ క ఉప తలం ం అంత
ందం రం.
ర ఉన ట , ఉపగహం ఆ శ క శ క లంబం
యబ ం . ఉపగహం ర క న ంత లం, ఈ ం బ స నం
ఉం మ ర ఉం ం .అ ఉపగహం/అంత ందం
వ ర త అ భ .
వ హ అంత ం (ౖ ) రౖ న గం ప ం న మ
ఇతర కర ణ శ ౖ ప యన అ జ ం .

E - Corner
Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman - Sears and
Zemansky's University Physics with Modern Physics-
Pearson Education (2015)

210
 3.7 Weightlessness

If the net acceleration of the lift is downwards, then the normal

force that acts upwards is given by
= ( − ) − − − (3)
In this case, if the downward acceleration of the lift becomes equal to
the acceleration due to gravity, then the net normal force becomes
zero.Then the object experiences no weight. In this case, the
gravitational weight is balanced by the acceleration of the lift.
Thus weightlessness is experienced when the normal force exerted by
the floor on the object gets nullified by any other external
mechanism.
Thus in this case, the floor also falls downwards with acceleration
= . i.e.; it undergoes a free fall.
Weightlessness is also experienced when the object is in microgravity
space and there is no external acceleration on the object. In that case,
both and in Eq.(3) are equal to zero.
In the case of space station, that orbits around earth, there will be an
inward acceleration due to gravity and an outward centrifugal force.
Thus Eq. (3) becomes,

= − = − − − − (4)
( + ) +
Here is the radius of the earth and is the distance of the space
station from the surface of the earth.
If there exists a non-zero net normal force, the satellite will be
thrown normal to the orbit alon the direction of that force. As long
as the satellite revolves in a stationary orbit, these two forces will be
equal and the net normal force will be zero. Then the objects in the
satellite/space station experience weightlessness.

211
 3.7 Weightlessness
మ ల క రక ప
1. ం ం మ క వరణం ప ంచడం వలన మ లౖ
3 g-శ ఏర ం .ఇ ద రక ప త ం మ మ
స ృహ వ . ద రక ప ర ంచ ప క G- అవసరం.
క ంట 4-6g కం ఎ వ శ మర రణమ ం .
2. బ ద గంట " అ ష ం " (SAS) ॓
రణమ . వల రం, ం , , తల , రసం దౖ న వ .
3. మ ల ంతకౖ న చర వడం ఒక . 30 కన ం 90 కన
ంచ ం ౖ నట ష ం రణ
వ .అంత ం శ రం ద వం అం ఆ ౖ ం . ఊ
వడం వల శ రం ఆ జ కం ం ప ం మ స ॓ అప రక
ం ం .
4. ౖ , కర ణ ర ం ం . అం ం కరణ ప ల
అ గ ంచ న ల దవ ంద ం కం ం ం ఎ వన ఉం ం .అ ళ
రక ళౖ అ కఒ త తల ఉన కం సన ఉం . -
ప ళ తల రక ప హం ఉం ం . అం వల ళ రక
మ ంత సన ర మ తలౖ ఉన మ ంత వ కం మ దృఢం ర .
- వర అ ణం ర 1-2 ల సమయం ప ం . అప
వర మ తల రగడం యం. నవ శ రం అ ఇతర శ ర ద ల ప
ఇ ం ప క .
5. తలౖ అ క రక ప హం రణం , క ంచబ చ ఉం .
వల కం వ ం .
6. రవ వస క ॓ చలనం కర ణ ప తం నం న మ
రణం ఆ వ . య అ ఘన ఆ వ
అ మ ంచబ . కర ణ రపడ బ డ అంత ం
అ మ ంచబడ , అ క మ ఊ ల క ంచవ . అం ఉ
మ ల అంత ం ల ఉప ం ం దవ ఉం .
మం మ తమ ఆ రం త వ ఉం ంద .
అవసరం. ఎం కం , కర ణ ర ఆ రం ఉం ం .
7. కర ణ , అ రఆ ం ం . ఉప త లౖ , ఇ ఎ వం
మంట ం ం . ప రం బ వర ఉప త లౖ అ ఉ ంచడం ధం
. అం వల మంట మ మంటల ఆ యం ల వ వహ ం ట
గత .

212
 3.8 Physiological effects of Astronauts

Fig: weightlessness in spacestation.

The same happens when the object travels in the outer space with
constant velocity and no other gravitational forces act on it.

3.8 Physiological effects of Astronauts

1. Rocket launching and re-entry into earth’s atmosphere causes a
g-force of around 3 on the astronauts. This flushes down the
blood flow in brain and astronauts may become unconscious.
They require special G-suite to maintain blood flow into brain.
More than 4-6g-force vertically along the spine causes death.
2. The first few hours of weightlessness causes “Space Adaptation
Syndrome” (SAS) or space sickness. This results in nausea,
vomiting, vertigo, headache, lethargy etc.
3. Exposure to vacuum is one of the lethal activities for astronauts.
They may recover to normality without much side effects if they
are exposed to complete vacuum not more than 30 sec to 90 sec.
Beyond that all fluid in the body gets evaporated. Oxygen content
in the body falls down due to breathing out in vacuum and the
subject becomes unconscious.
4. On earth, gravity pulls blood downwards. That is why heart is a
little above the centre of mass for human beings, to overcome the
gravity effects. Also the blood vessels in the legs are narrower
than those in head to bear high pressure towards legs. In zero-G
conditions there will be heavy blood flow to head compared to
legs. Thus the blood vessels in legs become even thinner and

213
 3.8 Physiological effects of Astronauts
8. కండ మ ఎ క ॓ అ . ఆ ధం మ
ఒక ల 1 అం ళం ఎ ం . కండ ం ం మ
బ .ఎ క బ ర . ఖం నశ ర
బ భ ం ం ంచబ న ॓ మ ష వల మ ంత
బ ం . ం ల కండ ల త నంత ఒ సృ ంచ
ం మ ఉప ంచబడ . క మ 5-11 ల 20%
వర కండర దవ వ . కండ ల త స యపడ మ
ఎ కల బ ంద , . 3-4 లల అంత త న
ఎ క ంద త ంద ౖ 2-3 సంవత అవసరం. అంత ం ఎ వ
ఉం మ ం ఉప , ఇ ల త నంత ఒ
వ ంప య న క న లౖ ఒ క ం .
9. కర ణ ప ల గం వృ ం ం మ
ం బ ॓ మ ంత ధకత ం ం . బ ఆ రం ం
ఏౖ షం అంత ందం ంతకం అ ం . కర ణ వరణం
నవ శ రం స యం అ ం మ ంతకం అ ం .
10. అంత ం ం వ ష ౖ ఉన య ఎ వ
ంచబ ం . అంత ం , మ ష న ల ఎ వ ర .
లఎ జ ంతకం రవ . అంత ం వక
బ ,ఇ క అయ ంత ళం కం ర ంచబ ం .
నర , ష కం ల రణమ ం మ అ మ
క ఆగమ గవంతం ం . ష నవ గ ధక వ వస క ప న
ౖ న ం ౖ ల వం బ ం .
11. కర ణ ంచ డ క ఉంచబ న ం అవసరం. ఇతర
రక రక ల త ల రణం ద గత సర రణం. అం వల ఆటం
ం త సమయం ద ల ం .

E - Corner
https://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/livingthings/arterial_remo
del.html
https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/stem-on-
station/ditl_eating
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_hu
man_body

214
 3.8 Physiological effects of Astronauts

those in head become further wider and robust. Adaptation to

zero-G environment takes a time of around 1-2 weeks. Till that
time astronauts feel dizziness. Similar effects will be seen for flow
of all other bodily fluids in the human body.

Fig: The effect of microgravity on fluid distribution

5. Due to heavy blood rush to head, eyeballs get compressed and
flatten a little. This causes a change in eyesight.
6. Astronauts can take food normally as the peristaltic motion of
the digestive system is not affected by gravity. They are allowed
to take all solid food as usual. Powders are not allowed in space
as dust won’t settle down in zero gravity, they may cause
irritation in eyes and lungs. That is why salt and pepper are kept
in liquid state to use in space stations. Most of the astronauts feel
that their food is less tasty or sometimes tastier. Drinking water
requires straw. This is because, water remains in spherical shape
in zero gravity.
7. In zero gravity, fire takes spherical shape. On surfaces, it spreads
without any flare. Presence of fire on surfaces can’t be identified
until the material gets damaged. Hence care must be taken while
dealing with flame and fire extinguishers in zero gravity.
8. Muscles and bones get relaxed in zero gravity. Thus astronauts
gain 1 inch height in one month in zero gravity. Muscles shrink
and lose their strength as they get no strain. Bones also lose their
strength and become fragile. Especially back bone and foot bones
that are designed to bear the rest of the body weight get damaged
more due to relaxation. Springs and cords are used to create
enough tension in muscles via weight lifting exercises. Otherwise
astronauts may lose up to 20% of muscle mass in 5-11 days. The
exercises help only muscle and to regain bone strength, one has

215
 3.8 Physiological effects of Astronauts

E - Corner
http://pages.erau.edu/~andrewsa/Project%201/Olley_Sophie/
HUMOLLEY/Project1sophie_olley.html
https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap210810.html
https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-
nasa/2013/18jun_strangeflames
https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/stem-on-
station/ditl_sleeping

Did You Know?

Why rotation and revolution period of moon are

equal?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jUpX7J7ySo

216
 Solved problems and Exercises

to come back to earth. To regain the bone density lost in 3-4

months space trip requires 2-3 years on earth. Astronauts that
stay for longer times in space use elastic pants that apply
pressure on their foot when tied to their waist, to apply enough
stress on feet.
9. Bacteria in zero gravity conditions seems to grow faster and gain
more resistance to antibiotics. Thus any minute amount of
bacteria even from food will become fatal on space station. The
bacteria within human body gets activated and becomes fatal in
zero gravity environment.
10. Radiation from outer space is majorly blocked by the
magnetosphere on the earth. In outer space, astronauts are more
prone to radiation damages. A few minutes of exposure may also
become fatal. Since the space stations revolve in the lower earth
orbit, it is partially protected by the earth’s magnetosphere. In
addition to cancers, radiation also causes cataracts and may
accelerate the onset of Alzheimer’s disease. The radiation
drastically damage the lymphocytes which are the major
constituents of human immune system.
11. Sleeping in zero gravity requires a sleeping bag tied to a wall.
Sleeping disorders are more common due to fluctuations in other
physiological activities. Hence sleeping at a fixed time without
disturbances is suggested.

Solved problems and Exercises

1. A body of mass 1kg is moving under a central force ina n

elliptic orbit with semi major axis 1000m and semi minor axis 100m.
The orbitcal angular momentum of the body is 100kg m2s-1. What is
the time period of motion of the body.
Ans:
Given that
a=1000m
b=100m
m=1kg

217
 Solved problems and Exercises
L=100kg m2s-1
For a body moving under central force, areal velocity is constant and
is given by

=
2
In general

=
2
We know that A=πab (Area of ellipse)
Therefore
2
=

Substituting the above values

2 1000 3.14 1000 100

=
100000
T= 1.74hours

2. If the motion of a particle is described by x 5cos (8πt) , y=

5sin (8πt) and z = 5t , then find the trajectory of the particle.
Ans:
Given
x 5cos (8πt)
y= 5sin (8πt) and
z = 5t ,
Since x2+ y2=25, the particle motion is circular and
Propagating along z= 5t,
Therefore the particle motion is Helical

3. A satellite moves around the earth in a circular orbit of radius

R centered at the earth. A second satellite moves in an elliptic orbit

218
 Solved problems and Exercises

of major axis 8R , with the earth at one of the foci. If the former takes
1 day to complete a revolution, the latter would take how much time.
Ans:
From the Kepler’s law of palanetay motion
T2 α R3
Given that
For first satellite radius of the circular orbit is R and T1=1 day
And second satellite radius of the circular orbit is 8R and T2=?
From the above equation

=
(8 )

8 =
/
= 8
= 21. 6
4. A particle of mass m is moving in x - y plane. At any given
time t , its position vector is given by r=A cos wt i + B sin wt j where
A, B and w are constants. Describe the orbital motion of the particle
and measure it angular momentum.
Ans:
Given by
r=A cos wt i + B sin wt j
Generalized position vector is r=x i + y j
By comparing the above equations
x= A cos wt => x/A = cos wt and
y= B sin wt => y/B = sin wt and

Therefore,

+ =( ) + ( )

219
 Solved problems and Exercises

+ =1

It represents orbit of the particle is an ellipse

L=rxp = m (rx v)
v= dr/dt =- Aw sin wt i + Bw cos wt j
L = m (rx v)
= ( 0 −
0)
=
5. In planar polar co-ordinates, an object’s position at time t is
given as (r,θ)= (etm, √8 rad). Then find the magnitude of its
acceleration (to the nearest integer) at t=0.
Ans:
Given that
(r,θ)= (et m, √8 rad).
i.e. r= et m and
θ= √8 rad
We know that
= ̈− ̇
̈=
̇ =8

∴ = −8
= ̈ +2 ̇ ̇

̈ =0
and
̇=

∴ = 0 + 2√8

220
 Solved problems and Exercises

At t=0,
∴ = 1 − 8 = −7

∴ = 2√8
Therefore, the resultant acceleration is given by

= +

= (−7) + 4 8

= √49 + 32 = 9 /

6. A planet has average density same as that of the earth but it

has only of the mass of the Earth. If the acceleration due to gravity
at the surface is gp ane ge for the planet and earth respectively, then
find the .
Ans:
We know that

And

Density ( ) =

4
=
3

3
=
4

ℎ =
3
4

221
 Solved problems and Exercises
Given that
Mp= 1/8 Me

3
4
=

3
4

=
( )

1
=
8

= 0.5

7. There are three planets in circular orbits around a star at

distances a 4a and 9a,
respectively. At time t to, the star and the three planets are in a
straight line. The period
of revolution of the closest planet is T. How long after t0 will they
again be in the same
straight line?
Ans:
From the Kepler’s law of period
T2 α R3
T2 = k R3 , where k is proportionality constant.
Given that the three planets in circular orbits around a star having
radii a, 4a and 9a respectively Therefore,
T12 = k a3 => T1 = k a3/2 = T

222
 Solved problems and Exercises

T22 = k (4a)3 = > T2 = 8 k a3/2 = 8T and

T22 = k (9a)3 = > T3 = 27 k a3/2 = 27 T
The common time that all the three stars meet in a straight line is
to = T1 x T2 x T3
= T x 8 T x 27 T
to = 216 T
Which is the LCM of all the time periods.
8. The moon moves around the earth in a circular orbit with a
period of 27 days. The radius
6
of the earth R is 6.4 10 m and the acceleration due to gravity on
the earth surface is
9.8 ms−2. If D is the distance of the moon from the center of the earth,
find the value of D/R.
Ans:
For circular orbit

=
(2 )

=
(2 )

=
4

=
4
Given that
R=6.4 106 m
T=27 days = 27x 3600 sec
g=9.8 ms−2

223
 Solved problems and Exercises

9.8 27
=
4 3.14 6.4 10

= 59.5

9. If the diameter of the Earth is increased by 4% without

changing the mass, then find the length of the day.
Ans:
Since the mass same, and satisfied the law of conservation of angular
momentum from the motion under central forces
=
We know that moment of Inertial of a circular object is
=
Therefore
= = ( + 0.4 )
and
2 2
= =

Therefore
2 2
= ( + 0.04 )

= 1.04
Given that, T1 = 24 hours
= 1.04 24
= 25.95
10. A particle of mass m moves along a trajectory given by x=xo cos
w1t and y=yo sin w2t. Find the condition for the force to be a
central force.

Ans:

224
 Solved problems and Exercises

Given that by x=xo cos w1t and y=yo sin w2t

Therefore
= +
̇= − +
̈= − −
We know that
= ̈
And
= = ̈
But we know that a force become central force when it satisfies that
the
= =0
Therefore
̈=0
( 0 −
− 0)=0
=
∴
= ℎ ℎ ℎ

MCQs

1. Which is not a Kepler's law

a) Law of periods
b) Law of orbits
c) Law of areas
d) Law of continuity Aucet 2019
2. The quantity that remains conserved for a particle moving under
the action of Central force is
a) Linear momentum
b) Angular momentum
c) Force
d) Acceleration Aucet 2019

225
 Solved problems and Exercises

3. Kepler's second law follows from the law of conservation of

a) Angular momentum
b) Linear momentum
c) Energy
d) Mass Aucet 2019
4.

1 Imagine a light planet revolving around a very massive star

in a circular orbit of radius R with a period of revolution T. If the
gravitational force of attraction between planet and star is
proportional to R-5/2, then T2 is proportional to
a) R7/2
b) R5/2
c) R3/2
d) R1/2
2 A satellite S is moving in an elliptical orbit around the earth.
The mass of the satellite is very small compared to the mass of earth
a) The acceleration of S is always directed towards the center of
the earth
b) The angular momentum of S about the center of the earth
changes in direction but its magnitude remains constant
c) The total mechanical energy of S varies periodically with time
d) The linear momentum of S remains constant in magnitude
3 A mass M is split into two parts, m and M (>m), which are
then separated by a certain distance. What ratio of m/M maximizes
the gravitational force between the two parts
a) 1/3
b) 1/2
c) 1/4
d) 1/5
4 Which is not the conic section
a) Ellipse
b) Circle
c) Parabola
d) Sphere
5 If the radius of the earth were to shrink by 1% its mass
remaining the same, the acceleration due to gravity on the earth's
surface would
a) Decrease by 2%

226
 Solved problems and Exercises

b) Remain unchanged
c) Increase by 2%
d) Increase by 1%
6 Suppose the gravitational force varies inversely as the nth
power of distance. Then the time period of a planet in circular orbit
of radius R around the sun will be proportional to
a) R(n+1)/2
b) R(n-1)/2
c) Rn
d) R(n-2)/2
7 The radius and mass of earth are increased by 0.5%. Which of
the following statements are true at the surface of the earth
a) g will increase
b) g will decrease
c) Escape velocity will remain unchanged
d) Potential energy will remain unchanged
8 A body of mass m is taken from earth surface to the height h
equal to radius of earth, the increase in potential energy will be
a) mgR
b) ½ mgR
c) 2 mgR
d) ¼ mgR
9 A solid sphere of uniform density and radius 4 units is located
with its center at the origin O of coordinates. Two spheres of equal
radii 1 unit with their centers at A(-2, 0, 0) and B(2, 0, 0) respectively
are taken out of the solid leaving behind spherical cavities as shown
in figure

A (-2, 0, 0) O B (2, 0, 0)

a) The gravitational force due to this object at the origin is zero

b) The gravitational force at the point B (2, 0, 0) is zero

227
 Solved problems and Exercises
c) The gravitational potential is the same at all points of the
circle y2+z2=36
d) The gravitational potential is the same at all points on the
circle y2+z2=4
10 A geostationary satellite orbits around the earth in a circular
orbit of radius 36000 km. Then, the time period of a satellite orbiting
a few hundred kilometres above the earths surface (REarth=6400km)
will approximately be
a) ½h
b) 1h
c) 2h
d) 4h
11 A planet revolving around sun in an elliptical orbit has a
constant :
a) Kinetic energy
b) Linear speed
c) Angular momentum about the sun
d) Potential energy
12 Consider a classical particle subjected to an attractive inverse
square force field. The total energy of the particle is E and the
eccentricity is ε. The particle will follow parabolic orbit if
a) E>0 and ε=1
b) E<0 and ε<1
c) E=0 and ε=1
d) E<0 and ε=1

13 A planet with no axial tilt is located in another solar system.

It circles its sun in a very elliptical orbit so that the
temperature varies greatly throughout the year. If the year
there has 612 days and the inhabitants celebrate the coldest
day on day 1 of their calendar, when is the warmest day?

a) Day 1
b) Day 153
c) Day 306
d) Day 459

14 3. Are Kepler’s laws purely descriptive, or do they contain

causal information?
a) Kepler’s laws are purely descriptive.
b) Kepler’s laws are purely causal.

228
 Solved problems and Exercises

c) Kepler’s laws are descriptive as well as causal.

d) Kepler’s laws are neither descriptive nor causal.
15 True or false—According to Kepler’s laws of planetary
motion, a satellite increases its speed as it approaches its
parent body and decreases its speed as it moves away from
the parent body.
a) True
b) False
16 Identify the locations of the foci of an elliptical orbit.
a) One focus is the parent body, and the other is located at the
opposite end of the ellipse, at the same distance from the
center as the parent body.
b) One focus is the parent body, and the other is located at the
opposite end of the ellipse, at half the distance from the
center as the parent body.
c) One focus is the parent body and the other is located
outside of the elliptical orbit, on the line on which is the
semi-major axis of the ellipse.
d) One focus is on the line containing the semi-major axis of the
ellipse, and the other is located anywhere on the elliptical
orbit of the satellite.

Answers:

1. 1 A
.

229
 Solved problems and Exercises
2. A
Force on satellite is always towards earth, therefore,

acceleration of satellite S is always directed towards

centre of the earth. Net torque of this gravitational force

F about centre of earth is zero. Therefore, angular

momentum (both in magnitude and direction ) of S' about

centre of earth is constant throughout. Since, the force F

is conservative in nature, therefore mechanical energy of

satellite remains constant. Speed of S is maximum when

it is nearest to earth and minimum when it is farthest.

3. B

4. D
5. C

230
 Solved problems and Exercises

6. A

7. A

Thus if M and R are increased, g will decrease. Thus (B),

(C ) and (D) are correct, and (A) is a wrong statement.
8. D We know that Ui=-GMm/R on the surface
Uf=-GMm/R+h at height h=R from the surface
Therefore Uf=-GMm/R+R
Uf=-GMm/2R
Change in Potential energy ∆U= Ui~ Uf
∆U = GMm/2R = ½ mgR [ since g=GM/R2
9. B
10. C

11. C A planet revolving in an elliptical path has a constant

angular momentum. This can be justified by Kepler's
Laws. According to law of equal areas, if a straight line is
drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the
planet moving on the elliptical path, it will cover equal
areas in equal intervals of time. Angular momentum,
L=mr2w where m, r and w are the mass, distance between

231
 Solved problems and Exercises
the center of the sun and the center of the planet and
angular velocity of the planet. Since, mass remains
constant, angular momentum depends only on r and w.
On an elliptical path, when distance increases, angular
velocity reduces and when distance decreases, angular
velocity increases. This is how angular momentum
remains constant
12. C
13. A
14. A
15. A

Check your Understanding

1. A central force is a force which is
directed always towards a fixed
point
2. All central forces should be
conservative
3. For conservative central forces,
angular momentum is always
constant
4. Motion of simple pendulum is an
example of central force problem
5. Lorentz force (Electromagnetic force
) is a central force
6. For central forces, angular
acceleration becomes zero.
7. Areal velocity is a pseudovector
whose length has units of /
8. Time period of a satellite around a
planet depends on length of semi
minor axis if length of semi major
axis is fixed
9. All communication satellites revolve
at GEO level
10. GPS ( global positioning system)
satellites revolve in GEO level
11. During vertical motion of a satellite ,
the objects in the satellite experience
weightlessness

232
 Glossary

Check: 1. Yes 2. No 3. Yes 4. Yes 5. No 6. Yes 7. Yes

8. No 9. Yes 10. No 11. No

Glossary
Glossary: Motion in a Central force Field
An entertainer who performs spectacular
Acrobat
gymnastic feats
The point in the orbit of an object (planet) where
Aphelion
it is farthest from the Sun
Astronaut A person who is trained to travel in a spacecraft

Astronomer A scientist who studies the stars, planets, and

other natural objects in space
A force (possibly negative) that points from the
particle directly towards a fixed point in space,
Central force
the center, and whose magnitude only depends
on the distance of the object to the center.
A group of stars that appears to form a pattern
Constellation
or picture like Orion
An astronaut of the Soviet or Russian space
Cosmonauts
program

Eccentricity The quality of being eccentric. Technically:

deviation of a curve or orbit from circularity.
Women who sought to fly in space are called
Feminauts “astronautrix,” or “astro-nettes", or “space
girls".
Geodetic Pertaining to geodesy or to surveying
A person who walks for long distances,
Hikers
especially across country.
The condition in which people or objects appear
Microgravity
to be weightless

Perihelion The point in the orbit of a object (planet),

asteroid or comet that is nearest to the sun

233
 Glossary

Pirouette A rapid whirling about of the body; especially :

a full turn on the toe or ball of one foot in ballet
Relating to the branch of biology that deals with
Physiological the normal functions of living organisms and
their parts.
A celestial body orbiting the earth or another
Satellite
planet
The measurement of the lengths of the three
sides of a series of touching or overlapping
Trilateration triangles on the earth's surface for the
determination of the relative position of points
by geometrical means
Wanderer A person who travels aimlessly; a traveller
The state of having or appearing to have
Weightlessness
no weight

234
 UNIT-3
CHAPTER-4
SPECIAL THEORY OF
RELATIVITY
క ంత
CHAPTER క
4 ంత
ణల
ఈఅ యం ఈ ంద ం ,

1. శచ మ య ప వర న మ ం ప వర న.

2. ౖ కల - ప గం మ ప లఫ .

3. ప క ంతం క ల

4. డ సం చం మ ల చ వన .

5. గం దవ ౖ ధ ంమ E=mC^2 సంబంధం.

అభ సన ఫ

అ యం సమ , ఈ ం యగల

1. ల భమణ చల సంబం ం న ధ క ల ర ంచగల .

2. ధౖ నన ల ం ల ంటం వ ంచగల .

3. ధ స ల సం ం అ ఇన న ంచం .

4. ఆస ఉన ధ వ వసల ఆ ల ల ంచగల .

5. ఆస ఉన ధ స ల ష ప ల ంచగల .

6. దృఢవ ల ం అ ఇన మ ష ప ల సం ౖ న

మ స కర ల అ వృ యగల .
SPECIAL THEORY

CHAPTER
OF RELATIVITY 4
Syllabus
Introduction to relativity, Frames of reference, Galilean
transformations, absolute frames, Michelson-Morley
experiment, negative result, Postulates of Special theory
of relativity, Lorentz transformation, time dilation, length
contraction, variation of mass with velocity, Einstein’s
mass-energy relation.
Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn about,
1. Frames of referenceand Galilean transformation and Lorentz
transformation.
2. Michelson-Morley experiment and its negative results.
3. Postulates of special theory of relativirty
4. Length contraction and Time dilation concepts.
5. Variation of mass with velocity and about = relation.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Define the postulates of relativistic mechanics.
2. Explain the conditions under which relativistic regime is
observable.
3. Apply time dilation and length contraction concepts to
various systems of interest.
4. Analyze the effects of relativistic velocities on the energy and
mass of ths systems.
5. Justify the need of postulates of special theory of relativity
from Michelson and Morley experiment.
6. Develop models for proper dynamics of systems that travel
under relativistic regime.
 Syllabus
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ

ఈఅ యం సమ ష ల ం ం రం ల ప క
ంతం క అవస ంచగల .

1. ॓:ప క ంతం క సం పర పరస ర చర ల ం ఖ ళ పరస ర

చర ల వర అ ష ల క ఉం .

2. : , వం ఆవర న ప క ల లల ల ప క
ంతం త వ ంచవ .

3. కం ట ౖ : కృ మ ఉపగ ల ం మ ౖ ం ౖ ం ర
సమయ స రణ అవసరం.

4. ల : మ ౖ న ॓ ఆ రం మ అంత ం భమణం
క ప వం, స చలనంౖ వ చలనం మ ఆ టౖ ఎ ఉం ం
శ క ం . ప ల ం వడం అవసరం.

5. ఎల ॓: ౖ ౖ ప క మ ఇతర అ క శ క ల
ఉత య అ వృ యబ .

6. న దక శ : ౖ రఘ లప ల ం
ప . టప వం, ర చంద వ వస అలల, రమ
పవన శ వన లౖ ప అంచ ం .

7. గ ం : గ ంక ॓ అ గం ప ం అ క శ క ల గ ంక
షణ వ వహ ం క స గం.

. ప తం ం అప తం
9వ తరగ ఆంగ గద ం ఐ క కథ మ ప క ంతంౖ అత

రచనల "A truly beautiful mind" ప చయం ఉండవ . గ చలనం

ఉన సమయం ఎ ం మ ప ద ఎన ష ం

ప చయం ఉండవ .ఈఅ యం ప క ంతం క ఆ ష రణ

నప ,ప క ంతం క ల ం మ

ం డ , సమయం, ద వ మ శౖ త క ప ల ఉ .

238
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would
be able to identify the need of special theory of relativity in the
following fields.
1. Physics: Special theory of Relativity finds its applications from
atomic interactions to astronomical interactions in physics.
2. Chemistry: Some elements in periodic table like Mercury,
Gold properties can be explained only by special theory of
relativity.
3. Computer Science: Programming and time synchronizing
artificial satellites require relativistic time dilation
corrections.
4. Geology: Geodesy and Geodynamics study the effect of earth
shape, rotation in space on the earth crestal motion, polar
motion and tides require knowledge of relativistic effects.
5. Electronics: Relativistic high frequency microwave devices are
developed to generate plasma and other high energy particles.
6. Renewable energy: Relativistic corrections to perovskite solar
cells materials enhances their bandgap. The effect of
relativistic corrections to the earth, sun moon system predicts
their impact on tidal, solar and wind energy resources.
7. Statistics: Relativistic statistical mechanics is a branch of
physics that deals with the statistical analysis of high energy
particles that travel at relativistic speeds.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In your 9th class English prose you might have introduced
with “A truly beautiful mind”, the story of Einstein and his works on
special theory of relativity. You might have introduced about how
time in clocks vary when they are in motion and the famous mass
energy rlation. In this chapter you would learn the experiments that
lead to the discovery of special theory of relativity, postulates of
special theory of relativity, and from them you would derive the
effects of relativity on length, time, mass and energy.

239
 4.1 ఉ తమ

4.1 ఉ త
ఆ ఫ జడత ం ఉన త య ॓ ప ం . అం ,
వ ం శ ం త రణం న త . తం య ॓ ర రణ
సంబం ల ం . ట ంతం ర రణ సంబంధం అ హ
ఉ .
1. సలం సం రౖ న :
అ హ ఒక సం ర ల ం .ఈ వన 1689 " ట క బ ప గం
మ చర " వ ంచబ ం .
ఈప గం , బ క , వ . రంభం ,
వలం బ ం మ రం ఉం ం . ంత సమయం త త,
బ ర ఆ రం ం . ంత సమయం త త, రగడం
ఆ ,బ ఆ ం . ఇప ర ఆ రం ం .త త
ం వ ం .ఈ ర ఆ రం ం గ మ కర ణ
రణం ఉం ం . మ బ భమణం మధ ఆలస ం జడత ం రణం
జ ం .
తం ట ద మ డవ దశల సం ర సంబం ం
క /సం ర ం మ క /సం ర భమణ ప గ ం .
వర , కర ణ ఉన ౖ న ప శం ఉన వ ల కద క ఖ తం
ర ంచగల ఒక సం ర ఉంద ట ం .

https://mathshistory.st-
andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Newton_bucket/

https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/NewtonsRotatingBuc
ketExperiment/

240
 4.1 Introduction

4.1 Introduction
Newtonian mechanics are applicable only when the frame of
reference is inertial. i.e., only when there is no acceleration without
applied force. The entire Newtonian mechanics swirls around cause
and effect relations. There are a few misconceptions with cause and
effect relation in Newton’s theory.

1. Space is not absolute

One of the misconceptions is about absolute frames. This
concept was well described in the “Newton’s rotating bucket
experiment and debate” in 1689.

Fig: Newton’s rotating bucket experiment.

In this experiment, a bucket carrying water is tied to a rope and is

rotated by twisting the rope and releasing. In the beginning, just the
bucket rotates and water remains stationary. After some time, water
also rotates along with bucket in in concave shape. After sometime,
if the rope stops rotating, bucket stops. But the water still rotates in
concave shape. Later water also comes to rest. This concave shape is
due to centrifugal force and gravitational pull. The delay between
rotation of water and bucket is due to inertia.
Somehow Newton considered the status of water in the first and
third stages as the isolated/absolute rest state and isolated/absolute
rotation state with respect to some absolute frame.
Finally Newton concluded that there exists an absolute frame, with
respect to which one can define motion of objects precisely, which is
in far deep space where gravity is zero.
A serious objection followed by a proper explanation for this debate
was founded, 200 years later by Ernst Mach, in 1883, by considering

241
 4.1 Introduction
2. త ణ ప

ట ర జం మ క అభ ంతరం ఏ టం ప త ; అం , మనం ఒక
వ నట , బలం ప ం న ంట నభ ంశం గమ ంచబ ం . ఖ ళ
వ ల ప గణన న ఈ ఊహ ౖ ధ ం స షం గమ ంచబ ం .ఇ
ట మ ఆ ం న ఇతర క స తల " రం ప వ "
వ ంచబ ం ; అం , కర ణ, మ అయ ంత ఏ లౖ త ణ
ప వం ప . పరస ర చర ల క అ థ క రం ల , ప వం ప రం
యబ గం క ంత ఎ వ స హ తప స ఉం అ ంచబ ం . ,
అయ ంత మ కర ణ అ అ ల ఆఎ వప గం ఉం ం .
స , ఈ గం రం ఉం ం మ దృ కం నం ం గం స నం
ఉం ం .

3. సమయం సం రౖ న

వ ల మధ చలన వన ౖ జ స ంతర కద క వ ం
పయ ల దట అధ యనం . ట నత ప ప చల
ర .ఈ వన త తఆ ల మ స రచనల వరం ప గ ంచబ ం .
అ , స ౖ న న అ వరనల , సమయం సం రం ంచబ ం .

సమయం క ఈ సం రత క పర వ న టం , ఒక ష మం ం
సంఘటన సంభ ,అ ఇతర జడత ల మం ఒ ధం ఉం ం . స
అ ,స రబ ల మధ ంత ప ర సమయం ప ం .

సం ర సమయం క మ క ప మం ఏ టం , వ ల ఎంత అ
అం ంచవ . స , స ర బ గ ష ప ఉన ం న, ఆ ప కం
గం ప ం వ ల ం నస రం యబడ . అ ం వ
మన ఇం ల క ంచ ం ఉం .

సం ర సమయం క మ కప మం ఏ టం , క ల ం గం ం ;
అం , v గం ప ం వ ఒక శ ల ప ల ౖ ం పం , ం ,ప ల
శ బ , c+v c-v గం క ం . స , ం గం ప రం
ఉం ం . ఎం కం ం అ వలం య- న త దయ ంత తం - సలం
సమయం ప ం వద, ం తరంగం త ఉత అ ం . బ లం అదన
గం ప ం నప ,అ ం ంచబడ . ఇ ం త జ ం
ఎం కం ఇ స రప రం క క ఉం ం . స ,ఇ ఏౖ తం
క ప రం జ ం ,అ ం త నవ ఇం హ ఉన .
ప మ జం అయ ంత ల గ ంచగల . అ తమ ష సం
ఈ చ ఉప .

242
 4.1 Introduction

the combined effects of centrifugal and gravitational forces.

According to him the relative motion of water with respect to bucket,
earth and other planets is the only measurable quantity, and this
absolute frames concept was abandoned. This laid the foundations
for Einstein’s special theory of relativity.

2. No instantaneous effects
Another objection in Newton’s formalism is that the effect is
instantaneous; i.e., if we push an object, displacement will be
observed immediately after the application of the force. The
discrepancy in this assumption will be clearly observed when celestial
objects are considered. This was described as “action at distance” by
Newton and other physicists of that era; i.e., the gravitational,
electric and magnetic fields travel with immediate effect to whatever
distances. It was concluded that for all fundamental fields of
interactions, there must exist some upper bound of speed with which
the effect is transmitted. That upper bound of speed exists for all
fields namely electric, magnetic and gravitational fields. In fact, this
speed is constant and coincidentally is equal to the speed of light in
vacuum.

3. Time is not absolute

The concept of relative motion between objects was first studied
by Galileo in his efforts to explain the horizontal motion on earth.
Subsequent developments by Newton did not include the relative
motion. This concept was later considered in detail in the works of
Euler and Poisson. However, in all the above descriptions, including
that of Galileo, time was assumed to be absolute.

Fig: Galilean transformation

The consequence of this absoluteness of time is that, if two
events occur at certain interval in one frame, the interval remains
same in all other inertial frames. But that is not the case in

243
 4.1 Introduction
4. ద వ సం రం :
య ॓ దవ గం ౖ ఆ రపడ ం ఉం ంద ంచబ ం
మ ంటం స తంతం త క ఉం ం . అం వల,
స కర ల , ట క చలన య ల వ ం ం మ ఇంధనం
క తం దవ రం ఉం ంద ంచబ ం . దవ ం రచ
ఉ ,అ జడత ద వ మ కర ణ ద వ . రణ త ంతం ,
స నత తం ం స న న ం . అన , ఒక వ గవంతం యడం
అ భ ం దవ కర ణ అ భ ం న . , త
శ ల దవ వన ప శ ం .ఇ ప ల వ శ లం ఉన
వ క దవ . వ క గం రగడం , ద వ అనంతం వర
ం ,త ఏశ ం ం ట . ఈ రకౖ న అత ంత
వ రణం ॓ దగ ర క .
ం గం కం గం ప ం ఊ తక క ల అం . మన య
స ం ం న ంద బ ,ప తం ఉన ఏ య స
ంచ . అం ం , ప రం క మ ల మధ ం ఒక
అవ ధం ం బ ; క స త ॓ ప పం ప ంచ
ం వం న ప ంద న .

https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/chandra/images/fam
ous-black-hole-has-jet-pushing-cosmic-speed-limit.html

https://astronomy.com/magazine/ask-
astro/2016/09/faster-than-light
Did You Know?

The Greek word tachy means swift. Hence the name

Tachyons. The particles that travels with speed of light are
called Luxons. Eg: Photons. The particles that always travel
slower than light are called Bradyons.

244
 4.1 Introduction

reality, as the information transfer takes some propagation time

between the frames.
Another consequence of absolute time is that one can have any
amount of velocity imparted to objects. But in reality, since there is
an upper limit for information transfer itself, the information about
objects travelling faster than that limit cannot be recorded. Or such
objects will remain invisible to our senses.
Another consequence of absolute time is that velocity of light
changes in moving frames; i.e., if a person traveling with a speed
throws light towards a stationary observer, the light should be seen
with velocity + or − depending on the direction of observer,
in one dimension. But in reality, the velocity of light remains
constant everywhere. This is because light is just a self-regenerating
electromagnetic field - at every point in space or time, light wave is
generated afresh. So even if the source travels with an additional
velocity, it will not be added to the velocity of light. This happens only
with light because it has the velocity of the information propagation.
In fact, it happens with propagation of any field but light is the only
entity that is sensible to human beings. Some birds and animals are
capable of sensing even the magnetic fields. They use this feature for
their navigation.

4. Mass is not absolute:

In Newtonian mechanics mass is assumed to be independent of
velocity and is conserved independently, in addition to momentum.
Thus, in rocket equations, the total mass of rocket and fuel is
assumed to be constant before applying Newton’s laws of motion to
it. There are two definitions for mass, namely, inertial mass and
gravitational mass. In general theory of relativity, principle of
equivalence states that both are equal. i.e., mass that can be
experienced by accelerating an object is same as that experienced by
gravitational pull. In addition to that, relativity also introduced the
concept of rest mass. This is the mass of the object when it is at rest
compared to the observer. With rise in velocity of the object, the mass

245
 4.2 ల ం ప వరన
4.2 ం ప వర న
ం ప వర ం ల ఫ ల మధ ఆ ల అ సం ం సరళ
ప వర న , ఇం ల ఒక మ క సంబం ం రౖ న గం క ం .
ం ంత స 1884 జర గ త క స త మ త
అ వృ యబ . 1904 ం మ స తంతం 1905 ఐ
క ం ర ఊ ఉ . త త, ఇం 1906 ం ప వర న
క ం .

ం ఫ Sమ S', v గం క . t_1 మ t_2 మధ

సమయ వ వ ం ంట (x_1,y_1,z_1), (x_2,y_2,z_2) మధ స రబ
ప గ ంచం . ం గం (c ). అ ం ల మధ ం గం ప ల ఇ
యవ

( − ) +( − ) +( − ) = ( − ) − − − (1)
S' అ ఈ ం t_1', t_2' సమయ వవ (x_1',y_1',z_1'),
(x_2',y_2',z_2') ఆ ల యబడవ . అ ర స కరణం ఇ
ఉం ం

( ′− ′) + ( ′ − ′) + ( ′ − ′)
= ( ′ − ′) − − − (2)
ఇక డ c అ ం ఫ ల మధ రం ఉం స రం క ప ర గం
ంచబ ం .

సంఘటనల మధ మం అ ం ఉం , ఇ యవ

= − − − − − − (3)
′ = − − − − − − (4)
సంఘటన ం గం జ ఇక డ ds^2=0 మ ds^'2=0. అ ఈ ం "ౖ
ౖ ॓" అ పబ ం .ఈ ం ం గం కం త వ గం జ , ds^2>0 మ
ds^'2>0. ం సంఘటన ఒ ప శం , సమయ ం ల వద జ ఫ
ఒక ంచవ .అ ఈ ం "ౖ ౖ ॓" అ పబ ం .ఈ ం ం గం కం
గం జ , ds^2<0, ds^'2<0. ం సంఘటన ఒ సమయం ం క
సంభ ం ఫ ంచవ .అ వం సందర ం , ఈ ం " ౖ ॓"
అ పబ ం .

246
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation

also increases to infinity so that no force could push it beyond the

speed of light. This kind of extremely massive objects are usually
found near black holes.
The hypothetical particles that travel faster than speed of light
are called tachyons. Since our material systems can’t acquire speeds
beyond velocity of light, no material system existing as of now could
detect them. Moreover, since light stands as a barrier between
material particles, and tachyons; physicists also believe that light may
also act as a bridge to probe into the tachyonic world.

4.2 Lorentz Transformation

Lorentz transformations are linear transformations that
connect the coordinates between two frames of reference, wherein
one of the frames is moving at a constant velocity relative to the
other. The Lorentz transformations were actually developed by
Woldemar Voigt, a German mathematical physicist in 1884.
Speculations exist that they were adopted by Lorentz in 1904 and
independently by Einstein in 1905. Later, Poincare authenticated it
as Lorentz transformation in 1906.
Consider two frames of references and ′ moving with a
relative velocity . Consider an event of transfer of information
between two points ( , , ), ( , , ) during the time interval
between and with light velocity ( ). Then the distance between
the points can be written in terms of velocity of light as
( − ) +( − ) +( − ) = ( − ) − − − (1)
The same event in ′ frame may be recorded at coordinates
( , , ), ( , , ) coordinated during the time intervals ′, ′.
Then the distance equation becomes
( ′− ′) + ( ′ − ′) + ( ′ − ′)
= ( ′ − ′) − − − (2)
Here is assumed to be the velocity of propagation of
information that remains constant between the two frames of
reference.

247
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation
ం ల ఫ ంచబ న సంఘటన ఒ వ వస సంబం ం న బ ,అ
వర అ త ంకం అ సం ంచబ ఉం . ఈ ధం

=
అ త ంకం క స ంకనం య , సంబం త గం వ స
v_1,v_2,v_12 S,S',S'' అ ల ప గ ంచం . అ యవ

= ( ) , = ( ) , = ( )
( )
⇒ = ( )
( )
ఇక డ, LHS గల ష వ గత v_1,v_2ౖ ఆ రప ఉం ం RHS గల పదం
ం ల వ సంౖ ఆ రప ఉం ం . అం వల LHS ణం ౖ ఆ రపడ ం
ఉం ం మ RHS ణంౖ ఆ రప ఉం ం , అం వలన ఆ క తప స
ఉం ంద ం . ఇం , ఈ క ఒక క చ యం
సంబంధం క ఉం బ , ంకం తప స ఒక స నం ఉం .
అం వలన, ఇ యవ

= − − − (5)
v గం xఅ ం శ చలనం ఉన ం ఫ ల క సరళౖ న సంద
ప గ ంచం . అ Eq. (5) ఇ లభతరం ం

− = − − − − (6)
స కర ఇ ౖ ఉన ౖ న ప భ , ఈ స కరణం క
ప రం ఆ ట ౖ ౖ ఫం అ ం . ౖ న ఉన ం న, ఈ
స కరణం క ప రంౖ ప - య ఫం న సరళ కల క ఉం ం .

= cosh + sinh
= sinh + cosh − − − (7)
S S' స క లం క కద క ప గ ంచం . ఈ సందర ం , x'=0. అ
Eq. (7) ఇ అ ం ,

= sinh = cosh − − − (8)

⇒ tanh = = − − − (9)

248
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation

If the interval between the events is infinitesimally small, one can

write
= − − − − − − (3)
′ = − − − − − − (4)
Here = 0 and = 0 if the events take place at the
speed of light. Then the event is said to be “Light like”. If the events
take place with speeds lower than light velocity, then > 0 and
> 0. Then one can identify a frame of reference in which both
the events occur at the same location, at different time stamps. Then
the event is said to be “Time like”. If the events take place faster than
velocity of light, then < 0, < 0. Then one can identify a
frame of reference where both the events occur at same time at two
different spatial locations. In such a case, the event is said to be
“Space like”.

Fig: Space-time diagram of events.

Since the events reported in two frames of reference are related to

the same system, they at most differ by a proportionality constant.
Thus
=
To evaluate the nature of the proportionality constant,
consider three frames of reference , , ′′ with relative velocities
, , respectively. Then one can write
= ( ) , = ( ) , = ( )
( )
⇒ = ( )
( )

249
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation
1
tanh − sech = 1 ⇒ tanh − = 1 ⇒ cosh
cosh
1
=
1 − tanh
బ

1
cosh = − − − (10)
1− /
/
sinh = cosh × tanh = − − − (11)
1− /
Eq.(7) Eq.(10), Eq.(11) ప

+ ′+ ′
= , = , = , = − − − (12)
1− / 1− /
మన ం ర γ=1/√(1-v^2/c^2) ర ,ఇ ఎల ప రక ల
(∵v<c) 1 కం ఎ వ స నం ఉం ం ,అ

= ( + ), = , = , = + − − − (13)

ం ప వర న స కర అం .

ఇక డ మ ప వర న స కర ఇవ బ

′= ( − ), = , = , = − − − − (13)

ం స కర ల ం డ సం చం
ం ఫ ల t సమయం క డ సంఘటన ప గ ంచం .
క డ ఇ ఇవ బ ం ,

Δ = − − − − (1)
ఇక డ

= ( + ′), = ( + ) − − − (2)
Eq.(1) మ Eq (2) ం

Δ = − = γ(x − ) = Δ ′ − − − (3)

250
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation

Here, the ratio on the LHS depends on the individual velocities ,

but the term on the RHS depends on the vector difference of the two
velocities. Hence LHS is independent of angle and RHS depends on
the angle, which implies that the quantity must be a scalar. Further,
as these three quantities are cyclically related to each other, the scalar
constant must be equal to unity. Thus, one can write
= − − − (5)
Consider the simplest case of two frames of reference with
relative motion along axis with velocity . Then Eq. (5) simplifies
as
− = − − − − (6)

Fig: Lorentz transformation.

If the negative sign on either side of the equation were to be

replaced by positive sign, then the solution of this equation would be
an oscillatory sine or cosine function. But due to the presence of
negative sign, the solution of this equation happens to be a linear
combination of hyper-geometric functions.
= cosh + sinh
= sinh + cosh − − − (7)
Consider the motion of the origin of the ′ system in the
frame. For this case, = 0. Then Eq. (7) becomes,
= sinh = cosh − − − (8)

⇒ tanh = = − − − (9)

251
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation
γ≥1, బ ఇక డ Δx^'≤Δx, అ ం , అన ం లవబ న డ శల
లవబ న కం త వ ఉం ం .

ఇక డ Δx అ స క శల లవబ ప రం క సౖ న డ .

ం స కర ల ం ల చ
ఒ క ల t_1 మ t_2 అ ం సమయ వ వ ం ఈ ం ల లత
ప గ ంచం . అ సమయ మం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

Δ = − − − − (1)
ఇక డ

= + , = + − − − (2)

Eq.(1) మ Eq.(2) ం , సమయ మం ఇ ందబ ం

γ≥1 ఐనం వలన , Δt^'≤Δt అ ం ; అం , ం లవబ న సమయం శ ల

లవబ న కం త వ ఉం ం . ఇ క గ రం ॓ల మ
ం , అన , ఈ ం య గ క ంచబ న
సమయం ం గ రం ఎ వ ఉం ం . ఇక డ Δt అ స క
శల లవబ ఈ ం క సౖ న సమయం.

ౖ న న ం సంద ల , మ ప వర నల ం ,వ కఫ క .
అన ; Δt^'=γt మ Δx^'=γΔx. ఆ సందర ం S' రం ఉం ం మ S
S' సంబం ం క క న క ం . తం ద, క డ త ం
మ సమయం మ ం . అం వల, క ల వ త వ రం
ప ంచ ఎ వ సమయం ప ం . ం ॓ బం ం ం . ల
రం అంత ం అత ంత వ , ఇ ప తౖ న డ సం చం మ
ప తౖ న సమయ స రణ పద ,త వ ందత మ
ం ం మ పద .

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dont-know-about-black-holes

252
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation

We know that
1
tanh − sech = 1 ⇒ tanh − = 1 ⇒ cosh
cosh
1
=
1 − tanh
Thus
1
cosh = − − − (10)
1− /
/
sinh = cosh × tanh = − − − (11)
1− /
Substituting Eq. (10), Eq. (11) in Eq. (7), one obtains

+ ′+ ′
= , = , = , = − − − (12)
1− / 1− /

If we define the Lorentz factor = 1/ 1 − / , which is

always greater than or equal to 1 for material particles (∵ < ),
then

= ( + ), = , = , = + − − − (13)

These are called the Lorentz transformation equations.

The inverse transformation equations are given by

′= ( − ), = , = , = − − − − (13)

Length contraction from Lorentz Equations

Consider an event of measurement of length of a rod at time
in the two reference frames. The length of the rod is given by,
Δ = − − − − (1)
where
= ( + ′), = ( + ) − − − (2)
From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2),

253
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation
ల ప వర న
మన

= ( + ), = , = ,
= +

x,y,z శల ంట ఇ ఉం

+ +
= = =
+ 1+

= = =
+ 1+

= = =
+ 1+
చలనం ఒక ౖ న ఉం , x శ అ ం , అ V_x=V, V_y=V_z=0 . ఈ
సందర ం , గం ప వర న ఇ వ క ంచవ

+
=
1+
V^'=c, అం , S సంబం ం చలన శ క S^' ం దల ,ౖ గం
ప వర న స కరణం ం , S ప ల లవబ న గం V, V=c ందబ ం .
అం వల, ం గం అ జడత ల ర - అం , శల మ క జడత
ల .

v=c అ , V=c⇒V^'=c (ౖ న ఉన సంబంధం ం ). బ ప ల ం గం

ప ,న యబ న వ ల ం గం స నం ఉం .

v/c≪1 అ , య ఫ తం V=V^'+v ల ం

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velocities

254
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation

Δ = − = γ(x − ) = Δ ′ − − − (3)
Since ≥ 1, Δ ≤ Δ , i.e., the length measured in moving
frame is smaller than that measured in rest frame.
Here Δ is the proper length of the material which is
measured in the rest frame of the system.

Time dilation from Lorentz Equations

Consider the measurement of two events at two time
intervals and at the same spatial locations. Then the time
interval is given by
Δ = − − − − (1)
where

= + , = + − − − (2)

From Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), the time interval is obtained as
Δ = − = γ( − ) = Δ ′ − − − (3)
Since ≥ 1, Δ ≤ Δ ; i.e., the time measured in moving
frame is shorter than that measured in rest frame. This implies the
moving clock ticks slowly, i.e., the time reported by moving clock for
the completion of an event will be longer compared to the clock in
rest frame. Here Δ is the proper time of the event which is measured
in the rest frame of the system.
In both the above cases, if inverse transformations are taken,
opposite results will appear. Ie; Δ = and Δ = Δ . In that case
the ′ frame remains stationary and frame seems to be moving
backwards with respect to ′. In summary, in moving frame length
reduces and time slows down. Thus, it takes longer time for objects
to traverse shorter distances in moving frames. This is what makes
light to get trapped in black holes. Black holes are extremely massive
objects in space that exhibit extreme length contraction and extreme
time dilation, thus exhibiting extreme density and ability of light
trapping.

255
 4.2 Lorentz Transformation
Transformation of velocities
We have
= ( + ), = , = ,
= +

Velocities along , , directions are given by

+ +
= = =
+ 1+

= = =
+ 1+

= = =
+ 1+

If the motion is in one dimension, say along the direction,

then = , = = 0 . In this case, the velocity
transformation can be expressed as
+
=
1+

If = , that is, if light is emitted in moving frame in its

direction of motion relative to , from the above velocity
transformation equation, the speed , as measured by an observer in
frame , is obtained as = . Thus, velocity of light remains
unchanged in all inertial frames - i.e., in both rest and moving inertial
frames.
If = , then = ⇒ = (from the above relation).
Thus if the observer travels with light velocity, the velocities of
objects recorded will be equal to light velocity.
If / ≪ 1, then = + which is the Galilean result.

256
 4.3 Michelson Morley Experiment

4.3 Michelson Morley Experiment

During Newton and Huygens era, light waves were
considered as longitudinal waves and that they needed a medium to
travel. This led to the introduction of ether, an elastic medium in
which light propagates. Later, Maxwell established transverse nature
of light. Still there were aberrations in the light received from stars
on earth. This discrepancy was explained only by the presence of
ether that drags the light rays. Experiments were proposed to
measure the amount of drag produced by ether.
The experimental setup is as shown below.

Fig: Michelson-Morley experimental setup

The light rays from source S are made parallel by using lens L
and further split into two perpendicular beams by using partially
silvered mirror placed at 45° to the incident beam.
The reflected and refracted light rays are reflected from
mirrors and and reach back the mirror G.
The interference of the light rays received after reflection
from and can be observed in the telescope .
Let be the separation between and , mirrors.
Consider the earth to be moving, from left to right, with respect to
the setup, with velocity .

257
 4.3 ల ప గమ
4.3 ౖ ల ప గ
ట మ లం , ం తరం ల ంశ తరం ప గ ం
మ ప ంచ ధ మం అవసరం. ఇ ం ం ధ మౖ న
ఈథ ప శ ట ం . త త, ం క మ స
ం . ఇప ౖ న ల ం అం న ం అ ంత ఉ . ం
ర ల ఈథ ఉ త ఈౖ ధం వ ంచబ ం . ఈథ ఉత
యబ న లవ ప ప ంచబ .

ప తక ట ంద న ధం ఉం .

లం S ం ం ర L ఉప ం స ంతరం త యబడ
మ పతన ం ం 45° వద ఉంచబ న కం ం అద ం G ఉప ంచడం
ం లంబ ర భ ంచబడ .

ప ం ం మ వ భవన ం ర M_1 మ M_2 అ ల ం ప వర నం

ం మ అద ం G ం .

M_1 మ M_2 ం ప వర నం త త ం న ం ర ల ప ష
T గమ ంచవ .

dఅ Gమ M_1,M_2 అ ల మధ రం. ట సంబం ం , గం v ఎడమ

ం క న ప గ ంచం .

అ M_2ౖ ప ం ం సమయం , ం ర v గం న ,ఇ
ఒక ధం సంక తం మ మ క ధం వ వకలనం.

అద ం M_2ౖ ప వర నం సం ప సమయం ఇవ బ ం

+ − + 2 2
= + = = =
− + − −
1−

గం v క న వల సం, రం క పద సరణ యవ

2 2 2
= = 1− = 1+
1−

అద ం M_1ౖ ప ం ం సమయం , ఈథ రణం ం ర కర శ

ప . ం ర లఫ త గం √(c^2-v^2) ఇవ బ ం .అ ర
M_1ౖ ప వర నం సం తం ప ణ సమయం ఇ అం ంచబ ం

258
 4.3 ౖ ల ప గ

Then during reflection on , the light rays undergo a change in

velocity of which is additive in one way and subtractive in the other
way.
The time taken for the reflection on mirror is given by
+ − + 2 2
= + = = =
− + − −
1−

For smaller values of velocity , one can write a binomial

expansion for the denominator to obtain

2 2 2
= = 1− = 1+
1−

During reflection on mirror , the light rays travel in

diagonal direction due to ether drag. The resultant velocity of light
rays is given by √ − . Then the total time of travel for the
reflection on mirror is given by
2 2
= =
√ −
1−

By taking binomial expansion for lower velocities of earth

compared to , one obtains

2 2 1
= 1− = 1+
2
Total time lapse produced between the two light rays is given
by
2 1
Δ = − = 1+ − 1+ =
2
The corresponding path difference is

Δ= Δ =

259
 4.3 ల ప గమ
2 2
= =
√ −
1−

c క త వ ల సం పద స రణ వడం ,

2 2 1
= 1− = 1+
2
ం ం ర ల మధ ఉత యబ న త ం సమయం ప ఇ ఇవ బ ం

2 1
Δ = − = 1+ − 1+ =
2
సంబం త పథ దం

Δ= Δ =

λఅ ఉప ం న ం క తరంగౖ ర ం అ , వ కరణ ప ల నభ ంశం ఇ

ఉం ం

Δ
= =

తం ప తక ట 90° పబ ం మ ఇంట ట క ం
ల అస నత రణం ల ంచ ప గం న వృతమ ం .అ
వ కరణ ప ల త ం సంఖ ఇ ఇవ బ ం

2
=

ఇక డ = 3 × 10 / , = 3 × 10 / , = 5500Å , =
11 . ఉప

2 × 11 × (3 × 10 )
= = 0.4
(3 × 10 ) × 5500 × 10
అం వల 0.4 ప ల నభ ంశం అంచ యబ ం ప గం , ధ జన ఏ
డ ప ల నభ ంశం ంచబడ . అం వలన ఈథ వన ర యబ ం .

260
 4.3 ౖ ల ప గ

If is the wavelength of the light used, the number of fringes

shifted is given by
Δ
= =

The entire experimental setup is rotated by 90° , and

experiment is repeated in order to avoid the errors due to asymmetry
in the two arms of the interferometer. Then the total number of
fringes is given by
2
=

Here = 3 × 10 / , = 3 × 10 / , = 5500Å ,
= 11 .
With this substitution,
2 × 11 × (3 × 10 )
= = 0.4
(3 × 10 ) × 5500 × 10
Thus a fringe shift of 0.4 was predicted but in the
experiment, no fringe shift was reported throughout the year during
various seasons. Thus the concept of ether drag was abolished.
The real reason for the star light aberration was given by
Einstein using his special theory of relativity and by using Lorentz
transformations as shown below. Due to relative motion between
source (star) and observer (earth), by the time light reaches earth, the
actual position of star shifts but from observer point of view, light
seems to be coming from an apparent position.

Fig: Star light aberration explained using special theory of

relativity.

261
 4.4 ప ే క ా ి ంతం క మ లసూ ల
ఐ తన ప క ం ఉప ం మ వ న ధం ం
ప వర నల ఉప ం న ల ం ఉలంఘన అస ర అం ం . ం జనకం
(న తం) మ ప ల ( ) మధ చలనం రణం , ం
సమ , న తం క సవ నం ం ప ల ల దృ ణం ం , ం
కృ మౖ న నం ం వ న అ ం .

4.4 ప క ంతం క ల
ప క ం ం ప దన ఉ .

క సం క థ క య అ జడత ఫ ల . అం ,
రౖ న క ఉం ల .

అ జడత ఫ ల ం గం రం ఉం ం .

ద ం , వ ల క సం ర చలన ర ంచగల సం ర
ఫ . ల జడత ఫ ల ప గణన ం , ం ప వర నల
ఉప ంచడం ఒక ఆ ఫ న లత మ క ర బడ .

ం గం రం ఉం ంద మ అ జడత ఫ ల ఫ c స నం అ
ండవ ం .ఈప దన బలౖ నప తకఆ ల ంచబ ం .

4.5 సమయం స రణ
లం A ం రంభమ ం ర ,L అ రం యబ న ం స ంతర
అ Aమ B ల మధ ప గ ంచం , . c అ ం గం అ , A ం B మ
B ం A వర ం సమయం

2
Δ = − − − (1)

తం స ప ల సంబం ం v గం ప ం యం . ఆ సందర ం , ం
ర రం ప ం . ం రణం అ సమ , అద ం v(Δt'/2) రం
అడం నభ ంశం ం ఉండవ , ఇక డ Δt^' అ తం ప తప ణ
సమయం, అం ంచబ ం

2
Δ = − − − (2)

ఇక డ ం గం ం సంద స నం ఉం ంద ంచబ ం .

262
 4.4 Postulates of special theory of relativity

4.4 Postulates of special theory of

relativity
There are two postulates of the special theory of relativity.
1. The basic laws of Physics are invariant in all inertial frames
of reference. i.e., in the frames which have constant or zero
relative velocity.
2. Light velocity remains constant in all inertial frames of
reference.
The first postulate implies, there are no absolute
frames of reference in which one can define absolute motion
of objects. If inertial frames of references are considered, the
measurements made in one frame of reference may be
converted into the other one by using Lorentz
transformations.
The second postulate implies that the velocity of
light remains constant and is equal to in all inertial
reference frames of reference. This statement was proved,
with strong experimental evidence.

4.5 Time dilation

Consider a light ray starting from source A, traveling on to a
mirror B, separated by a distance L and placed parallel to A. If is the
velocity of light, then the time of round trip travel from A to B and
from B to A is
2
Δ = − − − (1)
Let the entire system be travelling with a velocity with
respect to the observer. In that case, light takes a longer path. By the
time the light ray reaches the mirror, the mirror might have been
displaced horizontally by a distance (Δ ′/2) where Δ is the new
time of travel for the entire journey, given by
2
Δ = − − − (2)
Here velocity of light is assumed to be equal in both the cases.
తం ం

263
 4.5 Time dilation

Δ
= + − − − (3)
2
Eq.(2) Eq.(3) మ Eq.(1) ప

Δ
4 4( + ) 4 + Δ (2 ) Δ
Δ = = 4 = = +
Δ
=Δ +

Δ
⇒Δ =Δ 1− =

Or
Δ
Δ = Δ =
1− /
v<c, బ γ>1⇒Δt^'>Δt అ ం .

అం వల హ ప ల ,క సంఘటన ఎ వవ వ జ న అ ం .
మ ట లం , సంఘటనల మధ సమయ స ం న స ం న
అ ం . ఈ దృ ష ౖ ౖ ష ( స ంచడం) అం . ఆ ఫ ం
గం ర బ ఈ సమస త ం .

ఇక డ సమయం Δt, అ వ క శల లవబ ం , స క సౖ న

సమయం అం .

264
 4.5 Time dilation

Fig: Time dilation

From the figure,

Δ
= + − − − (3)
2
Substituting Eq. (3) and Eq. (1) in Eq. (2) gives
Δ
4 4( + 4 ) 4 + Δ (2 ) Δ
Δ = = = = +
Δ
=Δ +

Δ
⇒Δ =Δ 1− =

Or
Δ
Δ = Δ =
1− /
Since < , >1⇒Δ >Δ .
Thus for the external observer, the events in the moving
frame seem to occur at longer intervals. In other words, time
intervals between events seems to be stretched or dilated. This
phenomenon is called time dilation (widening). This issue arises
because, the light velocity doesn’t change with frame of reference.
Here the time Δ , that is measured in the rest frame of the
body is called the proper time of the system.

265
 4.6 డవ సం చం
4.6 డ సం చం
మ క వర ం ప ం ంచడం మ ప ణ సమయం Δt లవడం
క డ లవ జ ౖ ఉప ంచబ ంద ప గ ంచం .
క డ ఇవ బ ం

Δ
= − − − (1)
2
తం స ఆ ॓( ) డ శ గం v క ంద ం . ఈ సందర ం , ప ణ
సమయం Δt' ఉండ వ ం . అ లవబ న త డ ఇ ఇవ బ ం

Δ
= − − − (2)
2
ం రణం అం సమ , క న vΔt' రం ం
క ం . అం త న వ , ం రణం ఆ అదన రం ప ంచవల
ఉం ం . అ రం , ం రణం vΔt' రం త ంచబ న
ప ంచవల ఉం ం , ఎం కం క క న Δt' సమయం ఆ రం వర
ం క ం . ఈ ధం

1 1 2
Δ = + = + =
+ − + − −
2′
= − − − (3)
(1 − / )
సమయ స రణ స కరణం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

Δ
Δ = − − − (4)
1− /
Eq (3) Eq.(4) ప పం యడం మ Eq.(1) ఉప ంచడం

Δ 2′ Δ ′ 1− /
Δ = = ⇒ = =
1− / (1 − / ) 2 (1 − / )
సర క

=
1− /

క ′= 1− / =

266
 4.6 Length Contraction

4.6 Length Contraction

Consider that a laser light is used to measure the length of a
scale by reflecting the light at the other end and measuring the to
and fro time of travel Δ . The length of the scale is given by
Δ
= − − − (1)
2
Let the entire system move along the length of the object
(scale) with velocity . For this case, let the travel time be Δ ′. Then
the new length measured is given by
Δ
= − − − (2)
2
By the time the light ray reaches the end of the scale, the tip
of the scale would have moved by a distance Δ ′. Hence to reach the
tip, the light ray has to travel that extra distance. Also in the return
path, the light ray has to travel a distance reduced by Δ ′ as the back
tip of the scale moves forward by that distance within the time Δ ′.
Thus
1 1 2
Δ = + = + =
+ − + − −
2′
= − − − (3)
(1 − / )
The time dilation equation is given by
Δ
Δ = − − − (4)
1− /
Substituting Eq. (4) in Eq. (3) and by using Eq. (1) gives

Δ 2′ Δ ′ 1− /
Δ = = ⇒ = =
1− / (1 − / ) 2 (1 − / )

Simplifying

=
1− /
or

267
 4.6 Length Contraction
v<c, బ γ>1⇒l^'<l అ ం .అ

న ప ల క వ డ త వ క ం .ఈ డ
సం చం వ క కద క లంబం ఉం శ జరగద గమ ం .

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space-time-diagram-geogebra

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268
 4.7 Relativistic mass

′= 1− / =

Since < , >1⇒ <

Thus the length of the object in the moving frame appears
shorter for an observer in the rest frame. It is to be noted that this
length contraction doesn’t occur in a direction perpendicular to the
motion of the object.

4.7 Relativistic mass

Consider an elastic collision, in Y-direction, between two
identical particles. Here Y-direction is chosen to avoid length
contraction effects along X-direction. Consider two frames of
reference and ′ corresponding to particle-1 and particle-2
respectively. Here S is stationary with the system and S’ is moving
with velocity along X-direction. Let the velocities be in the
relativistic limit. Let be the velocity of the first particle and ′ be
the velocity of second particle as seen from their respective frames.
Let these two velocities be equal,

Fig: Relativistic mass in two particle collision.

so that after elastic collision final velocities of particles
remain identical.
= − − − (1)

269
 4.7 ా దవ ా
4.7 దవ
Y- శ , ం ప క ల మధ పక అ ప గ ంచం . X- శ డ
సం చ ప ల ంచ ఇక డ Y- శ ఎం బ ం . క -1 మ క -
2 సంబం ం Sమ S' ఫ క ం ల ప గ ంచం . ఇక డ S అ
స రం ఉం ం మ S' X- శ v గం క ం . ప
ఉండ వ ం . V_1 అ ద కణం క గం మ V_2' అ సంబం త ల
ం న ండవ కణం క గం. ఈ ం స నం ఉండ వ ం

త పక అ తం త తక ల ఒ ఉం .

2Y అ ం క ల మధ రం అ ,త ఘరణ Y వద జ ం . T_0 అ
సమయం ంచం . అ ,

= = − − − (2)
′
ద కణం క ఫ V_2 ండవ కణం క గం ఉండ వ ం . అ ఆ
ప ణ సమయం ఇ ఉం ం

= − − − (3)

ఇక డ T T_0 సంబంధం ఇ ఉం ం

= − − − (4)
1− /
ద కణం క ంటం క తత య వ ంప యడం ,

= =

⇒ = = = 1− / = 1− /

⇒ =
1− /
ఇక డ m_1 అ స ంత కణం క దవ మ m_2 అ క
ం గమ ం న కణం క దవ . అం వల వ స m_0 మ m భ
యవ . బ స కరణం ఇ అ ం

= = − − − (5)
1−

270
 4.7 దవ

Let 2 be the separation between the two particles, so that

the collision occurs at a distance of . Let be the time for collision.
Then, one can write,

= = − − − (2)
′
Let be the velocity of second particle in the first particle’s
frame of reference. Then the time of travel in that frame will be

= − − − (3)

where is related to as

= − − − (4)
1− /
Applying the law of conservation of momentum in the first
particle’s frame, one obtains
= =

⇒ = = = 1− / = 1− /

⇒ =
1− /
Here is the mass of the particle in its own frame and
is the mass of the particle as observed from moving frame. Hence one
can replace them with and respectively. Thus the equation
becomes

= = − − − (5)
1− /
The relativistic momentum is given by

= = − − − (6)
1− /
and the relativistic form of Newton’s second law is given by

271
 4.8 ా నట ఎన , మ -ఎన లష
॓ ంటం ఇ ఉం ం

= = − − − (6)
1− /
మ ట క ండవ యమం క పం ఇవ బ ం

= = − − − (7)
1− /

Activity

Obtain expression for relativistic acceleration and

plot it as a function of velocity.

4.8 ౖ న ॓ ఎన , -ఎన ష
క ॓ , ఒక బలం ఒక వ నభంశం క ,ఆవ ౖ జ ప

= . = = =
త ం ంట మధ జ తం ప

1
= = . = = = −
2
ఆ ధం ఒక వ ం ం ల మధ నభంశం ంద ప వ వస క
గ శ ం . ప -శ ంతం అం .
ౖ ॓ ఎన బలంౖ ౖ ల సంకలనం యవ .

= . − − − (1)
ప క ంతం ,

= = ( )= ( ) − − − (2)
Thus

= . = ( ). = ( )

= ( )
∫ = −∫ బ

272
 4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-Energy relation

= = − − − (7)
1− /

Fig: Relativistic, nonrelativistic momentum vs velocity

4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-

Energy relation
In classical mechanics, if a force produces displacement in an object,
then the work done on the object is

= . = = =

so that the total work done between two points is

1
= = . = = = −
2
Thus the work done to produce displacement in an object, between
two points, results in change of kinetic energy of the system. This is
called Work-Energy theorem.
One can write Kinetic energy as a spatial integral over force.

= . − − − (1)

In special theory of relativity,

273
 4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-Energy relation

= − = −
1− /
ర ంచబ న య క ప గ ంచం

2
= 1− ⇒ =−

ఇం గ ఇ అ ం

1
− =− 2√ =− √ =−
2√ 2
Thus

= + = + −

⇒ = + 1− / −
1− /

+ 1−
= −
1− /

= − = − = −
1− /
Or
⇒ = ( − 1) = − = − − − − (3)
⇒ = +
ఇక డ E_0=m_0 c^2 అ స క శ ల దవ శ మ K=(γ-1) m_0 c^2
అ స క గ శ ం . ఈ ధం

= = = − − − (4)
1− /
వ వస క తం శ ం .ఈస కరణం వ వస క దవ -శ స న
ఇ ం .

గం క న వల సం (v≪c), గ శ వ కరణ అ న Eq.(3) పదం

స ంచవ .

274
 4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-Energy relation

= = ( )= ( ) − − − (2)

Thus

= . = ( ). = ( )

= ( )

We know ∫ = −∫ . Thus

= − = −
1− /
Consider a change of variable defined as
2
= 1− ⇒ =−

Then the integral becomes,

1
− =− 2√ =− √ =−
2√ 2
Thus

= + = + −

⇒ = + 1− / −
1− /

+ 1−
= −
1− /

= − = − = −
1− /
Or
⇒ = ( − 1) = − = − − − − (3)
⇒ = +

275
 4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-Energy relation

= ( − 1) = 1− −1

1
≃ 1+ −1 = =
2 2
అం వలన v/c →0 ప గ శ రణ గ శ ఏ భ ంచ
గమ ంచవ .

శ - ంటం సంబంధం
మన దగర ఉం

= = − − − (1)
1− /
= = − − − (2)
1− /
ఇక డ మన E,m_0,c,v,p య 2స కర ఉ .ఆ ం న ఫ తం v
క నం న, ఈ ం ం ం అ యబ . vఅ వర ఉ బ ,
యం మ v ల ంచం

. (1) ⇒ ( − )= − − − (3)
. (2) ⇒ ( − )= − − − (4)
(3) − (4) ⇒( − )( − )= ( − )
or
= + − − − (5)
ఇ శ - ంటం ష .
Work-Energy Theorem. OpenStax CNX, 6 Nov. 2020,
https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/4008.
Relativistic Energy. OpenStax CNX, 30 Nov. 2020,
https://phys.libretexts.org/@go/page/4906.

276
 4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-Energy relation

Here = is the rest mass energy of the system and =

( − 1) represents the kinetic energy of the system. Thus

= = = − − − (4)
1− /
represents the total energy of the system. This equation gives the
− equivalence of the system.
For small values of velocity ( ≪ ), one can expand Eq. (3), the
expression for relativistic kinetic energy, binomially.

= ( − 1) = 1− −1

1
≃ 1+ −1 = =
2 2
Thus in the limit / → 0 one can observe that the relativistic
kinetic energy coincides with the classical kinetic energy.

Relativistic energy-momentum relation

We have

= = − − − (1)
1− /
= = − − − (2)
1− /
Here we have 2 equations, with , , , , as variables. Since the
expected end result doesn’t contain , it should be eliminated from
these two. Since, there are square roots that carry , square them
and eliminate . Thus
. (1) ⇒ ( − ) = − − − (3)
. (2) ⇒ ( − )= − − − (4)
(3) − (4) ⇒( − )( − )= ( − )
or
= + − − − (5)

This is the relativistic energy – momentum relation.

277
 4.8 Relativistic Kinetic Energy, Mass-Energy relation
Further reading:

E - Corner
https://www.desy.de/user/projects/Physics/Relativity/Speed
OfLight/speed_of_light.html
https://opentextbc.ca/universityphysicsv3openstax/chapter/
relativistic-velocity-transformation/
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/michel
son.html
http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys150/lectures/mm_results/m
m_results.html
https://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/watkins.htm

1. Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman - Sears and Zemansky's

University Physics with Modern Physics-Pearson Education
(2015)
2. A. N Matveev - Mechanics and theory of relativity, Mir Publishers
(1989)
3. L D Landau (Eds.) - The Classical Theory of Fields. The Classical
Theory of Fields, Pergamon (1975).
4. Beiser, Arthur. Concepts of Modern Physics. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1973.

278
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Solved Problems and Exercises

1. The amount of work done to increases the speed of an
electron nom c / 3 to 2 / 3 c is
( c = 3 x 108 m/s 8 and rest mass of electron is 0..511 MeV )
[IIT JAM 2019]
(a) 56.50keV (b) 143.58 keV (c) 168.20keV (d) 511.00
keV
Ans. The change in kinetic energy is equal to work done

=⎛ − ⎞−⎛ − ⎞

⎝ 1− ⎠ ⎝ 1− ⎠

1 1
= ⎛ − ⎞

⎝ 1− 1− ⎠
Given that
v1=c/3 and v2=(2/3)c
= 0. .511
Therefore

⎛ ⎞
1 1
= 0. .511 10 ⎜ − ⎟
⎜ 4 1 ⎟
1−9 1−9
⎝ ⎠
1 1
= 3 0. .511 10 −
√5 √8
= 143.58

279
 Solved Problems and Exercises
2. A rod is moving with a speed of 0.8c in a direction at 60 to
its own length. Find the %
contraction in the length of the rod. [IIT JAM 2015]
Ans. length components of the rod with angle of 60o are =

1−

and ly= lo sin θ

v=0.8c
lo
x
y
60o
Given that v= 0.8c
and θ =60o
Therefore

(0.8 )
= 60 1 −

= 0.6
= 0.3
And

ly= lo sin 60
=
The new length of the rod is given by

= +

= (0.3 ) +( )

280
 Solved Problems and Exercises

= 0.916
.
% contraction in the length of the rod = 100

= 9%
3. A space crew has a life support system that can last only
for 1000 hours. What minimum speed would be required
for safe travel of the crew between two space stations
separated by a fixed distance of 1.08 x 1012 km ?
Ans. The crew will take minimum distance when the relative
distance traveled by the crew should be equal to the actual
distance between the space stations
Therefore
The relative distance traveled by the crew is given by

1−

Where given that t=1000 x 3600 sec

And d=1.08 x 1012 km
1000 3600
= 1.08 10 1000
1−

36
= 108 10
1−

=3 10
1−

=
1−

281
 Solved Problems and Exercises

=
√2
4. The length of a rod, of length 5m in a frame of reference
which is moving with 0.6 c velocity in a direction making
300 angle with the rod is nearly? [BHU 2018]
Ans. The length of rod at rest = 5m
v=0.6c
and θ=300
We know that

= 1−

(0.6 )
=5 30 1 −

= 4.3
5. If the kinetic energy of a body is twice its rest mass energy,
what will be the ratio of relativistic mass to the rest mass
of the body [BHU 2017]
Ans. Given that
KE=2moc2
But we know that
KE= (γ-1) moc2
2moc2= (γ-1) moc2
γ=3
But we know that
m= γ mo
m/ mo = γ =3

282
 Solved Problems and Exercises

6. From the nozzle of a rocket 100kg of gases are exhausted

per sec with a velocity of 1000 m/sec. What force (thrust)
does the gas exert on the rocket? [BHU 2018]
Ans. Exhausted force =

Given that

= 100 /

u= 1000 m/sec
Therefore
= 1000 100
= 10
7. Express for the momentum of a photon in terms of
wavelength. How much is the rest mass of the photon.
Calculate the relativistic mass of the photon of wavelength
5000Ao.
From Einstein relation, Momentum o the photon
ℎ ℎ
= = =

From the relativistic theory

=
1−

For photon v=c

Therefore

= 1−

Therefore
=0
It is the rest mass of the photon and is equal to zero.

283
 Solved Problems and Exercises
Relativistic mass
ℎ
= =

Given that
λ=5000Ao
6.627 10
=
3 10 5000 10
=4 10
8 Find the rest mass of the particle of momentum p and
kinetic energy T. [Agra 1998, 90]
We know that the relativistic energy is given by
E=Ek + Eo
E=T+moc2 (1)
We also know that
E2=p2c2 + mo2c4 (2)
Substituting equation (2) in (1)
p2c2 + mo2c4 = E2 = (T+moc2)2
p2c2 + mo2c4 = T2+2Tmoc2 + mo2c4
−
=
2
9. A ship moving away from the earth with velocity 0.5c fires
a rocket whose velocity to the space is 0.5c (a) away form
the Earth (b) toward the Earth. Calculate the velocity of
the rocket observed from the Earth in two cases. [ IIT
Kanpur 1988, Delhi 1994]
Ans. Let us assume that the velocity of the rocket as observed
from the earth is u
(a) In the first case,
+
=
1+

284
 Solved Problems and Exercises

Given that = 0.5 and v=0.5c

Therefore
0.5 + 0.5
=
0.5 0.5
1+

= 0.8

(b) In the second case

Given that = −0.5 and v=0.5c
Therefore
−0.5 + 0.5
=
0.5 0.5
1+

=0

10. A beam of particles of half life 2 x 10-6 sec travels in the

laboratory frame with speed 0.96c. How much distance
does the beam travel before the flux falls to ½ times the
initial flux? [ IIT Kanpur 1990]
Ans. Suppose ∆τ is the particle half life = 2 x 10-6 sec
If ∆t is the observed half life of the particles, then

=
1−

Laboratory frame speed is (v) = 0.9c

Therefore
2 10
=
(0.96 )
1−

285
 Solved Problems and Exercises
2 10
=
0.28
Evidently, in this observed half life the flux will fall to ½
times the initial flux.
Therefore, the distance travelled by the particles in this
time is

d=v∆t

d=0.9 x 3x 108 x .

d=2000m

MCQS

1. Consider a rotating spherical planet such that the effective

gravitational attraction at the equator is only 75% of that at the
pole. If the linear velocity of a point on the equator is vo, what
is the escape velocity for a polar particle? [DU 2018]
(a) vo (b) 2vo (c) √8vo (d) √7vo
Ans c
2. If a particle is at rest relative to an observer at rest at the center
of a rotating frame of reference
[BHU 2018]
(a) centrifugal and Coriolis forces both act (b) only
centrifugal force acts
(c) only Coriolis force acts (d) None of
these
Ans. b
3. a meson decays into a meson and a neutrino with a mean
lifetime of about 2.5x10-8 sec in a frame in which it is at rest. If
the velocity of the mesons in the laboratory frame be 0.9c then
the expected lifetime in this frame is [BHU 2018]
(a) 5.7 x10-8 sec (b) 2.5 x10-8 sec

286
 Solved Problems and Exercises

(c) 3.1 x10-8 sec (d) None of these

Ans. a
4. The speed of an electron having kinetic energy 2 MeV
will be [BHU 2018]
(a) 2.93 x10-8 sec (b) 3 x10-8 sec
(c) 10 x10-8 sec (d) 1.5 x10-8 sec
Ans. a
5. With what velocity an electron should move so that its kinetic
energy equals its rest mass energy?
[HCU 2019]

√
(a) (b) c (c) c (d) 2 C

Ans. c
6. Two artificial satellites S1 and S2 of mass m and 2m
respectively, are orbiting the earth in elliptical orbits such that
the period of S1 is doubled that of S2 . If the semi-major axis
of S1 is half of S2, then the ratio of the total energy between
S1 and S2 is given by
[HCU 2019]
(a) 1:1 (b) 2:1 (c) 4:1 (d) 1:2
Ans. b
7. Three events, E1(ct=0, x = 0), E2(ct=0, x = L) and E3(ct=0, x =
-L) occur, as observed in an inertial frame S . Frame S is
moving with a speed v along the positive x - direction with
respect to S . In S , let t1 t2 t3, , be the respective times at
which E1 , E2 and E3 occurred. Then,
[IIT JAM 2021]
(a) t2 < t1 <t3, (b) t1 = t2 = t3 (c) t1> t2> t3, (d) t1
<t2< t3
Ans. a
8. A particle initially at the origin in an inertial frame S , has a
constant velocity Vi . Frame S is rotating about the z - axis
with angular velocity  (anticlockwise). The coordinate axes of

287
 Solved Problems and Exercises
S coincide with those of S at t = 0 . The velocity of the
particle (Vx , Vy ) in the S frame, at t= /2 is
[IIT JAM 2021]

(a) ,− (b) (−V, -V) (c)

,− (d) ,−

c
9. A particle is moving with a velocity 0.8cj (c is the speed of
light) in an inertial frame S1. Frame S2 is moving with a
velocity 0.8ci with respect to S1. Let E1 and E2 be the
respective energies of the particle in the two frames. Then,
E1/E2 is ________ (Round off to two decimal places).
[IIT JAM 2021]
Ans. 1.64-1.68
10. A particle is moving with 90% of the velocity of light. Ratio of
its relativistic mass with its rest mass is
[BHU 2017]
(a) 2.0 (b) 3.00 (c) 5.00 (d) 2.29
Ans. d
11. A particle of mass m0, moves with a speed of c/root2 then its
mass is
a) M0/√2 b) √2 m0c c) m0√2 d) √(m/2) AU
2019
12.Choose the incorrect option {AU2019}
a) Time is invariant quantity according to relativity
b) Speed of light remains invariant in all inertial frames of
references
c) There is no absolute frame like as Ether
d) Michelson Morley experiment is base of interference
Check your understanding
1. If we push an object, displacement will be [ ]
observed immediately after the application
of the force
2. The moving clock ticks faster than rest clock [ ]
3. Time dilation and length contraction makes [ ]
the light to get trapped in black holes

288
 Solved Problems and Exercises

4. The speed of light does not depends on the [ ]

density of the medium
5. The concept of ether drag was accepted [ ]
by Michelson-Morley experimental
6. Reason for the apparent position of stars [ ]
was given by Einstein using his special
theory of relativity
7. According to Isaac Newton, time is not [ ]
absolute
8. A time interval never changes between two [ ]
frames of references
9. According to special theory of relativity, it is [ ]
impossible to surpass the speed of light
because the momentum of an object would
decrease to infinity
10. in the limit v →0 one can observe that the [ ]
relativistic kinetic energy coincides with the
classical kinetic energy
Checks : 1. No 2. No 3. Yes 4. Yes 5. No 6. Yes 7. Yes 7.No 8. Yes 9.
No 10. Yes

289
 Glossary

Glossary
Glossary: Rigid body dynamics
Angular Property of any rotating body that gives Moment of
moment momentum about an axis of rotation
Bulginess The property possessed by a round shape that is
flattened at the poles

Coordinate
system A system that specifies each point in space
uniquely by a set of coordinates
A parameter that the system must obey throughout
Constraint
the problem
Centre of The point where the gravity appears to act. It
gravity focuses on weight of the body
Centre of The mean position of the mass in an object .It
mass focuses on mass of the body
Degrees of
freedom The number of independent parameters that define
the state of a mechanical system

Dynamics The branch of mechanics concerned with the

motion of bodies under the action of force
A mechanical heavy wheel having high rotational
inertia ie most of its weight is well out from the
Fly Wheel
axis.The high inertia opposes the speed
fluctuations of an engine.
An automatic non magnetic compass to find
Gyro
geographical direction. Based on fast spinning
compass
top/disc and the rotation of the Earth
The branch of mechanics concerned with the
Kinematics
motion of bodies without considering the force
Magnetic A magnet with two poles S &N or magnet
dipole equivalent to a current loop
Generalization of scalar and vectors which are to
Tensor be used to describe any physical quantity
mathematically

290
 PART-II
WAVES &
OSCILLATIONS
తరం & ల
 తరం
CHAPTER

0 & ల ప చయం
కంప మ ల
ట క ండవ యమం ప రం, వ ౖ బలం ప ం న , అ బలం క
శ త రణం ం ం . అం ; ఇ బలం శ గం ం .
న దరణ శ ఉన ట ,వ కంపనం వ ం . పకృ ప సమ ల
ఉండ ఇష ప ంద మన , అన ; క స శ . బ ఇక డ శ
న ద ంచడం అ చలన శ దం ప ం మ వ వస సమ ల త
ల ల పయ ం . అం వల సమ భంగం క ం ౖ కల శ మ
సమ ల త ం న దరణ శ ఉన త కంప
యబడ .వ క ంచగల .

ౖ షన ఎన అ శ క ఒక పం, ఇ వ కంప సృ ం బ
ర శం ం .

ౖ ష ఆవర న అ వర న రకం వ .ఏ ౖ॓ ష ల అ
అం .ఇ శ క ఒక పం. ఈ శ క సం ధ , ఎల ॓
స ల అ అధ యనం యబడ .అ ం క సం మన
క ం ఇతర పకంపనల ఆవర న . ఆవర న ౖ ష ల మ ంత షవ మ అ షవ
కంప వ క ంచవ . , ష వ పకంపనల ల అం . ఉ హరణ ,
హృదయ స ందన ఆవర నం ఉం ం షం ఉండ , అ ఊ ల స య
ఆవర న మ ష వం ఉం ం .

ఉ స మ స ఏక మ స నం ఉన త ఊ ల
స య ష వం ం . క అ అ షవం ం మ
మనం కష ప ప యడం రం ం న , ఊ పకంప ంత
అ ॓ రవ మ సమయం త త ఆవర వ .

ం ఆవర న ం ం ం లయ ం . అదన
రక ర ంచ ం ఎ వ లం లయ త , అ 'అ ' అ
ప గ ంచబ ం .
INTRO. To WAVES

CHAPTER
& OSCILLATIONS 0
Vibrations and Oscillations
According to Newton's second law, when a force is applied on
a body, it gets accelerated along the direction of force. i.e.; it reports
a change in velocity along the direction of force. But if there exists a
restoring force, the object sets into vibration. We know that
everything in nature likes to be in equilibrium position i.e.; in
minimum energy state. So here restoring force is the one acts
opposite to the direction of motion and tries to establish equilibrium
in the system. Thus vibrations are set only when there is a deforming
force that disturbs the equilibrium and a restoring force that
establishes the equilibrium.

Vibrational energy is a form of potential energy that guides

the force which sets the object into vibrations.
Vibrations may be periodic or aperiodic (non-periodic). The
aperiodic vibrations are also called noise. This is also a form of
energy.This noise energy is studied very rarely in physics like noise in
sound, noise in electronic circuits excetra. Apart from that all other
vibrations that we come across in physics are periodic. Periodic
vibrations maybe further classified into symmetric and asymmetric
vibrations. Out of these, symmetric vibrations are called oscillations.
For example, heartbeat is periodic but not symmetric whereas
respiration of lungs is both periodic and symmetric.

Fig: Oscillations of human lungs and heart.

 తరం

తరం
కంప తరం సృ . కంపన శ క య . అ పకంపన శ ఒక ం
ం మ క ం క ల జ నభంశం ం ర (ఏౖ ఉం ).

ధ వం ం క తరం ల ప ంత య ధ మం అవసరం అ
దయ ంత తరం ల ప ధ మం అవసరం . ం ఒక వర క ,మ క
వర లనం యడం ఒక తరం ఉత యవ . ఇక డ ం అ
క య మ అ మన ఉత న మ కంపన శ క య .
ౖ షన ఎన ం క ఇతర వరల ఒక వర ం మ క వర వర ం క
క ల జ నభంశం ం ం ం .

Did You Know?

Waves on water bodies are the result of oscillations

generated by air drag and restoring force of water layers.

Did You Know?

Wave is a carrier of energy, not a form of energy, where as

vibrations and oscillations are form of Energy

Did You Know?

Electromagnetic waves are the oscillations of electric and

magnetic fields which may be controlled by vibrations of
charged particles.
వన లౖ తరం గడం మ రల శ న ద ంచడం
ఉత న మ ల ల ఫ తం ఉం .

అ శ క హకం, శ క పం , ఇక డ కంప మ ల శ
క పం

దయ ంత తరం మ అయ ంత ల ల , ఇ క ల
కంప ల యం ంచబడ .

294
 Waves
Respiration of lungs also becomes symmetric only when the rate of
inhalation and the rate of exhalation are uniform and equal.
Otherwise that also would become asymmetric and when we start
doing hard work, they may also become aperiodic for some time and
may become periodic in a mean time.
Heart also sometimes beats without periodicity or it misses the
rhythm. If the rhythm misses for prolonged period without
performing any additional activities, then it is a considered as a
disease called ‘Arrhythmia’.

Fig: Arrythmia

Waves
Vibrations generate wave. Wave is a carrier of vibrational
energy. They carry vibrational energy from one point to another
point without actual displacement of particles involved ( if any).
Propagation of Mechanical waves like sound requires some
material medium where as the propagation of electromagnetic waves
requires no medium. A wave can be generated in a string by tying its
one end and oscillating the other end. Here the string is the carrier of
wave and the wave is the carrier of vibration energy generated by our
hand.The vibrational energy reaches the other end of the string
without actual displacement of particles of the string from one end
to the other end.

295
 Waves

Fig: Longitudinal and Transverse waves.

అం వల తరం ఆవర న అ ॓, ష అస నం ఉండవ .
ఇక డ అల పగ లం మ రం ఉండవ . పగ ల తరంగం , శ ఒక ం ం
మ క ం బ యబ ం .అ శ ల తరం ల శ ం ంట మధ
బం ంచబ ం .
పగ ల మ రౖ న తరం ల ంశ తరం మ మ తరం
వ క ంచవ .
ంశ తరం ల క ల ల కంప తరంగ కద క శల ంట ఉం మ
మ తరంగం ల కంప క ల కద క శ లంబం ఉం .
ంశ మ మ తరం ం ం తరం ఉత చర కణం క సగ
నం ం నభంశం క ం .
ఇ గ ం నత త, సగ నం ం క / తం క నభంశం ం అధ యనం
య తరం ల అధ యనం త ం పయత ం త ం .
తరం ల అధ యనం య ం ఉ . ఒక సమయం క ప యం
(ౖ ౖ అధ యనం) మ మ క రం క ప యం ( ౖ
అధ యనం).
ౖ అధ యనం , స క యడం సమయం
ర ంచబ ం మ సగ నం ం నభంశం సలం ధ ప ల
అధ యనం యబ ం .
ౖ మ ౖ ౖ అధ య ల క ం న త త, నభంశం వ
సమయం మ నభంశం వ రం సం యబ ం .

296
 Waves
Thus waves also could be periodic or aperiodic, symmetric or
asymmetric.
Here the wave could be progressive and stationary. In
progressive wave, energy is transferred from one point to another
point. Whereas in Stationary waves energy is trapped between two
points.
Both progressive and stationary waves can be further
classified into longitudinal wave and transverse waves.
In longitudinal waves the oscillations or vibrations of the
particles are along the directions of motion of wave and in transverse
wave the oscillations or vibrations will be perpendicular to the
direction of motion of particles.
Both in longitudinal and transverse waves the act of
generating wave causes a displacement from mean position of the
particle.

Fig: Displacement from mean position in a wave.

Once this is realized, the entire effort of studying waves boils

down to study of displacement of particles/field from mean position.

Did You Know?

This domain and range concepts are adopted from

mathematics functions topic.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

Space domain Time domain

There are two possible ways of studying waves. One as a

function of time (time domain study) and another as a function of
distance (space domain study).

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 Waves

Table: Position Vs. displacement Time Vs. displacement

Fig: Plot of space domain and time domain studies.

మ ంత ం గ ప ౖ అధ యనం క ల
ర ంచవ . ౖ అధ యనం కప తరంగౖ ర ం, ఇ ఒక క
డ .ఇ తరం ల కవ యబ న తం లవడం మ తరం ల
సంఖ భ ంచడం ంచబ ం .
తరంగ డ (λ)= తం రం/తరం ల త ం సంఖ
అ ధం ౖ ౖ అధ యనం కప అ ఒక క
తరం ల సంఖ . సం మనం కన తరం ల సంఖ ం మ
త ం సమయం భ ం .
=ν= త ం తరం ల సంఖ / త ం సమయం
ౖ ర ంచబ ఇతర క నంబ ν ̅=1/λ,
క k=2π/λ. అ ధం ౖ ౖ అధ యనం ర ంచబ ఇతర
సమయ వ వ T=1/ν, మ ం ల ω=2π/T=2πν
స క ఆవర న స వ క ంచ ప 2π ప చయం
న యం యబ ం . ఎం కం వృ ర చలనం అ మన న అత ంత ష
ఆవర న చలనం. వ 5వ అ యం చ ంచబ .
రం క వృత ంౖ వృ ర కద క , 2π.1 రం కదలడం వృత ం క సంౖ
డ λ క తరం ఉత ం . అం వల ఏౖ ఏకప నభంశం ఏకప దశ

అ సం ంచబ ం =

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 Waves
In space domain study, time is fixed by taking a snapshot or
photograph of the system and displacement from mean position is
studied at various locations in space.
Once the data is collected in the space domain and the time
domain studies, graph may be plotted for displacement versus time
and displacement versus distance.
One can define some standard parameters in each domain
study to proceed further. In space domain study the standard
parameter is wavelength which is the length of one wave.This can be
calculated by measuring the total distance covered by a few waves and
dividing it with the number of waves.

ℎ( )=

Similarly in time domain study the standard parameter is the

frequency which is the number of waves in one second. For that we
need to count the number of waves for a few seconds and divide it
with the total time.

= =

Some other standard parameters that can be defined in space domain

are wavenumber ̅ = 1/ , wave vector = 2 / . Similarly other
parameters that can be defined in the time domain study are time
period = 1/ , and angular frequency = 2 / = 2 .
The introduction of the parameter 2 is done manually to express
the periodic nature of the system. This is because circular motion is
the most symmetric periodic motion known to us. The details are well
discussed in Chapter 5.
In circular motion on a circle of unit radius, moving a distance of
2 . 1 generates a wave of length on the diameter of the circle. Thus
any arbitrary displacement can be connected to arbitrary phase as
2
=

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 Waves
ఈప 2π ఆవర న చల వృ ర చల ం యడం వల వ ం .
ట 2π క ఆవశ కత అ యం 5 చ ంచబ ం .

ఈ ం అధ య ఒ వ వస బ , ం అధ య ల న
యబ నౖ తప స పరస ర సంబంధం క ఉం , ఆ సంబంధం తరంగ
స కరణం ఇవ బ ం .

(∂^2 u)/(∂t^2 ) =ϑ^2 (∂^2 u)/(∂x^2 )

ఒక రణ ౖ నన షణ స కరణం క ఖ త ం . ఇక డ 'u' అ
సగ నం ం నభ ంశం. LHS మ RHS గ త సపరం ఒక క స తంతం
ఉన ం న ఇక డ తప స రం ఉం .

ప ౖ ఇ ర ం క ల ంచడం ందవ

ϑ= తం రం/ తం సమయం= తం తరం ల సంఖ / తం సమయం× తం

రం/ త ం తరం ల సంఖ =νλ

తరంగ స కరణం క ప రం u=a sin(kx-ωt) cos(kx-ωt) ఇవ బ ం ,

బ ఆవర న లనం క ఫ త చలనంౖ ౖ . ఈ రకౖ న కం ఆర
ఈ ష (సలం మ సమయం ం ం )మ ప (ౖ మ ౖ )
ఏర డ ఎం కం ఈ సందర ం నభ ంశం వ ల త రణం అ తం
ఉం ం .

దర ప య దజ ప య ం ఉష తరంగ స కరణం వం ఇతర

సంద ల తరంగ స కరణం ఇ ఉం ం

ఈస కరణం క ప రం

e ^(±αx)

ఇ ప తం ప తరంగం. ప రం దజ చరణ ం .

న ష ల , మనం ధ ర ల ల , క ఆ ష , ం ల ౖ ష
మ అ ॓ ం అధ యనం .

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 Waves
This parameter 2 comes as a consequence of mapping the periodic
motion on to the circular motion. The necessicity of parameter 2 is
discussed in Chapter 5.
Since these two studies represent the same system, the variations
recorded in both studies must be interrelated, that relation is given
by the wave equation.

A simple dimensional analysis confirms the correctness of the

equation. Here ‘u’ is the displacement from mean position. Here
must remain constant as LHS and RHS are mathematically
independent of each other.
This can be obtained by multiplying the standard parameters
defining each domain as

× =

The solution of Wave equation is given by u=a sin(kx-ωt) or a cos(kx-

ωt) Thus the resultant motion of a Periodic oscillation is a sine wave
or cosine wave. This kind of second order wave equation ( in both
space and time ) and solutions (of sine and cosine) occur because
acceleration is proportional to displacement variations in this case.
Where as some other cases like heat wave equation which represents
a dispersion process or dissipating process have wave equation like

The solution of this equation is

±

301
 Waves
This is an exponentially falling wave. The solution represents the
dissipation activity.
In the rest of the sessions, we study about various types of
oscillations, Coupled oscillations, Vibrations in strings and
Ultrasonics.

302
 UNIT-IV
Chapter-5
UNDAMPED, DAMPED
FORCED OSCILLATIONS
అవర ద ఆనవర ద

బల త ృత ోల ల
 అనవ ద అవ ద
CHAPTER

5 బ త త ల
ణల
ఈఅ యం ష ం

1. రణ ॓ఆ ట అవకలన స కర ప ష ంచ .

2. ం మ ॓ఆ ట ఈ ష ష ంద .

3. ప ధ , సంవర న ణత, సడ ం సమయం మ ఓ టర ణత ర

ర ంచ ..

అభ సన ఫ
అ యం సమ , ఈ ంద యగల

1. రణ, అవ ద మ బ త ృత ॓ ల ల ర ంచగల .

2. ం మ ॓ ల లస వ ంచగల .

3. రణ ॓ ష క ప ఆస గల రణ వ వస ల వ ంప యగల .

4. ధ వ వసల ప ధ , సంవర న ణత, Q- ర వ క ంచగల .

5. ధర ల ల ల ఆస త న ల ఎం గల , అ బ త ృత మ

అవ ద ల .

6. జ త వ వసల డం మ ॓ ష ల ౖ డ ల అ వృ

యగల ..
 CHAPTER
UNDAMPED, DAMPED
5
AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS

Syllabus
Simple harmonic oscillator and solution of the differential
equation, Damped harmonic oscillator, Forced harmonic oscillator
– Their differential equations and solutions, Resonance,
Logarithmic decrement, Relaxation time and Quality factor.

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn
1. To solve simple harmonic oscillator differential equation.
2. To get Damped and forced harmonic oscillator equation
solutions.
3. To define resonance, logarithmic decrement, relaxation
time and quality factor of oscillators.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Identify the cause of simple, damped and forced harmonic
oscillations.
2. Describe the nature of damped and forced harmonic
oscilations.
3. Apply the solution of simple harmonic motion to simple
systems of interest.
4. Classify resonance, logarithmic decrement, Q-factor in
various systems.
5. Select suitable parameters of interest in various types of
oscillations, namely forced and damped.
6. Develop prototype models damped and forced harmonic
motions in real life systems.
 Syllabus
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ

ఈఅ యం సమ ష ల ం న ం రం ల అ డం ,
డం మ ల ల త ంచగల .

ఎ) ॓: క ॓అ ర , బం , , ం ం ఆ ష ఆ రం ప
ం .గ అ డం ల ల తంౖ ప . గ ర ంధ
ల ప ధ తంౖ ప .

) : ,ఇ నన పర లమ అ ల ం
ర యన సం క ఖ, షఅ మ అ ల ల ల ం ప ధ
ౖ ఆ రప ఉం ం .

) గర సం: కంప తరం ల ల డం ం ప కంప తరం ల రం

యం, ఖ మ ఇతర క లఉ ం చన అం .

d) ఎల ॓ : ఎల ॓ఆ ట స ల ప ధ ఏౖ జత ఎల ॓స ల
మధ క ష క ం .

ఇ) కం ట : ౖ ం , వ , వ దౖ న అ కరణల ॓
అ ర ల అ ణం డం మ ॓ఆ ట అవకలన స కర ల
ప అవసరం.

f) REM: ౖ డ అ ౖ డ ల పకల నమ గ ష మర ం శ
ంపకం సం అడం ల పకల న ఖౖ న ం కత.

g) గ ం : MRI దౖ న ప ధ ఆ త కౖ ష ॓ల క ంచబ న ధ
క గ ంక షణ సమ తక ప మ ప కరం క శబ ం మధ
య ం .

ప తం ం అప తం వర
11వ తరగ , వృ ర చల రణ ॓ ష ం యడం,
రణ లకం సమయ వ వ గణన ఉ ం , డం మ ॓
ఆ ట ల , బలవంత ల ల వనల ప ధ ఉం .ఈఅ యం అ ం ,
ం మ ॓ ఆ ట ఫ య ఈ ష ల ప ష ంచ ధ
పద ల ం . డం మ ॓ ల ల వ ం ల
ర ంచడం ం .

306
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would be
able to identify the role of undamped, damped and forced oscillations
in the following fields.
a) Physics: Vehicle shock absorbers, Bungee cords, cradle, swing
work on the basis of damped oscillations. Clocks work on the
principle of undamped oscillations. Quartz clocks work on
the principle of resonance in forced oscillations.
b) Chemistry: Spectroscopy, a branch of chemistry that deals
with the identification of atoms and molecules in the given
sample, relies on the identification resonance frequency of
oscillations of specific atoms and molecules.
c) Geology: damping effects in seismic wave oscillations give a
hint about the presence of petroleum, minerals and other
geological structures in the way of seismic waves.
d) Electronics: Resonance frequency in electronic oscillator
circuits the heart of communication between any pair of
electronic circuits.
e) Computers: Simulations of car driving, mars rover, lunar
rover etc. needs solutions of damped and forced harmonic
oscillator differential equations corresponding to the shock
absorbers.
f) REM: Tidal resonance is an important technique in the
design of tidal ranges and barriers for energy harvesting with
maximum efficiency.
g) Statistics: Statistical analysis of various data collected by
resonance based characterization techniques like MRI etc.
gives a distinguishing between the problematic conditions
and noise of the instrument.
Familiar to Unfamiliar
In your 11th class, you might have come across the mapping of circular
motion on to simple harmonic motion, approximations in simple
pendulum time period calculation, conceptual treatment of damped
and forced harmonic oscillators, resonance in forced oscillations. In
this chapter you would learn various methods to solve undamped,
damped and forced harmonic oscillator differential equations. You

307
 ప చయం
ప చయం

చ త
7వ తరగ లకం ఐ జ పద ంద ం న ద వ అ
ఉండవ , అం లకం క లం దవ మ ం
సంబంధం ం డ ౖ త ఆ రప ఉం ం . ం అత 1638 "
ౖ " తన స కం చ ం . అ డ 1657 ద
లకం గ అ వృ ం ం . ఒక ష ప ం ణం
, లకం క ల వవ గ యడంౖ ఆ రప ఉం ంద అత
ం . ల మ లకం గ లౖ అత ప అం 1673
" యం ఓ యం" ప ంచబ ం .
ర " ట " క ంచ ఈ ల ఉప ం . అత 2
కన లవవ (అన , ఒక వర ం మ క వర ం య 1 క )
డ 1 ట క ఉం ంద అత గమ ం . T=2 క అ π^2
స నౖ న కర ణ రణం తర లవ లకం ఉప గప ంద అత
ఆశ ర ప .
త వ న ల సం ఐ జ గమ ం రణ ॓ ష వన ట
తన " " మ ంత అ వృ మ త తౖ ఎ " ౖ ఆ
ర స " ఆ క షణ ఇవ బ ం . al., ఇ 1879 ప ంచబ ం . ఈ
స కం ద " ం ॓ ష " (SHM) అ ప ప శ మ
ఆ క స నం గ త త అం ంచబ ం .

E - Corner
https://vigyanprasar.gov.in/wp-
content/uploads/vp-book-Founders-of-Modern-
Astronomy.pdf
https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201706/his
tory.cfm
http://web.mit.edu/18.098/book/extract2009-01-16.pdf
http://www.unife.it/ing/lm.meccanica/insegnamenti/
meccanica-delle-vibrazioni/materiale-
didattico/copy_of_a-a-2016-17-dispense-e-
programma/03-rao_cap1-fundamentals-of-vibration.pdf

308
 Introduction

will also learn to define a few parameters that characterize the

damped and forced harmonic oscillations.

Introduction
History
In your 7th class you might have learned that Galileo was the first
person to identify that pendulum exhibits isochronism, which means
that time period of pendulum depends only on its length, irrespective
of its mass and swing stretch. This he had discussed in his book
entitled “Two new Sciences” in 1638. Further Huygens has developed
and patented the first pendulum clock in 1657, following in the
footsteps of Galileo. He also proved that the time period of pendulum
depends on the stretch, if the angle of stretch increases beyond a
certain limit. All his work on pendulums and pendulum clocks was
published in “Horologium Oscillatorium” in 1673.
Huygens used this pendulum to standardize distance unit
“meter”. He observed that any pendulum with 2 seconds time period
(i.e., 1 second for a swing from one end to other end) has a cord length
of 1meter. To his surprise that pendulum was also useful to measure
acceleration due to gravity which is approximately equal to if =
2 .
The concept of simple harmonic motion, where isochronism
is observed for low stretch angles was further developed by Newton,
in his “Principia” and later a modern analysis was given in “Treatise
on Natural Philosophy” by Tait et. al., which was published in 1879.
In this book for the first time the word “Simple Harmonic Motion”
(SHM) was introduced and mathematical treatment was given on par
with the modern geometry.
Taylor series expansion of Force around a fixed point is given by
1
( − ) = ( )+ ( − )+ ( − )
2!
+⋯
ఒక ర ం క ల స రణ అం ంచబ ం

309
 Introduction
1
( − ) = ( )+ ( − )+ ( − )
2!
+⋯
SHM షయం , i) లం (x_0=0) వద ఉం . ii) లం వద ఉన బలం F(x_0
)=0 iii) శ క ద వ వకలనం ఒక ఋణ ంకం మ iv) అ అ క ఆర ప
.
శ క ద ఉత నప
ం ల ంకం, ├ ∂F/∂x┤|_(x=0)=-K
నవ .ఇ లం ం చలనం (Δx↑), బలం ం (ΔF↑)
వ క శ ; అం , నభంశం ఎ వ, బలం ఎ వ. అదనం , న ద ం బలం
శ నభంశం వ కం. ఈ బలం, వ వస సమ ల ల పయ న ం న,
న దరణ బలం .
అదనం , లం వద శ , ఈ సందర ం , ట క ద యమం వ ం
అం , వ లం వద ం ఉం , అ ఎప ం ఉం ం . అ చలనం
ఉం , అ తన చలన న ం .
ఈ ధం

( )=− ⇒ + =0 ⇒ + =0
ఒక కణంౖ చలనం కృ బలం ప ం న , సమ ంచ పయ ం
ం ఉత అ ం . ఇ కణం కద క శ వ కం తర ఉత
ం . లం వద శ నం న, జడత ం రణం కణం మ ంత ం క ం .ఈ
చరణ మ లం ౖ న దరణ శ ఉత ం .ఇ అ ఇ కదలడం వల
లనల స ఏర ం.

E - Corner

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https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/taylor-series.html

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 Introduction

In the case of SHM, i) Origin is at zero ( = 0). ii) The force at

origin is zero ( ) = 0 iii) The first derivative of force is a negative
constant and iv) All higher order terms are zero.
The first derivative of force is a negative constant, which can be
stated as = − (say). This implies that as deviation from
origin increases (Δ ↑) , force also increases (Δ ↑) but in an
opposite direction; i.e., more the displacement, more is the force. In
addition, the direction of restoring force is opposite to displacement.
As this force tries to establish equilibrium in the system, it is referred
to as the restoring force.
Additionally, the force at the origin is zero, in which case, Newton’s
first law applies i.e., if the object is at rest at the origin, it will remain
at rest forever. If it is in motion, it will continue its state of motion.
Thus

( )=− ⇒ + =0 ⇒ + =0

When a deviating or deforming force is applied on a particle, a

restoring force is generated which tries to establish equilibrium. This
gives rise to generation of acceleration in the particle, opposite to
it’s direction of motion. Since there is no force at the origin, the
particle moves forward further due to inertia. This activity further
generates a restoring force towards the origin again. This to and fro
motion results in oscillation of the system.
This kind of forces are called conservative forces. In the case of
conservative force, the net work done over a closed loop will be zero.
i.e., if certain amount of energy is consumed for executing forward
motion, the same amount of energy will be regained during backward
motion, so that the net work done is zero. This may not be possible
always in daily life due to frictional forces and other energy loss
mechanisms. Carrying a bucket of water upstairs and bringing it back
downstairs should actually cause no strain. But in both ways we feel
strain because body muscles have to work against gravity in both the
directions of travel. Thus in that case force will not be conserved.
Whereas in the case of pendulum, if there are no air

311
 Introduction
ఈ రకౖ నబ త త బలం అం . త త బలం షయం , నప
అ ం . అన , ర ష అమ య ష తం శ
ం నట , క కద క సమయం అ తం శ ందబ ం ,
త న ప అ ం . ఘరణ శ మ ఇతర శ నష ం ల
రణం తం ఇ ఎల ధం క వ . ఒక బ డ ద
ళ డం మ ం వడం వల ఎ వం ఉండ డ .
ం ల మనం అ భ . ఎం కం శ ర కండ ప ం
శల కర ణ వ కం ప . బ ఆ సందర ం శ త త ం అవ .
అ లకం షయం , ధకత/ఘరణ శ నట , ల ఎ వం
త ం ం శ తం న .
గ త సపరం ఇ వ క ంచవ

∇⃗ × ⃗ = 0 ⃗. ⃗ = 0

క డ॓ అ న ,అ వం క ప ప ణం
క పవణత వ క ంచవ . ఇక డ, బ య (V) క గ యం
వ క ంచవ ,ఈ య ప ణం.

⃗ = −∇⃗ = − ⇒ = −∫ .

∇⃗ × ⃗ = ∇⃗ × −∇⃗ = −∇⃗ × ∇⃗ = 0
ఆ ధం -∇ ⃗V ధ త కం ఉన బలం ధ త కం ఉం ం ; అం , బలం అ
య క యం ( దల) వ క శ ఉం ం (అన , ఇ అ క
య ం త వ య ౖ ంచబ ం ).

రణ ॓ ష షయం , య ఇ ఇవ బ ం

1
= −∫ . = −∫ (− ) =∫ . =
2
య క ఆ రం ఒక . క త ప అ క ఆర ఉ
ఉం మ ం స నం అ , b (అ ం )

1 1
=− + ⇒ = − ,
2 3
అ ॓ య అం . x క గ వల అ
వల క ఉం ం . ద డం ,x క న వల x^2 ఫం ఆ పత ం
ం మ x క ద వల x^3 ఫం ఆ పత ం ం .ట ం
ం x_turn=3K/2b వద జ ం .

312
 Introduction

resistance/frictional forces, the oscillations continue forever without

any reduction in amplitude.
Mathematically this can be expressed as

∇⃗ × ⃗ = 0 ⃗. ⃗ = 0

When the cross product of a vector is zero, such a vector quantity can
be expressed as the gradient of a scalar quantity. Here, force can be
expressed as the negative gradient of potential ( ), which is a scalar
quantity.
⃗ = −∇⃗ = − ⇒ = −∫ .

∇⃗ × ⃗ = ∇⃗ × −∇⃗ = −∇⃗ × ∇⃗ = 0

Thus force is positive when −∇⃗ is positive; i.e., force is in the

direction opposite to the gradient (rise) of potential (i.e., it is directed
from high potential to low potential) .
In the case of simple harmonic motion, the potential is given by
1
= −∫ . = −∫ (− ) =∫ . =
2
The shape of the potential is a parabola. If next higher order
derivative in force also exists and is equal to a constant, say , then
1 1
=− + ⇒ = − ,
2 3
which is called the anharmonic potential. This potential curve has all
positive values for negative values of . In the first quadrant,
function dominates for smaller values of and function
dominates for larger values of . The turning point occurs at =
.

313
 Introduction

Did You Know?

Anharmonic is different from enharmonic.

En-harmonic – Same/Equal harmonic
An-harmonic – Not Harmonic

Activity

Draw the curves for anharmonic potential and

identify the turning point. Verify with the formula for
various values of and .

In Quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator, all energy levels are equally spaced. This gives only
one line during energy transitions. In anharmonic oscillator, energy level separation reduces as
energy rises. This results in a full spectrum during transitions. In molecular spectroscopy,
Anharmonic oscillations are responsible for spectrum.

ంటం క ॓ఓ ట ,అ శ స నం ఉం .ఇ శ
ప వర న సమయం ఒకౖ త ఇ ం .అ ॓ఓ ట ,శ శ
భజన త ం . ఇ ప వర న సమయం క ం . ల
, క అ ॓ ల ధ తవ .

ం ల
య గంౖ ఆ రప ఉం , ల బలం స రణ ఇ యవ

( , ̇ ) = (0) + + ̇+ + ̇ +⋯
̇ ̇ ! ! ̇ ̇

314
 Introduction

Fig: Harmonic and Anharmonic oscillator potential.

Damped oscillations
If the potential is also velocity dependent, then one can write the
Taylor series expansion of force as
1
( , ̇ ) = (0) + + ̇+
̇ ̇ 2!
1
+ ̇ +⋯
2! ̇ ̇
The simplest approximation is again to assume that the force at the
origin is zero and the higher order terms starting from 2nd order
onwards vanish. Consider = − and ̇
= −γ. Then the
̇
force equation becomes

=− −
Thus, in this case, more the velocity of the object, more is the
restoring force. This effect is called damping. Usually frictional forces
on solids and viscous forces in fluids contribute to this. This is not a
conservative force.
Forced Oscillations
If there exists any driving force, which is periodic with a frequency
, the force equation takes the form
=− + sin .

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 Introduction
లం వద ఉన శ అ మ 2వ ఆర ం రంభమ అ క ఆర బంధన
అదృశ మ య ంచడం సరళౖ నఉ ం . ├ ∂F/∂x┤|_(x=0)=-k మ ├
∂F/(∂x ̇ )┤|_(x ̇=0)=-γ ప గ ంచం . అ బల స కరణం అ ం

=− −
అం వలన, ఈ సందర ం , వ క ఎంత గం క , న ద రణ బలం ఎ వ
అ ం .ఈప ం ం అం . రణం ఘనప లౖ ఘర ణ బ మ
ద ల గట బ హదం .ఇ తత శ .
బ త ృత ల
p ఆవర న దక శ ఏౖ ఉం , బలం స కరణం ఈ ం ం

=− + sin .
ౖ ం ం ం బ ల నట , అ బల స కరణం ఇ
అ ం

=− − + sin

ౖ న న , ద సందర ం , బలం తతం ఉం ం , అ ఇ ండవ

సందర ం .

భ మణ చలనం SHM ం యడం

॓ఓ ట ష అ సం షౖ న కద క, మనం ద ॓
. అ త రణం క సమయ ఉత న ం. సగ నం
ం నభంశం స క త రణం ంద స వం రణం. కప ణం
/ క గణన ం ,అ రం ఉండ సమయం ఉం ం అ
గమ ంచవ .

E - Corner

https://ocw.metu.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/6886/mod_resource/c
ontent/1/ch8/8-3.htm
https://www.brainkart.com/article/The-projection-of-
uniform-circular-motion-on-a-diameter-of-SHM_36296/

316
 Introduction

If damping forces are also included along with driving force, then the
force equation becomes

=− − + sin .

In the above, for the first case, force is conservative, while it is not for
the second case.

Mapping SHM with circular motion

Harmonic oscillator motion is very a complicated motion wherein for
the first time we come across or in Physics. Jerk or Jolt is
the time derivative of acceleration. This is due to the fact that the
acceleration of the system changes with displacement from mean
position. From a calculation of the physical quantity Jerk/Jolt, one
may infer that is not a constant but varies with time.

Activity

Plot Jolt of simple harmonic motion as a

function of time. Think of further higher order
derivatives of displacement as well.
Then how to study such a complicated motion with simplified models
is a matter of critical thinking. But thanks to the circular motion, one
can easily replicate the final effect of simple harmonic motion by
simply placing a mirror along the diameter of a circle and studying
the motion of reflection of object which is executing uniform circular
motion.

Fig: SHM in circular motion.

317
 Introduction
అ వం సం షౖ న కద క సర కృత న ల ఎ అధ యనం ల మర తక
ఆ చన. వృ ర చల ధన , ఒక వృత ం క సం అ ఉంచడం
మ ఏక వృ ర కద క అమ వ క ప ంబం క కద క
అధ యనం యడం రణ ॓ కద క క ప లభం
ప ం ంచవ .

వృత ం క X'OX సం అద ం అపసవ శ ఏక వృ ర కద క

ప గ ంచం . అ సంౖ డ క నభ ంశం, వ P నం ఉన , ఇ
ఇవ బ ం

= cos .
త రణం య ంట ంచబ ం ంద ంౖ ం .

= .
అ X'OX కర ం ంట త రణం క అంశం ఇ ఉం ం

= − cos = − cos = −
ఆ ధం , SHM క త రణం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

=− .

=−

ౖ ం ం ం

ఇక డ, LHS మన rad/Sec ట క ప ణం ఉం ం . RHS మన

1/ క ఉ . వృ ర చల య ష ర నం న ఈ
వ సం ఏర ం. ఒక క . ఇ అ ర ం ఎం కం సమయం
ప యం త రణం సం ష ౖ ఉత సర కృత చలనం .

వ ంచ , ణం ట ఉం ౖ న క యబ ం .
మ స కర ల వ వహ ం ట ౖ న స స ం .

ణంౖ న ల ర న మ క సం ష త ఉం . అ , sinθ క
ల స రణ ప గ ం నట అర మ ం ,అ ంద ఇవ బ ం .

318
 Introduction

Consider a uniform circular motion in anticlockwise direction with a

mirror along the X’OX diameter of the circle. Then the displacement
of the image on the diameter, when the object is at location P, is given
by
= cos .
The acceleration is directed along the radial vector but pointing
towards the center.
= .
Then the component of acceleration along the X’OX diagonal is
= − cos = − cos = − .
Thus, the acceleration of SHM is given by
=− .
But we have

=−

From the above two,

Here, on the LHS we have physical quantity with units of / .

But on the RHS we have units of 1/ . This discrepancy arose
because we didn’t convert circular motion into linear motion. But
just mapped one another. This is unavoidable because there is no
such simplified motion which could produce a compliex variation in
acceleration as a function of time.
To avoid the discrepancy, the angle was made a physical quantity with
units but without dimensions. And it is enough to match the
dimensions while dealing with equations.
There was also another complication that arose which led to the
decision to make angle dimensionless. That is, if Taylor series
expansion of sin is considered, it is as given below.

319
 Introduction

sin( ) = − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
ఇక డ θ యన ట క ఉం . క ల క అం ప గం
తప స ఒౖ న క ఉం . అం వల క ప ణం య
ఉన ప ఎ వంౖ న ఉండ డ .

లకం క సవ లవ వ ఇ ఇవ బ ం

=2 ⇒ =4
sin sin

http://dev.physicslab.org/document.a
spx?doctype=3&filename=oscillatory
motion_pendulumshm.xml
https://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/040908
6.pdf
θ క g కౖ ధ ం ంద పబ ం . క g వ రం ఉం ం మ
θ≫sin θ బ , ద θ సం T వ ం . ఫ తం gత ం . మనం
వలం , దθ g వ θ/sin θ ≫1 న క ం . ఇక డ జౖ న
ప తక య θ మ T. మనం θ ౖ ల T త . ఆ
స ఉప ం , వలం ఒక ఉప ం g గ . ఈ
ప గం g లవడం . బ θమ Tక ఉన ఫం న ం ఏౖ g సం
తం ప ం ం . ఇక డ θ gప తం య . gఅ ఒక ష
సలం రం ఉం ం . ప తక ం మ య ం ట
మ ౖ ం క స కర ల పరస రంఅ సం ం ట నం ఈ
వ అర ం .

Activity

Verify the variation of acceleration due to

gravity as a function of stretch angle of pendulum bob.
Also plot it using the equation and compare.
Activity

Verify various pendulum

properties using the simulation tool.
https://www.myphysicslab.com/

320
 Introduction

sin( ) = − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
Here has units of radians. But to add physical quantities every
component must have same dimensions. Hence the physical quantity
should not have any dimension though it has a unit of radian.
The actual time period of pendulum is given by

=2 ⇒ =4
sin sin

The variation of as a function of is as shown below. Since

practical value is constant, and ≫ sin , value increases
enormously for larger . This results in a reduction in . If we just
see the formula, it looks like value increases for larger as
/sin ≫ 1. Here the true experimental variables are and . All
we are measuring is with variations in . Using that information,
we are just calculating using a formula. We are not measuring in
this experiment. So whatever functional dependency that and
has will be reflected in the formula for . Here cannot directly
influence . In fact is a constant at a given place. One must
understand this discrepancy in interpretation while identifying
experimental constants and variables and correlating them with
theoretical equations.

Fig: Variation of as a function of stretch angle .

321
 Introduction
ఐ న య ,θ న ఉం .అ , ఈ సందర ం ,ౖ స రణ ం ,
sin θ≃θ, త లవ వ ఇ అ ం ,

=2

θ క ఏ వ న ప గ ంచబ ం ? మనం వల ప , మనం

0.1° , sinθ ఎప θ స నం ఉండద గమ ంచవ .

ఇక డ వ సం ఏ టం , అ ఆచర త క ప జ ల సం θ ణం తప స య ల
ప గ ంచబ ం .

ఒక ద ంశ ఖ తత ం స , θ≤30° వచ గమ ంచవ . ం ద ంశ ఖ తత ం
అవసరౖ , ఒక θ≤10° వ ప తం . అవసరౖ నఖ త బ ణం
మ ంత త ం ప గ ంచవ .

ల 1 rad వ ఎంత? ఇ 360/2π≅57.3°. అం వల ణం ం ద ంశ ఖ తత ం

సం 0.1 rad కం త వ ఏౖ ణం త నంత న ప గ ంచబ ం .

E - Corner

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radian
https://www.nature.com/articles/548135b
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1409.2794.pdf

322
 Introduction

But to make it isochronous, must be very small. Then, for this case,
from the above expansion, sin ≃ , so that the time period
becomes,

=2

But for what value of , is it considered to be small? If we look at

some of the values of sin , we have

Sl No sin
1 35° 0.573
2 30° 0.500
3 15° 0.258
4 10° 0.173
5 1° 0.017
6 0.1° 0.0017
One observes that even if we go for 0.1°, sin will never be equal to
, even barely.
The discrepancy here is that the angle must be considered in
for all practical purposes.
Sl No ° sin
1 35° 0.610 0.573
2 30° 0.523 0.500
3 15° 0.261 0.258
4 10° 0.174 0.173
5 1° 0.0174 0.0173
6 0.1° 0.00174 0.00173
One can see that, if a single decimal accuracy is sufficient, then one
can take ≤ 30°. If two decimal accuracy is required, then one has

323
 Introduction
SHM అవకలన స కరణం క ప రం

రణ ॓ చలనం , న దరణ బలం నభ ంశ ణ వ

అ తం ఉం ంద ఇప అర
ం .

∝ − ⇒ = − ⇒ =− ⇒ + =0

⇒ + = 0 − − − (1)

ఇక డ K అ బల ంకం మ mఅ దవ మ aఅ SHM అమ
వ క త రణం.

చలనం ఆవర నౖ నం న, ప రం ౖ మ ౖ క ఆవర న ప ల క ంత

ఫం వ . అం వల, నభ ంశం సం ఒక ప ఈ ధం ఊ ంచవ ,

( )= sin + cos .
ౖ , C_1, C_2 మ ω య మ C_1, C_2 ం ప ష ంచబ .

రంభ నభ ంశం x_0 అ ం . అం , t=0 అ న x(t)=x_0

(0) = sin0 + cos 0 = .0 + .1 ⇒ =

∴ ( )= sin + cos
స క గం నభ ంశం క యవ

( )
( )= = cos − sin

రంభ v_(0 . ) అన , t=0 అ న v(t)=v_0

(0) = cos 0 − sin0 = .1 − .0 ⇒ =

⇒ =

∴ ( )= sin + cos − − − (2)

⇒ ( )= cos − sin − − − (3)

⇒ ( )=− sin − cos =− ( ) − − − (4)
Eq.(1) మ (4) ం ,

= − − − (5)

324
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation

to confine to the value of ≤ 10°. Further reduction in angle may

be considered depending on the accuracy required.
What is the value of 1 in degrees? It is 360/2 ≅ 57.3°. Thus
any angle less than 0.1 may be considered as small enough, for
a two decimal accuracy in angle.

Solution of SHM Differential Equation

We have already understood that, in simple harmonic motion,
restoring force is directly proportional to negative displacement.

∝ − ⇒ = − ⇒ =− ⇒ + =0

⇒ + = 0 − − − (1)

Here is the force constant and is the mass and is the

acceleration of the body executing SHM.
Since the motion is periodic, the solution could be some function of
periodic functions of sine and cosine. Hence, one can assume a
solution for displacement as,
( )= sin + cos .
In the above, , and are unknowns and the constants ,
need to be fixed.
Let the initial displacement be . i.e., ( ) = ℎ =0
(0) = sin0 + cos 0 = .0 + .1 ⇒ =
∴ ( )= sin + cos
The velocity of the system is obtained from the time derivative of
displacement as,
( )
( )= = cos − sin

Let the initial velocity be . i. e., ( )= when = 0.

Eq . (2), x_0 వ

325
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation
= sin − − − (6)
అ

= = cos = cos ⇒ = cos − − − (7)

Eq.(2) Eq.(6) మ (7)ల ప

( )= cos sin + sin cos ⇒ ( )

= sin( + ) − − − (8)
Eq.(6) మ (7) ం

= sin + cos = + − − − (9)

sin
= tan = tan = tan − − − (10)
cos /
ఇక డ Eq.(8) Eq.(9), (5), (10) ం ` రంభ ప x_0 మ v_0, ంకం
Kమ దవ m క న వల అం ంచబ న య రణ ॓
చలన స కరణం క ప ఇ ం .

ప య పద :

రణ ॓ చలనం , న దరణ బలం నభ ంశ ణ వ

అ తం ఉం ంద ఇప అర
ం .

∝ − ⇒ = − ⇒ =− ⇒ + =0

⇒ + =0

ఇక డ K అ బల ంకం మ mఅ దవ మ aఅ SHM అమ
వ క త రణం. ం ం ,

+ =0⇒ + − =0

⇒ + − = 0,

326
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation

(0) = cos 0 − sin0 = .1 − .0 ⇒ =

⇒ =

∴ ( )= sin + cos − − − (2)

⇒ ( )= cos − sin − − − (3)

⇒ ( )=− sin − cos =− ( ) − − − (4)
From Eq. (1) and (4), we obtain

= − − − (5)

In Eq. (2), let us consider to be given by

= sin − − − (6)
Then

= = cos = cos ⇒ = cos − − − (7)

Substituting Eq. (6) and (7) in Eq. (2), gives the result
( )= cos sin + sin cos ⇒ ( )
= sin( + ) − − − (8)
From Eq. (6) and (7)

= sin + cos = + − − − (9)

sin
= tan = tan = tan − − − (10)
cos /
Here Eq. (8) gives the solution of simple harmonic motion equation
with unknowns given by Eq. (9), (5), (10) with known values of two`
initial conditions and , force constant and mass .

Alternative method:
In simple harmonic motion, force is directly proportional to negative
displacement.

327
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation
ఇక డ

= − − − (1)

వ గత ట అవకలన ఆప ట స తంత ం ఉన ం న, ం స నం
ఉం . ఈ ధం

+ = − = 0 − − − (2)

ద ం ,

1
+ =0⇒ =− ⇒ =−

ం ౖ ఇం

1
=− ∫ ⇒ ln = − ⇒ = ⇒
= − − − (3)
అ ధం ండవ ,

1
− =0⇒ = ⇒ =

ం ౖ ఇం

1
= ∫ ⇒ ln = ⇒ = ⇒
= − − − (4)
Eq.(3) మ (4) అవకలన స కరణం (2) క ధౖ నప బ , క
రణ ప రం ఇవ బ ం

= +
±
ల ఉప ంచడం = cos ± sin ,

= (cos + sin ) + (cos − sin )

⇒ =( + ) cos + ( − ) sin
⇒ = cos + sin − − − (5)
ఇక డ = + and = ( − )

328
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation

∝ − ⇒ = − ⇒ =− ⇒ + =0

⇒ + =0

Here is the force constant and is the mass and is the

acceleration of the body executing SHM.
Here one can write

+ =0⇒ + − =0

⇒ + − = 0,

where

= − − − (1)

Since the differential operators in individual brackets are

independent, both will be equal to zero. Thus

+ = − = 0 − − − (2)

Taking the first part,

1
+ =0⇒ =− ⇒ =−

Integrating on both sides,

1
=− ∫ ⇒ ln = − ⇒ = ⇒
= − − − (3)
Similarly for the second part,
1
− =0⇒ = ⇒ =

Integrating on both sides,

329
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation
మనం cosωt మ sinωtల జ ,ఆ జ A,B ల 90°
ఉం . సరళ కల క జ యమం ందవ .aఫ త మ ϕఫ త
దశ ఉండ వ ం . అ ,

తం ం

= + − − − (6)

cos = ⇒ = cos = + cos − − − (7)

sin = ⇒ = sin = + sin − − − (8)

= tan − − − (9)

Eq.(5) Eq.(7), (8) ప

= sin cos + cos sin = sin( + ) − − − (10)

ఇ Eq.(6), (1) మ (9) ఇవ బ న య SHM సం అవకలన స కరణం
క ప ఇ ం .

1.ౖ , ౖ ఫం ండవ ఆర అవకలన స కర ల ప

2. ఎ॓ య ఫం ద ఆర అవకలన స కర ల ప ( గం/ ంటం

క అవకలన స కరణం). అ సమయం అ ండవ ఆర అవకలన స కరణం క
ప ప .

3. అం వలన ండవ ఆర అవకలన స కరణం ౖ , ౖ మ సం ష ంక

ప ల క ఉం ం .అ ల స కరణం అ సం ంచబ .

4. ఎ॓ య ఇ న ఫం త య ప షౖ ఆ ట ౖ మ
ౖ ఫం ల ఉత . ంకం జౖ , ఎ॓ య ఫం ఎ
న ం ఫం ఇ ం మ ప షౖ ౖ మ ౖ
ౖ ప ॓ ఫం ల ఉత ం .

5. ప ల సరళత: య అవకలన స కరణం క ప (ఇక డ x క శ

ఏకత ం) ఎల సరళ ల పద ం ; అం , ప ల క ఏౖ LINEAR కల క
స కర ప రం ప ం . ం మ ల ల అధ యనం
న ఈ నం ఉప గకరం ఉం ంద ం , ఎం కం అ
సరళం ఉం ; అ సమయం SHM ం ం షం ఉం ం .

330
 Solution of SHM Differential Equation

1
= ∫ ⇒ ln = ⇒ = ⇒
= − − − (4)
Since Eq. (3) and (4) are possible solutions of the differential
equation (2), the general solution of which is given by
= +
±
By using Euler’s formula, = cos ± sin ,
= (cos + sin ) + (cos − sin )
⇒ =( + ) cos + ( − ) sin
⇒ = cos + sin − − − (5)
Where = + and = ( − )
If we represent cos and sin as phasors, then those phasors will
be 90° apart with magnitudes , . Their linear combination can be
obtained by triangle rule. Let be the resultant amplitude and be
the resultant phase. Then,

Fig: Vector representation of amplitudes

From the figure,

= + − − − (6)

cos = ⇒ = cos = + cos − − − (7)

sin = ⇒ = sin = + sin − − − (8)

= tan − − − (9)

Substituting Eq. (7), (8) in Eq. (5), we get

331
 ం ఆ ట

Did You Know?

The choice of general solution of SHM differential

equation is optional as sin( + ) = cos for = 90° .
The specific value of is actually decided by initial velocity
and initial displacement .

Activit

Instead of the triangle given, one may take

flipped triangle with vectors , − . Also can be
defined at either of the corners of the triangle. Thus try
to obtain other combinations like sin( −
) , cos( + ) , cos( − )
ం ॓ఆ ట
రణ ॓ చలనం , ప బలం నభంశం అ తం ఉం ం .
బలం గంౖ ఆ రప ఉం , అ ల ల అం ప తం ం మ
ం ॓ ష ం .

ం ॓ ష సం ఈ ష ఇ ఇవ బ ం

=− − ⇒ + + =0

⇒ +2 + − − − (1)

ఇక డ b=γ/2m మ ω^2=k/m. ఇక డ b 1/సమయం మ ω=2π/T ట క

ఉం . అం వలన, ఈ ం ప ల మధ 2π రకం వ సం ఉం ం . అ
క మ త ప జ ల సం, స ౖ నన త
ప . భజన మ ణ ర రక ఉన డ , ఆ 2π రకం
క ం (ఉ హరణ , ణత ర ర ం ట , త త గం
చ ంచబ ం ).

కణం క నభంశం సం ంక ప ప గ ంచం ,

= ⇒ = = ⇒ =
= − − − (2)

332
 Damped harmonic oscillator

= sin cos + cos sin = sin( + ) − − − (10)

This gives the solution of differential equation for SHM with
unknowns given by Eq. (6), (1) and (9).
Note:
1. Sine, cosine functions are solutions of second order
differential equations
2. Exponential functions are solutions of first order
differential equations (differential equation of
velocity/momentum). At the same time they also serve
as solutions of second order differential equation.
3. Thus second order differential equation can have both
sine, cosine as well as complex exponential solutions.
They are connected by Euler’s equation.
4. Only exponential imaginary functions produce
oscillatory sine and cosine functions upon linear
superposition. If the exponent is real, the exponential
function would give ever rising or ever decaying function
and produce sine and cosine hyperbolic functions upon
superposition.
5. Linearity of solutions: The solutions of linear differential
equation (where power of is unity) will always exhibit
linearity property; i.e., any LINEAR combination of the
solutions also works as a solution for the equation. This
property proves to be useful while studying damped and
forced oscillations, as they are also linear; at the same
time a bit more complicated compared to SHM.

Damped harmonic oscillator

In simple harmonic motion, force is directly proportional to negative
displacement. If the force also depends on velocity, then it will affect
the amplitude of oscillations and results in damped harmonic
motion.
The force equation for damped harmonic motion is given by

333
 Damped harmonic oscillator
Eq.(1) Eq.(2) ప

+2 + =0
x≠0 క క

+2 + = 0 − − − (3)
α ఈ వర స కరణం క ప రం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

−2 ± (2 ) − 4.1.
= = − ± − − − − (4)
2.1
అం వలన నభ ంశం క రణ ప రం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

√ √
= +
√ √
= + − − − (5)
-1: అండ ం

ఈ షయం ,

< ⇒ − <0⇒ − =
= ( ) − − − (6)
Eq.(5) Eq.(6) ప

= +

ఆ ల స కరణ ఉప ంచడం ా

= [ (cos + sin )
+ (cos − sin )]
= [( + ) + ( − )
= ( sin cos + cos sin )
∴ = sin( + ) − − − (7)
Here sin = + and cos = ( − )
ఆ ధం ప రం అ ణం b=γ/2m క ప తౖ న ణత ఫం
సవ ంచబ న న ఒకౖ ఫం .

334
 Damped harmonic oscillator

=− − ⇒ + + =0

⇒ +2 + − − − (1)

Here = /2 and = / . Here has the units of 1/

and = 2 / . Thus, there will be a discrepancy by a factor of 2
between these two quantities. But for all addition and subtraction
purposes, we consider only the matching dimensional formula.
Whenever there are division and multiplication operations, that 2
factor may make a difference (for example, while defining the quality
factor, discussed in a later section).
Consider an exponential solution for the displacement of the particle,

= ⇒ = = ⇒ =
= − − − (2)
Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we get
+2 + =0
Since ≠ 0,
+2 + = 0 − − − (3)
The solution of this quadratic equation in is given by

−2 ± (2 ) − 4.1.
= = − ± − − − − (4)
2.1
Thus the general solution for displacement is given by
√ √
= +
√ √
= + − − − (5)

Case-1: Underdamped
In this case,

< ⇒ − <0⇒ − =
= ( ) − − − (6)
Substituting Eq. (6) in Eq. (5) gives

335
 Damped harmonic oscillator
ల ల నః న ం β^2=ω^2-b^2, ఇ b^2 రకం త ంచబ ం తం
రం ఉం ం .

-2: ఓవ ం

ఈ సందర ం , b^2>ω^2, ఆౖ –b+√(b^2- ω^2 ) అ న ప ల సంఖ మ –b-

√(b^2- ω^2 ) ద ప ల సంఖ . అ నభ ంశం x ఎ వం ల ం
ంకం త ం . ఇక డ ఆ పత పదం

√ √ √
( )= + ≃
స క ఖ తౖ న పవర న వ , రంభ ప ల ఖ తం
ప గ ం . రంభం సమ ల ం వద ఉన వ వస ప గ ంచం , ఇ దక శ బ
ఉం ం .అ t=0 వద x=0 మ v=v_0.ౖ న న ఈ ం ం ప

+ =0 − ( + )+ ( − )= ⇒ =−
=
2
ఇక డ β=√(b^2-ω^2 ). అ

( )= sinh
2
అం వలన నభ ంశం ప తం ం మ ప తం ప ం .
అ అం .

-3: క ం యబ ం

ఈ సందర ం b^2=ω^2. మనం √(b^2- ω^2 )=h→0⇒e^(±ht)≃1±ht ప ం

= [ + ]
= [ (1 + ℎ ) + (1 − ℎ )]
= [( + ) + ℎ( − ) = ( + )
Here = + , = ℎ( − )
ఇక డ p+qt సమయం సరళం ం e^(-bt) ప తం ప ం . ఓవ
ం ం షయం , e^(-bt) రణం ప తం ప ం , అ సమయం
e^(√(b^2-ω^2 ) t) రణం ప తం ం . అం వల క ం ం ,
సమయం కర యం ఉం ం ,అ క ం ం షయం యం
గం ఉం ం . ఎం కం న రణమ పదం షౖ న ం ం
సరళం ఉం ం మ ఓవ ం ం ంకం ఉం ం .

336
 Damped harmonic oscillator

= +
Using Euler equation,

= [ (cos + sin )
+ (cos − sin )]
= [( + ) + ( − )
= ( sin cos + cos sin )
∴ = sin( + ) − − − (7)
Here sin = + and cos = ( − )
Thus the solution is a sine function with amplitude modified by an
exponentially decaying function of = , with time.

The frequency of oscillations is = − which is reduced by a

factor of but remains constant for the entire course.
Case-2: Over damped

In this case, > , then – + √ − is a small negative

number and – − √ − is a large negative number. Then the
displacement reduces to zero exponentially without making any
oscillations. Here the dominant term is
√ √ √
( )= + ≃

To know the exact behavior of the system, one needs to consider the
initial conditions precisely. Consider a system at equilibrium initially,
was subjected to a driving force. Then = 0 and = at = 0.
Substituting these two in the above, gives
+ =0 − ( + )+ ( − )= ⇒ =−
=
2

Here =√ − . This yields

( )= sinh
2

337
 Damped harmonic oscillator
A plot of this function looks like this.

Fig: Displacement in over damping.

Thus the displacement increases exponentially and then falls

exponentially. This is also called dead beat.
Case-3: Critically damped

In this case = . Let us consider √ − =ℎ→0⇒

±
≃ 1 ± ℎ then
= [ + ]
= [ (1 + ℎ ) + (1 − ℎ )]
= [( + ) + ℎ( − ) = ( + )
Here = + , = ℎ( − )
Here + rises linearly with time but falls exponentially. In
the case of over damping, the amplitude falls exponentially due to
at the same time rises exponentially due to √ . Thus in
critical damping, there is a net decay in amplitude with time but the
decay is faster in the case of critical damping. This is because the term
responsible for rising amplitude is linear in critical damping and is
exponential in over damping.

338
 Quality factor

Fig: Damped harmonic oscillations as a function of time.

Quality factor
The quality(Q-) factor is defined as the ratio of input energy to the
loss in energy per cycle.

= =2
Δ /2 Δ
In the case of damping, the amplitude is given by = where
is the amplitude without damping. Then the corresponding
relation between energies is given by
= (∵ ∝ )
For small values of damping, one can expand the exponential in
power series and retain the first a few terms. Thus
= (1 − 2 ) ⇒ = − 2 ⇒Δ = − = 2
The change in energy per one cycle is given by
2
Δ = 2 = 2

Then the Q-factor is given by

=2 = =
Δ 2

339
 ణత రకం
ణత రకం
(Q-) రకం అ ఇ ఎన ఒ ౖ శ వ న ష
ర ంచబ ం .

= =2
Δ /2 Δ
ం ం షయం , A=A_0 e^(-bt) ఇవ బ ం , ఇక డ A_0 అ ం ం
ం .అ శ ల మధ సంబంధం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

= (∵ ∝ )
ం ం క న వల సం, పవ ఎ॓ య స ంచవ మ
ద ప ల వ . ఈ ధం

= (1 − 2 ) ⇒ = − 2 ⇒Δ = − = 2
ఒ చ శ ఇవ బ ం

2
Δ = 2 = 2

అ Q- రకం ఇ ఇవ బ ం

ఇక డ τ_m అ శ అస వ 1/e త ంచ సగ సడ ం సమయం.

ఈ ధం

1
=
2
అండ ం ం సం, Q>1/2, ఓవ ం ం Q<1/2 మ షౖ న ం ం సం,
Q=1/2.

అండ ం ష క సమయ ంకం

అండ ం ష క సమయ ంకం, రంభ (అం ) 1/e
త సమయం ర ంచబ ం , అన ఎ

1
= , = = ⇒ =1⇒ =

ఇక డ ం ॓ఆ ట క A=A_0 e^(-bt) ఇవ బ ం .

అండ ం ల ల √(ω^2-b^2 ) మ అం వల సమయ వ వ T=2π/√

(ω^2-b^2 ). ఆ ధం సమయ రౖ నవ వ ఉత నమ తరం ల చ ల సంఖ

340
 ణత రకం

Here is the mean relaxation time for energy to reduce to 1/

times its original value. Thus
1
=
2
For under damping, > , for over damping < and for critical
damping, = .

Time constant of underdamped motion

The time constant of underdamped motion is defined as the time
within which the amplitude falls 1/e times its initial (undamped)
amplitude, i.e., when
1
= , = = ⇒ =1⇒ =

Here the amplitude of damped harmonic oscillator is given by =

.
The frequency of underdamped oscillations is √ − and hence
the time period is = 2 /√ − . Thus the number of cycles of
waves generated within the time constant duration is

1/ 1 1 1 −
= = = − =
2 /√ − 2 2

1 1
= −1≃ =2
2 2 2

The number of oscillations, which the oscillator makes, during mean

relaxation time or energy relaxation time is

1/2 1 1 1 −
= = = − =
2 /√ − 2 2 4

1 1
= −1 ≃ =
4 4 2

Thus the number of oscillations made during amplitude relaxation

time is double that made during mean relaxation time.

341
 ణత రకం

1/ 1 1 1 − 1 1
= = = − = = −1 ≃
2 /√ − 2 2 2 2

=2
2
సగ సడ ం సమయం శ సడ ం సమయం ఆ ట ల ల సంఖ

1/2 1 1 1 − 1
= = = − = = −1
2 /√ − 2 2 4 4
1
≃ =
4 2
అం వల ం సడ ం సమయం ల ల సంఖ సగ సడ ం సమయం
న కం ం అ ం .

గమ క: శ సడ ం సం Q- రకం ర ంచబ ం . సడ ం సమయం త ణం

మ శ సడ ం సమయం సగ వ, ఇ త ణ వ సగం అ ం .

బ Q- రకం ఎ వఅ , సమయ రౖ న మం ల ల సంఖ ఎ వ అ .

b న ఉన ణత రకం ద ఉం ం . బ ం ం త వ ఉం ,τ
వవ ల ల సంఖ ఎ వఅ .మ ట లం, Q- రకం అ అ డం
ష సంబం ం న నం క లత; అం , Q- రకం ఎ వ అ , ం ం
త వ ఉం ం .

E - Corner

http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys283/lectures/forced_ii/forced
_ii.html
https://www.physicsbyfiziks.com/freedownload/sample-
material/iitjam/Waves%20and%20Oscilations_Sample%20Ma
terial.pdf
http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/336k/Newtonhtml/nod
e20.html

342
 ణత రకం

=2 =
2
Note: Q-factor is defined for energy relaxation. Amplitude relaxation
time is instantaneous and energy relaxation time is a mean value
which turns out to be half of the instantaneous value.
Thus more the Q-factor, more is the number of oscillations within
time constant interval. Quality factor is larger when is smaller.
Thus lower is the damping, more is the number of oscillations within
duration. In other words, Q-factor is a measure of approach to
undamped motion; i.e., more the Q-factor, lower is the damping.

Logarithmic decrement
Consider the amplitude of damped harmonic oscillator at regular
intervals, say at 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,4 … be
, , , , … This basic time interval may be arbitrary
and has no connection with relaxation times or .
Then one can write
=
= =
= =
= = …
This gives rise to
= = = =⋯= = ( )
Then
ln = ln = ln = ln =⋯= =
If the ratios are added up for such intervals, one obtains

ln + ln + ln + ln + ⋯ ln = ln . …

= ln =

343
 బలవంతం ా ల
గ థ ॓ త దల
త వవ డం ॓ ఓ ట క ప గ ంచం , 0T,1T,2T,3T,4T
దౖ న ప ం... A_0,A_1,A_2,A_3,A_4 దౖ న ఉండం ... ఈ థ క
సమయ మం T ఏకప ం ఉండవ మ సడ ం సమయం τ τ_m ఎ వం
సంబంధం

=
= =
= =
= = …
ఇ ఉద ం

= = = =⋯= = ( )
అ వం న ష ం

ln + ln + ln + ln + ⋯ ln = ln . …

= ln =

కమౖ నవవ , ం ॓ఆ ట క ప తం త ంద ం
॓ ఆ ట క కమ వ వ ం ల ష క గ థ రం
ఉం ంద ఇ ం .

బలవంతం ల
ఒక రణ ॓ చలనం , న దరణ బ అదనం రౖ న హ దక
బలం స ౖ ప , స బ త ృత ల ల ఎ ం ం . ం ం రబ ,
ం మ ॓ఆ ట సం ఈ ష ఇవ బ ం

=− − + cos

+ + = cos − − − (1)

344
 Forced oscillations

This shows that at regular intervals of time, the amplitude of the

damped harmonic oscillator reduces exponentially or the logarithm
of ratio of amplitudes at regular intervals of damped harmonic
oscillator remains constant.

Forced oscillations
In a simple harmonic motion, if an external driving force with
constant frequency acts on the system in addition to the restoring
force, the system undergoes forced oscillations. If damping is also
included, the force equation for damped and forced harmonic
oscillator is given by

=− − + cos

+ + = cos − − − (1)

Let / = 2 , / = , / = , then the force equation

becomes,

+2 + = cos − − − (2)

Here is the amplitude and is the frequency of driving force, is

the damping constant, is the undamped oscillator frequency, is
the force constant and is the mass of the oscillator.
In exponential form, this equation can be written as

+2 + = − − − (3)

Since the object oscillates at the frequency of driving force, with an

arbitrary phase change , one can assume a solution of the form

( ) ( )
= ⇒ = = ⇒
( )
=− =− − − − (4)
Substituting Eq. (4) in Eq. (3), we get
( ) ( )
− +2 =

345
 Forced oscillations
γ/m=2b, k/m=ω^2, F_0/m=f, అ బల స కరణం అ ం ,

+2 + = cos − − − (2)

ఆ ౖ॓ ం క వద ఊ స ం బ , ఏకప దశ ϕ ,
ప ఊ ంచవ

( ) ( )
= ⇒ = = ⇒
( )
=− =− − − − (4)
Eq.(3) Eq.(4) ప

( ) ( )
− +2 =

= = − − − (5)
− +2 ( − ) + (2 )
ఇక డ

2
tan = − − − (6)
−
జౖ నప ణం బ , దశ ర తప స Eq.(5) ర యబ ; అం ,
ϕ=-θ. అం వలన య దశ ϕ Eq.(6) క –ve ఇవ బ ం .

మ నభ ంశం ఇ ఇవ బ

= − − − (7)
( − ) + (2 )

( ) ( )
= = =
( − ) + (2 )

= cos( − )( )
| |

= = sin( − )
| |

346
 Forced oscillations

= = − − − (5)
− +2 ( − ) + (2 )

Fig: Complex plane diagram of components of amplitude.

Here
2
tan = − − − (6)
−
Since amplitude is a real quantity, the phase factors must cancel out
in Eq. (5); i.e., = − . Thus the unknown phase is given by –ve of
Eq. (6).
Thus the amplitude and solution (displacement) are given by

= − − − (7)
( − ) + (2 )

( ) ( )
= = =
( − ) + (2 )

= cos( − )( )
| |

= = sin( − )
| |
1 1
= +
2 2
1
= sin( − )
2 | |
1
+ cos ( − )
2 | |

Here | | = ( − ) + (2 ) .

347
 Forced oscillations
1 1
= +
2 2
1
= sin( − )
2 | |
1
+ cos ( − )
2 | |

Here | | = ( − ) + (2 )
అం వలన నభ ంశం మ గం 90° దశ ం ఉం మ తం శ
ఆ ట ఉం ం .ప ధ వద ω=ω_0, తం శ ఇ ఉం ం

1
=
2 | |
-1:

ω≪ω_0, అ న

= ≃ = =
( − ) + (2 )

and
2 2
tan = ≃ ≃ 0 (∵ ≪ )⇒ = 0°
−
అం వల లనం క దక శ క మ ఓ ట క శ ంకంౖ
ఆ రప ఉం ం .అ వ తశ ల ల నభ ంశం ఒ దశ ఉం ం .

-2:

ω=ω_0 ఉన ప ధ సంభ ం మ ప

/
= ≃ = =
( − ) + (2 ) 2 /

2 2
tan = = =∞ ⇒ = 90°
− 0
అం వల లనం క దక శ , అ ం ం ంకంౖ ఆ రప
ఉం ం . దక శ నభంశం 90° పల ఉం ం .

-3:

348
 Forced oscillations

Thus displacement and velocity are 90° out of phase and the total
energy is oscillatory. At resonance where = , total energy will
be
1
=
2 | |
Case-1:
When ≪ , then

= ≃ = =
( − ) + (2 )

and
2 2
tan = ≃ ≃ 0 (∵ ≪ )⇒ = 0°
−
Thus amplitude of oscillation depends upon the amplitude of driving
force and the force constant of the oscillator. The displacement will
be in phase with the applied force oscillations.
Case-2:
Resonance occurs when = and the solutions are
/
= ≃ = =
( − ) + (2 ) 2 /
2 2
tan = = =∞ ⇒ = 90°
− 0
Thus amplitude of oscilation depends on driving force amplitude, its
frequency as well as on the damping constant. The displacement will
be 90° out of phase with the driving force.
Case-3:
When ≫ , the solutions are given as

= ≃ = (∵ ≫4 )
( − ) + (2 )

349
 Forced oscillations
ω≫ω_0 అ న ,ప ఇ ఇవ బడ

= ≃ = (∵ ≫4 )
( − ) + (2 )
2 2
tan = ≃− ≃ −0 ⇒ = 180°
−
అం ం ం ం స తంతం ఉం ం మ కణ ద వ ,ౖ ం
మ ౖ ఆ రప ఉం ం . దక శ నభ ంశం 180° పల ఉం ం .

ప ధ :

ప ధ సమయం సం వ కరణ రం క ష ం ఉం బ త ృత ల ల
గ షం ఉం ం . ఇ ందవ

=0⇒ ( − ) + (2 ) =0
2( − )(−2 ) + 2 .2
⇒ =0
2 ( − ) + (2 )
⇒( − )=2 .
ఇక డ ω_0 మ b ఇ న స ం మ ౖ ం అ
రపరచవల న య . ω^2=ω_0^2-2b^2 అ న గ క ంచబ ం .

అం వలన, గ ష ఇ ఇవ బ ం

=
( − ) + (2 )
=
( − +2 ) +4 ( −2 )

⇒ = = =
2 + −2 2 − 2 √ +

≃
2
అం వలన, b→0, A_max→∞ మ b న , A_max ం . అ b
న , A_max క నం ω క త వ వల ం .

350
 Forced oscillations

2 2
tan = ≃− ≃ −0 ⇒ = 180°
−
which means that the amplitude is independent of damping force
and depends on mass of the particle, driving force amplitude and
frequency. The displacement will be 180° out of phase with the
driving force.
Amplitude resonance:
During resonance the amplitude of forced oscillations will be
maximum if the denominator in the expression for amplitude is
minimum. This can be obtained by taking

=0⇒ ( − ) + (2 ) =0
2( − )(−2 ) + 2 .2
⇒ =0
2 ( − ) + (2 )
⇒( − )=2 .
Here and are constants for the given system and driving
frequency is the variable which needs to be fixed. The amplitude is
maximized when = −2 .
Thus, maximum amplitude is given by

=
( − ) + (2 )

=
( − +2 ) +4 ( −2 )

⇒ = = =
2 + −2 2 − 2 √ +

≃
2
Thus, as → 0, → ∞ and as rises, rises. Also as rises,
the location of shifts to lower values of .

351
 Forced oscillations
ప ధ క స తష :

ౖ స కర ల ం ఇ యవ

/2 ( − ) + (2 )
= =
/ ( − ) + (2 ) (2 )

−
= +1
2

( − )
⇒ ≃1+
2. (2 )
అం వల ం ం ప ధ క స తష త ం .మ ట లం,
ం ం ప ధ వక త స ం .

https://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/152.mf1i.
spring02/Oscillations4.htm

Further reading:
1. Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman - Sears and Zemansky's
University Physics with Modern Physics-Pearson Education
(2015)
2. A. N Matveev - Mechanics and theory of relativity, Mir Publishers
(1989)
3. [A.P.-French]-Vibrations-and-Waves-The-M.I.T.-Int. (1971)
4. The Physics of Waves and Oscillations. N. K. Bajaj. Tata McGraw-
Hill Education, (1988)

352
 Forced oscillations

Fig: Amplitude resonance

Sharpness of resonance:
From the above equations one can write

/2 ( − ) + (2 )
= =
/ ( − ) + (2 ) (2 )

−
= +1
2

( − )
⇒ ≃1+
2. (2 )
Thus sharpness of the amplitude resonance reduces as damping
increases. In other words, the resonance curve broadens as the
damping increases.

353
 Solved problems and Exercises

Solved problems and Exercises

1. Vertical block - spring system

The net restoring force on the block is equal to the sum of

upward spring force and gravity downward force.
Considering downward direction as positive,
The net restoring force =− ( + )+ ----(1)
But, for equilibrium position, we have is balanced by
spring force
= − -------(2)
So equation (2) yields the same set of periodic expressions
as that of horizontal block spring arrangement

⇒ = ⇒T=2π

We also have

= ⇒ = ⇒ =
Hence vertical block spring system is equivalent to
simple pendulum with length of pendulum =
2. Block connected to springs in series and parallel
combination

354
 Solved problems and Exercises

Series combination: Let and be the extensions in

the springs of spring constants and respectively
=− =−
The total displacement of block from equilibrium position is
= + =− −

= −( )
+
The periodic attributes are given by the same expressions,
which are valid for oscillation of a single spring. We only
need to use equivalent spring constant in the expression as
=
+

355
 Solved problems and Exercises

Parallel combination:
From fig.,
=− − = −( + )

Hence ,in this case equivalent spring constant is = +

3. Block in between two springs

Suppose the block is displaced slightly in downward direction

(reasoning is similar if block is displaced upward). The upper spring
is stretched, whereas the lower spring is compressed. The spring
forces due to either of the springs act in the upward direction. The
net downward displacement is related to net restoring force as:

=− y− y = −( + )
Hence, in this case also equivalent spring constant is =
+

4. If a load of 1kg is attached, the period of oscillations

of a vertical spring mass system is 1 sec. When the
load is 2 kg, the time period is 2 sec. Calculate the
mass of the spring and its force constant.
Sol: Given = and =
= . and = .

356
 Solved problems and Exercises

We have, T=2π Where m is mass of the load,

ℎ k is force constant.
From above equation, ( + ) = constant as
is constant
+ = ( + )

 + = ( . + ) => = . =
.

×( . )
 Force constatnt = + = +
.
= 44.56 N/m
5. A mass of 3kg is hanged from a vertical spring. When
a mass of 0.5 kg is added, the spring is further
stretched by 5cm. If m is removed and first mass is set
into oscillations, calculate the period
Sol. Given first mass M = 3kg and added mass m =0.5
kg. To find the time period , first we have to calculate
force constant k.
For this , at equilibrium position, = (before
adding the mass)---(1)
( + ) = ( + . ) (after adding the mass)
-----(2)
(2) –(1) => mg =0.05 => =( . × . )/ . =98
N/m
√
The time period of mass M is = = × . ×

= .

357
 Solved problems and Exercises
6. A particle is executing simple harmonic oscillation
along a line of length 4cm. Its velocity when passing
through the centre is 12 / . Find the period

Sol: Given Amplitude of Oscillator =

We know that velocity is maximum at the centre,
hence = = /
 = = /
 The time period is = = = .
7. Quality factor of a sonometer wire is × . On
plucking ,it executes 240 vibrations per sec. Calculate
the time in which the amplitude decreases of the
initial value.
Sol. Given = = × and = = ×
. × = . /
×
 = = = .
 Let be the initial amplitude, then =
=> t = 2/b
 From the definition of relaxation time ,
= => =
 = = = × . = . sec

8. A mass of 1kg is suspended from a spring of force

constant / and a damping coefficient 0.01N-
s/m. If an external force = (where p is
double of the natural frequency of the system ) drives
the system, find the amplitude of resulting motion.
Sol: Given
Mass of the load = , = / and damping
coefficient = . − /
.
 = = = . − /
= =

358
 Solved problems and Exercises

We know amplitude of forced oscillation =

------(1)
( ) ( )

Where is the amplitude of driving force per unit

mass = = = /
is the natural frequency of the system
= = =
is the frequency of driving system
=2 = ×
Substituting all given values in equation (1),

=
( − × ) +( × . × × )^
= .

MCQs

1. A mass of 5 kg is suspended from a vertical massless spring

of spring constant 500 . The mass is displaced
downward by 0.03 m and released. The frequency of
oscillations of mass is

a)2 b) c)
d) 5
HCU 2020
Ans: c
2. A body of mass 4.9kg hangs from a spring and oscillate with
a period of 0.6 sec. How much will the spring shorten when
the body is removed?
a)0.89 m b)0.089m c) 0.089 cm d)
0.1 m

359
 Solved problems and Exercises
AUCET2019
Ans: b
3. One end of a spring is fixed to a rigid support and a body of
mass m is attached to the other end such that the spring
hangs vertically downwards. The unstretched length of the
spring is l and it has a spring constant k. The extension of
the spring z when the body is in equilibrium is
a) b) − c) d) −

HCU 2016
Ans: d
4. A spring mass system of mass M suspended from a spring of
spring constant k, and equilibrium stretching h, is
equivalent to a simple pendulum of mass m and length

a) b) ℎ c) 4 ℎ

HCU 2011
Ans: b
5. A lightly damped harmonic oscillator with natural frequency
is driven by a periodic force of frequency . The
amplitude of oscillation is maximum when
a) is slightly lower than b) =
c) is slightly higher than d) The force is in
phase with the displacement IIT
JAM 2016
Ans: b
6. A block of mass is attached to a pair of springs connected in
series. Both the springs have same spring constant k. The
period of oscillations of the block is . The period of
oscillations of the same block attached to the same spings,
connected in parallel is . The ratio : is
a) 2:1 b) 1:2 c) 4:1
d)1:4

HCU 2016

360
 Solved problems and Exercises

Ans: a
7. A block of mass rests on a frictionless table and is connected
to two fixed posts by springs having spring constants k and
2k. If the block is displaced from its equilibrium position,
the angular frequency of vibrations is given by

a) b) c) d)

HCU 2012
Ans: a

8. Which of the following is an acceptable wave function?

HCU 2020
Ans : D

9. In the case of critical damping b

a) > b) = c) < d) +
=0
AUCET2020
Ans :c
10. A particle performing SHM has a maximum velocity of
0.4 / and maximum acceleration of 0.8 / . Find the
time period of oscillator
a) 3.14 s b)31.4 s c) 1.0 s
d) 1.2 s

361
 Solved problems and Exercises
AUCET 2019
Ans: a
11. Two systems have same resonance frequency. Their quality
factors are in the ratio 1:2, the ratio of relaxation time is
a)2:1 b) 1:2 c)1:4 d) 4:1
AKNU 2020
Ans: b
12. The displacement of a body executing simple harmonic
motion is given by

=5 (2 + )
4
Its initial displacement, assuming all quantities are in SI
unit, is

a) m b)5m c)0m d)− m

√ √

HCU 2014
Ans:a

13. The equation of motion of a particle is given as +

0.2 + 36 = 0, the period of oscillations approximately is
a) b) c) d)
AKNU 2020
Ans: c
14. Power dissipation in damped harmonic oscillator is
a) = 2 b) =2 c) = d) =

AUCET 2019
Ans: a
15. At what phase Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy are
equal in case of SHM
a) 30 b) 60 c) 90 d) 45
Ans: d

362
 Solved problems and Exercises

16. Consider a particle of mass m following a trajectory given by

= and =
where , , are constants of appropriate
dimensions. The force on particle is
a) Central only if =
b) Central only if = =
c) always central
d) Central only if = ≠
IIT JAM 2016
Ans: a
Hint: Write ⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ and find ̈
17. A lightly damped harmonic oscillator loses energy at the
rate of 1% per minute. The decrease in amplitude of the
oscillator per minute will be closest to
(a) 0.5% (b) 1% (c)
1.5% (d) 2%
IIT JAM 2012
Ans: d
Hint : Decay of energy is governed by equation, =
Decay of amplitude is governed by equation, =
18. A particle of mass m is moving in x-y plane. At ant given
time t, its position vector is given by ⃗( ) = ⃗+
⃗ ,Where A,B and are constants with A≠
.Which of the following statements are true?
a) Orbit of the particle is an ellipse
b) Speed of the particle is constant
c) At any given time t, the particle experience a force
towards origin
d) The angular momentum of the particle is
IIT JAM 2016
Ans: a,c d

363
 Solved problems and Exercises
Hint: ⃗( ) = ⃗+ ⃗= ⃗+ ⃗ => find
from which you can find the shape of the orbit. Next find ̈ which
shows the nature of force.Next find ⃗ = ⃗ × ⃗̇
19. An object executes simple harmonic motion along the x -
direction with angular frequency and amplitude a . The
speed of the object is 4 cm/ s and 2 cm/ s when it is at
distances 2cm and 6cm respectively from the equilibrium
position. Which of the following is/are correct?

a) = / b) = / c) =

d) =

IIT JAM 2020

Ans : a,c

Hint: = => = = 1 − ( ) => =

( − )
20. A body of mass is subjected to a resistive force (where
is constant and is the velocity ). There is no restoring
force in the medium. The displacement as a function of
time t, in terms of its initial velocity and the coefficient
= is
a) – b) – c) – d) –
HCU 2019
Ans : c
Hint: Given = − => ̈ + ̇ =0.
By solving this second order equation, We get =
and ̇ = (− )
 = (− )
 =
21. A simple harmonic oscillator has velocities at
positions from the equilibrium point
respectively. The frequency of the oscillator bis given by

364
 Solved problems and Exercises

a) b) c) d)

HCU 2018
Ans : c
Hint: From hint of problem (4), = ( − ) and
= ( − ) then subtract these two equations from
one another and simplify

22. The fraction of kinetic energy in the total energy of a simple

harmonic oscillator, when its displacement is half of its
amplitude, is given by
a)0 b)0.5 c)1 d)0.75
HCU 2012
Ans: d

Hint: Total energy = = + => =

23. A pendulum is made of a massless string of length L and a

small bob of negligible size and mass m . It is released
making an angle (<<1rad) from the vertical. When
passing through the vertical, the string slips a bit from the
pivot so that its length increases by a small amount ≪
1 in negligible time. If it swings upto angle on the
other side before starting to swing back, then to a good
approximation which of the following expressions is
correct?

365
 Solved problems and Exercises

IIT JAM 2017

Solution: (1 − )= (1 + )(1 − )

= (1 + )
2 2
/ /
= 1+ => = 1+ =>
1
= 1−
2
24. A block of mass 0.38kg is kept at rest on a frictionless
surface and attached to a wall with a spring of negligible
mass. A bullet weighing 0.02kg moving with a speed of
200 / hits the block at time t =0 and gets stuck to it. The
displacement of the block(in metre) with respect to the
equilibrium position is given by (Spring constant = 640
N/m )

(a) 2sin 5t (b) cos10t (c) 0.4cos

25t (d) 0.25sin 40t
IITJAM 2016
Ans: d
Sol: Given that = 0.38 , = 0.02 , =
= 640 /

366
 Solved problems and Exercises

We have = = = 40 / (On substitution

of given values)
Let ′ be the velocity acquired by the block m ,when the
bullet strikes it and comes to rest
From momentum conservation,
=( + )

=
+

On substitution of given values, ′ = 10 / which is the

maximum velocity acquired by the block,
10
∴ = = 10 => = = 0.25
40

Hence the displacement of the block with respect to

equilibrium position,
= = 0.25 40

25. Consider the following differential equation that describes

the oscillations of a physical system:

+ + =0

If , ℎ , ℎ
(a) The frequency of oscillations increases
(b) The oscillations decay faster
(c) The frequency of oscillations decreases
(d) The oscillations decay slower
IIT JAM 2020

367
 Solved problems and Exercises
Ans: a

26.

HCU 2018

27. For an under damped harmonic oscillator with velocity v (t

(a) Rate of energy dissipation varies linearly with v (t

368
 Solved problems and Exercises

(b) Rate of energy dissipation varies as square of v (t)

(c) The reduction in the oscillator frequency, compared to
the undamped case, is independent of v (t)
(d) For weak damping, the amplitude decays exponentially
to zero
IIT JAM 2019
Ans: (b),(c),(d)
Check your Understanding
1. The frequency of simple harmonic oscillator does [ ]
not depends on the stretching angle/ length if it is
small enough
2 Oscillations can be linear, periodic and non [ ]
periodic
3 If there is a mixture of single and double [ ]
derivatives in a linear differential equation, then
exponential solution is more advantage than
sinusoidal solution
4 Every system in nature has its own single(not [ ]
more than one) natural frequency
5 The period of motion of a vertical system will be [ ]
larger than that of a horizontal system having
same mass and spring constant
6 Motion of system of two pendulums connected to [ ]
a common string is Simple harmonic
7 Amplitude of an oscillatory motion can be [ ]
negative
8 Quartz clocks work on the principle of undamped [ ]
harmonic oscillator
9 More the Q- factor ,more is the number of [ ]
oscillations within time constant interval
10 The forced oscillator is always oscillates with its [ ]
natural frequency
11 Locomotive wheels spin at a frequency equal to [ ]
the frequency of linear oscillations of the steam
engine which is mechanically connected to the
wheels
12 Stiffer the spring is, higher the time period [ ]

369
 Glossary
Checks : 1. Yes 2. No 3. Yes 4. No 5. No 6. Yes 7. Yes 8.No 9. Yes
10. No 11. Yes 12.No

Glossary
Glossary: Undamped, Damped and forced oscillations
The maximum distance moved by a point on
Amplitude a vibrating body or wave measured from its
equilibrium position
Complex A modified cartesian plane that represent
plane complex numbers geometrically
Oscillating A complete movement (longitudinal of
Cycle transverse) over a period of time
An external repeated force that drives an
Driving force oscillating system to get continuous
oscillations
Damped Oscillations with energy dissipation over
oscillations time
Equilibrium The position where an oscillator would rest
position without any force applied
Force It is a measure of stiffness or rigidity of a
constant system
A wave which is added to the basic
Harmonic
fundamental wave in a special way
Isochronous An oscillator with a frequency independent
oscillator of its amplitude
Initial Any of a set of starting point values of an
conditions evolving variable at some point in time
Linear The net response caused by the overlapping
superposition of two or more waves in space
Order of
differential Highest order derivative that a differential
equation equation contains
A vector used to represent a sinusoidal
Phasors
function
The position of a point in time on a cycle of a
Phase
waveform

370
 Glossary

The phenomenon of increased amplitude

Resonance when the applied frequency is equal to
natural frequency
Restoring An internal force that tries to bring the body
force to its equilibrium position
Time required for an exponentially
Relaxation decreasing variable(like amplitude/energy of
time damped oscillation) to drop from an initial
value to 1/e=0.368 of that value
Undamped
Oscillations Oscillations with no loss of energy over time
Sinusoidal A sine or cosine wave that describe a smooth
wave periodic oscillation
The time taken by by a complete cycle of the
Time period
wave to pass a point

371
 Glossary

372
 UNIT-IV
Chapter-6
Coupled Oscillations
త ల
CHAPTER త ల
6
ణల
క ఆ ష అ ఈ ప

1) క ఆ ష సంబం ం న ప చయ ,

2) జంట క ఆ ట సంబం ం న ర ఆ , ర ం ,

3) N క ఆ ష మ ఈ ష ం ం .

అభ సన ఫ
ఈ ఠం ర స

1) క ఆ ష ం చదవటం క ఫ య ఈ ష క ఆవశ కత
..

2) అ డ మ ర మధ గల సంబం వ ంచగల . క
ఫ య ఈ ష యటం ॓ నం మ క ం నం ఎ
ఉప ం వ ంచగల .

3) ధ ర ల అమ కల ఉన క ఆ ట సం ల ॓ మ క ం ల
అ య గల . (అన ంచగల .)

4) క ం లం మ క ం సం ల ధ ట ల కం
( ) ప గల ..

5) అ డ క సంఖ బ ర ఎ ఉండ , ఎ
ఉండ అ వపరచగల .

6) ఈ ప ఇతర రం ౖ న క , కంప తరం ల , ధ ఎల క

మ ఎల ॓ రం ల ఎ ర క ఆ ష అ య నగ త
ధ ల త గ .
COUPLED

CHAPTER
OSCILLAIONS 6
Syllabus
Coupled oscillators: Introduction, Two coupled oscillators,
Normal coordinates and Normal modes, N-coupled oscillators and
wave equation

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn,
1. An introduction to coupled oscillations.
2. Two coupled oscillations, Normal coordinates and normal
modes
3. N-Coupled oscillations, wave equation.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Identify the need of coupled differential equations in the
study of coupled oscillations.
2. Interpret the link between the degrees of freedom and the
number of normal modes. Describe the usage of matrix
method and decoupling method to solve coupled differential
equations.
3. Apply matrix method and decoupling method to various
configurations of coupled oscillator systems.
4. Compare and contrast the parameters in spring mass system
and simple pendulum system for coupled oscillations.
5. Justify the nature of oscillations and natural modes based on
the number of degrees of freedom.
6. Develop mathematical tools suitable to extend the work to
various other chemical, geological, electrical and electronic
oscillatory systems.
Syllabus

ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ
ఈ ప ర స ధ ంల ం న ఈ ం ష ల క
ఆ ష క ఆవశ కత .
॓: అ ల మధ ద బ ండం వర ప ల మధ పరస ర చర ల ం
చ ట
: ధ ర యన చర ల ఆ ష ఉన వం చర ల ం చ ట
కం ట ౖ : ర ట క ం , ష ట క ౖ న ॓
చ ట , క ం ట
ల : ధర ల కంప తరం క న ఫ తం ఎ ఉం ం చ ట
ఎల ॓: క ష సం ల ఉప ం ధ LCR మ ఇతర ఎల ॓
తరం ల స ళన తరం ల ం చ ట
వ ఎన : అంత ం ధ లచ ల ప వం వరణ , అలల న వృ ౖ ఎ
ఉం ం చ ట
॓:క ష సం ల , ధ ఎల ॓స ల క ప వం
మ జ టనం ం చ ట .

ప తం ం అప తం
ప అ ల , ం ॓ఆ ష , ॓ఆ ష మ
ం ॓ఆ ష ం ఉ . స పకృ సంభ ం సం ష
ల ల అర ం వ ఇవ ప వ థ క ధ . 11 వ తరగ ,
వం సం ష ల ల ం చ . ల ఉత య ,అ
ఉన ం తరం ల క .అ ం మ క సం షౖ న లనం దృ షయం
జ . ఇక డ ం పరస రం లంబ శల ఉన ల క పబడ . య
మ య న ష , వం త ప తరగ ల వ ష ల , న
ఉన ల ౖ ౖ ప ష యబడ .

11 వ తరగ చ న ఒక ప గం , ఒక ం లం ఉప ం , డ న
అ క ం లం ల ం న , ద ం లం డ స న డ ఉన ం లం
తం అ కం సం ం . ఎం కం అ ఉం ం బ . న ం లం
ఎం ంత స ం .ఈ ం చర ల , న ం లం ల వలన ద
ం లం క ఆం ప తం అ ఉండటం వలన ఈ ం చర ల క
ఆ ష చక ఉ హరణ వ .

376
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would
be able to identify the need of coupled oscillations in
1. Physics: atomic level interactions to cosmic level astronomical
interactions.
2. Chemistry: Oscillatory behaviour of chemical reaction
dynamics with multiple reactants.
3. Computer Science: Neural network programming, social
network dynamics analysis, pacemaker programming.
4. Geology: various types of seismic waves during earthquakes.
5. Electronics: various electrical LCR circuits and
electromagnetic wave generators in communication systems.
6. Renewable energy: explaining cosmological cycles in
atmospheric science, tidal cycles.
7. Statistics: Statistical analysis of noise in electronic circuits,
population dynamics.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In the previous chapters, you might have learned about
simple harmonic oscillations, forced harmonic oscillations and
damped harmonic oscillations. All these are basic tools to understand
some of the complex phenomena of oscillations that actually occur in
nature. In your 11th class, you might have come across one such
complex oscillation phenomenon, namely, beats. To generate the
beats, two or more oscillations with slightly different frequencies
superimpose, to produce a wave with oscillating amplitude. Another
such complex oscillating phenomenon is Lissajous figures, where
oscillations in two mutually perpendicular spatial directions are
superimposed. Fourier series and Fourier transformation, that you
may come across in your later studies, deal with superposition of
multiple oscillations with varying frequency in time domain.
In your 11th class, you have studied that when multiple
pendulums with variable lengths are triggered by oscillating a single
pendulum in the series, the one with matching length will respond

377
6.1 ఉ తమ

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Tlcsym0dC9Y

ఈ ప క ఆ ట ఈ ష య అవసరౖ న ॓ న
మ క ం న ం .మ ర ఆ ర
ం ం .

6.1 ఉ త
చ త
ం లం క ఆ ష ం దట గమ ం న ౖ . ఆయన అ గం
మంచం ఉన ఒ క ఆ డ యబ న ం ం లం ఒక ఒక
లయబద ం కదలటం గమ ం . ం ం ళ సమ ల
దశల రం ం సమ ఒ లయ గమ ం . దట అ
సం ం ం య భ ం త త అ క ఉన క లయ
కమబ క ం ం య గమ ం . ఈ ష త లం స ల
ం లం గ సమయం త ం ఉం ం నం ఉప ం .స దం
అలల మ ం ( ం ) న , సమయం త
. అ ం ం లం ల అ సం ం డ యటం అ సమయం
త ం ఒక ఒక ర ణ ఉం .

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=T58lGKREubo

378
 6.1 Introduction
more due to resonance. The remaining of them will undergo forced
oscillations.

Fig: Forced oscillations and resonance in Pendulums.

But both these cases are actually examples of coupled

oscillations. This is because, the driving force is also getting affected
by the reaction effect; i.e., in the above figure, pendulum X executes
resonance oscillations with pendulum D and forced oscillations with
the rest of the pendulums. But due to the action of the other
pendulums, the amplitude of pendulum X also oscillates. This system
thus is an example of coupled oscillations. In this chapter, we shall
develop matrix method and decoupling method to solve coupled
oscillator equations. We also are introduced to the normal
coordinates and normal modes of coupled oscillations.

6.1 Introduction
History
The phenomenon of coupled oscillations in pendulums was
first observed by Christian Huygens, while he was sick in bed and
watching his pendulum clocks. He observed that one pendulum
oscillations were affecting the other pendulum oscillations when
both pendulums were tied to the same wooden support. At first it
was thought that the oscillations were transmitted through air. Later,
it was verified that the oscillations were transmitted through wooden
frame.
Further, these coupled oscillators were used to maintain time
synchronization in pendulum clocks while travelling on sea.

379
6.1 Introduction

https://physicsworld.com/a/the-
secret-of-the-synchronized-
pendulums/

https://www.princeton.edu/~hos/Mahon
ey/articles/huygens/timelong/timelong.h
tml#4.%20Clocks%20at%20sea

https://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=t-
_VPRCtiUg

https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=e-
c6S6SdkPo

380
 6.1 Introduction
The pendulum clock loses its rhythm as a result of the
oscillations of the ship, change of longitudes and hence will show up
wrong time. Instead, if two pendulums coupled to each other were
used, then, one will take care of the other in maintaining the
frequency in a synchronous manner.
In three dimensions, the location of a particle in spherical
coordinate system may be given by three variables namely ( , , ).
For a simple pendulum, since length is constant and is allowed to
oscillate only on a plane ( = 0), the only free variable is the angle
. Thus the degrees of freedom for SHM is only ‘one’.

Fig: Spherical coordinate system (Mathematician’s

version).

Note: In general, in physics, another convention is used to

define angles in spherical coordinate system. The above convention
is usually followed in mathematics and not in Physics.

Fig: Spherical coordinate system (Physicist’s version).

381
6.1 Introduction
3D క ఆ సం ఒక క ంచ (r,θ,ϕ) ఉప .
ం ం లం షయం డ రం ఉం ం .మ అ ఒక తలం త
ల ం . బ r= ంకం, ϕ=0. బ ఒక θ త ర అవ శ
ఉన . అన ం ం లం ఒక అ డ త ఉన .

అ ం ఒక డ ఉన ఎ సం క అ ల డ ఫ త స ం ఉన . సం
క ప ఒక అ డ అ ణం ఒక ర అ ఆ ష ఉం ం .
ర అ ఆ ష అ అం .

అ ం N అ డ ఉన ఒక స ం క ల ఎ॓ న నట
ఒ క ఆ ట వద గ ఆ టర వలన ఏర సంబం ం Nప ఉం .
అ ం N ప ప ఒక ఆ ట ఉం బ సంబం ం న ఈ ష ఒక
NxN ॓ యవ .

ఆNxN ॓ ఆ డ న ఎ ం అ ,ఉ || అ ఒకటవ నం
ండవ ం లం వలన ఏర న ం ం . ఇ ం ఆ ద న
ఎ ం ఉండటం వలన ఇప వర ఉప న ఆప ఇ
ఉప ంచ . అన క ఈ ష N ఇం ం ం ఆ ట ల ంచ .

ర అ ల ం అం మనం తప స ॓ డ నౖ
యగ ఉం .అ డ నౖ అం అ తప స ॓ ॓ అ
ఉం . అన = అ . అన ఒకటవ నం ండవ ఆ ట వలన
ఏర న , ద నం ండవ ఆ ట వలన ఏర న స నం
ఉం ం . బ ఈ ఫ ॓ ॓ త ం .

E - Corner

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonalizable_matrix
#Diagonalizable_matrices
https://home.iiserb.ac.in/~sebastian/material/ClassM
ech/Week9_CoupledOscillators_v2.pdf
https://yyknosekai.wordpress.com/2015/11/26/a-
system-of-n-coupled-oscillators/

382
 6.1 Introduction
If two pendulums are connected, then the resultant system
will have two degrees of freedom. Thus, if multiple systems are
connected, each with single degree of freedom, or if single system
with multiple degrees of freedom is considered, then one needs to use
coupled differential equations to solve the equation of motion of such
systems.
Then, corresponding to each degree of freedom, there will be
one normal mode of oscillation for the given system. This is also
called natural mode of oscillation. If two simple pendulums are
connected in series or alternately if two spring mass systems are
connected in series, then the resultant system will have two degrees
of freedom and two normal modes of oscillations. If the system has
N number or infinite number of simple harmonic systems connected
together, then it will have N or infinite number of degrees of freedom
and respective number of modes of vibrations.
The Taylor series expansion of force for coupled oscillator
system is given by

( − ) = ( )+ ( − )

1
+ ( − ) +⋯
2!

Here, again, the SHM approximation implies, ( ) = 0,

=− and all other higher order terms will vanish.

In the above, the force given is on a single particle in a

coupled oscillator system. If differential equations are written for the
entire system, then we are looking at a system of coupled differential
equations.
The only issue while solving these coupled differential
equations is that, the equations are now no more linear in nature,
which means that one cannot take linear combinations of solutions
to develop new or physically meaningful solutions. To avoid this
discrepancy one must take symmetric systems, i.e., the matrix that
represents the force constant must be symmetric. Only in that case,
one can diagonalize or decouple the k matrix to convert the system

383
6.2 జంట కప ఆ ిల టర

6.2 జంట క ఆ ట
ం సమ ప ం - సం ల ం . mమ ం ం k
అ ం .మ ఆ ం ం - సం మ క k 12 ం ం ఉన ం
కలపబ ఉ అ ం . ద రం మ ండవ రం సమ
ం ౖ జ య ం . అ ద ం రం
యబ ం .క ం ం రం యబ ం .మ రం కం య
బ ం . ఎడమ వర ఉన ండవ ం రం కం యబ ం . అన క ం
ం కం ష అ 1 − 2 మ అ ద ం రణం
అ ం .క ం ం ఎ॓ న అ 2 − 1, మ అ ండవ ం స ం
రణం అ ం .క క ఈ ష అ

̈ =− − ( − )
̈ =− − ( − )
॓ న

̈ (− − )/ /
= − − − (1)
̈ / (− − )/
ం ఈ వ క ॓ఈ ష క ష ఐగ
అ .

(− − )/ − /
=0
/ (− − )/ −
+ +2
⇒ + − =0⇒ + + =0

( +2 )
=− =− − − − (2)

ఐగ డ న న క ॓ వ ం .

̈ 0
=
̈ 0
− / 0
= − − − (3)
0 (− − 2 )/
+2
⇒ ̈ + =0 ̈ + =0

ష అ

384
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators
of equations into independent, linear equations. Thus in the rest of
this chapter, we consider only symmetric matrices for force constants
and diagonalize them to obtain independent eigenvalues or normal
modes of oscillations. This symmetry condition implies that the
coupling element between two oscillators gives similar response to
the force from either of the oscillators; i.e., = .

6.2 Two coupled oscillators

Consider a double spring mass system with an
interconnection. Let the masses and springs be identical, each with
mass and spring constant ; and further, let be the coupling
constant.

Fig: Two coupled spring mass system.

Let and be the displacements produced in the two

masses respectively towards right. Then the first spring is stretched
by , second spring is compressed by and the coupling spring is
compressed by as well as stretched by . Net compression in
coupling spring is − or net expansion is − . Compression
in coupling spring causes restoring force on first mass and expansion
in it causes restoring force on second mass. Thus
̈ =− − ( − )
̈ =− − ( − )
They can be written in matrix form as
̈ (− − )/ /
= − − − (1)
̈ / (− − )/
By equating the determinant of the matrix to zero gives the
characteristic equation and solution of it gives the eigenvalues.
( )= (0) cos ( )= (0) cos , − − −(4)
385
6.2 Two coupled oscillators
ఇక డ ఇ య వటం జ ం .మ

+2
= , = − − − (5)

=− / సంబం ం న ఐగ ఫం అ ,

(− − )/ − (− / ) /
=0
/ (− − )/ − (− / )
− / /
⇒ =0
/ − /
⇒ − =0⇒ =
రౖ జష కం ష అ + = 1. ఈ ం ఈ ష ం

1 1
= − − − (6)
√2 1
= −( + 2 )/ సంబం ం న ఐగ ఫం అ ,

(− − ) +2
− − /
(− − ) +2
/ − −
=0
/ /
⇒ =0
/ /
⇒ + =0⇒ =−
రౖ జష కం ష అ + = 1. ఈ ం ఈ ష ం

1 1
= − − − (7)
√2 −1
తమ త ల మధ సంబంధం అ .

1 1 1
= = − − − (8)
√2 1 −1

386
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators

(− − )/ − /
=0
/ (− − )/ −
+ +2
⇒ + − =0⇒ + + =0

The eigenvalues are given by

( +2 )
=− =− − − − (2)

Thus, the decoupled matrix is given by

̈ 0
=
̈ 0
− / 0
= − − − (3)
0 (− − 2 )/
+2
⇒ ̈ + =0 ̈ + =0

The solution of these equations, with zero initial velocity, may be

written as
( )= (0) cos ( )= (0) cos , − − −(4)
where

+2
= , = − − − (5)

The eigenfunction for =− / is

(− − )/ − (− / ) /
=0
/ (− − )/ − (− / )
− / /
⇒ =0
/ − /
⇒ − =0⇒ =
The normalization condition gives + = 1. From these two,
1 1
= − − − (6)
√2 1

387
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators

1 1 1
= = − − − (9)
√2 1 −1
ౖ ం ఈ ష ర . అ Eq. (5) ఇవ బ ం .
అం Eq. (8) ॓ ం . ఎం కం ఇక డ ం ఒ శ
క .మ క ం ం క డ ర . Eq. (9) ం ॓
ం . ఇక డ ం ద శల క .మ క ం ం ం ంత
గ యబ ం .

1 1
( )= [ ( )+ ( )] = [ (0) cos + (0) cos ]
√2 √2
1 (0) + (0) (0) − (0)
⇒ ( )= cos + cos
√2 √2 √2
− − − (10)
1 1
( )= [ ( )− ( )] = [ (0) cos − (0) cos ]
√2 √2
1 (0) + (0) (0) − (0)
⇒ ( )= cos − cos
√2 √2 √2
− − − (11)
(0) = 0, ఐన ప ల

+ −
( )= (0) cos cos − − − (12)
2 2
+ −
( )= (0) sin sin − − − (13)
2 2
ఇక డ ఉప ం ం ,

+ −
cos + cos = 2 cos cos
2 2
+ −
cos − cos = 2 sin sin
2 2
E q (12), E q (13) ల ఒక అ క ఉన మ కత వ
ఉన ప ఇం ఐన ధం క ం . వలన ట వ
గమ ంచవ .

388
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators

The eigenfunction for = −( + 2 )/ is

(− − ) +2
− − /
(− − ) +2
/ − −
=0
/ /
⇒ =0
/ /
⇒ + =0⇒ =−
Again, the normalization condition gives + = 1. From these
two,
1 1
= − − − (7)
√2 −1
The relation between the old and the new bases is given by
1 1 1
= = − − − (8)
√2 1 −1
1 1 1
= = − − − (9)
√2 1 −1
Here Eq. (8), Eq. (9) represent the normal modes of
oscillation with frequencies given by Eq. (5). Here the first normal
mode represents the case of symmetric mode where both the masses
move together towards left or towards right. Then there won’t be any
stretch in the coupling spring. The second normal mode represents
the anti-symmetric mode where both the masses move opposite to
each other. Then the coupling spring will have double the stretch.
1 1
( )= [ ( )+ ( )] = [ (0) cos + (0) cos ]
√2 √2
1 (0) + (0) (0) − (0)
⇒ ( )= cos + cos
√2 √2 √2
− − − (10)
1 1
( )= [ ( )− ( )] = [ (0) cos − (0) cos ]
√2 √2

389
6.2 Two coupled oscillators

E - Corner

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Classical_Mechanics/Variat
ional_Principles_in_Classical_Mechanics_(Cline)/14%3A_Coupled_
Linear_Oscillators/14.02%3A_Two_Coupled_Linear_Oscillators
http://web.csulb.edu/~jchang9/m247/m247_poster_J_Burgess_sp
09.pdf
https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2573137/change-of-
basis-definition-matrix-and-relation-to-diagonalization

The standard procedure to diagonalize a matrix is as follows.

i. Suppose the given matrix equation is =
ii. The transformation matrix is obtained by writing
eigenvectors in columns. Let it be .
iii. Then the diagonalized matrix equation is = ′ where
= .
iv. Here the new basis and old basis are related by =
or = ′.
v. The old and new resultant vectors are related by =
or = ′.

Activity
Plot these ( ) and ( ) for various values of ,
as a function of time in octave.

E - Corner

https://www.myphysicslab.com/sprin
gs/double-spring-en.html

390
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators

1 (0) + (0) (0) − (0)

⇒ ( )= cos − cos
√2 √2 √2
− − − (11)
If (0) = 0, the above expression simplifies to,
+ −
( )= (0) cos cos − − − (12)
2 2
+ −
( )= (0) sin sin − − − (13)
2 2
Here is a high frequency wave overlapped by a low frequency
wave ( ) Further, at = 0, sine function will have zero value and
cosine function will have maximum value.
A plot of them gives the beats pattern, with ( ) complement of
( ).

Fig: Plot of ( ) and ( ) as a function of time.

Decoupling method:
Consider a double spring mass system with an
interconnection. Let the masses and springs be identical with mass
and spring constant and let be the coupling constant.

Fig: Two coupled spring mass system.

391
6.2 Two coupled oscillators
ం సమ ప ం - సం ల ం . mమ ం ం k
అ ం .మ ఆ ం ం - సం మ క k 12 ం ం ఉన ం
కలపబ ఉ అ ం . ద రం మ ండవ రం సమ
ం ౖ జ య ం . అ ద ం రం
యబ ం .క ం ం రం యబ ం .మ రం కం య
బ ం . ఎడమ వర ఉన ండవ ం రం కం యబ ం . అన క ం
ం కం ష అ 1 − 2 మ అ ద ం రణం
అ ం .క ం ం ఎ॓ న అ 2 − 1, మ అ ండవ ం స ం
రణం అ ం .క క ఈ ష అ

̈ =− − ( − ) − − − (1)
̈ =− − ( − ) − − − (2)
E q (1), E q (2) ల య ,

( +̈ )=− ( + ) − − − (3)
( −̈ ) = −( + 2 )( − ) − − − (4)
మ

+ = − = ′ − − − (5)
ర ం న ,

+2
̈+ =0 ̈ + = 0 − − − (6)

ష ఈ ం ధం ఉం .

= cos = cos − − − (7)

ఇక డ

+2
= , = − − − (8)

E q (7) E q (5) స ,

+
= = cos + cos
2 2 2
+ −
= cos cos − − − (9)
4 2 2

392
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators

Let and be the displacements produced in the two

masses respectively towards right. Then the first spring is stretched
by , second spring is compressed by and the coupling spring is
compressed by as well as stretched by . Net compression in
coupling spring is − or net expansion is − . Compression
in coupling spring causes restoring force on first mass and expansion
in it causes restoring force on second mass. Thus
̈ =− − ( − ) − − − (1)
̈ =− − ( − ) − − − (2)
Adding and subtracting these two gives

( +̈ )=− ( + ) − − − (3)
( −̈ ) = −( + 2 )( − ) − − − (4)

Defining
+ = − = ′ − − − (5)
Gives
+2
̈+ =0 ̈ + = 0 − − − (6)

The solutions are given by

= cos = cos − − − (7)
Where

+2
= , = − − − (8)

Substituting Eq. (7) in Eq. (5) one can get

+
= = cos + cos
2 2 2
+ −
= cos cos − − − (9)
4 2 2

393
6.2 Two coupled oscillators

−
= = cos − cos
2 2 2
+ −
= sin sin − − − (9)
4 2 2
E q (8), E q (9) ల ఒక అ క ఉన మ కత వ
ఉన ప ఇం ఐన ధం క ం . వలన ట వ
గమ ంచవ .

ఇక డ E q (5) అ ర ం . అం ద ర ॓
అం . ఇక డ ం ఒ శ క .మ క ం ం క డ
ర . ండవ ం ॓ ం . ఇక డ ం ద శల
క .మ క ం ం ం ంత గ యబ ం .

E - Corner
https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/schwartz/files/lecture4-
oscillators-to-waves.pdf
http://www.iiserpune.ac.in/~bhasbapat/phy102_files/PHY_
102_Waves_and_Matter.pdf
https://www2.physics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2012-09-
04/normalmodes_iandii_pdf_96820.pdf
(Studies in Applied Mechanics 27) Bogdan Skalmierski (Eds.) -
Mechanics-Academic Press, Elsevier (1991)

ం సం బ క ం లం ల ఉప ం న ,ఈ ష అ ష ఈ
ధం యవ .

̈ =− − ( − )=− − ( − )

̈ =− − ( − )=− − ( − )

394
 6.2 Two coupled oscillators

−
= = cos − cos
2 2 2
+ −
= sin sin − − − (9)
4 2 2
Here is a high frequency wave overlapped with a low
frequency wave ( ). Also at = 0, sine function will have zero
value and cosine function will have maximum value.
A plot of them will give beats pattern with ( ) compliment to ( ).

Fig: Plot of ( ) and ( ) as a function of time.

Here Eq. (5) represents the normal modes of oscillations with

frequencies given by Eq. (8). Here the first normal mode represents
the case of symmetric mode where both the masses move towards
left or towards right. Then there won’t be any stretch in the coupling
spring. The second normal mode represents the anti-symmetric
mode where both the masses move opposite to each other. Then the
coupling spring will have double the stretch.

Fig: Anti-Symmetric and Symmetric modes of oscillations.

395
6.3 N - కప ఆ ల
ి టర

6.3 N - క ఆ ట
N సంఖ క న క ం ॓ఆ ట సం ఊ ంచం . ద , వ తప
నఅ ఆ ట ం ౖ క ం యబ ఉం . మనం ఒక ం సం
ఊ ం న , అం N , N+1 ం ఉం . ఈ సం ప ఒక
ఆ ట క mస నం. మ ప ఒక ఆ ట క ం ం మ
ఆ టర మధ క ం ం స నం (k) అ న ,అ వం సం క ఈ ష
అ ష అ ,

̈ = − − ( − )
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
………
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
… … ….
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
̈ = ( − )− ( )
॓ గ ,

̈ 2 −1 0 ⋯ ⋯ 0
̈ −1 2 −1 0 ⋯ 0
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 0 −1 2 −1 ⋯
⎜
⋯
⎟=− 0 ⎞⎛ ⋯ ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋯ ⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎜ ⋯ ⎟
̈ 0 ⋯ ⋯ −1 2 −1
⎝ ̈ ⎠ ⎝0 ⋯ ⋯ 0 −1 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ఇక డ ం అ స నం ఉండటం , అ న అ ఆ ట ల
స నం పంచబ ం . అం వల ఒక ఆ ట ,త ఆ ట మధ ం
ఫ ఉం ం .అ ϕఅ న , ఒక ష ధం ఉం ందం ,

1
⎛ ⋯ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ =⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋯ ⎟
⎟ ⎜ ⋯ ⎟
( )
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ౖ ఈ ష స నట ,

396
 6.3 N-Coupled oscillator
In the case of coupled pendulum, the equation of motion is
given by

Fig: Coupled pendulum oscillations.

̈ =− − ( − )=− − ( − )

̈ =− − ( − )=− − ( − )

6.3 N-Coupled oscillator

Consider a system of coupled simple harmonic oscillators. In this
system, except for the 1st and nth oscillator, all other oscillators will
have two coupling systems on either side. If we consider a spring
mass system, then there will be masses and + 1 springs in the
N-coupled oscillator system. Let the force constant and the coupling
constants among various oscillators be identical and equal to . The
equations of motion for such a system are given by
̈ = − − ( − )
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
………
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
… … ….
̈ = ( − )− ( − )
̈ = ( − )− ( )

397
6.3 N-Coupled oscillator
1
⎛ ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋯ ⎟
( )
⎝ ⎠
2 −1 0 ⋯ ⋯ 0 1
−1 2 −1 0 ⋯ 0
⎛ 0 −1 2 −1 ⋯ ⎛ ⎞
0⎞
=− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎜ ⋯ ⎟
( )
0 ⋯ ⋯ −1 2 −1
⎝0 ⋯ ⋯ 0 −1 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ఒక ట గమ ం నట ,

= − +2−

⇒ = 2− − =2 (1 − cos ) = 4 sin
2

⇒ =2 sin =2 sin − − − (1)

2 2
ఈ సం N +1 ం /కప ఉండటం వలన, మ అం ల వద ఆ బ ,
ద - వ ఆ ట ల మధ ఫ ఉం .

∴ ( + 1) =
అ ఆ ట క అ

= = − − − (2)
+1
అ అ ,

=2 sin − − − (3)
2( + 1)
ం పక పక ఆ ట ల క ఆం అ ,

= ( )
= = − − − (4)

ఆ ట క ం అ ,

/( )
= = − − − (5)
398
 6.3 N-Coupled oscillator
This can be written in matrix form as
̈ 2 −1 0 ⋯ ⋯ 0
̈ −1 2 −1 0 ⋯ 0
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 0 −1 2 −1 ⋯
⎜
⋯
⎟=− 0 ⎞⎛ ⋯ ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋯ ⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎜ ⋯ ⎟
̈ 0 ⋯ ⋯ −1 2 −1
⎝ ̈ ⎠ ⎝0 ⋯ ⋯ 0 −1 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Since all the force constants and the coupling constants are equal, any
force applied to the system will be distributed with uniform phase
change across the system. Thus, if the phase difference between first
and second oscillator is , then the phase difference between second
and third will also be . Then a guess solution of the type below can
be written.
1
⎛ ⋯ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ =⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋯ ⎟
⎟ ⎜ ⋯ ⎟
( )
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Substituting this in the above gives,
1
⎛ ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋯ ⎟
( )
⎝ ⎠
2 −1 0 ⋯ ⋯ 0 1
−1 2 −1 0 ⋯ 0
⎛ 0 −1 2 −1 ⋯ ⎛ ⎞
0⎞
=− ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎜ ⋯ ⎟
( )
0 ⋯ ⋯ −1 2 −1
⎝0 ⋯ ⋯ 0 −1 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
A general term is given by

= − +2−

⇒ = 2− − =2 (1 − cos ) = 4 sin
2

399
 6.4 ఈ ష

6.4 ఈ ష
కం య న ,Nక ఆ ట ఒకౖ ం ం ( )
ఊ ం వ .Nక ఆ ట సంబం ం న క క ఈ ష అ
ష న ,

/
= −2 + = −2 +

ౖ ఈ ష ం న ప ం ం .

− −
⇒ = − = −

⇒ = =
/
or

ఇక డ = అ (తరంగ గం), = అ సం క య

( య దవ ందత) మ Tఅ ం క న ం .. ఈ
ఈ ష Nక ఆ ట క కం య ం . ఇక డ స ం ∞
అ డ ఉం ం .

6.5 అ ష
1. ॓ అ ॓ య అ రం ఉం ం అ .
శ ఇ నట అ మ అ తన అ ఇ కంపనం యగల అం .
అ ం ఘన ప ల ఉషగ క ప యల వ ంచ క ఆ ష
ఉప గపడ .

2. క ॓ ట క ఆ ష అ ండ డ కన ష
అ క ం .ఇ క ॓ ఒక తఅ ం .అ ॓
మ B ॓.

400
 6.4 Wave equation

⇒ =2 sin =2 sin − − − (1)

2 2

Since there will be + 1 springs/couplers in the system, at the other

end of the coupled system, the wave has to vanish. So the total phase
change produced must be some integer multiple of .
( + 1) =
Thus the phase of the oscillator is given by

= = − − − (2)
+1
With this substitution, the frequency of normal mode frequency
is given by,

=2 sin − − − (3)
2( + 1)
The ratio of amplitudes of two successive oscillators is given by

= ( )
= = − − − (4)

Thus the displacement of oscillator is given by

/( )
= = − − − (5)
Here , are given by Eq. (2) and Eq. (1). It is observed that the
resultant frequency of the system is twice the frequency of the
individual oscillator modulated by sine of the phase factor which
reduces with rise in number and remains independent of . In
other words, remains same for all oscillators.

6.4 Wave equation

In the continuous limit, a system of coupled oscillators
can be considered as a vibrating string. The equation of motion for a
particle in such an coupled oscillator system is given by
/
= −2 + = −2 +

401
6.4 Wave equation
3. వరణ సం ఎ మ అ ప యల వలన ఉ గతల దగ
సంవత లవవ న వృతమ సంభ . వ ంచ క
ఆ ష అవసరమ .
4. ర యన సం ర ల ర యన చర ం లమధ ళ ఉం .
వ ంచ క ఆ ష అవసరం అ .
5. క సం కంప ం క కం ట త క
ర ం న అధ యనం ప ఖ త ం .
6. జ టనం, ర ట ం న ప ధనల క ఆ ట క
స కర ఉప గపడ .
7. ఎల ॓ మ క ష స ం ల , LCR స అ అ ర ల తరం ల
తృక. అ ం LCR స అ కం ఉన మధ ప స ందన అధ యనం
య క ఆ ష అవసరం అ .
8. సం త రంగం , ం అ ప కరం క ఆ ష అ ప య
మ ర సం ఉత యగ ం .
9. ౖ ద రంగ మ కం ట రంగం సం కం ప న అవస ల అ
ఖౖ న క ం . ం య క మ హృదయ
స ందనల మధ గల క ఆ ష ం న అవ హన అవసరం.

E - Corner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ni%C3%B1a
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina.html
http://www.ipgp.fr/~jpm/PUBLICATIONS/JPCS-
normalmodes.pdf
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep16994
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjrrXO0oJVQ

402
 6.5 Applications
In the above equation, the force constant is given by the tension
produced per unit length of the system.
− −
⇒ = − = −

⇒ = =
/
or

Here = is the velocity of the wave, = is the linear mass

density of the oscillator system, is the tension of the string. The
above equation represents the wave equation of an −coupled
oscillator system under continuous medium approximation ( →
∞). Here the system will have ∞ degrees of freedom.

6.5 Applications
Study of coupled oscillations finds applications in the following:
1. In Solid state physics, where the nuclei are fixed at lattice points
and at most vibrate around their equilibrium position when
energy is given. Using coupled oscillations one can explain
thermal interactions in crystals.
2. In particle physics, neutral particle oscillations made a major
breakthrough deviation from standard model, as they do not
obey the standard conservation laws. This lead to a completely
new branch of particle physics called Neutrino Physics, B-Physics.
3. In atmospheric science, El-nino and La-nina cause a drastic
variation in weather conditions which repeat for every a few
years similar to beats pattern.
4. In chemistry, there are several chemical reactions whose
dynamics can be studied by using coupled oscillations theory.

403
Solved Problems & Exercise

5. Normal modes of seismic wave oscillations of earth lead to the

development of computational tools that exactly locate
earthquake center (epicentre).
6. Population dynamics and neural network analysis requires the
usage of coupled oscillation equations for better understanding.
7. In electronics and communication systems LCR circuit is the
heart of all oscillations. Combination of several LCR circuits
behaviour can be studied by using coupled oscillation theory.
8. In music industry, the grand piano is an instrument that
produces music by using coupled oscillations principle.
9. In medical field and computer science field, the programming of
pacemaker requires a knowledge about coupled oscillations of it
along with human heart.

Solved Problems & Exercise

Solved Problems
1. Molecular coupled oscillators :
We know that in a molecule each atom oscillates about its equilibrium
position. These oscillations involve nearest neighbour coupling.
Consider a diatomic molecule which is treated as a system of two
masses m and M coupled with a spring of spring constant k

Fig: Diatomic molecule

If are the displacements of masses m and M

respectively from their equilibrium , then for each mass we
have, ̈ = − ( − ) ---(1)
̈ = − ( − ) -----(2)
(2) × − (1) ×

404
 Solved Problems & Exercise

=> ( ̈ − ̈ )= − ( − )( + )

=> ( − )=− ( − ) -----(3)

where µ=( )
is called reduced mass of the coupled system.

The periodic attributes are given by the same expressions, (3) which
are valid for oscillation of single spring with relative displacement
− . We only need to use equivalent mass in the expression as

µ=( )

∴ = =
( + )

Problem 1: If a molecule NaCl has a natural frequency of

1.14 × 10 , then the inter atomic force constant is(
Atomic mass of Na is 23 amu and Cl is 35.5 amu and 1
amu=1.66× 10 )
a) 140 N/m b) 120 N/m c) 166 N/m d) 180 N/m
Ans: b
× . )
Hint: = =4 × (1.14 × 10 ) [ ] =
( ) ( . )
120N/m

Problem 2: Vibrations of diatomic molecules can be represented as

those of harmonic oscillators. Two halogen molecules and
have fundamental vibrational frequencies = 16.7 ×
10 = 26.8 × 10 respectively. The respective force
constants are = 325 / and = 446 / .The atomic
masses of F, Cl and Br are 19,35.5 and 79.9 atomic mass unit
respectively. The halogen molecules and are

a) = and =

b) = and =

405
Solved Problems & Exercise

c) = and =

d) = and =

IITJAM 2015
Ans: b
Sol: Given = 16.7 × 10 = 26.8 × 10
= 325 / and = 446 /
We know that the oscillation frequency of diatomic molecule with

reduced mass is = / => =

We have reduced mass of is =( )

=

reduced mass of is =

1 1 325
∴ = =
2 2 × 3.14 ( /2)

325
= × 2 = 59.07 × 10
(16.7 × 10 ) (2 × 3.14)
59.07 × 10
=
1.67 × 10

= 35.5 This is the atomic mass of Cl

= 19 ℎ ℎ ℎ
2. Coupled Oscillator: String bead system:

406
 Solved Problems & Exercise

Here two small massive beads, each of mass M are on a taut

massless string as shown. Let T be the tension in the string.
To find normal modes of the system, we take an analogy from a
spring mass system.
ℎ
≡
ℎ

( )
Hence first normal mode frequency = = =

Second normal mode frequency = = =

3. Coupled Oscillators kept in parallel:

Consider a mass M(=2m ) connected with two masses by two
identical springs of spring constant k as shown . In this problem, we
have 3 degrees of freedom (All three masses constrained/restricted
to move in one direction ie here along X-axis). Hence we have three
normal mode.
To find normal mode frequencies and coordinates:
Normal mode 1

In this mode, both the small masses are in out of phase as shown.
Hence the net force on the mass M will be zero because stretch in
first spring compensate the compression in second spring. Now the
two masses behaves as a simple harmonic oscillation with frequency

407
Solved Problems & Exercise

Normal coordinates: we know in normal mode oscillation every

system should oscillate with the same frequency and phase
constant. Hence in this mode ,
=0
= ( + )
=− ( + )

Normal mode 2

Displace simultaneously all the masses as shown in fig.As both the

small masses moves in the same direction, we can take that as a
single mass 2m.Now middle of the springs is at rest during this
normal mode oscillation. Now the problem becomes Two masses
coupled with Single spring of spring constant k’=2k . Hence

= =

Normal coordinates:
= ( + )
=− ( + )
=− ( + )
Normal mode 3: All the three masses moves in the same
direction.So in this mode oscillation is almost with zero frequency
and infinite amplitude. Hence =0

Normal coordinates: = = =

408
 Solved Problems & Exercise

5. Coupled Electrical oscillators:

Consider two identical LC oscillators which are capacitively

coupled together as shown in fig. Ignoring the damping effect i.e.;
taking resistance as zero, we get the following equations.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL) to first loop,

= −−−1
( − )
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to third loop,

= −−−2
( + )
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to second loop,

= ( + )+ ( − ) −−−3

Substituting 1 and 2 in 3,

= − −−−4

Differentiating equation 4 with respect to time,

1
= − = = −

∴ = ( − )

Adding 1 and 2,

+ = ( + )

409
Solved Problems & Exercise

Let = + and ( + ) = ( + )= ( )

⇒ = ( ) =

1
+ =0 −−− 5

Similarly, subtracting 1 and 2 ,we get

1
+ =0 −−− 6
( +2 )
where = −
Thus equations 5 and 6 are the equations of simple harmonic
oscillations having the solutions
= ( ) = ( )
Here are called normal coordinates of the given electrical
system with the normal frequencies

= and =
√ ( )

https://demoweb.physics.ucla.edu/
A molecule with N atoms has 3N degrees of freedom. There are three
degrees of freedom for translation and three degrees of freedom for
rotation leaving 3N−6 degrees of freedom for vibrations. For linear
molecules, rotation along the axis of the molecule is neglected. Thus
it will have only 3N-5 degrees of freedom.
How many vibrational modes are there in the linear molecule ?
Ans: 3(3)-5=4
How many vibrational modes are there in the non-linear
molecule?
Ans: 3(3)-6=3
How many vibrational modes are there in the tetrahedral
molecule?
Ans: 3(5)-6=9

410
 Solved Problems & Exercise

How many vibrational modes are there in the nonlinear

molecule?
Ans: 3(60)-6=174.
Ref: Number of Vibrational Modes in a Molecule. 26 Sept. 2021,
https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/1857.
MCQs
Section A :
1. In a coupled pendulum the phase angle between the two
pendulums in the first normal mode is made equal to
a) 0 b) 90 c)180 d)270
AUCET 2020
Ans: a
2. The following quantity is exchanged between individual
oscillators of coupled oscillators
a)Linear momentum b)Angular momentum c)Energy d) all
Ans: c
3. The principle of coupled oscillation is used in
a) Rectifier b)Amplifier c) Transformer d) Inverter
Ans: c
4. An oxygen molecule vibrates with a frequency of 10 1/ .
What is the effective force constant for the coupling between
the atoms(Mass of oxygen atom 16 amu)
a) 100 N/m b) 70 N/m c)50 N/m d) 150 N/m
Ans: c
5. The equation of travelling wave is given as
= 10 ( − ). What is the speed of the wave?

a)1 cm/s b)0.5 cm/s c)0.25 cm/s d)0.1 cm/s

HCU 2015
Ans: c
411
Solved Problems & Exercise

6. Consider the fig as shown. A and B have equal masses m and all
the springs have the same spring constant k. What are the
normal frequencies for the system, if the oscillations are
assumed to be small?

a) , b) , c) , d) , +1

HCU 2015
Ans: c
7. Two waves are described by = (4 ) = (4 ) . The
phase difference between these two waves is

a) b)0 c)2 d)

HCU 2012
Ans: d
8. Differential form of wave equation

a) = b) = c) = d) =

AUCET 2019
Ans: a
9. Two tuning forks kept side by side as shown. The coupling
between them occurs only when
a) Both the forks have nearly same frequency
b) Both tuning forks made with same material but have
different masses
c) Both tuning forks having same masses but different length
d) No coupling between them
Ans: a

412
 Solved Problems & Exercise
10. The frequencies of normal modes of longitudinal oscillations in a
spring mass system and transverse oscillations in a string mass
system respectively given as (Each of the system has N identical
masses m and fixed at both the ends. is the distance between
neighbouring masses on string, T is the tension in string and k
is spring constant of each identical massless spring)

a) =2 [ ( )
], =2 [ ( )
]

b) =2 [ ( )
], =2 [ ( )
]

c) = [ ( )
], = [ ( )
]

d) =2 [ ( )
], =2 [ ( )
]

Ans: b
Section B:
11. Two pendulums, each of length and are coupled with a
spring of natural frequency . The resultant frequency, of the
out of phase vibration is

a) −2 b) − c) − d) +2

HCU 2019
Ans: d

Hint: for spring-mass system = & =( + )

12. Two masses 6 × 10 2 × 10 are connected with a

massless spring of force constant N/m . If smaller mass vibrates
with amplitudae 0.01m, the larger mass move with the amplitude
. . .
a) 0.01 m b) c) d)

Ans: b

413
Solved Problems & Exercise

Hint: Amplitudes of oscillations of masses are inversely

proportional to their masses

Grade your understanding

1 Natural frequency ,fundamental
frequency/harmonics ,normal mode frequency [Y/N]
and resonant frequency : all are same in general
2 All coupled oscillators are forced oscillators [Y/N]
3 Wave is always associated with [Y/N]
oscillations/vibrations of material particles
4 We can also get coupled oscillations with a single [Y/N]
degree of freedom
5 A diatomic molecule has two normal mode [Y/N]
frequencies
6 Under normal mode oscillations, every system
should oscillate with the same [Y/N]
frequency and phase constant
7 In a two coupled oscillator, the first normal
mode represent a symmetric mode with highest [Y/N]
energy and both the masses vibrate 180 out of
phase
8 Spring constant is equivalent to string tension [Y/N]
per unit length
9 Oscillations of a block which is connected either
in series or parallel to two springs can be treated [Y/N]
as coupled oscillator

Ans: 1. Yes 2.Yes 3.No(Keep in mind EM wave) 4.Yes(can get

coupling between rotation and vertical motion of Wilberforce).
5.No(No.of degrees of freedom of vibrations for nonlinear
molecule dof=3N-6, for linear molecule dof=3N-5, hence it has
only one normal mode) 6. Yes(all masses move with that
normal mode frequency). 7. Yes(As each spring has maximal
extension or compression in symmetric mode).8). Yes 9. No
(Here acceleration of block depends only on single
displacement)

414
 Glossary
Matching
1. Resonance ( ) A) Simple Harmonic
Oscillator
2. Strings ( ) B) Damped Harmonic
Oscillator
3. Large amplitude ( ) C) Forced harmonic
Oscillations oscillator
4. Exchange of energy ( ) D) Coupled Oscillator
5. Hook’s Law ( ) E) Anharmonic oscillator
6. Non-oscillator ( ) F) Vibrator
7. Logarithmic decrement ( ) G) Rotor

Glossary
Glossary: Coupled Oscillations
Antisymmetric Mode of vibration with all masses moving
mode in the same direction at the same time
An equation in the variable for given
Characteristic
matrix upon which we obtain eigen values
equation
of that variable
Coupling Oscillating systems that allow exchange of
systems energy between them
Coupling Element that provide interactive force
element between the coupling systems
Periodic and repeating fluctuations when
Beats two waves of very similar frequencies
interfere with one another
A set of masses connected by a continuous
Beeded string
string
The process of converting any square
matrix in to a diagonal matrix that shares
Diagnolization
the same fundamental properties of the
given matrix
A special set of scalar solutions associated
Eigen value with a linear system of equation
(Eigen-German word : own)
The property that the exponential function
Exponential
itself reappears after every operation of
property
differentiation /integration

415
Glossary

A mathematical technique that transforms

Fourier a function of time to a function of
Transformation frequency and can be used to find the base
frequencies that a wave is made of
Figures that shows the resultant motion of
Lissajous
two perpendicular SHMs depending on the
figures
frequency ratio and initial phase difference
The frequency at which a system tends to
Natural mode oscillate in the absence of any external
force(Natural frequency )
A pattern of motion in which all masses
Normal mode move sinusoidally with same frequency and
with a fixed phase relation
A system of N oscillators in which esach
N- coupled
oscillator is coupled with all of its
oscillator
neighboring oscillator
Symmetric A square matrix that is equal to its
matrix transpose
Mode of vibration with all masses moving
Symmetric
in the opposite direction at the same time
mode
and get stretched or compressed

416
 UNIT-V
Chapter-7
VIBRATING
STRINGS
కం ం గ
CHAPTER

7 కం ం గ
ణల
ౖ ం ం (కం ం గ ) అ ఈ ప ఈ ం ష
ం .

1) గ న గల ర ॓ తరంగ స కరణ ( వ ఈ ష )

2) తరంగ స కరణం క రణ ప రం మ గ న గల ఖ త.

3) ం వర ంచబ న గ కంపన .

4) ం వర ంచబ న గ అ స ,అ స .

5) గ న గలౖ షన ం ప గ .

అభ సన ఫ
ఈ ఠం ర స

1. న గల కంప ల ర ంచగ .

2. గ న గల ర ॓ తరం ల స వ ంచగ .

3. ం వల న ర ॓ తరం ల ఉత య సౖ న ప ర ల ల
అంచ యగ .

4. ం ౖ ష ల ధ ॓ మ ఓవ ల వ క ంచగ .

5. గ న గల కంప ల షణ సం త న ( ండ కం ష )
ఎం గ .

6. ధ అ షన సం ౖ షన ం స ల ౖ డ ల అ వృ
యగ .
 CHAPTER
VIBRATING STRINGS 7
Syllabus
Transverse wave propagation along a stretched string, General
solution of wave equation and its significance, Modes of vibration of
stretched string clamped at ends, overtones and Harmonics, Melde’s
strings

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn
1. Transverse wave equation in stretched strings.
2. General solution of wave equation and its significance in
stretched strings.
3. Modes of vibration in stretched strings clamped at both the
ends.
4. Harmonics and overtones in stretched string clamped at both
the ends.
5. Melde’s experiment to measure the vibrational frequency of
stretched strings.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be able to
1. Identify the cause of vibrations in stretched strings.
2. Describe the nature of transverse waves in stretched strings.
3. Predict proper material characteristics to generate
transverse waves of desired frequency in stretched strings.
4. Classify various harmonics and overtones in stretched string
vibrations.
5. Select suitable boundary conditions for the analysis of
vibrations in stretched strings.
6. Develop prototype models of vibrational string systems for
various applications.
 Syllabus
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ

ఈఅ యం సమ ష ల ం ౖ షన ం షణ
క అవస ఈ ం రం ల ంచగల

ఎ) ॓: ॓ క త ఖ ం య .

) : మ వస ం క బలం షణ .

) కం ట : ॓ సర ణత షణ .

d) గర సం: ౖ న స ద ఖ జ అ షణౖ ౖ ం షణ .

ఇ) ఎల ॓ : ఇండ య ౖ ష ం ఎల ॓ ల ంచడం .

f) న దక శ : ॓ ం అ వృ .

g) గ ం : ధౖ షన ర ం షణ మ వరణ .

ప తం ం అప తం వర
ప తరగ (8వ తరగ ) సం ం ంచ ం లౖ ష
ఉప ం ధ సం త ల ం ఉండవ ; ఉ హరణ , ణ,
వ , దౖ న . స ర తం న ఉం , ధ క /
ఎ వ ఉం ంద ఉండవ . (మ ళ మ లల ఎ వ
క ం ). ప క మ గ న గల ఉప ం మ ఎ
త ఉండవ . శబ ం మ సం తం మధ వ
ంచడం ర బ ఉండవ . 11వ తరగ , ం న మ
వ తరం , న గల వ తరం ల గం, ర మ ం
వరల ంచబ న ం ల ॓ల వన ప చయం యబ ఉండవ .

ప అ ల మనం ల మ ం - స ల ల ం ,
క ల మ ర ల ం అధ యనం .ఈఅ యం ,
ల ల ం కంప ల యడం మ గలౖ తరం ల చలన స కరణం, తరంగ
స కరణం క ప రం ం అధ యనం యడం ం . మనం రణ
తరంగ స కర , ల ప ఉప ం , ం వర ంచబ న
ం ౖ తరం ల అధ యనం . ఇం , ం వ తరం ల
అధ యనం య ఉపకర ఉప ంచడం ॓ మ
ఓవ ల ం ప చయం ం .

420
 Syllabus

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would be
able to identify the need of vibrational string analysis
a) Physics: in a new branch of physics namely string theory.
b) Chemistry: in mechanical strength analysis of suture yarns
and textile yarns.
c) Computers: in robotic surgery suture quality analysis.
d) Geology: in deep sea mineral exploration pipe lining analysis.
e) Electronics: in analyzing vibration sensing electronic yarns in
industrial gloves.
f) Renewable energy: in vortex wind mill development.
g) Statistics: in data analysis and interpretation from various
vibrational sensors.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In the previous classes (in 8th class) you might have learnt about
various musical instruments that use vibration of strings to generate
music; for example, Veena, Violin, Guitar etc. You might have also
learned that shorter the vocal card, larger is the frequency/pitch of
sound generated (more pronounced in women and kids). You also
might be familiar with how to make a toy telephone using paper cups
and stretched strings. You might have been taught to spot the
difference between noise and music. In your 11th class, you might
have been introduced to the concept of longitudinal and transverse
waves, the speed of transverse waves in stretched strings, normal
modes and harmonics in strings clamped at both the ends.
In the previous chapters we have studied about the
oscillations in pendulums and spring - mass systems, along with
coupled oscillations and normal modes in them. In this chapter, we
shall learn to distinguish vibrations from oscillations and study the
equation of motion of waves on strings, solution of wave equation.
We shall also study waves on a string clamped at both the ends, using

421
 7.1 ఉ తమ
7.1 ఉ త
ల మ పకంపనల మధ వ సం ఏ టం , ల ం క
ఉం , ఇ ౖ వ స న కద క న ం .ౖ ష ల అ వం
,అ నప అ ఆవరనౖ న . అ ల ల ఒక రణ ఉ హరణ,
ఇ ఆవర క ఉం ం .ౖ ష ల ఎ ఉండద అర ం .
కం ం వ ॓ అ ॓ ం కద క ల క ఉండవ .
ల మ తరం ల మ క వ సం ఏ టం , స క ఇ న
గ ష , లనం వ వస ఒ ఒక సహజ నః క ఉం , అ
ౖ ం స థ క నః న ం క అ సహజ సంఖ ల ల క
ఉం . ఓవ 2వ మ ఇతరౖ య ఆర ॓ అ
. పకంపనల షయం , అ అ క ఆర ॓ ఓవ ల కంప ల
అం . అం వల, ల ల షయం , ల ల క ధ స తంత
నః ల క ఉం . ౖ షన షయం , అ థ క నః న ం
క ణ .

ం ల ౖ ష ల రణౖ న ం ం న ం ఉత అ ం . న
అ వ తశ వ క శ ఉత అ ం . ఇ ఎల సమ ం
శ ం డ శ ప ం .ఫ త న ంచ న ఉ దక శ వ ం
శ ప ష ంచగల సమస ల ం॓ ంద ఇవ బ ం .

https://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Tension-in-Physics
గ న ం ౖ ఆవర న శ ( ॓ )ప ం న , డ లంబం ,
న తరం ఉత న మ . ం క సమ ల గ ష సరళ ఖ
ఉండ వ ం . అ న తరం ఉత చర ం క క ల సమ ల త
ం రం క ం . ఇక డ ఎ ణం తల ॓ క శ
. ం క ఒక వర దృఢౖ న ఆ రం ప , ఒక తరంగం
ఏర న , ఆ రం వద ప ంబ తరంగం ఏర ం . ఆ తరంగం అ క ఉం ం
దశ తం 180˚ వ కం ఉం ం . ట క డవ యమం
వ ంచవ . మనం డ నట , డస నౖ నమ వ కశ మన
ం . బ ప ంబ తరంగం స న వ క దశ ఏర ం .

422
 7.1 Introduction

general wave equation, its solution with boundary

conditions. Further, harmonics and overtones are introduced,
together with usage of Melde’s apparatus to study transverse waves
in strings.

7.1 Introduction
The difference between oscillations and vibrations is that
oscillations have a point of symmetry, about which the object
undergoes to and fro motion with equal amplitude on either side.
Vibrations do not have such a point of symmetry, though they are
periodic. Heart beat is a simple example of oscillations which has no
symmetry but periodicity. This does not mean vibrations will never
have symmetry. The vibrating objects may have either symmetric or
asymmetric or both symmetric and asymmetric modes of movement.
Another difference that distinguishes oscillations and waves is that
for a given configuration of the system, oscillating systems can have
only one natural frequency whereas vibrating systems can have all
natural number multiples of some fundamental frequency. They are
also called overtones or 2nd and other higher order harmonics. In the
case of vibrations, all the higher order harmonics or overtones are
called the modes of vibrations. Thus, in the case of oscillations,
various modes of oscillations have quite independent frequencies.
But in the case of vibrations, all modes are multiples of some
fundamental frequency.

Fig: Modes in coupled pendulum oscillations and double clamped

vibrating string.

423
 7.1 Introduction
అ ం మృ ౖ న ఆ ర న క ॓ యబ ంద అ ం ం. ం ం క ,
దృఢౖ న ట ఇన యడం ంచవ .అ ఇ క ం
క కద క అ ణం ం ౖ కదల చ ఉం ం . అ ంట ,ప ంబ
తరంగం అ అ అ దశ క ఉం ం . అం వలన, ప ంబ తరంగం ఇన ం
వ అ అ స ం .

Fig: wave reflection on rigid and flexible boundary.

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/wave-on-a-string

https://in.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/35746-
vibrating-string-simulator

424
 7.1 Introduction

The restoring force that is responsible for vibrations in

strings is the tension in the string. The tension force is generated
opposite to the applied force. But it always acts along the length of
the string, in a direction that establishes equilibrium. A link to some
problems wherein one can resolve applied force along the tension
generating direction to calculate the resultant tension is given below.
When a periodic force
is applied on a stretched string,
perpendicular to its length,
transverse waves will be
generated in it. Let the
equilibrium configuration of
the string be a straight line.
Then the act of generating a
transverse wave moves the
particles of the string away
from equilibrium. Here the red
arrow heads represent the
direction of applied force.
When one end of the string is
tied to a rigid support and a
wave is generated in it, a
reflected wave is generated at
the rigid support. The wave will
have same amplitude but is
180˚ opposite in phase. This
can be explained by Newton’s
third law. If we hit the wall, wall
will hit us back with equal and opposite force. Thus a wave of equal
amplitude opposite phase is generated upon reflection. Suppose the
string is connected to a flexible support. This can be achieved by tying
the string to a ring and insert it onto a rigid metal bar. Then the ring
will be free to move on the bar in accordance with the movement of
the incoming wave. In that case, the reflected wave will have the
same amplitude as well as same phase. Thus, the reflected wave traces
the same path as the incoming wave.

425
 7.2 ాగ ిన గల ర తరంగ ప ారం
7.2 గ న గ ర ॓ తరంగ ప రం
న Tమ య μ ఉన గ న ం ప గ ంచం . అ x -ఆ శ
గ యబ y-ఆ శ టబ న న తరం ల ఉత యవ .
ఫ తం xమ y శల ంట వ స dx మ dy తం నభ ంశం ం ంద ం .
ఆ (x,y) మ (x+dx,y+dy) వద x-ఆ న T ణం వ స θమ
θ+dθ అ నట ,

క x ,y కం ం న ప ష న ,

= . cos( + ) − . cos
= . sin( + ) − . sin
θ క న వల , cosθ≃1 మ sinθ≃θ≃tanθ అ ం .అ ,

≃ .1 − .1 = 0

≃ . tan( + ) − . tan = −

= . = .

ౖ ం స కర ల ం

−
= = =

or

= .

ఇ గ న గ ర ॓ తరంగ స కరణ . రణ తరంగ స కరణ

నట ,

ం తరంగ గ , = / . ౖ నన ఎ ధృ క ంచవ .

426
 7.2 Transverse wave propagation along a stretched string

7.2 Transverse wave propagation along a

stretched string
Consider a stretched string with tension and linear density
. Let the string be stretched along positive x-axis and plucked along
y-axis to produce transverse waves. This results in a displacement by
an amount and along x and y directions respectively. Let and
+ be the angles made by the tension with the horizontal axis at
the coordinates ( , ) and ( + , + ) respectively.

Fig: Transverse wave propagation along a string.

The components of force along and directions, in terms

of tension are given by
= . cos( + ) − . cos
= . sin( + ) − . sin
For small values of , cos ≃ 1 and sin ≃ ≃ tan . Then the
above equations become,
≃ .1 − .1 = 0

≃ . tan( + ) − . tan = −

But also is equal to

427
 7.3 తరంగ స కరణప ా రణ ప ా రమ

= = =

7.3 తరంగ స కరణ రణ ప ర

ం క స కరణ సలం , సమయం , ఒక కం ఆర ఫ య
ఈ ష . బ ష స లం , సమయం ఒక ఆ ట ష అ ం .
ఇక డ ద అ ష , సమయం, స ల సంబం ం న ష ఒక ౖ ఒక
ఆ రపడ అ ం .

అ ం ఇ యవ

( , ) = ( ). ( )
ఈ ష ప

ఇక డ ౖ ం ఒక ౖ ఒక ఆ ర పడ బ , ం ఒక ం స నం
.ౖ నన ఎ నట , ఆ ం 1/T2 ౖ న క ఉం అ
ం . బ ఆ ం ω^2 అ న ,

1
= =−

ం ,

+ =0 + =0 ⇒ + =0.

ష ,

( )= sin + cos ( )= sin + cos

ఆ ధం

( , ) = ( sin + cos )( sin + cos )

ఒక షప వ సౖ న ండ కం ష వ ంప

ఇక డ ప రం అ సలం మ సమయం ం ం ఒక ॓మ ఒక
అ ॓ గం క ఉన . ఈ ధం ండ కం ష ఇ న స ॓ ష
అ ॓ ష ం ం కల క క ఉ ర .

428
 7.3 Solution of Wave Equation

= . = .

Here = / , the linear density (mass per unit length) of the

string.
From the two equations above, we obtain

−
= = =

or

= .

This is the equation for transverse wave on a stretched

string.
Comparing it with the general wave equation results in the
following:

= ,

The wave velocity can be expressed as

= ,

which can be verified using dimensional analysis:

= = =

7.3 Solution of Wave Equation

The equation of transverse wave on a stretched string is a
second order differential equation in both space and time. Hence it
will have oscillating solutions in both space and time. Let the space

429
 7.4 ండ వరల ంచబ న గల కంపన త ల
7.4 ం వర ంచబ న గ కంపన
గ న గ ర ॓ తరంగ స కరణం ఈ ధం ఉం ం .

= .

ఈ ష క రణ ష ఈ ం ధం ఉం ం .

( , ) = ( ). ( ) = ( sin + cos )( sin + cos ).

గ ం వర బం ం ఉం నం వలన, ఈ స ం క మ ( ండ కం ష )
ఈ ధం ఉం .

( )=0 =0 ( )=0 = .
ద ండ కం ష స నట ,

sin . 0 + cos . 0 = 0 ⇒ . 0 + . 1 = 0 ⇒ = 0.
ండవ ండ కం ష స నట ,

sin =0⇒ =± ⇒ ( )= sin

ష క సమయ ఆ త గంౖ స హ బంధన నం న, T(t) అ ఉం ం .

ం ద ంచగల ఏౖ క షర , సమ పర సమ పత ( వర ) అన
T(t)=T(-t) అ ం అ అ వ . ఈ కం ష వలన, T(t) క ష ౖ
ట త ఉం ంద గమ ంచవ . వలన, C=0 . ఈ ధం , ౖ న న తం
స రం , ష ఈ న ధం యవ .

( , )= sin . cos

( , )= sin cos = sin cos ,

ఇక డ = .
మ ంత రణ ష ఈ ం ధం యవ .

( , )= sin ( sin + cos )

430
 7.4 Modes of vibration of stretched string clamped at ends

part of the solution and time part of the solution be independent of

each other. Then one can write
( , ) = ( ). ( )
Substituting this into wave equation, we obtain

Since space part and time part are independent of each other,
both must be equal to a constant. A simple dimensional analysis
yields the result that it must have dimensions of inverse time square.
Let it be denoted by .
1
= =−

Then one can write

+ =0 + =0 ⇒ + =0.

The solutions are given by

( )= sin + cos ( )= sin + cos
Thus
( , ) = ( sin + cos )( sin + cos )
One need to apply proper boundary conditions to arrive at a
specific solution. Here one can see the solution is a combination of a
symmetric part and an asymmetric part both in space and time. Thus
boundary conditions decide whether a given system has symmetric
solutions or asymmetric solutions or combination of both.

7.4 Modes of vibration of stretched string

clamped at ends
The equation of motion of transverse wave on a string is given by

= .

431
 7.4 Modes of vibration of stretched string clamped at ends
ల ల ఈ ం ధం యవ .

= = . = . = =
2 .2 2 2

=
2

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_model_pipestringwee02/pipestringwee02_Simulation.xhtml

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432
 7.4 Modes of vibration of stretched string clamped at ends

The general solution of this wave equation is given by

( , ) = ( ). ( ) = ( sin + cos )( sin + cos ).
Since the string considered is clamped at both the ends separated by
a distance, (say ), it follows that ( ) = 0 =0 ( )=
0 = .
Substituting the first condition gives
sin . 0 + cos . 0 = 0 ⇒ . 0 + . 1 = 0 ⇒ = 0.
Substituting the second condition gives

sin =0⇒ =± ⇒ ( )= sin

Since there are no boundary conditions on the time dependent part

of the solution, T(t) remains the same. The only condition that one
can impose is for the displacement to have time reversal symmetry
which is expressed as ( ) = (− ). This requirement implies that
the solution of ( ) will be a function of cosine terms only. This
would make = 0 . Thus, with all the above information
incorporated, ‘the solution is given by

( , )= sin . cos

or ( , )= sin cos = sin cos ,

where = .
A more general solution can be written as

( , )= sin ( sin + cos )

The frequency of oscillation is given by

= = . = . = =
2 .2 2 2

=
2

433
 కం ిం ే గల యమ ల
కం ం గల య
ం వర ంచబ న గ కంపన ఈ ం ధం యవ .

=
2

ఈస కరణం ం , ం మౖ ష ల క య ల
బట వ ..

ఎ) డ క యమం: ం న మ ం క య రం
ఉన ట , ం కౖ ష క థ క నః న ం ం డ
తం ఉం ం .

) న క యమం: ం క డ మ య రం ఉం ,
ం కౖ ష క థ క నః న ం ం ఉత యబ న న క
వర అ తం ఉం ం .

c) య క యమం: ం క డ మ ం ఉత యబ న
న రం ఉం అం ం న ం క య క వర ం
కౖ ష క థ క నః న ం తం ఉం ం .

E - Corner

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office.phys.washington.edu/lectdemo/DetailPages/3/
D/Sonometer_(3D20.10)/Central_Scientific_Company
-Selective_Experiments_in_Physics-
The_Laws_of_Vibrating_Strings.pdf

434
 7.5 Overtones and Harmonics

Laws of Vibrating strings

The frequency of vibrations in stretched string clamped at both the
ends is given by

=
2

From this equation, three laws of transverse vibrations in stretched

string can be deduced.
a) Law of Length: The fundamental frequency of vibration of
stretched string is inversely proportional to the length of the
string, provided the tension in the string and the linear
density of the string remain constant.
b) Law of Tension: The fundamental frequency of vibration of
the stretched sting is directly proportional to the square root
of the tension produced in the string, provided the length
and linear density of the string remain constant.
c) Law of Linear density: The fundamental frequency of
vibration of stretched string is inversely proportional to the
square root of the linear density of the string provided the
length of the string and the tension produced in the string
remain constant.

7.5 Overtones and Harmonics

The frequency of vibrations of stretched string clamped at both the
ends is given by

=
2

For a given string with a fixed tension applied, the term /

remains constant. Thus, based on the value of there are infinitely
many possible frequencies.
The lowest value of n for which a nontrivial solution is
obtained is when = 1 , which is known as the fundamental
frequency. This is also called the first harmonic. Higher values of n

435
 7.5 ఓవ ట ను
7.5 ఓవ ॓
ం వర ంచబ న గ కంపన ఈ ం ధం యవ .

=
2

ర న వ ంప యబ న ఇ న ం , √(T/μ) అ పదం రం ఉం ం . అం వలన, n

వ ఆ రం అనంతౖ నఅ క నః ఉ .

n క అత ల వ n=1 అ న , ఫండ ంట అం . ద
॓ అ అం . n క త వ త ॓ /ఓవ ల
. n=2 అ , ండవ ॓ ద ఓవ ం . వ n=3
డవ ॓ ండవ ఓవ సంబం ం నౖ ఉం ం ..

1
= ద ॓ ఫండ ంట
2

2
= ండవ ॓ ద ఓవ
2

3
= డవ ॓ ండవ ఓవ
2

ద ॓ క ం λ1=2L మ ఇతర ॓ సంబం ం λ2=2L /2

; λ3=3L /2

అం వలన, డ L పల తరంగౖ ర ం λ1 ఉన సగం తరం అమర వ ; తరంగౖ ర ం λ2

ఉన ం సగం తరం మ తరంగౖ ర ం λ3 ఉన సగం తరం ల
అమర వ . ధ ॓ మ ఓవ ల సం తరంగ న ంద పబ .

ఇక డ ఈ ॓ మ ఓవ ల గ న ం క సహజౖ షన అ
మ ద ॓ కంపన క థ క అ .

ఎ /7 రం వద ం న , 7వ ॓ ఉత య , ఎం కం 7వ
॓ ఉత య ఆ గం ఎప ఉం .అ ధం , ం L/3
రం వద , 3వ మ 6వ ॓ ఉత య .ఈ ధం సం త
వౖ న సం ఉత య / ంచ త న ధం ప ం ం
ఎం వడం యం .

436
 7.5 ఓవ క ్

give rise to higher harmonics/overtones. For = 2, we obtain the

second harmonic or the first overtone. The value = 3 corresponds
to the third harmonic or second overtone and so on.

1
= ℎ
2

2
= ℎ
2

3
= ℎ ℎ
2

For the first harmonic, the wavelength is given by

/
= = =2
1
2 /

For other harmonics, the wavelength is given by

2 2
= = = ; = = ;⋯
2 3
Thus, one can fit half a wave of wavelength within a
length ; two half waves of wavelength and three half waves of
wavelength within the length . The wave patterns for various
harmonics and overtones are shown below.
Here these harmonics and overtones are also called natural
vibrational modes of the stretched string and the first harmonic is
also called the fundamental mode of vibration.
When a guitar string is plucked at /7 distance, then one
cannot produce 7th harmonic, as that portion must remain as node
forever to produce 7th harmonic. Similarly, if the guitar string is
plucked at /3 distance, then one cannot produce 3rd and 6th
harmonics. Thus musicians control the number of harmonics to be
produced/avoided by selecting the plucking point suitably.
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437
 7.5 ఓవ ట ను

Fig: Harmonics and Overtones of clamped vibrating string

Did You Know?

Harmonic series in mathematics is named after harmonics

in music. In music 2, 3, 4 … harmonics are blocked by
plucking the string at 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 etc lengths. Similarly
harmonic series is produced by adding all numbers 1, 1/2,
1/3, 1/4, etc in the series. Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is
considered harmonic because it can be described by same
harmonic functions (sine and cosine) that describe the
harmonics in music. More specifically the fundamental mode.

Did You Know?

Undertones or sub-harmonics are the resultant

harmonics of division of fundamental frequency instead of
multiplication. One need to use double length of the string
or crossed strings or by using third bridge in guitars. In air
instruments, overblowing creates sub-harmonics. They play
major role in the perception of Ultrasonic sounds by human
ear through skull bone. (Details are in next chapter)

438
 7.6 Melde’s Experiment

7.6 Melde’s Experiment

1) Melde’s experimental setup consists of an electrically driven
tuning fork.
2) One of the prongs of the tuning fork is connected to a string.
3) The other end of the string is passed through a smooth pulley
and attached to a pan carrying weights. By changing the
weights, required tension can be generated in the string.
4) The tuning fork, when vibrated, generates standing waves in the
string. The orientation of the tuning fork gives rise to two
configurations.
5) Longitudinal mode: Here the tuning fork prong’s vibrations are
along the length of the string. In this case, one full oscillation of
the tuning fork generates only half a wave in the string. Thus
=2 .
6) Transverse mode: Here the tuning fork’s vibrations are
perpendicular to the length of the string. In this case, one full
oscillation of the tuning fork generates one full wave in the
string. Thus = .
7) The length of the string is adjusted so that a perfect standing
wave is formed on the string. Then the frequency of oscillations

of the string is given by = . Here is the number of

loops (half waves) in the standing wave.
8) Using this experiment, one can estimate either the frequency of
the tuning fork or the tension produced in the string or the linear
density of the string provided the remaining parameters are
known.

Fig: Melde’s experimental setup a) Longitudinal mode

b) Transverse mode.

439
 7.5 ల క ప గం
7.5 క ప గం
1) క ప తక ట న ం ఉం ం .

2) ం క ం ఒక ం క ॓ యబ ం .

3) ం క మ క వర మృ ౖ న క ం ం మ బ
ంచబ ం .బ ల ర డం , ం అవసరౖ న న సృ ంచవ .

4) ం ,ౖ అ న , ం ర తరం ల ఉత ం . ం
క ఓ యం ష ం గ ష ల ం .

5) ం న : ఇక డ ం ం క ౖ ష ం డ
స ంతరం ఉం . ఈ సందర ం , ం క ఒక లనం ం సగం
త ఉత ం . అం వలన f_string=2 f_( ం ).

6) వ : ఇక డ ం ౖ ష ం డ లంబం ఉం .ఈ
సందర ం , ం క ఒక లనం ం ఒక తరం ఉత ం .
అం వలన f_string=f_( ం ).

7) ం క డ స ,త ం ౖ ఖ తౖ న ం ం ఏర .
అ ం క ల ల f_string=n/2L √(T/μ) ంచవ . ఇక డ n అ
ం ం ల సంఖ (అర తరం ).

8) ఈ ప ఉప ం , ం క ం ఉత యబ న
న ం క య అంచ యవ .

7.6ౖ ం ం క అ ష
1) ం య ం॓ ం (10-35 ) ం వం లౖ ష ల ం ,
ఇక డ ం య ఇంట ప న త .

2) వ , , ణ దౖ న అ ం సం త న గల ప ధ కంప
మ ॓ త ం ఆ రం ప .

3) క బలం షణ సం వస ప శ మ ౖ ం ం క షణ అవసరం.
॓ సర ణత ణత అంచ యడం ఇ
ఉప గపడ .

4) క ం ల ప రం యబ న కంప ల ంచ ౖ ష ం
సం ఎల ॓ అ వృ యబ .

440
 https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=201&sim=882&cnt=1

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7.6 Applications of vibrating strings

1) String theory analyses the vibrations of string like fields in the
Planck length scale (10-35m) where short range nuclear
interactions play a major role.
2) All stringed musical instruments like Violin, Guitar, Veena etc.
function based on the principle of resonant vibrations and
harmonics in stretched strings.
3) Analysis of vibrating strings is essential in textile industry for the
strength analysis of yarns. They are also useful in assessing the
quality of sutures as well as the quality of suture yarns in robotic
surgery.
4) Electronic yarns are developed for vibration sensing to analyse
hand transmitted vibrations in industrial areas.
5) Vibrational analysis of pipe line tube strings in underground gas
storage systems, deep sea floor mining etc. is useful in quality
checking of the systems.
6) Industrial conveyor belts, cable car wires, crane wires, elevator
cables etc. need vibrational analysis for their strength and
stability analysis, during dynamic working conditions.
7) Various sensors developed for such industrial applications
require programming and statistical analysis of the data collected
from those sensors for sensible and informed decision making.
8) Vortex wind mills use vibrating metal strings to generate power
from wind, instead of turbines.

441
 7.6 Applications of vibrating strings
5) గర ల వ వస ల ౖ ౖ ం కౖ షన షణ, ౖ న స ద
అ గం ౖ ం దౖ న వ వసల ణత త యడం ఉప గప ం .

6) కక య , ౖ , ౖ ,ఎ ట దౖ న
ౖ న ॓ప ప ల బలం మ రత షణ సంౖ షన షణ అవసరం.

7) ఇ వం క అ వర ల సం అ వృ యబ న ధ ల సౖ న మ
స రం న రయం వ ఆ ల ం క ం న క ం
మ గ ంక షణ అవసరం.

8) ॓ ం టౖ ల బ ం శ ఉత య ౖ ం
ట ం ల ఉప .

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content/uploads/2021/01/physicsatmit_04_vibratingstrings.p
df
https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/35303058/Manuscript
36-Bark-Hamlyn2012-Final-with-cover-page-v2.pdf
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21.1923929
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http://www.autexrj.com/cms/zalaczone_pliki/6d.pdf
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442
 Problems and Exercises

Problems and Exercises

Solved Problems
1. The equation of a wave along a stretched string is =
( − ) . Find the particle velocity amplitude and
maximum value of the slope of the displacement curve

Sol: Given the wave equation of a travelling wave along the

positive x direction
= ( − )
The particle velocity is
= = ( − )

∴ Particle velocity amplitude =

The wave velocity is

=
We know that the slope of the displacement curve =
( )
=
∴ ℎ ℎ
=

2. The vibrations of a stretched string of the length 60cm and

fixed at both the ends are given by the equation = 7
( ) (50 ) with x and y in cm and t in sec. Find
the locations of nodes and antinodes

Sol: Given length of wire = 50

Also the given equation is a stationary wave equation = 7
( ) (50 )
We know that nodes are the points of minimum
displacement and hence for nodes
= 0 for all times
Space dependent term shoub be zero for nodes
( ) =0
15

443
 Problems and Exercises
= ℎ = 0,1,2,3 … …
= 15 Hence the locations of the nodes are 0,15cm,
30cm,45cm and 60cm

Also we know that antinodes are the points of maximum

displacement and hence for antinodes

Space dependent term should be maximum for antinodes

= ℎ = 1,3,5 …
15 2
= × 7.5 Hence the locations of the antinodes are
7.5cm, 22.5cm,37.5cm and 52.5cm

3. A string is stretched between two rigid supports having

100 cm separation. Find the longest possible wavelength of
the stationary wave in the string

Sol: We know that the mode of vibration with longest

possible wavelength of the stationary wave in the string is
fundamental mode .
In fundamental mode ,2 nodes are formed at rigid supports
and 1 antinode at the middle
Also we know that distance between two successive nodes is

= => = 2 = 200 which is the longest possible

wavelength

4. In a guitar, a string of length 25 inches and of mass 1gm is

stretched uniformly under a tension of 1 N. After setting
the string into vibrations, it is slightly touched at a point of
distance 5inches from a fixed end. Find the possible
frequencies of the string.

Sol: Given the string is touched at 5 inches. Hence node

should be there.ie only those vibrations will be present for
which the touched point will be a node.
Also given the length of string L = 25inches
∴ The minimum number of loops in which the string
vibrates when it is touched at 5 inches is

444
 Problems and Exercises

25
= =5
5
The possible number of loops in which the string vibrates is
N,2N,3N,4N……..ie 5,10,15,20………
Hence the frequencies will be , , , ……..

Let us first find fundamental frequency = where

= 1 and = 25 ℎ = 25 × 2.54 = 63.5 and
.
linear density = = = 0.0016 /
. ×

= × . × .
= 0.79 × 25 ≈ 20

= 5 = 100 , = 10 = 100 , = 15 =
300 , = 400 ……

5. A string of length 36cm was in unison with a fork of

frequency 256Hz. It was in unison with another fork when
the vibrating length was 48cm, the tension being unaltered.
Find the frequency of second fork .

Sol: Given = 256 and its corresponding resonating

length of string is = 36
=? and its corresponding resonating length
of string is = 48

=
2

Here n,T and m are constant then

= = 256 × = 341

6. The fundamental frequency of sonometer wire is 600Hz.

When length wire is shorted by 25%, the frequency of
first overtone will be
Sol: Given = 600 , = and =
( )
= 0.75

445
 Problems and Exercises

∴ = = 600 × 0.75 = 450

The frequency of first overtone for the shortened wire will be

=2 = 900
7. Transverse wave on a string is given by = 0.05
(3 − ) in SI system. Find the frequency and
wavelength

Sol: We have general solution = ( − )

On comparision, we have = 1 / .Hence frequency
= = 0.31
and wave vector = 3 . Hence wave length = =
2.09
8. A string of length 1m and linear density 0.1 g/m is kept
under a tension of 1 N. Find the frequency of first and
second overtone, when the string is plucked at its mid point

Sol: When the string is plucked at its mid point, only odd
harmonics ie n, 3n, 5n 7n….alone are present.
Hence first overtone or second harmonics is not possible
Second overtone = 3 = = = 150
.
9. The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string of 1m
length is 500m/s. Find the frequency in fundamental mode.

Sol: We have =

=
2
Given =1, =1 = 500 / = × 500 = 250

10. A monochord is having a taut wire of total length L and has

a frequency of 100Hz .Its vibrating length can be adjusted
with a movable bridge. If the length is halved and the
tension is changed so that the frequency becomes 50Hz.
How many times the tension is increased/decreased?

446
 Problems and Exercises

Sol: Given = and = ; = 100 and =

50 =
√
We have the relation among , is

2= . and hence we get =8 ie tension

should be increased by 8 times
11. Find the speed of transverse wave in a wire of 1 cross
section and under the tension provided using 0.1 kg
mass.(Specific gravity of the wire is 9.8 / )

Sol: Given = 9.8 × ( )

× (10 ) = 9.8 × 10
Tension T = Mg = 0.1x9.8
. .
∴ Speed of transverse wave = = = 10 /
. ×
MCQs
1. A stationary wave is produced in a string of length 1.25 m.
If three nodes and two antinodes are produced in the string
then the wavelength of the wave is

a)2.5 m b) 3.75 m c)5m d)1.25m

HCU 2020
Ans:d
2. The Young’s modulus of a rod of mass m, cross sectional
area and length , fixed at one end is Y. If a force is
applied to stretch the rod, the period of small oscillation will
be

a)2 b) c) 2 d) 2

HCU 2019
Ans : a

447
 Problems and Exercises
3. Consider a sonometer wire made by soldering two wires of
radii r and 2r and kept under tension T. Stationary
vibrations are set up in the wire such that the soldered joint
is midway between the two bridges and is a node. The ratio
of the number of loops formed in the wires is

a) 1 b) 2 c) d)

HCU 2018
Ans: ?
4. A wave is propagating in a string of tension T and mass per
unit length . The travelling wave can be described as
( , )= ( − ) . What is the kinetic energy
in one wavelength of the travelling wave?

a) b) c) d)

HCU 2015
Ans: d

Hint: Kinetic energy . =

5. A violin string is held under Tension T . What will be the

fractional change in the frequency of its fundamental mode
of vibration if the tension is increased by the amount ?

a) b) c) d)
√

HCU2015
Ans:
6. The standing wave on a string of length L that is fixed at
both ends have a speed v. The three lowest frequencies of
vibration are

a) , b) , , c) , d) ,

HCU 2014
Ans: b

448
 Problems and Exercises

7. Which of the following equations does not represent a

travelling wave

a) = ( − ) b) = ( − ) c) = ( + )
( )
d) =
HCU 2012
Ans: b
Hint:Function should contain x and t only in the combination of
either + or −
8. Beats are the results of
a) Diffraction
b) Destructive Interference
c) Constructive interference
d) Super position of two waves with almost same frequency
AUCET 2020
Ans: d
9. The velocity of a transverse wave along a stretched string is

a) b) c) d)

AUCET2020
Ans: d
10. If the energy flows across every plane in the direction of
propagation of the wave then it is

a) stationary wave b) progressive wave c) electromagnetic

wave d) both a and c
AUCET2020
Ans: b
11. A Steel wire 550 cm long has mass of 5 gm. It is stretched
with a tension of 400 N. Find the frequency of the wire in
fundamental mode of vibration

449
 Problems and Exercises
a) 100 Hz b) 125 Hz c) 200 Hz d) 216 Hz
AUCET 2019
Ans: 50Hz
12. The speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is 500
m/s, when it is stretched under a tension of of 19.6 N. If the
tension is altered to a value of 78.4 N. what will be the
speed of the wave

a)100 m/s b)500 m/s c) 800 m/s d)1000

m/s
AUCET 2019
Ans: d
13. A wave is travelling on a string is given by ( , ) = 10
(0.1 − 22 ) . The wavelength ( ) and frequency
( )of the wave are given by

a) 62.9 cm, 3.5 b) 31.4 cm, 7 c) 0.002 cm, 0.3

d) 6.28 cm ,35
AKNU 2020, HCU 2011
Ans: a
14. Which of the following tuning fork is used by the doctors to
access a patients hearing
a) C-438 b) C- 128 c) C-416 d) C-
512
AKNU 2020
Ans:d
15. In Melde's experiment, eight loops are formed with a
tension of 0.75 N. If the tension is increased to four times
then the number of loops produces will be
a) 2 b) 4 c)8 d)16
Ans:b
16. In Melde’s experiment, the tuning fork is arranged such that
it’s prongs are parallel to the string . During 200 vibrations
of the tuning fork, the string completes vibrations

450
 Problems and Exercises

a) 100 b) 400 c)200 d)300

Ans: c
17. The apparatus of Melde's experiment can be used to test
the relationship between

A. Tension B. Mass per unit length C. Frequency D.

Wavelength
Choose appropriate answer
a) A,B only b) A, D only c) A, C only d) None of the
above
Ans: d
18. A knife edge divides a sonometer wire in two parts which
differ in length by 2 mm. The whole length of the wire is 1
meter. The two parts of the string when sounded together
produce one beat per second. Then the frequency of the
smaller and longer pans.in Hz,are
a) 250.5 and 249.5 b)249.5 and 250.5 c)124.5 and
125.5 d)125.5 and 124.5
Ans:d
19. A wave represented by = 20 (2 + ) is
A. Simple harmonic wave B. Progressive wave
C. Standing wave D. Stationary waveWavelength
Choose appropriate answer
b) A,B only b) A, D only c) C, D only d) A only
Ans: d

20. A string vibrates according to the equation where x ,y are

in cms and t in sec then the distance between two successive
nodes is

a) 15 cm b) 3cm c) 5cm d) 6 c

21. A wave is described by the equation where all distances are

in cms and time in second then

451
 Problems and Exercises
a) The amplitude is 4 cm b) The wavelength is
c)The period is sec d) The wave is travelling in –ve x
direction

https://www.aliensbrain.com/quiz/19885/melde-s-experiment-
class-xi (Problems)
Grade your understanding
1. Modes of coupled oscillations have independent [ ]
frequencies where as modes of vibrations are
multiples of some fundamental frequencies
2. When we apply a force on string, a tension force is [ ]
generated perpendicular to the length of the string
3. Strings have both longitudinal and transverse [ ]
vibrations
4. Heart beat variations represent a wave [ ]
5. Wave equation of a string have oscillating solutions [ ]
only in space but not in time
6. Tension in the string depends on the material of the [ ]
string
7. The displacement of elements of the string has time [ ]
reversal symmetry
8. Harmonics and overtones depends on the resonant [ ]
length of a string when keeping applied frequency,
tension and material of string constant
9. Tight string gives high pitch and that pitch value [ ]
depends on mode of vibration
10. Transverse waves in the string are unpolarized [ ]
11. In transverse mode tuning fork prong length is [ ]
transverse to string length
12. harmonic has ( + 1) nodes and antinodes [ ]
13. A string being under tension between two fixed ends [ ]
has continuous frequency spectrum
14. A simple harmonic wave is always either a [ ]
progressive wave or stationary wave

452
 Glossary

Glossary
Glossary: Vibrating Strings

A point where the amplitude of the standing

Antinode wave is at maximum
Compel or force (something) to follow a
Constrain particular course of action
Highest surface part (highest amplitude) of a
Crest wave

Eigen One of the natural resonant frequencies of a

frequency system
The ability of an object or material to resume
its normal shape after being stretched or
Elasticity compressed; stretchiness
A wave with a frequency that is a positive
integer multiple of the frequency of the original
Harmonic wave
A monochord, also known as sonometer, is an
ancient musical and scientific laboratory
instrument, involving one (mono-) string
Monochord (chord)
A point along a standing wave where the wave
Node has minimum amplitude
Prong A projecting part on various other devices
Quantum A sudden, very noticable and significant
leap advance
Slackening Reduce or decrease in speed or intensity
An instrument used to measure the sensitivity
Sonometer of hearing

453
 Glossary

A rod or pin serving as an axis that revolves or

Spindle on which something revolves.
Standing Combination of two waves moving in opposite
wave directions

Tension The state of being stretched tight

Lowest surface part (lowest amplitude) of a
Trough wave
Being or located near or on the anterior or
lower surface of an animal opposite the back/
Ventral plant structure.

454
 UNIT-V
Chapter-8
ULTRASONICS
అ
 8 అ
CHAPTER

ణల
ఈఅ ॓ అ ప

1) అ ॓ తరం ల ల

2) ఉత న

3) ం న

4) మ అ ష ం ం .

అభ సన ఫ
ఈ ఠం ర స

1) అ ॓ క ష ల ల మ ఉప ం ధ రం ల
ంచగ ..

2) ధ న ల కల ల బ అ ॓ తరం ల పవర న ఎ ం ం అ
వ ంచగల .

3) అ ॓ తరం ల ఉత య , ంచ వల న ధన క
అ ల ల ంచగల .

4) అ ॓ తరం ల ల ల బ మ ధ రం ల బ అ వర ల
వ క ంచగల .

5) ధ అవస ల త న అ ॓ తరం ల ఉత మ ం ల ఎం క
యగల .

6) అ ॓ తరం ల ఉత మ ం ధ ల ఉప ం ధ అవస ల త న
న ప కల త య గల .
 CHAPTER
ULTRASONICS 8
Syllabus
Ultrasonics, General properties of ultrasonic waves,
Production of ultrasonics by piezoelectric and
magnetostriction methods, Detection of ultrasonics,
Applications of ultrasonic waves, SONAR

Learning Objectives
In this chapter students would learn,
1. Properties of ultrasonic waves
2. Methods of generating ultrasonic waves
3. Methods of detecting ultrasonic waves
4. Applications of ultrasonics in various fields

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, student would be equipped with
adequate knowledge to
1. Identify specific properties of ultrasonics to be used for
a chosen application. In addition, to identify various
fields where ultrasonis are being used.
2. Describe the behaviour of ultrasonics relevant to the
nature of medium.
3. Predict proper material characteristics to generate and
detect ultrasounds of required frequency.
4. Classify various types of applications of ultrasounds
based on application and properties.
5. Select suitable methods of production & detection of
ultrasonics for specific applications.
6. Design prototype systems suitable for specific
application.
 ఉ త
ధ ం ల ం న ష ఫ మ భ ష
శ

ఈ ఠం ర స

1. క సం ద ల పక ల ల ఆ నం య
ఉప ం అ ॓ ఇంట ట క ఆవశ కత .
2. అ ఒక త రంగం అ ॓ తరం ల అవస
.
3. కం ట ధఅ ॓ రత అవసరౖ న ం
ఆవశ కత .
4. ల క స అ ॓ తరం ల ఆవశ కత
.
5. ఎల ॓ అ ॓ప క ల ఇతర ఎల ॓ ఉప ర ల
అ సం ం న ఆవశ కత .
6. వ ఎన ం వద ల సం ం నం
అ ॓ తరం ల ఆవశ కత మ ధ వ ఎన రం ల అ ॓
తరం ల ప వరణ తం ఉప ం న ఆవశ కత .
7. ॓ అ ॓ తరం ల ం ప క క ం న
స క ం న ఆవశ కత .

ప తం ం అప తం వర
ం తరగ ల (9వ తరగ )అ ॓ అం ఏ , వ ల భ పరచ ,
ప ంచ , క ఇ ం , ల ంచ ,స ద
లవ ఎ డ .అ 11వ తరగ , ప ఉప ం
ట (పర ం ) ం . ఇక డ అ ॓
తరం ల ధల పవర న ఎ తం ,మ ఇండ , క ,
రం ల ఉప ల ం ం .

ఉ త
20,000Hz క ఎ వ ఉన అ ॓ అం . మ న .
ధ గంక ఎ వ గం ప ం ప ॓ అం . 1013Hz క ఎక వ
ఉన ౖ ప ం అం .అ 5mach క ఎ వ గం ప ం
ౖ ప ॓ అం .ఇ ప ం లం ఏ ఒక నకం ఉం . vacuum ఇ
ప ంచ . జం communication ర మ ప ఆ షణ
ఉప .

458
 ఉ త

Course Outcomes specific to program and Future

directions
By the end of this chapter students from specific programs would
be in a position to identify the
1. Physics: Use of Ultrasonic interferometer in the estimation
of elastic properties of liquid samples.
2. Chemistry: Use of ultrasonics in various ultrasound assisted
chemical reactions (sonochemistry) and especially in the
emulsions industry.
3. Computers: Use of ultrasonic sensors in various fields and
industries which are needed to be programmed.
4. Geology: Use of ultrasonics for detecting a variety of
geological systems like underground water bodies, mineral
deposits and their use in geo-physical imaging.
5. Electronics: Use of ultrasonic sensors in various fields and
need for seamless integration of ultrasonic generators and
detectors into various electronic equipment.
6. REM: Use of ultrasonics in biomass processing and acquire
an understanding of the role of ultrasounds in nature and
species, while designing eco-friendly wind and ocean energy
systems.
7. Statistics: Use of ultrasounds in various fields and need for
integrating statistical tools in analysing data, collected by
various ultrasonic detectors in the respective fields.

Familiar to Unfamiliar
In your High School you might have learned about what are
ultrasonics and applications of ultrasonics in cleaning, detecting
flaws, medical imaging (Ultrasonography), breaking kidney stones
(Lithotripsy) and measuring depth of sea (SONAR). You might have
also learnt, in 11th class, that Doppler shift produced by ultrasounds
is useful in monitoring the heartbeat. Here you will learn various
properties of ultrasounds that decide their behaviour in various
media, the Production and detection techniques and some further
applications in various fields like industry, medicine, research etc.

459
 ఉ త
చ త
వ అ స త ఒక పళ చ ఏౖ ఒక అ ఉంచటం శ
ంచవచ , ఆ చక ం ం అ దల శబం ంద వ -
చక ం పద ం .అ ల అ స త డ గ న ఈల త
. అక డ టం డ ం శబం క ం . అ ఆయన
కల ణ ఇవ ఉప ం . అ మ ల వయ వ
ల ంచ ఉప ం . రణం వయ అ క శ ల
శ సన ఉం ం .

558BC -491BC మధ లం ం ఆ నం ఉన వ డ ౖ ఒక దండం

దగబ న మ నవ శ రం అంత ల డగ డ న తం
ం .అ ప తఆ ం ం అ ఉండవ .

త త 1990 ం 90KHz వర అ ం ల ఉత యగల ం ల

అ వృ . చ స 1912 పల ల క న ఉప ం
ం ం . ద పపంచ ద లం అ ॓ తరం ల స దం మం
పర , జ ంత ల ంచ ఉప ం . త ప లం ధ ర ల
అ ॓ జన ట , క త నత త ఉప గం ధ ప శమల ,
ౖ ద రంగం స ం ం .

E - Corner
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znVcmChq_1M
http://www.ciando.com/img/books/extract/3515105514_lp.pdf
https://www.ob-ultrasound.net/ultrasonics_history.html
Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India - Medicine in the Buddhist
Monastery, K. G. Zysk, Oxford University Press (1991), pp:54.
Fundamentals and Applications of Ultrasonic waves, J. David, N.
Cheeke, CRC Press (2002).

Activity

Prepare a note on chronological developments in

the field of ultrasonics from the books given in E-corner

460
 Introduction

Introduction
Ultrasonics are sound waves with frequencies greater than
human audible range i.e., 20,000Hz. It should not be confused with
supersonics, where objects travel with velocity more than the speed
of sound. There are also hypersonic waves that travel with Mach
number greater than 5 (i.e., velocities 5 times the speed of sound).
There are also hypersounds that have frequency greater than 1013Hz.
Since ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves, they need a material
medium to travel. Some of the animals like dogs and cats use these
frequencies for communication. Other animal species like bats,
dolphins and whales use them for navigation and echolocation of
prey.

History
The usage of ultrasounds by human beings dates back to
1830 where Savart used toothed wheel to produce ultrasounds. Here
the speed of the wheel decides the frequency of the sound. His
apparatus could produce ultrasounds up to 24KHz. Savart’s wheel is
considered as the first artificial ultrasound generator.

Fig: Savart’s wheel or disk. (Source: Wikipedia commons)

Further The Galton whistle or Dog whistle was developed in

1876 by Francis Galton. It consists of a resonating wind pipe similar
to flute whose length can be adjusted. The relation between the
length and resonance frequency is given by

=( + )⇒ = =
4 4( + )
This was used to train dogs and was also used to test the reduction
in audible range of frequencies, with age, in humans.

461
 Introduction

Galton Whistle – The first

dog whistle
The last reference in e-corner
pp:20 says that it is it is an
improved version of Galton
Whistle in 1900 by Edlemann. –
Justify with further references.

Did You Know?

Human ear drum can’t vibrate for frequencies greater than

20KHz. This is because, if a peak in the sound wave pushes the
ear drum in, before it comes back to original state, second peak
also falls in. Still human brain can perceive ultrasounds. Details
are in next pages…

Think

Are there any other methods to generate sound waves

other than beating objects and directing wind through pipes?

Sl No Application Frequency range

1. Medical imaging 1-18MHz
2. Acoustic sensors 10Hz-100GHz
3. Guided waves 50KHz-10MHz.
4. Acoustic microscopy 10MHz-400MHz
5. Cavitation 30KHz-1MHz
6. NDE (Non-destructive Evaluation) 100KHz-50MHz
7. SAW (Surface Acoustic Waves) 100MHz-10GHz

462
 Introduction

Fig. 2: Galton whistle.

Later in 1990 Koeing developed tuning forks which can

produce ultrasounds up to 90KHz. Richerdson in 1912 patented
SONAR which is used for under water range finding.

Did You Know?

As per the Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan scriptures, in

ancient India, Jivaka, a physician in the royal court, Bimbisara
of Magadha (558BC-491BC), used a gem placed between
wooden pieces to see inside the human body. That resembles
the modern ultrasound scanning system.

During the First World War ultrasounds were widely used for
echo locating icebergs and submarines in deep seas. Meanwhile
various ultrasonic production and detection techniques were
developed which made it possible to use them in industries and
medical fields for various applications.

Frequency Range of ultrasonic waves

The range of frequencies of ultrasounds for various
applications is as shown below.

Fig. 3: Ultrasonics frequency range for various applications

463
 Introduction
అ ॓ తరం ల ర
అ ॓ తరం ల థ కం ం ర ఉ . ం న మ న .
అ ౖ ర తరం ల ప ర శ ధ మం క ప ర క ల ల ల క ఉం
మ ర ॓ తరం తరంగ ప ర శ లంబం ల ల క ఉం . న
( ర ॓) తరం మ ం ర వ క ంచబ - వ క (SV) మ
ంట (SH). SV తరం శ ల ల క ఉం మ SH తరం
జస ంతర శ ల ల క ఉం .

ం న మ న ల క న కల కల ఇతర ఖౖ న తరంగ
ఉ .ఉ : ,ల , ం , , దౖ న .

తరం : తరం ం న న ఉం ఉప తల ధ తరం .

క న ద ఆ .ౖ ం ర ల తరం ల కల క
ర వృ ర తరం ం . కంపం వల ఏర కంప తరం ల ఇ క .
క ష స ల ట , ష ల , ం ల ల
సం ల అ వృ యడం ఇ ఉప ంచబడ .

ం తరం : ఈ తరం ల ం క . ఇ ఉప తలం ంట ప ం

ౖ తరం .ఇ ం న మ న తరం ల కల క ఫ తం ఏర
వృ ర వణ తరం . ఇ ॓ మ ం - ॓ ం అ ం
ర . ఇ ఒ ప ల ఉప తల షణ సం ఉప ంచబడ . ఈ
తరం ల ప చ రల ల ంచ ఉప .

ల తరం : AEH ల క .ఇ అ క ల (S- ) ప ష

ఉత యబ న జ స ంతర వణ ఉప తల తరం . - అ
. జర అం ర ం (పక తలం) అ అర ం . ఇ NDE ॓ల ఉప తల
అధ య ల సం ఉప ంచబడ .

తరం : ఇ ల ల ఉం ౖ ష శ
ఉం . జప కంప స త క . ఈ తరం ఉప తల శబ తరంగ
ల వ క ంచ ఉప గపడ .

తరం : ఈ తరం ం ధ ల స హ ంట .
అం వల స హ తరం ఇంట తరం అ అం . ఈ తరం
ఘన-ఘన ఇంట మ ద వ-ఘన ఇంట ల వద గమ ంచబడ . ఈ తరం
20KHz మ 500KHz ఆప ష క క ఉన అ ॓ ం
ధ ల ఉప ంచబడ .ఇ ట - ట ఇంట ల - స ఎ ష
(NDE) అధ య ల సం ఉప ంచబడ .

464
 Introduction

Types of Ultrasonic waves

There are basically two types of ultrasonic waves.
Longitudinal and Transverse. Longitudinal waves have oscillations of
material particles of the medium along the direction of propagation
and transverse waves have oscillations perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the wave. Transverse waves are again classified into
two types - Shear Vertical (SV) and Shear Horizontal (SH). SV waves
have oscillations in vertical direction and SH waves have oscillations
in horizontal direction.

Fig: P, SV, SH waves

There are other important wave forms which are different

combinations of longitudinal and transverse modes. Eg: Rayleigh,
Love, Lamb, Stoneley, Sezawa etc.
Rayleigh waves: Rayleigh
waves are the surface
acoustic waves which may be
longitudinal or transverse.
They were named after their
discoverer, Lord Rayleigh.
The combination of both
types of Rayleigh waves Fig: Rayleigh Wave
results in an ellipsoidal
wave. These are found in seismic waves generated by earth quake.
These are used in developing sensors for touchscreens, cell phone
radiation filters, narrow band frequency filters in communication
systems.
Lamb waves: These waves were discovered by Horace Lamb. These
are the guided Rayleigh waves along a surface. These are combination
of longitudinal and transverse waves with resultant circularly
polarized waves. These are of two types namely symmetric and anti-
symmetric lamb waves. These are used for bulk surface analysis of
materials in one shot. These waves are used for flaw detection in thin
films.

465
 Introduction
తరం :ఇ ఇంట . ఈ తరం దవం మ ఘన ధ మం
క ఇంట గమ ంచబడ .ఇ స ద గర ం వద ఇ క ఇంట ల
వద ధ షణ సమయం గమ ంచబడ .ఇ ప గ ల ఉత యబ న
కణ ల రల క NDE సం ఉప ంచబడ .

స అ ॓ తరం :ఇ సమయం ఉత న మ త వ నః న ం
(1KHz-30KHz) తరం . తన పక ల అ య ధ
తరం ల ఉత ం . ల వల ఉత న మ అలక ల అర ం
వ అధ యనం యవ . ఈ అధ య ఖం ర షణ
ఉప గపడ .

Activity

Identify the difference between SH wave and Love wave.

Identify the difference between SV, Rayleigh and Sezawa waves.

E - Corner
https://www.geometrics.com/support/different-types-of-
seismic-waves/
https://doi.org/10.1109/ULTSYM.1986.198801
https://www.ndt.net/article/v11n05/nesvi/nesvi.htm
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2018.05.158
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.89772
https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4927633
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4990443
https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/10/3421/htm

466
 Introduction

Fig: Symmetric and Anti-symmetric lamb waves.

Love waves: These were
discovered by AEH Love. These
are horizontally polarized
surface waves produced by
superposition of many shear
waves (S-waves). These are also Fig: Love wave.
called Q-waves where Quer in
German means lateral. These are observed only when there is a low
velocity layer over a high velocity layer. These are also used for
surface studies in NDE techniques.
Sezawa waves: These are also
similar to Love waves but with
their vibration components in
vertical direction. These were
discovered by Sezawa, a
Japanese seismologist. These Fig: Sezava Waves
waves are useful for characterizing surface acoustic wave sensors.
Stoneley waves: These waves
propagate along the boundary
separating two different media.
Hence they are also called as
boundary waves or interface
waves. These waves are observed
at solid-solid interfaces and liquid-
solid interfaces. These waves are
used in ultrasonic well logging
tools which have a frequency of Fig: Stoneley waves
operation around 20KHz and 500KHz. These are also used for non-
destructive evaluation (NDE) studies of metal-metal interfaces.
Sholte waves: These are also interface waves. These waves are
observed at the interface of fluid and elastic solid medium. These are
observed at water sand interfaces at shallow seabed during their

467
 అ తరం ాల ల ణ ల
acoustic analysis. These are also used for NDE of lab generated tissue
membranes.

అ ॓ తరం ల ల
అ ॓ తరం ల ల ం ఇవ బ :

1. అ ॓ తరం 20,000Hz కం ఎ వ ల క ఉం .

2. అ ం క తరం మ అం వల ప ంచ క ధ మం అవసరం.

3. అ ॓ తరం ఇతర నగల ధ తరం ల వ అ గం ప .

4. అ ॓ తరం ల గం యం క ఉ గత మ పకతౖ ఆ రప
ఉం ం . ఇ υ=√(Y/ρ) (ఘనప ల సం) √(K/ρ) (ప సం) ఇవ బ ం . ఇక డ
Y యం ల ,Kఅ ప రం క బ ల మ ρఅ ప రం క
ందత. ఉ గత దల , బ ల మ ం మ
అ ం గం ం .

5. అ అ క నః న ం మ త వ తరంగౖ ర ం క ఉండటం వలన, వత ఎ వ నష ం

ం ఎ వ రం ప ంచగల .

6. అ చలనం ం అ రదర క, హక, -కండ ం మ దటౖ న

గల మ అం వల ఆ క , ఎల ॓ ఏౖ ఇతర కం
ప జనకరం ఉం .

7. అ రణ ధ తరం ల వ ప ం ంచబడ , వ భవనం యబడ ,

ం క ంచబడ .

8. అ ధ తరం ల వ క సమయం " ప " పద .ధ

తరం తరంగౖ ర ం కం న ంతం ం క ంచబ న , అ చలనం
ం య మన .

9. ప లౖ ప న అ ఉత .

10. అ " ష ఎ ॓" ఉత ,ఇ ద ల త వ డనం అ ॓

తరం ల న న డగ ఏర దృ షయం.

11. అ ఉత , అన , ఒక ం ం అ ॓ దవ
ధ మం ంచబ న ష డగల ఉత , డగ అల డన
ంతం వద స ం మ తరంగం క అ క డన ం ల వద నంఅ ం .
ఆక క న ం సమయం , డగ ం దల ం .

468
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

Fig: Sholte waves

Whistler mode acoustic waves: These are the low frequency
(1KHz-30KHz) radio waves generated during lightning. The
lightning also generates acoustic waves in the surrounding air or
ionosphere. These can be studied to understand the turbulences
produced by lightning. These studies are especially useful in the
analysis of solar wind.

Properties of Ultrasonic waves

The properties of ultrasonic waves are listed in the following:

1. Ultrasonic waves have frequencies greater than 20,000Hz.

2. They are mechanical waves and hence need a material
medium to travel.
3. Ultrasonic waves travel with the same velocity as other
audible sound waves.
4. The velocity of ultrasonic waves depends on the elasticity of
the medium and temperature. It is given by =
/ ( ) / ( ) Where Y is youngs
modulus, K is the bulk modulus of the material and is the
density of the material. With the rise in temperature, both
bulk modulus and density change and ultrasound wave
velocity increases.
5. They can travel longer distances without much loss in
intensity, as they have high frequency and short wavelength.
6. They can penetrate through opaque, conducting, non-
conducting and dense media without deviation and hence are
advantageous over optical, electronic or any other probes.

469
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
అ ॓ తరం ల ణత
అ ॓ తరం అ క శ , అ క మ త వ తరంగౖ ర ం క ఉం .
అం త, ఇ శ ఎ వ నష ం ం రణ ధ తరం ల ఎ వ రం
ప ంచగల . అ ॓ తరం ల అ ప ం ధ మం ప తం
ప ం . రం పరం అ ॓ క ంద ఇవ బ ం

= .
ఇక డ α అ అ ష ఎ యం మ xఅ ఇ న ధ మం అ ॓
తరం ప ం రం. అం వలన రం మ అ ష ఎ యం పరం
వత కౖ ధ ం ఈ ధం ఇవ బ ం .

= .
తరం ల అస వ కం త న అ ష ఎ యం
వ1 ప / ఉం ం .

.
= ⇒ ln =− . ⇒
1 1
= − ln ⇒ = ln .

వత క అ ష ఎ యం ం ధం ర ంచబ ం . వత
అస వ కం 〖10〗^(-1)=e^(-2.303) త అ ష ఎ యం 1
/ ఉం ం .

. .
= ⇒ ln = −2.303 ⇒ log =−

1 1 1
⇒ = log ⇒ = 10 log
10
1
⇒ = 10 log

ౖ న న , ప మ మధ సంబంధం ఇ యవ

20
= 10 log = 10 log = 20 log = ln
2.303
= 8.68 ×

ఇక డ 1 = 10 log = 20 log = 8.68 × 1

1 = ln అ ష ఎ యం dB/m Np/m.

470
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

7. They can be reflected, refracted, focused exactly like

ordinary sound waves.
8. They also exhibit “diffraction limit” during focusing, like
sound waves. We know that when sound waves are focused
into a region smaller than their wavelength, they get
deviated.
9. They produce heat when incident on materials.
10. They produce “Cavitation effect”, which is the phenomenon
of creation of vacuum bubbles in liquids when exposed to
ultrasonic waves under low pressure.
11. They produce sonoluminescence, i.e., when a standing
ultrasonic wave is established in liquid medium and if
cavitation produces bubbles, the bubble expands at the low
pressure region and collapses at the high pressure regions of
the standing wave. During sudden collapse, the bubble
exhibits luminescence.
A few of the quantitative properties of ultrasonic waves which are
essential in deciding their behaviour in various media, are as follows:

Attenuation of ultrasonic waves

Ultrasonic waves have high energy, high frequency and low
wavelength. Hence, they can travel longer distances compared to
ordinary sound waves without much loss in energy. The amplitude
of ultrasonic waves also falls exponentially in a medium in which it
travels. The amplitude of ultrasonic wave as a function of distance is
given by
= .
Here is the attenuation coefficient and is the distance travelled
by ultrasonic waves in the given medium. Thus the variation of
intensity as a function of distance in terms of attenuation
coefficient is given as
= .
The value of the attenuation coefficient will be 1 Neper/m,
when the amplitude of the waves falls by times its original value.

471
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

Material ( / ) Material ( / )
Air, at 20 °C 1.64 Fat 0.48
Blood 0.2 Liver 0.5
Bone, cortical 6.9 Marrow 0.5
Bone,trabecular 9.94 Muscle 1.09
Brain 0.6 Tendon 4.7
Dentin 80 Soft tissue (avg.) 0.54
Enamel 120 Water 0.0022
Fig: List of materials with attenuation coefficients.

Think

The attenuation coefficient consists of a ratio of two

intensities at two locations in space. Then what is the standard
initial intensity to define ?

Did You Know?

It is observed that is inversely proportional to square of

frequency of ultrasonic wave. The standard frequency at which is
defined is 1MHz.

E - Corner

https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics/Waves/attenuation.xhtml
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation
https://www.britannica.com/science/sound-physics/Sound-
absorption

472
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

.
= ⇒ ln =− . ⇒
1 1
= − ln ⇒ = ln .

The attenuation coefficient in decibel is defined for intensities as

follows. The attenuation coefficient will be 1 Bel/m if the intensity
.
falls by 10 = times its original value.
The attenuation coefficient in decibel is defined for intensities as
follows. The attenuation coefficient will be 1 Bel/m if the intensity
.
falls by 10 = times its original value.

. .
= ⇒ ln = −2.303 ⇒ log =−

1 1 1
⇒ = log ⇒ = 10 log
10
1
⇒ = 10 log

In the above, the relation between Neper and decibel is given

by
20
= 10 log = 10 log = 20 log = ln
2.303
= 8.68 ×
Here

1 = 10 log = 20 log = 8.68 × 1 ℎ 1

= ln

The units of attenuation coefficient is / or / .

Did You Know?

The zero decibel where = , is defined at the

threshold of human hearing intensity which causes a pressure of
20 on human ear drum.

473
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
అ ॓ ఇం

ఎల క ప ల ం క పత ం ధం ఇవ బ . నభ ంశం పం
ఉం ం , అ క ం పం ఉం ం . అ వ త అ వ త శ
పం ఉం ం మ ధకత, ఇ /క ం స నం, ఇ
శ / స నౖ న ం క ధకత పం ఉం ం . అ
అవసరౖ న దక శ తం. ,ఇ క ం ప అవసరౖ న
ౖ ం య త ం. క మం అ దక శ ఉత యబ న
గం ం హకత. , ఇ ౖ ం య ఉత
యబ న క ం (ఎల ప హం) త ం.

ఇండ మ స నౖ న ఇతర ప వ స దవ మ
ం కం య (C=1/k). మ క త ం ఇం , ఇ
యవ .
= + ( − / )
ఎల క మ క ఆ ట స ల క ప క ంద
ఇవ బ ం .

Electrical system Mechanical system

Charge Q Displacement x
Current I Velocity v
Applied voltage V Applied force F
Resistance R Mechanical resistance Rm
Inductance L Mass m
Capacitance C Compliance C=1/k.
Impedance Mechanical Impedance
Z= R+j(ωL-1/ωC) Zm= Rm+j(ωm-k/ω)

అ ॓ ఇం Kg/ క ట క ఉం ం . ఇ ర ంచవ

ప ౖ లం ధ ధకత ష అవ ధం అం . ఇ Kg/m^2/sec
ట క ఉం . మ క క మ (MRayl),
. ఇ వ క ంచవ

= =

474
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

Acoustic impedance
The mechanical equivalents of electrical terms are given as
follows. Charge is analogous to displacement while current is
analogous to velocity. The applied voltage is analogous to applied
force and thus electrical resistance, which is equal to voltage/current
is analogous to mechanical resistance, which is equal to
force/velocity. Thus resistance is the amount of driving force
required per unit velocity. In electricity, it is the amount of driving
potential required per unit current flow. Inverse of that is the
conductance which represents the amount of velocity produced per
unit driving force. In electricity, it would be the amount of current
(electron flow) produced per unit driving potential.
The other reactive terms equivalent to inductance and
capacitance are mass and spring compliance ( = 1/ ), respectively.
The sum of resistance and reactance is the impedance, which is given
as
= + ( − / )
A table of comparison of parameters in electrical and
mechanical oscillator systems is given below.
Electrical system Mechanical system
Charge Q Displacement x
Current I Velocity v
Applied voltage V Applied force F
Resistance R Mechanical resistance Rm
Inductance L Mass m
Capacitance C Compliance C=1/k.
Impedance Mechanical Impedance
Z= R+j(ωL-1/ωC) Zm= Rm+j(ωm-k/ω)

The acoustic impedance has the units of / . This can

also be defined as

The acoustic impedance per unit area is called the specific

acoustic impedance. It has the units of / / . Another

475
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
ఇక డ p అ డనం, ρ అ ధ మం క ంద త మ cఅ క గం. ఘన-
ద వ- - ఇంట ల ఏౖ అ ॓ తరం ల ప వర నం మ ప రం
జ ట ఈ శబ అవ ధం అ రదర కం అ ం .

Speed of
Density Specific Acoustic
Medium Ultrasound
(kg/m3) Impedance (kg/(m2 · s))
(m/s)
Air 1.3 330 429 = 429 Rayl
Water 1000 1500 1.5 × 106 = 1.5MRayl
Blood 1060 1570 1.66 × 106 = 1.66MRayl
Fat 925 1450 1.34 × 106 = 1.34MRaayl
Muscle
1075 1590 1.70 × 106 = 1.7MRayl
(average)
Bone 1400–
4080 5.7 × 106 to 7.8 × 106
(varies) 1900
Barium
5600 5500 30.8 × 106 = 30.8MRayl
Titanate
Table: Specific Acoustic impedance of various materials.

Table: Specific acoustic impedance of water Vs. temperature.

ధ ఉ గతల వద క ష శబ అవ ధం కౖ ధ ం ంద ఇవ బ ం . ఈ ప క
ఉ గత త ం , గం త ం మ ందత ం , ఫ తం ష ధ
ధకత తం కర దల ఏర ం . బ ,అ ॓ క షధ
అవ ధం గం లక ందత ఎ వప తం ..

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapt
er/17-7-ultrasound/

476
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

standard unit is Rayl and Mega Rayl (MRayl) which is named after
Lord Rayleigh. This can be expressed as

= =

Here is the pressure, is the density of the medium and

is the velocity of the wave. This acoustic impedance is the guiding
parameter for the reflection and transmission of ultrasonic waves at
any of the solid-liquid-gas-vacuum interfaces.
The variation of specific acoustic impedance for air at various
temperatures is given below. This table shows that with reduction in
temperature, the velocity reduces and the density increases resulting
in a net increase in the specific acoustic impedance. This implies that
in case of air, the specific acoustic impedance of the ultrasonic wave
is much less sensitive to a reduction in velocity in comparison to an
increase in the density.

Reflection and Transmission of Ultrasonic waves

across interfaces
Ultrasonic waves behave similar to ordinary sound waves
during reflection. They also transmit through material media without
much loss in their amplitude. They obey the laws of reflection and
refraction as the light rays, which implies that ultrasonic waves also
obey Snell’s law.
sin
= =
sin

Fig. Reflection and Refraction of ultrasonic waves.

477
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
ఇంట ( మయ మ)ల అ ॓ తరం ల ప వర నం
మ ప రం

అ ॓ తరం ప వర నం సమయం రణ ధ తరం ల వ పవ . అ తమ

ఎ వ నష ం ం య యగల . అ ం ర ల
వ ప వర నం మ వ భవన య ల , అన అ ॓ తరం
య క బ ఉం .
ద మ ం న ల త అ మ , అ
ఘనప 3 ల క ఉం . ం న (L), సమతలం ల ల న
ఉం ం ( ట / య వ క SV -↕⟶) మ సమత లంబం ల ల
న ఉం ం (స ట / ంట SH -⊙⟶). , ఏౖ ఒక L SV
ఘనప ల Lమ SV తరం ల ం ం ఉత ం .అ , ఒక SH
వలం SH త ఉత ం . ఎ ం తరం ల ౖ ష ల
అ మ ంచ . ఇంట ల రణ ప వర మ ప ం తం
వ ంచబ .

ధఅ ష ల సం ల ౖ ట ఇ ఉప గకరం ఉం .

Activity

Try to draw Refraction and reflection diagrams for any

other missing combinations like solid to liquid interfaces etc.

https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth-atmospheric-and-
planetary-sciences/12-510-introduction-to-seismology-
spring-2010/lecture-notes/lec9.pdf

ఇంట ల వద అ ॓ తరం ల ప వర న మ ప ర
ణ
ష ఇం ం శబ ధ ల x=0 వద స హ ప గ ంచం

= =

ఇక డ p_1, p_2 డ మ u_1 మ u_2 వ స యం 1 మ 2

అ ॓ తరం ల . ρ_1 మ ρ_2 వ స యం 1 మ 2ల ందత .

478
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

Liquids and gases allow only longitudinal modes whereas solids have
3 modes. Longitudinal (L), Transverse with oscillations in the plane
(Sagittal/Shear Vertical SV −↕⟶) and Transverse with oscillations
perpendicular to the plane (Sagittal/Shear Horizontal SH − ⊙⟶).
Out of these, any single L wave or SV wave generates both L and SV
waves in solids. However, a SH wave generates only a SH wave.
Vacuum doesn’t allow any type of waves or vibrations. Some typical
reflections and transmissions at a few interfaces are illustrated in the
following figure.

Fig: Typical reflections and transmissions of Ultrasonic waves at

solid, liquid, gas and vacuum interfaces.

These are highly useful while designing sensors for various

applications.

Reflection and Transmission coefficients of

Ultrasonic waves across interfaces
Consider a boundary at = 0 separating two acoustic media with
specific impedance

479
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
పతన తరంగం మ ప వర న తరంగం ద ధ మం ఉ మ ప ర తరంగం
ండవ ధ మం ఉం , అన , పతన తరంగం ంత గం యం 1 ప వర నం
ం ం ;మ న గం యం 2 ప రం యబ ం .

బ యం 1 మ యం 2 డనం మ గం క అం ఈ ధం
ఉం .

( ) ( ) ( )
= = =
( ) ( ) ( )
= = =
ప బంధన ఈ ధం ఉం .

│ = │ │ = │
అం ద బంధన ఉప ,

│ − │ = │ ⇒ − = ⇒ −

= ⇒ − = − − − −(1)

ండవ బంధన ఉప

│ + │ = │ ⇒ ( + ) =
⇒ + = − − − −(2)
ప వర నం మ ప ర ణ ఈ ధం ర ంచవ .

= = − − − (3)

= = − − − (4)

(4) ం (3) , (2) ఉప

−
− = = = 1 − − − (5)

(1) మ (2) క ,
2 2
2 = 1+ ⇒ = = = − − − (6)
1+ +

480
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

= =

Here , are the pressures and and are the velocities of

ultrasonic waves in medium 1 and 2 respectively. Let and be
the densities of medium 1 and 2 respectively.
The incident wave and the reflected wave are in the first medium and
the transmitted wave is in the second medium, i.e., a portion of the
incident wave is reflected back into medium 1 and the remaining
portion is transmitted into medium 2.
So the pressure and velocity components in medium 1 and medium
2 are given by
( ) ( ) ( )
= = =
( ) ( ) ( )
= = =

Fig. Ultrasonic reflection and transmission across a boundary.

The boundary conditions are

│ = │ │ = │
Using the first boundary condition gives

│ − │ = │ ⇒ − = ⇒ −

⇒ − = − − − −(1)

481
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
(5) మ (6) ఉప ం న ,

2 −
= −1= −1= − − − (7)
+ +
-1: ండవ ధ మం దృఢం ఉం , అం , z_2≫z_1 z_2→∞అ

2 2
= = =2⇒ =2 ,
+1 1
∞ + 1
= −1=1⇒ =
అ ప వర న రణం క కంపనప మ దశ పతన రణ వల స నం
ఉం . ఇం , ప రం యబ న రణం క కంపనప పతన రణం కం ం
మ ం ఒ దశ క ఉం .

-2: ద ధ మం దృఢం ఉం , అం , z_1≫z_2 z_1→∞ అ ,

−1 −1
= =∞ = −1 ⇒ =− ; = +1
1+ 1+
∞
=0 ⇒ =0
అ ప వర న రణం పతన ర దశ దం ఉం ం మ అ
క ఉం ం ,అ ప ర రణం ఉండ ( ప రo స పం ఉం ం ).

-3: ం ధ ఒ ఉం , అం , z_1=z_2, అ R=0 మ T=1.

త ం తరంగం ప వర నం ం ప రం యబ ంద ఇ ం .

అ ॓ తరం స హ నం పవ య గమ ంచవ . ంద
నకం ప వర నం ం న , ప వర న తరంగం పతన తరంగం ఒ దశ
ఉం ం . రళ నకం ప వర నం ం న , ప వర న తరంగం పతన తరంగం
180˚ దశ అంతరం ఉం ం . ంద నకంౖ ప వర నం ం ట ,( -1, z_2
≫z_1) 1 ఆం ఉన పతన తరంగం, స న ఆం ఉన ప వర నం
తరం మ ం ఆం ఉన ప ర తరం ఉత ం .
ం ల బ పతన ణ , ప వర న మ ప ర రణ ల వత
ం నట ఈ గందర ళం ల ంచబ ం .అ ఈ ం ధం ఇవ బ .

ప రం యబ న తరంగ ఆం ఇ యవ ,

= | | & =| |

482
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

Using the second boundary condition, we obtain

│ + │ = │ ⇒ ( + ) =
⇒ + = − − − −(2)
The reflection coefficient & transmission coefficient are defined by

= = − − − (3)

= = − − − (4)

Subtracting (3) from (4) and using (2) gives

−
− = = = 1 − − − (5)

Adding (1) and (2) gives,

2 2
2 = 1+ ⇒ = = = − − − (6)
1+ +

Using (5) and (6) we get

2 −
= −1= −1= − − − (7)
+ +
Case-1: If the second medium is rigid, i.e., ≫ → ∞ then,
2 2
= = =2⇒ =2 ,
+1 1
∞+1
= −1=1⇒ =
Then the amplitude and phase of the reflected ray are equal to that
of the incident ray. Further, the amplitude of the transmitted ray is
double that of the incident ray and both have the same phase.

Fig: Ultrasonic reflection and transmission at rarer-denser medium

boundary

483
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
Eq . (6) మ (7) ల ౖ న న ఈ ష ప , I_t+I_r=I_i ం .ఇ
శ త ం .

అ ॓ తరంగం ఇంట ౖ ఉన ణం పతనం సంభ ం న ,

స కర ప వర న మ ప ర ణ ల అం . θ_1 మ θ_2 వ స పతన
ణం మ వ భవన ణం. అ ప వర న మ ప ర ణ ల ఇ యవ .

cos − cos
=
cos + cos
2 cos
=
cos + cos
ం ర ల క స కర ల అ ॓ తరం ల షయం 1మ 2
క పరస రం య గమ ంచం . ఇ అ ॓ తరం ల ప వర నం మ
స హ వ భవనం సమయం ం ర ల ం నం ం .

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acousti
cs/Reflection_and_transmission_of_plane_waves

http://www.fast.u-
psud.fr/~martin/acoustique/support/r%C3%A9flect
ion-r%C3%A9fraction.pdf
http://www.ase.uc.edu/~pnagy/ClassNotes/AEEM7
028%20Ultrasonic%20NDE/AEEM-
7028%20lecture%2C%20Part%203%20Reflection%
20and%20Transmission.pdf

http://physics.gmu.edu/~ellswort/p263/feqn.pdf

484
 Properties of Ultrasonic waves

Case-2: If the first medium is rigid, i.e., ≫ → ∞ then,

−1 −1
= =∞ = −1 ⇒ =− ; = +1
1+ 1+
∞
=0 ⇒ =0
Then the reflected ray is opposite in phase to the incident ray and
has the same amplitude, while there will be no transmission ( or
near zero tra
nsmission).

Fig: Ultrasonic reflection at denser-rarer medium boundary

Case-3: If both media are same, i.e., = , then R=0 and T=1.
This implies that the entire wave will be transmitted without
reflection.
Note:
It is observed that the ultrasonic waves behave quite differently
across boundaries. When reflected on denser medium, the reflected
wave is in phase with the incident wave. When reflected on rarer
medium, the reflected wave is 180˚ out of phase with the incident
wave. Also while reflecting on denser medium (Case-1, z_2≫z_1)
Incident wave of 1 unit amplitude is producing a reflected wave of
equal amplitude and a transmitted wave of double the amplitude.
This confusion will be cleared out if the intensities of incident,
reflected and transmitted waves are calculated instead of amplitudes.
They are given as follows.
The transmitted wave amplitude is given by

485
 అ క ్ ఉత
అ ॓ ఉత
అ ॓ తరం ం క తరం . అం వల అ క క ఎన స
ప ంచబ మ అ క ఇతర ర ల శ అ ॓ ( క ) తరంగ శ
ర ఉప ంచబ . ఈ ం వరం చ ంచబ .

పద
ంగ య 1928 అ వృ . అత USA ౖ
మ ప గ ంచబ (1904-1920). 1921 స ౖ
ఆ ట అ వృ నత త అత ఓ ట ల పద మ ంత ప .

త ం:
పద ఉన తం, ం న , ప వం.
అయ ంత ప హ అయ ంత తం ఉం న , డ అయ ం కరణ
శ ం . డ త వ బలం వద అ బ
అ తం ఉం ం .ఈ ధం , అయ ంత ప ౖ న
అయ ంత వ ంప , డ అ క ప ఆవర న ం
ం మ ప ం . అయ ంత ప క ల ల అ క
ం ంత ఉం ంద ఇ ం . ఈ దృ ష ఎ ॓ అం .

ప న :

1. ప త క ట , మధ ంచబ న అయ ంత ప క ఉం ం మ
ఇ ౖ L_1 మ L_2 ఇండక ల ట బ ఉం ం .

2. L2, CE ంౖ య క ఇ క ॓ యబ ం మ L1
ట C1 స ంతరం ఉం ం , ఇ CE ంౖ య అ వద క ॓
యబ ం .

3. స ఆ యబ న , L1 మ C1 ఏర న ం॓ స f_e=1/(2π
√(L1 C1 )) త ల ల ఉత ం .

4. లనం తం 2f_e అయ ంత ప లనం అయ ంత

ఉత ం . క సహజ నః న ం fb=1/2π √ (Y/ρ)
ఇవ బ ం , ఇక డ L అ క డ ,Yఅ క యం ల మ
ρఅ క ందత.

5. లనం అయ ంత తం L2 fe లనం ఉత
ం . L1 మ L2 ఒ దశ ఉన ం న, ఇ మ అ

486
 Production of Ultrasonics

= | |

=| |

Substituting Eq. (6) and (7) in the above, one obtains + = .

This ensures conservation of energy.
When the ultrasonic wave is incident on the interface at oblique
angle, then Fresnel equations give the reflection and transmission
coefficients. Let and be the angle of incidence and angle of
refraction respectively. Then the reflection and transmission
coefficients are given by
cos − cos
=
cos + cos
2 cos
=
cos + cos
Observe that the indices 1 and 2 are interchanged in the case
of ultrasonic waves as compared to the Fresnel equations for light
rays. This makes ultrasonic waves different from light rays during
reflection and refraction across boundaries.

Production of Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves. Hence several
mechanical energy transducers have been proposed and utilized
to convert various other forms of energy into ultrasonic
(mechanical) wave energy. Some of them are discussed in detail
in the following.

Magnetostriction method
This was developed by George Washington Pierce in 1928. He
was considered as the father of wireless telegraphy in the USA (1904-
1920). His methods of oscillators were further strengthened by the
development of quartz crystal stabilized oscillator by Cady in 1921.

487
 Magnetostriction method
గ ల మధ త క వ కరణ జ ం . ఈ ధం స ॓
ఆ ట ప ం మ ల ం త దల ం శ తం ఉం .

6. ట C1 యడం fe వ రవ . 2fe=fb ఉన అ ద
సంభ ం . ఫ తం క అ క ఆం ల ం॓ స క
ం అ ॓ తరం అయ ంత ప క ఉన ధ మం
దల .అ ం న తరం .

7. ఇ గ 0.7V కం త వ ఉం గ స ట . అం వల స
క ఇ గం బ ం DC అ యబ ం .అ తం గ
డం ం మ స అ మ ంచబ ం .

8. AC కం బలౖ న ఉన DC అ . హ
అయ ంత వ ంప యడం ంచవ .

9. అ వం సందర ం , క ఒక వర ఎప ఉత ర వం వ మ మ క వర
ద ణ వం వ ఉం ం . AC , గ ష ం , అయ ం కరణ ం . అం వలన
AC క త ంౖ క డ ం . అం వలన
అ ద fe=fb ఇవ బ ం .

ప జ :

1. త వ నః న అ వర ల సం అ క ంచవ .

2. అ ॓ తరం ల ఉత య ఇ ౖ న పద .

ప లత :

1. థ క నః న ం 30KHz వద రంభమ ం బ ద స - ॓
(15KHz) ం ప వ ం . ఫ తం ౖ ఎ ॓ జన టర అ క
శబ ం వ ం , య ఎ ॓ జన ట థ క 40KHz ప ఉం ం .

2. ఇ గ షం 3MHz 3000KHz నః న ం అ ॓ తరం ల

ం ంచగల .

3. ల ల ఉ గత మ ఎ వ ప తమ ం .

Ref: Encyclopaedia of Physics. Volume XI/2. Acoustics II, S.

Flugge, Springer Verlag (1962), pp:87

488
 Magnetostriction method

Principle: The principle involved in magnetostriction method,

as the name suggests, is the magnetostriction effect. When a
ferromagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field,
its length increases along the direction of magnetization. The
change in length is proportional to the applied field strength at
low field strengths. Thus, if a sinusoidally varying magnetic
field is applied to a ferromagnetic bar, its length rises and falls
twice for each cycle of the applied field. This implies that the
frequency of oscillations of the ferromagnetic bar will be twice
the frequency of the applied field. This phenomenon is called
magnetostriction effect.

Fig: Magnetostriction Principle.

Working:
1. The experimental setup consists of a ferromagnetic bar
clamped at the middle and wound with inductors and
on either ends.
2. The coil L2 is connected to the input of a CE amplifier
and coil is in parallel with a capacitor , which is
connected at the output of the CE amplifier.
3. When the circuit is turned on, the tank circuit formed
by and produces electric field oscillations of
frequency given by = .

4. The oscillating electric field produces an oscillating

magnetic field in the ferromagnetic bar with frequency

489
 Magnetostriction method

Fig: Magnetostriction apparatus used by George W. Pierce in 1928

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 63, no. 1,
April 1928 ; https://doi.org/10.2307/20026189; reprinted with permission
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

490
 Magnetostriction method

2 . But the natural frequency of the bar is given by

= where is the length of the bar, is

Young’s modulus of the bar and is the density of the
bar.
5. The oscillating magnetic field produces oscillating
electric field of frequency in the coil . Since the
fields in and are in phase, constructive
interference occurs between the input and output
signals. Thus the circuit acts as a positive feedback
oscillator and the oscillations remain forever without
loss in amplitude.
6. The value of can be varied by tuning the capacitor .
Resonance occurs when 2 = . This results in a high
amplitude oscillation of the bar and ultrasonic waves of
double the frequency of the tank circuit are emitted into
the medium containing the ferromagnetic bar. They are
of longitudinal waves.

Fig. Magnetostriction method

7. But the transistor cannot pass the signal if the input signal is
below 0.7V. Hence a biasing DC voltage is applied at the input
section of the transistor. Then the entire signal shifts into
positive quadrant and is allowed by the transistor.

491
 ౖ ఎ పద
ౖ ఎ ॓ పద
ల ౖ ట 1921 అ వృ .ఆ కౖ ఎ ఆయన మ
ప గ ంచబ . అత ం మ కౖ ఎ ॓స ౖ క ం
రణ ం .

తం:
స ష ణ ర ణం ౖ న మ వన కప బ న ష ణ జం క
ఉం ం . స క అ ం z- ంచబ ం . ల స ంతరం
ఉం అ ం y- మ ల లల క అ ం x- . ణం ంద న
ధం ఉం ం . ఇక డ x-అ ం అ ంమ y-అ ం ం కఅ ంఅ .

అ ం ంట వ ంప ,అ ం క అ ం ంట నభంశం ం ం .
అ ధం ం క అ ం ంట ఒ ప ,అ అ ం ంట య స
X-క మ Y-క అ ం త ఉ .

X-క , X-అ ం ంట ఉన స క ంచబ ం మ న స క క తలం

Y-అ స ంతరం ఉం ం . ం కఅ ం స క సమత లంబం ఉన ం న,
X-క స ఉత యబ న ల ర ॓ తరం అ ఉం . న
ఒక లనం పక ల ధ మం తరం సృ ం బ , ల ల
స క స నం ఉం ం .

Y-క , Y-అ ం ంట ఉన స క ంచబ ం మ న స క క తలం

X-అ స ంతరం ఉం ం . ం కఅ ం స క త లంబం ఉన ం న, Y-
క స ఉత యబ న ల అ ౖ ర తరం అ ఉం . ం న
ఒక లనం పక ల ధ మం సగం తరం త సృ ంచగల బ ,

ఉత న మ ల ల స సగం ఉం ం . ధ న ం .

ప నం:

1. స తం న ఆ ట అ సం ంచబ న స క
ఉం ం .
2. స క క క వద క ॓ యబ న ం॓ స ల ఉత
యబడ . ల ల fe=1/(2π√LC) ఇవ బ ం .
3. LC స ఇండక ర ఒక గం, అ ఒక గంౖ ఎ ॓
స అం ంచబ ం మ మ క గం స ఇ స
అం ంచబ ం .
4. ర ఇ మ అ మధ 180˚ దశ ఉత ం బ ,
L1 మ L2 మధ 180˚ దశ ఉం ం . L2 మ L1 మధ మ 180˚ దశ

492
 Piezoelectric method

8. Sometimes a polarizing DC field stronger than the AC field is

also applied to the bar directly. One can also achieve this by
applying external magnetic field directly.
9. When such is the case, one end of the bar remains as north
pole forever and the other end as south pole. The AC field, at
most, changes the degree of magnetization. Thus the length
of the bar changes for the entire cycle of the AC field but not
the polarity. Thus the resonance condition is given by =
.
Advantages:
1. High amplitudes can be achieved for low frequency
applications.
2. It is the cheapest method to generate ultrasonic waves.

Disadvantages:
1. Their fundamental frequency may start at 30KHz so the first
sub-harmonic (15KHz) falls in audible range. This results in
a high noise compared to piezoelectric generators whose
fundamental frequency is in the range of 40KHz.
2. They can generate ultrasonics with a maximum frequency of
3MHz or 3000KHz.
3. The frequency of oscillations is more affected by temperature
and hysteresis effects.

Piezoelectric method
This was developed by Walter Guyton Cady in 1921. He was
considered as the father of modern piezoelectricity. He has inspired
this from Langevin and Boyle’s piezoelectric submarine detector.

Principle:
Quartz crystal consists of a hexagonal prism capped on top and
bottom with hexagonal pyramid structure. The vertical axis of the
crystal is denoted as the z-axis. The axis parallel to the faces is the y-
axis and the axis connecting corners of faces is the x-axis. The

493
 Piezoelectric method
ఉం ం . అం వలన స అ మ ఇ గ ల మధ 360˚ 0˚ దశ
ఉం ం .

5. అం వలన స అ ం ఇ ॓ ఉం ం . అం వలన
స ఆ ట ప ం .

6. ర క L2 ంచబ న తం స
అం ంచబ ం .ఇ ల ల ం క ల ం . మ ట
లం , fc=n/2l √(Y/ρ) ఇ అ ॓ తరం ల ఉత ం .

ఇక డ n అ ౖ షన క సంఖ మ lఅ స కం క డ .

ప జ :

1. ఈ స ల క థ క నః న ం రణం 40KHz కం ఎ వ ఉం ం .
అం వలన ద స - ॓ అ ॓ప వ ం మ ఆప ష శబం
ం ఉం ం .

2. ఉ గత త ల త గల . (అన , ఉ గత ల వల ద ప తం
.)

3. ఈ పద ఉప ం 500MHz వర నః ల అ ॓ తరం ల
ం ంచవ .

ప లత :

1. స కం ఉత న మ ం క శ ణత రణం ర ల రక ధం
క వ .

2. ఆ ట క త లం ఈ రణం త వ ఉం ం

Fig: Quartz crystal oscillator developed by Walter Guyton Kedy

494
 Piezoelectric method

structure is as shown below. Here the x-axis is known as the electrical

axis and the y-axis is known as the mechanical axis.
If electric field is applied along the electrical axis, it results in
a displacement along mechanical axis. Similarly if pressure is applied
along the mechanical axis, it results in a potential difference along
the electrical axis.

Fig: Quartz crystal planes.

There are two possible cuts for the crystal, the X-cut and the Y-
cut.
In X-cut, the crystal along X-axis is chopped off and the
plane of the remaining crystal piece is parallel to Y-axis. Since
the mechanical axis is perpendicular to the plane of the crystal,
the oscillations produced in X-cut crystal are transverse in
nature. Since one complete oscillation in transverse mode
generates a complete wave in the surrounding medium, the
frequency of oscillations will be equal to the frequency of the
crystal.
In Y-cut, the crystal along Y-axis is chopped off and the
plane of the remaining crystal piece is parallel to X-axis. Since

495
 Piezoelectric method

Fig: Pioneers of Submarine detection & Ultrasonics.

496
 Piezoelectric method

the mechanical axis is perpendicular to plane of the crystal,

the oscillations produced in Y-cut crystal are longitudinal in
nature. Since one complete oscillation in longitudinal mode
can generate only half a wave in the surrounding medium, the
frequency of oscillations generated will be half of the
frequency of the crystal.
Working:
1. The circuit diagram consists of a transistor that is
connected as an oscillator.
2. The oscillations are produced in the tank circuit connected
at the collector of the transistor. The frequency of
oscillations is given by = .
√
3. The inductor in the LC circuit is a part of a transformer, a
portion of which is fed to a piezoelectric crystal and
another portion is fed to the input circuit of the transistor.
4. Since transformer produces a 180˚ phase shift between
input and output, there will be a 180˚ phase shift between
L1 and L2. There will be a further 180˚ phase shift between
L2 and L1. Thus there will be 360˚ or 0˚ phase shift between
transistor output and input signals.
5. Thus there will be a positive feedback to input from output
of transistor. Thus the transistor works as an oscillator.
6. The electric field induced in the coil L2 of the transformer is
fed to a Quartz crystal. This converts the electrical
oscillations into mechanical oscillations. In other words, it
produces ultrasonic waves with frequency given by =

Here is the number of the vibrational mode and is

the length of the crysal.
Advantages:
1. The fundamental frequency of these crystals are usually
above 40KHz. Thus first sub-harmonic also falls in ultrasonic
range and the operation is noise free.

497
 Piezoelectric method
ఇతర పద
ల : అ అం . 1876 ల అ వృ
.ఇ వ ప ధ ం ౖ క ఉం ం , డ స
యవ . డ మ ప ధ మధ సంబంధం λ/4=(l+e)⇒f=v/((l+e))
ఇవ బ ం .
-ఎ ॓ ప వం: ఈ ప య , ం షణ అ ప రం ఉష స రణ ఒ
రణమ ం . ం వత క గతం ఉం అవసరౖ న
నః న ం నప ం ఉప ం నట , ఈ పద ఉప ం వల న
క అ ॓ తరం ల ఉత యవ . ఇ బ క అ ం
ఇ ం స ృతం ఉప ంచబ ం .
ద మ ల జ త ॓ తరం అ క ఆం క ఉం
మ అ సమయం అ ం ల క ఉం . ఈ పధ ఉత అ
అ ం ల గ ష ఆం మ అ ద వం క సం డన ప ౖ ఆ రప
ఉం .
MEMS (ౖ ఎల క స ) త యబ న డ ఫ ,అ క ఎల ॓
ల తం న ,అ ॓శ ల ఉత .
ట ౖ సన రల క ఉం . అ ॓ ఎల క గ
తౖ న , రఅ ॓ తరం ల ఉత ం .

E - Corner
https://www.osti.gov/pages/servlets/purl/1515412
https://patents.google.com/patent/US1472583
https://doi.org/10.1258/ult.2011.011027
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_transducer
https://en.engineering-solutions.ru/ultrasound/theory/
https://www.britannica.com/science/ultrasonics

498
 Piezoelectric method

2. The frequency is tolerant to temperature fluctuations. (i.e.,

not affected much by temperature changes.)
3. Ultrasonic waves of frequencies up to 500MHz can be
generated using this method.

Fig: Piezoelectric method of generating ultrasonic waves.

Disadvantages:
1. Long run operations may not be possible due to mechanical
fatigue generated in the crystal.
2. The life time of the oscillator is also low for the same
reason.

Other methods
1. The Galton whistle: This is also called as Dog whistle. It was
developed in 1876 by Francis Galton. It consists of a resonating
wind pipe similar to flute whose length can be adjusted. The
relation between the length and resonance frequency is given by
=( + )⇒ =( )
.

2. Photo-acoustic effect: In this process, light absorption causes

thermal expansion or pressure change in the material. If light
intensity is varied periodically or if pulsed light with required
frequency is used, one can generate ultrasonic waves of desired

499
 Piezoelectric method

Did You Know?

If piezo electric crystal is pressed just once,
charges will be accumulated along electrical axis (potential diff.).
If a light bulb is connected to them, they at most produce a spark
in the bulb. For continuous flow of electrons (current), one need
to apply a periodic force. So that the charge accumulation changes
sign alternatively along with applied force. That may be considered
as alternating current. Then it can light a bulb.
ఎల ॓ స ఒక , అ ం ంట ( య ఫ )
. ఒక ౖ బ అ సం ంచబ ఉం , అ బ ఒక ఉత
. ఎల న రంతర ప హం (క ం ) సం, ఒక ఆవరన శ వ ంప .త
అ ష ౖ అ ప యం ం . అ ఆల ం క ం
ప గ ంచబ ం .అ అ బ ంచగల .
అ ॓ తరం ల ం
1. ం పద : ఈ పద అ ॓ తరం ఒక వర ఉన టం
ఉంచబ న మృ ౖ న (ౖ యం డ ) ద పంపబడ .అ ॓ తరం ర
తరంగ న ఉత . అం వల వద ఎ వ డ ం ,అ
ం ల వద , డ రడం త వ ఉం ం . ఏౖ ం ం ల
మధ రం అ ॓ తరం ల తరంగౖ ర ం సగం ఇ ం .
2. ల పద : ఈ పద అ ॓ తరం సన తౖ న మంట ద
పంపబడ . మంట ల వద రం ఉం ం మ ం ల వద
మం ం .
3. థర పద : అ ॓ తరం ల ం న ధ మం సన నం ౖ
ఉంచబ ం . కం ష మ ల వద ఉత యబ న ఉ గత రణం
నం ౖ క ధకత ం . ఉప ం ఈ ధక
ల ంచవ .
4. ఎ ॓ ం పద : అ ॓ తరం ల దవ ధ మం పం న , ర
తరం ల ఏర రచ , ల వద ఉన ం రదర కం ప మ
ం ల వద ఉన ం అ రదర క ధ మం ప . ఫ తం , ద వ ధ మం
ష ం ప ం . ఈ దవ ం న తరంగౖ ర ం క ం
పంపడం , అ రదర క మ రదర క ం ల డ ంచవ .ఇ అ ॓
తరం ల తరంగౖ ర ం ం స అం ం .
5. ౖ -ఎల ॓ క : ఇ మ -ఎల ॓ ప వం క దృ ష
ఉప ం , ం క అ ం ంట ం క ల ల వ ంప న -
ఎల ॓ స క అ ం ంట తం ఉత అ ం . ఇక డ ం న
అ ॓ తరం , ధ మం ం క ల ల ఉత .

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 Detection of ultrasonic waves

frequency using this method. This is widely used in biomedical

ultrasound imaging.
3. Laser induced shock waves in liquids and gases may have high
amplitude and at the same time frequencies of the order of
ultrasounds. The limit on the maximum amplitude and frequency
of ultrasounds depend on the compressibility limit of the fluid.
4. Diaphragms made with MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical
Systems), when excited with high frequency electric fields,
produce ultrasonic sounds.
5. Capacitor microphones have thin membranes. When they are
excited with ultrasonic frequency electrical signals, the
membrane produces ultrasonic waves.

Detection of ultrasonic waves

1. Kundt’s tube method: In this method ultrasonic waves are
passed onto a smooth powder (Lycopodium powder) placed
in a glass tube with one end closed. Ultrasonic waves produce
standing wave pattern. Thus at nodes more powder is
accumulated while at antinodes, the powder accumulation is
low. The separation between any two nodes or antinodes
gives half of the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves.
2. Sensitive flame method: In this method ultrasonic waves are
passed on to narrow sensitive flame. Flame will be stationary
at nodes and flickering at antinodes.
3. Thermal detection method: A thin platinum wire is placed in
the medium where ultrasonic waves are to be detected. The
resistance of platinum wire changes due to temperature
change produced at compressions and rarefactions. These
resistance changes can be identified using sensitive
resistance bridge.
4. Acoustic grating method: When ultrasonic waves are passed
through liquid media, to form stationary waves, the regions
at nodes act as transparent and the regions at antinodes act
as opaque media. In effect, the liquid medium acts as a
transmission grating. By passing light of known wavelength
through this liquid grating, the width of opaque and

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 Detection of ultrasonic waves
6. ట ౖ అ ॓ తరం ల సమ ం కం ం ప చ డ ఫ ల
ఉప .ఈడ గ ల అయ ం ల అ సం ం న ,అ
సం ల ఉత . ఉత యబ న ఎల క గ క
అ ॓ తరం ల అంచ అం .
7. MEMS (ౖ ఎల క స ) సంఘటన అ ॓ తరం ల లనం ప చ
డ ఫ ల ఉప .ఈఆ ం ట గం. బ
అ ॓ తరం ల అ ణం ం . ౖ ల లత అ ॓
అంచ ం .
అ ॓ క అ ష
అ ॓ తరం ల తం ం ప శ మ వర , ౖ ద రంగం ద ప ధన
వర ; ష ద గ ం మ ం వర ధ రం ల అ ష ఉ ;
. ం ,ౖ న న ల అ ॓ క అ ష చ ంచబ .
పకృ అ ॓
పకృ క ష సం అ ॓ తరం ల ఉప మ
ష మ ఎ ష సం ఉప .
1. , క , ఎ క మ కప క ష సం మ త
గ ంచటం సం అ ॓ తరం ల ఉప . మ క
ఈఅ ॓ ం మ ఉప ం తమ ఆ రం ఉ ంచగల . (ఎ క
క ష సం ఉప ం అ ॓ తరం కల ఆ ర అ షణ
ఉప గపడ .)
2. గ , , మ ంగ ష సం మ
ఎ ష సం ఉప .
3. గ ల పట ఎ వ ఆక ల , ఎం కం అ ॓ స
ఒ నవ శ రం ం హృదయ స ందనల ం . స యం ల ల పసవ
ం ఉ . అ ౖ ద పరం ంచద న .
4. డ బ మ ంత తౖ న ం ం స క ఉం ం .ఇ ం ల
మధ 30 ౖ కన సమయం ఆల ంచగల . తల 360˚ ప డం అ
ం ల ం ధ యగల , అ ల ం తల స ఎ
ఉం ం . అ 5KHz ం 8.5KHz వర అ క త క ఉ .
డ బ వం డ బ అ ం ల నగల . ప నప జనం ఏ టం ,
క ఎ న అ ॓ శ ఉత య , అం వల ఎర
(ఎ క ) అంత డ బవ న య .
5. గ ల డబ మట , ట (గ ) ఉత యబ న
అ ॓ తరం ల ప గట గల మ గల . ౖ గ గ ల
ఎ ష దర శ ల వం ॓ల ఉత యగల .

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 Applications of Ultrasonics

transparent regions can be calculated. This in turn gives

information about the wavelength of ultrasonic waves.
5. Piezo-electric detector: This uses the phenomenon of inverse
piezo-electric effect, in which the electric field is produced
along electric axis of the piezo-electric crystal when
mechanical oscillations are applied along mechanical axis.
Here ultrasonic waves, which need to be detected, produce
mechanical oscillations in the medium.
6. Capacitor microphones use thin diaphragms that vibrate in
the presence of ultrasonic waves. When these diaphragms are
connected with magnets in coils, they produce electrical
signals. The frequencies of the generated electrical signals
give an estimate of ultrasonic waves.
7. MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) use thin films
that oscillate with the incident ultrasonic waves. These
oscillating films are part of a capacitor plate. So the
capacitance varies in accordance with the ultrasonic waves. A
measurement of capacitance variations give an estimation of
ultrasonic wave frequency.

Applications of Ultrasonics
Ultrasonic waves find their applications in various fields
from daily life, to industry; research to medical fields; navigation and
ranging to signalling and sensing. In the following, a few of the
applications of Ultrasonics in some of the above mentioned fields are
discussed.

Ultrasonics in Nature
Some species in nature use ultrasonic waves for
communication and some species use them for navigation and
echolocation of their prey.
1. Cats, dogs, rats and frogs use ultrasonic waves for
communication and sometimes for mating. Cats and dogs
have this ultrasonic wave sensing ability to identify the
presence of their prey.

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 Applications of Ultrasonics
6. నవ ద అ ॓ ల గ ంచగల , అ కర ఆ నః ల వద
కం ంచ . అ ఎ క ఇం ॓ యబ , అ ఇయ డ ౖ ష ల ఉత
స - ॓ల ఉత .ఈప య , న 33KHz వర అ ॓
తరం ల క హ ం శ ల పం గ ంచగల .

Did You Know?

The two projections over the head of an owl are not their
ears. They are just feathers. Their ears have wide openings on either
side of their head and their eyeballs can be seen through their ears.

E - Corner
https://www.owlpages.com/owls/articles.php?a=6
https://www.nature.com/articles/193594b0
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1474-
919X.1962.tb08654.x
https://www.lsu.edu/deafness/HearingRange.html
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-94-
011-6901-1%2F1.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_hearing

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 Applications of Ultrasonics

2. Bats, Dolphins, Porpoise and whales use them for navigation

and for echolocation of their prey.
3. Dolphins are more attracted towards pregnant women, as
their ultrasonic sensor system detects two heart beats within
a single human body. There are dolphin assisted child
birthing centres as well. But they are not medically
suggestible.
4. An owl has more sensitive sound sensing system. It is able to
recognize a time delay of even 30 micro seconds between its
two ears. By rotating its head 360˚ it can balance the sound
heard by two ears such that the target is exactly in front of
its head. They have a hightened hearing sensitivity in the
range 5KHz to 8.5KHz. Some of the owls like Tawny owl can
hear ultrasounds. Their major advantage is that their wings
do not produce ultrasonic noise while flying, and hence
insensible to their prey.
5. Moths, a prey for bats, are able to sense ultrasonic waves
produced by their predator (bats) and change their path.
Tiger moths are able to generate clicks like sounds that could
even distract the echolocation activity of bats.
6. Human brain can perceive ultrasonic frequencies, even
though the eardrum does not vibrate at those frequencies. If
they are injected through skull bone, they may generate sub-
harmonics which may produce vibrations in ear drum. By
this process, humans can perceive ultrasonic waves up to
33KHz, in the form of mild humming sounds.

In Geology
In geology ultrasonic waves are used for sensing purposes.
1. Ultrasonic seismic physical model imaging technology is a
method in which seismic waves are replaced by ultrasonic
waves to study the stability of geological structures.
2. Ultrasonic sensors are used in hydrogeological surveys for
ground water level sensing applications. Usually

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 Applications of Ultrasonics
గర సం
గర సం అ ॓ తరం ల ం ప జ ల సం ఉప .
1. అ ॓ ॓ క డ ఇ ం ల అ కంప తరం ల నం
అ ॓ తరం ల క ల ర అధ యనం పద .
2. అ ॓ గర జ ల ం అ ష ల సం ౖ క
స ల ఉప ంచబడ . రణం ఆ త మ వణత ఆ త
ప మ ంత సృ ఉ .
3.ౖ ౖ ం ణత పర ంచ మ ఉ వలనౖ ౖ నౖ ఏర న
ప ల పర ంచ చ ం అ ॓ ఉప ంచబడ .
ౖ అ ఏౖ ఆప ష జ సంఘటనల ప క.
4. అ ॓ తరం ల గ స ృతం ఉప , ఇక డ మ స ల
క చ త అధ యనం యబ ం .ప ం , అ ॓ తరం ల ఉప ం
స ద అ గం అవ పణ అధ యనం అవ ల క ధ రల క - స
ంకనం పడ ..
5. అ ॓ తరంగ ల క - స ంకనం యడం లల
వయ అంచ యవ . త, తన ళ అ ॓ తరంగ గం త ంద
గమ ం .
6. మం ంద త లత అ వరణ మ జలసంబంధ స ర వ వసల సం
ఉప ంచబ ం . ఇక డ 'మం ' అ ॓ ఉప ం .
'మం జల ల త' మం ం ఉప ం . ం ం ష మం ంద త
ఇ ం . మం ంద త 40% కం ఎ వ ఉం , అ ద భవన సంభ ంద
గమ ంచడం ఆస కరం ఉం ం .
7. అ ॓ తరం ల న ం, కణ ణం మ న మ ఖ ల
ఎ ॓ ల అధ యనం సం ఉప .

E - Corner
https://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/content/51/2/179
https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/fulltext.cfm?uri=oe-26-8-
11025&id=385607
https://web.cup.edu.cn/wutan973/docs/2013-
06/20130620093749281696.pdf
http://nhp.mowr.gov.in/Conference-
2/HIS_Manual_WB_on_NHP_2nd_Edition.pdf
https://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/ultrasonic-
velocity-and-attenuation-measurements-in-geological-samples/

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 Applications of Ultrasonics

resistivity based and polarizability based tests are more

abundant.
3. Ultrasonic sensors are used in oil well logging to monitor
the quality of pipe line fitting and to monitor the corrosion
effects on pipe lines produced by salt water. log file carries
a record of events that occur in any operation.
4. Ultrasonic waves are widely used in Paleoceanography,
where geological history of oceans is studied. Especially, the
study of sedimentation at sea bed employing ultrasonic
waves enable non-destructive evaluation of different layers
of sediments.
5. The age of carbonate rocks can be estimated by performing
non-destructive evaluation of the ultrasonic wave
velocities. It is observed that the ultrasonic wave velocity
reduces in aged, old rocks.
6. Snow density measurement is used for meteorological and
hydrological information systems. Here snow depth is
measured using ultrasonic sensor. Snow water equivalent is
measured by using snow pillows. The ratio of both gives the
snow density. It is interesting to note that if the snow
density is more than 40%, then melting occurs.
7. Ultrasonic waves are used for study of hardness, grain
structure and elastic modulus of rock samples and minerals.

507
 Applications of Ultrasonics

Fig: Oil well log tool and log file; Snow density measuring device

ప శమ అ ॓
అ ॓ తరం ప శమ ధ , క , క ం రక ల
ఖత క ఉ . ప శమ అ ॓ తరం ల క ఖౖ నఅ ష
ంద నబ .
1. ం / ల ం :అ ॓ LED ,ౖ బ , ఇం స , ౖ ట ల
వం తౖ న ॓ప మ ॓ త యబ న ధ క క ,
స క దౖ న తౖ నమ ౖ ౖ ఎల ॓ప క ల య
ఉప ..అ ష త ల ల క ఏ డల వ రం వ య బ ఇ
ౖ ద ప క ల ప శమ ఉప గపడ . ఏ క ఇంజ ం , అ యం
శ ఎ వ ఉప ంచబడ . ం న అ యం ఆౖ
రల సృ ం . ంచ , ం యంతం అ ॓ న
ఉం ం . క ,అ యం అ ॓ తరం ల ఉప ం ం
యబడ .
2. ం :అ ॓ లనం ఏౖ క నౖ నప ం .ఇ
త వ అ సంబంధ ( వ శ ) అం ం బ , ప రం న
రం యవ . ఇ భమణ ఆప షౖ ఆ రప ఉండ బ , అవసరం .
ౖ సర న ఈ భమణ శ అవసరం క వటం ఏం ఉప క ం. అం వల ఇ
ం , ౖ ం దౖ న ఉప గకరం ఉం ం .ఇ
ర లక ం మ ం ప శమ ఉప గపడ , ఇక డ త వ య నష ం
ఖ తత ం న ం అ థ క అవసరం.

Activity

Make a study project on various industrial applications of

ultrasonics and conduct survey on it in your area.

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 Applications of Ultrasonics

Ultrasonics in Industry
Ultrasonics waves find their importance in various heating,
mixing, cutting activities in industry. Some of the important
applications of ultrasonic waves in industry are mentioned below.
1. Welding/Soldering: Ultrasonics are used to weld sensitive and
micro size electronic equipment like LEDs, light bulbs, integrated
circuits, sensitive plastic materials like gas lighters and various
medical fixtures made of plastic, surgical masks etc. These are
useful in medical industry as they don’t leave any traces of toxic
elements of wastage. In aeronautical engineering, aluminium
alloys are majorly used. Aluminium creates oxide layers when it
is gas welded. To avoid that, gas welding machine is accompanied
with ultrasonic cleaner. Otherwise, aluminium parts are welded
using direct ultrasonic waves.

2. Drilling: a drill that oscillates with ultrasonic frequency can bore

any hard material. As it provides low axial load (downward
force), one can drill small holes even in brittle material. Since this
is not based on rotatory operation, torque force is not necessary.
This is highly difficult to produce while performing
microsurgeries. Thus it is highly useful for root canal treatment,
bone micro drilling etc. They are useful in gem cutting and
drilling industry where precision drilling with low material loss is
the primary requirement.
3. Cutting and sealing: Ultrasonic transducers are used for cutting
without fraying in textile industry, leather industry and in other
industries where sealing is also needed along with cutting.
Dissimilar fabric types can be sealed together with ease using this
technology. They are also used for gem cutting and polishing.
4. Emulsification: Ultrasonic technology made it possible to
develop high quality emulsions, which made possible the
preparation of water proof, dust proof and fire proof paints with
ease.
Think

Why gas lighter welding is possible only by ultrasonics?

509
 Applications of Ultrasonics
3. క ం మ ం : అ ॓ స ల వస ప శమ, ప శమ
మ ఇతర ప శమల అం దర ం క ంచ ఉప , ఇక డ
క ం ం అవసరం. ౖ ధ త ఉన ॓ ర ల ఈ ం కత
ఉప ం లభం యవ . ర ల క ంచ మ
య ఉప .
4. ఎమ ష :అ ॓ ం కత అ క ణ త గల ఎమల ల అ వృ యడం
ధప ం , వలన ట ,డ మ ౖ ం ల లభం
త యడం ధప ం .
5. ం :అ ॓ డ , ద వప మ ల మ ంత స య పద
కలప ఉప ంచవ . ల దౖ న అ - డ ల ఫ మ
క య ల లభం నడప ఉప .ఆ ధం అ
ఆ వటం, డచకట టం, మ అ వటం ం జరగ ం ంచవ .
6. త కరణ: అ ॓ తరం పం న , హ కరణ
ప , అం అ ప న ॓ ల ఉత య గ న
డగల సృ .ఈ ॓ తరం ద అక ంప . ఈ ఆక క
చం, ట కం స పల ఉత యబ న త కరణ వ , ద వం
త కరణ ఉత ం . ఈ చ ఆ ర ప శమ ఉప .
7. ఆ ర ప శమ: ఆ ర ప శమ , ఆ ర ప ల సం రకం మ
ౖ ష సం అ ం ల ఉప .

510
 Applications of Ultrasonics

5. Mixing: Ultrasonics can be used to mix powders, liquids and gels

in a more homogenised manner. They are also used to drive ultra-
smooth powders like milk powder etc. through funnels and
conveyor belts with relative ease. Thus they ensure prevention of
clogging, agglomeration and adhesion.
6. Cooling: Ultrasonic waves when passed through fluid media,
produce cavitation effect, meaning that they create air bubbles
which explode and generate shock waves. These shock waves
expand the fluid suddenly. This sudden expansion generates
cooling in the fluid just like cooling produced outside a
refrigerator compressor. This feature finds its applications in
food industry.
7. Food industry: In food industry, ultrasounds are used for
disinfection and sterilization of food items.

E - Corner
https://sonotronic.de/technologies/ultrasonic
https://www.hielscher.com/
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijce/2011/670108
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S13504177
21000080
https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/201802.0168/v1/down
load
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0825/7/2/18

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 Applications of Ultrasonics
అ ష
ర యన మ ఔషధ ప శమల రంగం , ర యన ప చర గం మ ప యల
ర ంచడం అ ॓ తరం ఖౖ న త క ఉం . భపరచడం
మ ం ప జ ల సం ఉప . ష అ ష ంద
నబ .
1. అ ॓ తరం పసరణం, స కరణ, ష , భవనం, త,
స కరణ, ఆ కరణ, సం షణ దౖ న ఔషధ ప శమ ధ ప యల తమ
అ షన క ఉ . ర యన సం ఈ ఖ అం .
2. అ ॓ తరం ల న ప క వర ం ర యన చర ఉ . అ
ట ॓ చర మ ట ॓ చర . ఈ ప యల , అ ॓
తరం మ / అ ల త తరం ల వర జ ల య
ఉప .వర ఉం ం యక క ల య ప కం
ఉప .
3. టత అ ం అ కం ష ఉప ంచబ ం .ఒ ఎ వ ఉం ,
ఔష ల ర యన ణం ప తం వ . అం వల అ ॓ ॓ వ ంప త వ
ఒ న త ఇవ బ ం . అ ॓ ం మ క ం ట
ం ఉప ంచబ ం .
4. అ ॓ న ప శమ ఉప గకరం ఉం , ఎం కం
భపరచ అవసరౖ న సంఖ మ ప ణం ఉం .అ
ష త ల ల క ఉండవ .అ ం నర డకం ప య సమ
త ం , భప ణత ప ం ,ప క ల త ప ం ,
భప సమయం ష తర య ల ం ం .
5. రణ హకత ఆ త మ ఆ క ఆ త జ క న
ం॓ , క ంబ మ డ ం ఫలమ అవ శం
ఉన ప శ మల ం సం అ ॓ ఉప ంచబడ .

E - Corner
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S13504177
0900011X
https://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj10(8)/13.pdf
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.38
8.4670&rep=rep1&type=pdf

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 Applications of Ultrasonics

Chemistry applications
In the field of chemical and pharmaceutical industries,
ultrasonic waves have an important role in deciding the chemical
reaction speeds and processes. They are also used for cleaning and
mixing purposes. Some of the specific applications are mentioned
below.
1. Ultrasonic waves find their applications in various processes of
pharmaceutical industry like aeration, crystallization,
degasification, evaporation, extraction, homogenization,
oxidation, synthesis etc. This branch of chemistry is called
sonochemistry.
2. There are some special category of reactions which are assisted
by ultrasonic waves. They are sonocatalytic reactions and
sonophotocatalytic reactions. In these processes, ultrasonic
waves and/or ultraviolet waves are used to treat waste water.
They are especially used to treat organic soluble contaminants
that are present in waste water.
3. Ultrasound assisted compression is used in the preparation of
tablets. If stress is more, the chemical structure of drugs may get
effected. Hence a low stress applying ultrasonic technique is
preferred. Ultrasonic sealing and cutting is also used in blister
packing of tablets.
4. Ultrasonic cleaners are highly useful in pharma industry, as there
will be huge numbers and volumes of glassware that are needed
to be cleaned. They may contain toxic elements as well. Usage of
ultrasound cleaners will reduce process time, improves cleaning
quality, improves the life time of equipment, and avoids exposure
to toxic chemicals during cleaning.
5. Ultrasonics are used for level sensing in industries where
ordinary conductivity based level sensors and optical reflection
based laser sensors fail like in molten steel tanks, reactive
chemical chambers and powder samples.

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 Applications of Ultrasonics
ప ధన
ప ధ రంగం , అ ॓ తరం య ష మ య
కౖ ష అవస ల అ ష ల క ఉ .
1. ఎ ॓ ష :అ ॓శ ల ఉత న మ ఒ కర ణ వ కం
వ ల ౖ ప ఉప ం దృ షయం ఇ . అ క స చ త క నౖ
త ఇ ఉప గప ం . అయ ం తర ప ల స ంభనం ం
ఈ పద ప జనకరం ఉం ం .
2. ఎ ॓ జ : రక క ,ౖ ర క వం వ ల నం మ కద క
యం ంచ శబ వణ అ ॓ తరం ల ఉప . ందత, ఉప తల
ఉ క త వం న క క న వ అ ॓ ం ం
ఉంచబ న , ల వద మ న మ మ గ మథన
సమయం యబ న ం ల వద . క ఉన క
దృ షయం శబ రణ శ . ఈ పద బ క ప ష , ం మ
ష అ షన సం బ ల స ృతం ఉప ంచబ ం .
3. ఆ క ఆప ష యం ంచ ల అ ॓
ఉప ంచబడ . భమణ చలనంౖ అ క ఖ తత యంతణ సం ఈ
ఉప ంచబ ం . ఈ అ క ॓ క ఇ ం ప క ల
యం ల యం ంచ ఉప ంచబడ , ఎం కం ఇ ఎ వం అయ ంత
ప ల ఉప ంచ . ం మ ౖ ప ల క అ క ఖ తత
యంతణ సం ఇ ట మ ఏ ఇంజ ం ఉప గకరం ఉం .
ఇ ట ఖ తత ం కద న ఎల ౖ ల న యం ంచ
ఉప ంచబడ .
అ ॓ ఇంట ట :
ప ధ రంగం , ఆ ॓ ఇంట ట ద ల క పక ల ల అధ యనం
యడం ఒక ప న గ ం ం . కం , , ల ఇంట ,
ష ౖ ం ,ఎ ॓ ఇం దౖ న వం ం కల ల లవ
అ కౖ న , ర శ అధ యనం యబ .
 ప తక ట డ ట ర క ఉం ం . ప ం న దవ
న ఆక ఉం .
 క క వ ఉప తలం ౖ ఎ ॓ఆ ట ంచబ ం . ఇ ద వ న
అ ॓ ల ల ఉత ం .
 క ఎ వ ఉప తలం క ట క కప బ ఉం ం .ౖ ట
అమ క ఉప ం ఈ శ కద ంచవ .
 త ం అమ క ఉంచబ ం . అవసరౖ న ఉ గత క
ప రం యబ ం .

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 Applications of Ultrasonics

Research
In the field of research, ultrasonic waves find their applications in
materials manipulation and materials characterization needs.
1. Acoustic levitation: This is the phenomenon where pressure
generated by ultrasonic sounds is used to levitate objects in air
against gravity. This is useful in high purity microchip
fabrication. This method is advantageous to levitate non-
magnetic materials also.
2. Acoustic tweezers: acoustic tweezers use ultrasonic waves to
control the position and motion of micro objects like blood cells,
viral vectors. etc. When objects with different physical
parameters like density, surface tension are kept in ultrasonic
standing wave field, some will be accumulated at nodes and some
will be accumulated at antinodes just like butter and buttermilk
get separated during churning. The physical phenomenon behind
this is the acoustic radiation force. This method is widely used in
biotechnology for biological cell separation, cell trapping and cell
manipulation applications.
3. Ultrasonic motors are used in lens cameras to control the
autofocus operation. This motor is used for high precision
control on rotational motion. These motors are used for
controlling machines in high magnetic field medical imaging
devices as these do not use any magnetic materials. These are
highly useful in military and aerospace engineering for high
precision control of antennas and guided missiles. These are also
used to control the tip of electron microscopes where it has to
move at nanometer precision.

Ultrasonic interferometer:
In research field, ultrasonic interferometer has made a major
breakthrough in studying the elastic properties of liquids. Several
binary, ternary liquid mixtures are also studied for measuring their
mechanical properties like compressibility, miscibility, molecular
interactions, relaxation time constants, acoustic impedance etc.
 The experimental setup consists of a double walled metal
cylindrical cup. The liquid sample to be tested is placed in
that cup.

515
 Applications of Ultrasonics
 జన ట ం అ ॓ తరం క ం ప ం ం న , మధ
రం λ/2 క సమగ ణకం అ న అ ర తరం ఏర .
 ఆ త త, ౖ ట క ప λ/2 నభం ం ం న
ఏర ం . అ ప ధ సంభ ం మ ల ల ఆం
ం . అం వలన, ఆ ట స అ దం వద ఎ వ క ం
ం ం మ లవ వ .
 ౖ ట ం (d) క ఫం ఆ ట స సరఫ
యబ న క ం (I) క తం న ధం శృంగ ల పద ం .
పక పక శృంగ ల మధ రం λ/2 స నం.

 అ ఇ న దవ న అ ॓ క గం ఈ ం సంబంధం ం
క నబ ం , v=λf=2df.

 దవ న క బ ల β=1/(ρv^2 ) ఇవ బ ం .

E - Corner
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/8/jresv8n1p79_A2b.pdf
http://www.mittalenterprises.com/products/index/ultrasonic-
interferometer-for-liquids_3238.html
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=201&sim=803&cnt=1

Activity

Design possible experiments using ultrasonic

interferometer. Ref. sub links in second reference above.

516
 Applications of Ultrasonics

 The bottom surface of the cup is attached to a piezoelectric

oscillator. This produces ultrasonic oscillations in the liquid
sample.
 The top surface of the cup is covered with a movable metal
reflector plate. This plate can be moved in vertical direction
using a micrometer screw arrangement.
 The entire arrangement is kept in hot water bath. Hot water
of required temperature is circulated in it.
 When the ultrasonic waves from the generator get reflected
from the reflector, they form a standing wave when the
separation between them is an integral multiple of /2.
 Thereafter, standing wave pattern is formed for every /2
displacement of the micrometer screw. Then resonance
occurs and the amplitude of oscillations increases. Thus, the
oscillator circuit draws more current at resonance which can
be measured.
 A graph of current (I) supplied to the oscillator circuit as a
function of micrometer displacement (d) will exhibit peaks as
shown in the figure. The separation between the peaks is
equal to /2.
 Then the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the given liquid
sample is found from the relation,
= =2 .
 The bulk modulus of the liquid sample is given by = .

Fig: Ultrasonic interferometer

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 Applications of Ultrasonics
క అ ష
1.ౖ ద రంగం అ ॓ శస త ప క ల ర తం య ఉప .
2. అ ండం, ం (ఎ )మ ఇతర క ల య ,
గ రణ ధ ఉప ంచబడ . క డ గ ॓ క ఈ ఖ
అ గ అం .
3. ర రణ త ల సం అ ం తరం ల ఉప .
4. ఉన న సంబం త మం అ ం ఉప ం ఆ ౖ
ంచబడ .
5. న క ం అ క శల ం త వ వత క నఅ ం తరం ల
ౖ ౖ ం క ంచడం ల ంచవ , ఆ ధం ర ల వత శ రం న
ల ప దకరం ం ,ల ప శం తం అవసరౖ న ఆప ష య కర
వత స ం . HIFU ౖ ( ఇం క అ ం ) -ఇ సర అం .
6. అ ॓ తరం ల ఉప ం క షఇ సర ల , వం స క
ౖ ఎ ॓అ ౖ॓ ట యం ంచబ ం . ఎ క మ
త ం ళ శస తల ఉప .
7. అ ం ఉత న మ ఒ మ ఉ గత శస త ల సమయం
రక త ంచ రక ల ంచ ఉప ంచవ .
8. అ ం ర డ వ స ల ఉప గపడ , ఇక డ అ ం
అవసరౖ నడ వ సం చర ం ంద కణ లం క షణ మ ం .
9. బ న కరణ సం అ ం ౖ ఉప ంచబడ . ఇక డ
అ ॓ తరం క దృశ నత అ ప లన ఉన కణ అం .
10. ఎ క ప ళ తర నయం య త వ వత గల ప అ ం (LIPUS)
హం ఉప ంచబ ం .
11. -డ మ త ,అ ॓ తరం ల చర ం ంద ఉన య (చ )
గం ల హం య ఉప . యడం వల గం ప ణం
త ం , చ ం .మ త మల నయం అ .
12. రక ల రక పసరణ లవ ఉప .

E - Corner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_ultrasound

518
 Applications of Ultrasonics

Medical Field Applications

1. Ultrasonics in the medical field are used to sterilize surgical
equipment.
2. They are used as diagnostic tools, to scan the fetus, heart
(Echocardiogram), and other abdominal parts. This branch of
medical diagnostics is called Ultrasonography.
3. Ultrasound waves are also used for pain relief treatments in
physiotherapy.
4. Some cancer related drugs enclosed in nanocapsules can be
triggered on site using ultrasound.
5. Some of the non-cancerous tumours can be removed by focusing
low intensity ultrasound waves from multiple directions onto a
target site, in such a way that the intensity of beams is harmless
to the rest of the body but at the target site, the net intensity is
sufficient to perform the required operation. This is called HIFU
(High Intensity Focused Ultrasound) non-invasive surgery.
6. In minimal invasive surgeries using ultrasonic waves, the
surgical probe such as drill bit or blade is controlled by
piezoelectric ultrasonic vibrator. These are used for bone and
kidney stone surgeries.
7. The pressure and temperature generated by ultrssound probes
can also be used to block blood vessels to reduce bleeding during
surgeries.
8. Ultrasounds are also useful for transdermal drug delivery
systems where ultrasounds enhance the absorption capacity of
tissues underneath the skin for the required drug delivery.
9. Ultrasound guided needles are used for biopsy sample collection.
Here ultrasonic waves give a visual of the needle as well as tissue
under observation.
10. Low Intensity Pulsed UltraSound (LIPUS) is used externally for
quick healing of the bone fractures.
11. In non-drug acne therapy, ultrasonic waves are used to het the
sebaceous (oil) glands underneath the skin externally. Heating
reduces the size of the gland, kills bacteria and thus heals the
acne.
12. Thay are used to measure blood flow rate in blood vessels.

519
 Applications of Ultrasonics
అ ం లర (అదన స రం)
A- : ఇక డ x-అ ం ంట బ ం మ అ ॓ క వత y-
ంట బ ం . ప రం ం , ఎ వ ఉప తలం ప వర నం ॓
మ వ ఉప తలం ప వర నం ॓ మధ రం , ప ర ం క మం ఇ ం .బ ళ
శృంగ ఉన ట , పం క మ పం క ప అంచ
యవ .ఇ క ఫం శ ఒకౖ క ఇ ం .
B- : ఇక డ న క డ x-అ ం ంట బ ం , y-అ ం ంట
బ ం మ తలం ప ం వద ప ధ క వత క
ంచబ ం . బ స క 2D-ఎ అ .ఇ ఉన
య తలం క ఇ ం .
B- : ఇక డ 2D ప ధ వ స సమయ వ వ బ ం మ వత
యబడ . ఫ తం రక క ల వం క క ల 2D తం ల ం . ఇ 2D ప ఎ
కం మ ంత ఖ తౖ న పద , ఎం కం ప ఎ కణ లం మ కండ ల కద క
యవ .ఈ - రక ప స షం ం . ఇ కల ప
యం ఇ ం సం మ ంత న తక నమ ఖ తౖ న .
- : ఇ A- మ B- ం ం కల క. ఇక డ న ష
అమర బ ఉం ం మ న జస ంతర ఎం న
కణ లం వ క 2D ంద శ రం త ం ఉప తలంౖ
కద ంచబ ం . ఈ పద 10 కన 10cmx10cm ం యవ .
M- : ఇక డ తం A- B- స క క ఇ
సృ ంచ సమయం ఫం యబ ం . బ ష - M-
అం .
ప :ఇ ల క అవయ మ రక ప వ ంచ ప ప
ఉప ం . ంద వ ం న ధం ధర ల ప ఉ .
కం వ ప : కం వ ప , బ ళ తరం ఒ
పంపబడ మ క ంచబడ . బ ల ల ం తం క
జ ష మం మ ఖ తౖ న క వ .
ప ప : ఇక డ అ ॓ తరం కమం తప ం ప ల పంపబడ
మ క ంచబడ . అం వల ౖ న కణ ల సం ఖ తత ం ఈ రకం
ప ం . రంతర ప అ క ఖ తం న
యబడ , ఇక డ బ ళ తరం ఒ ప ఒ .ప ప
అ క ల ఈప అ ం అం .ఇ - మ
పవ ప క నబడ .

520
 Applications of Ultrasonics

Types of Ultrasound scans (Additional information)

A-Scan: Here depth is taken along x-axis and intensity of ultrasonic
wave is taken along y-axis. If there are no defects in the material, then
the separation between the peaks, due to the top surface reflected
echo and that due to the bottom surface reflected echo, gives the
thickness of the material. If there are multiple peaks, one can predict
the location of defect and also the size of defect. This gives the image
of a line along the direction of scan as a function of depth.
B-Scan: Here the width of the specimen is taken along x-axis, depth
is taken along y-axis and intensity of echo at each point on the plane
is plotted as a dot. Thus it is also called 2D-echo of the system. This
gives the image of a vertical plane in the material or body under scan.
B-flow scan: Here a 2D echo is taken at consecutive time intervals and
intensities are subtracted. The resultant is a 2D image of moving
particles like blood cells. This is a more accurate scan method than
2D Doppler echo as Doppler echo may also record the movement of
tissues and muscles. This B-flow scan can clearly isolate the blood
flow. This is a more preferred and accurate scan for liver imaging
compared to the colour Doppler scan.
C-scan: This is a combination of both A-mode and B-mode. Here the
scanner is fixed at a particular depth level and scanner head is moved
on the entire surface of the body to get a 2D scan of the tissue or
object at the selected depth level along a horizontal plane. In this
method a 10cmx10cm area can be scanned in 10 seconds.
M-scan: Here the image is taken either in A-mode or in B-mode as a
function of time to create a moving image or video of the system.
Hence it is called motion-mode scan or M-scan.
Doppler scan: This uses the Doppler effect to depict the moving
organs and blood flow in the vessels. There are different types of
Doppler scan as detailed below.
Continuous Doppler scan: In continuous mode Doppler scan,
multiple waves are sent and received at a time. So the resolution of
the produced image may not be very good and accurate for deep
scans.

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 Applications of Ultrasonics
కల ప :ఇ న గ ల రం ల ం .ఎ వ గం ఎ
మ త వ గం లం ంచబడ . అం వల శ రం రక క ల గం మ
క కణ లం మ కండ ల ౖ ల అధ యనం య ఉప ంచవ .

పవ ప :ఇ గస రం కం ప ం ం తరంగం క వత స
న ం . అం వల , ఇ ల కం స క మ కణ ణ( ణ) వ ల
ఇ ం . అం వల, కణ లం క మ త ం ల న ణత
షణ అధ యనం యడం ఇ ఉప గప ం .
వర పట ప : ఇక డ B- సమయం క ఫం ప ప క ఉం ం .
వర పట ప ంద సమయం క ఫం ఒక ప శం ల
ం ంచబ . ఇ B- క ఉన ం న, తం ంతం సం ౖ
ం ంచబ ం . సమయం క ం రక ం పం ం అ రణతల అధ యనం
య ఇ మ ంత ఉప గకరం ఉం ం .
॓ ప : ఇక డ B- కల ప క ఉం ం . అం వల కణ లం మ
రక ల క కణ ణమ గం స రం ం ఒ ందబడ .
॓ ప : ఇక డ కల ప మ ॓ ( తం 3 ) క అమ
యబడ . అం వలన ఇ తలం క B- మ కల ప క తం
2D తలం క ౖ ఇ ం . ౖ న ర రక ం గడకట ( ం ) అధ యనం
య ఇ ఉప గప ం .
3D మ 4D కల ప : ఇక డ ండం ఏౖ ఇతర శ ర గం క 3D
ం ంచ C- కల ప పద ంచబ ం . 3D ం ంచ
కమౖ న సమయ వ వ 3D ప , 4D కల ప అం .

E - Corner
https://www.ajronline.org/doi/10.2214/AJR.06.1161
https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Doppler_sonography/types_a
nd_outputs
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4923974/

522
 Applications of Ultrasonics

Pulsed wave Doppler scan: Here the ultrasonic waves are sent and
received in pulses at regular intervals. Thus the accuracy for deep
tissue scan will be improved in this type. But high velocities can not
be recorded accurately, as compared to the continuous wave Doppler,
where multiple waves scan the same situation at a time. This
limitation on measuring high velocities in pulsed mode Doppler scan
is called aliasing. This is not found in B-flow scan and power Doppler
scan.
Colour Doppler scan: This assigns colours to different speed signals.
Larger speed is assigned with red and lower speed with blue. Thus it
can be used to study variations in speed of blood cells and moving
tissues and muscles in the body.
Power Doppler scan: This records the intensity information of the
reflected wave rather than the speed information. It, therefore, gives
more morphological (structural) details of the system rather than
velocities. Thus, it is useful in studying the inflammation status of
tissues and quality analysis of nephrons in kidneys.
Spectral Doppler: Here a B-scan is combined with pulsed wave
Doppler as a function of time. A plot of velocities at a location as a
function of time is plotted to get spectral Doppler. Since it is
combined with B-scan, the time plot is made for entire scan area. This
is more useful to study blood pumping abnormalities in heart as a
function of time.
Duplex Doppler: Here a B-scan is combined with colour Doppler scan.
Thus both morphological and velocity information of tissues and
blood vessels is obtained at a time.
Triplex Doppler: Here a colour Doppler and a duplex scan (altogether
3 scans) are implemented together. Thus it gives a time graph of
entire 2D plane combined with B-scan and colour Doppler scan of the
plane. This is useful for studying blood clots (thrombosis) in deep
veins.
3D and 4D colour Doppler scan: Here a colour Doppler with C-scan is
performed to generate a 3D image of the fetus or any other body part.
If 3D Doppler scan is performed at regular time intervals to generate
a 3D video, then it is called 4D colour Doppler scan.

523
 Applications of Ultrasonics

1843 య ప శబ జనక మ ప ల మధ చలనం ఉన ధ

తరం ల ( ప అ ) అధ యనం వ ం . ప
ఈ ధం యవ .
f=(c±vo)/(c±vs) f(0 .)
ఇక డ f_0 అ శబ జనక క అసౖ న నః న ం మ f అ గమ ం న
నః న ం, c అ ఇ న ధ మం ధ క అస గం.v_s, v_0 వ స
శబ జనక మ ప ల ల .
v_0 మ v_s c ద ఉం పద స రణ ం , ఆ పత ప ల
ప గ ంచవ .
f=(1±v_0/c) (1±v_s/c)^(-1) f_0=(1±v_0/c)(1∓v_s/c) f_0≃(1+(v_0-v_s)/c)
f_0=(1+Δv/c) f_0
అం వలన, ఇవ బ ం
Δf=f-f_0=Δv/c f_0

రక ళంౖ θ ణం అ ॓ తరంగ పతన ప గ ంచం . v రక ం క గం అ ,

అ పతన ంజం క శ రక గం క గం v cosθ ఇవ బ ం .
గం క గం ల తరం వ కం బ , ల తరంగం క గం v cosθ అంత
త ం . ఈ త దల శబ జనక గం ప గ ంచబ ం . అం వలన v_s=-v cosθ.
ఆ ॓ కణ గం క గం ఉన ం న, ప ల ల తరంగ గం v cos θ అంత
ం .ఈ ం ప ల గం Δv_0=v cosθ ప గ ంచవ , Δv=2v cosθ
ఇ ం . ఆ ధం , ప సం యబ న ఇవ బ ం
Δf=(2v cosθ)/c f_0
అ ॓ రక ప లంబం ప న ప గ షం ఉం ంద
ఈ సంబంధం ం .

524
 Applications of Ultrasonics

Theory of Doppler scan:

In 1843 Christian Doppler studied and explained the
change in frequency of sound waves (known as Doppler shift),
when there is a relative motion between the source and observer.
The Doppler shift is given by
±
= .
±
Here is the original frequency of the source and is the
observed frequency, is the original velocity of sound in the given
medium. , are the velocities of source and observer respectively.
If is very large compared to and one can construct the
binomial expansion and consider the dominant terms.

= 1± 1± = 1± 1∓
− Δ
≃ 1+ = 1+

Thus, change in frequency is given by

Δ
Δ = − =

Fig. : Doppler scan principle.

Consider an ultrasonic wave incident at an angle on a blood
vessel. Let be the velocity of blood. Then the component of the

525
 NDT (NDE) అ ష
1. - స ంకనం / - స ం అ ష ల , అ ॓ తరం
ప ం న య ౖ పంపబడ . ఇక డ, అ ॓ క వత క (y-
అ ం ంట బ ం ) క ఫం (x-అ ం ంట బ ం )
యబ ం . య ం ,ౖ ఉప తలం ప ధ ॓ప ం ం మ
వ ఉప తలం ప ం ం ప ధ ॓ మధ రం ప ర ం క మం ఇ ం .బ ళ
॓ ఉన ట , పం క మ పం క ప అంచ
యవ .
2. కం అ ॓ : ఇం అ ం తరం ల ఉత మ ం సం అ -
ఆ ॓ స ల ఉప . ఇక డ ప ం న ప ర ం సన ఉప తలం త
యబ ం . అ ॓ తరం ॓ ఉత య ఎ ॓ ఉప ం
స ౖ ం క ంచబడ . ॓ ప న క మ క వర ం ం
మ ప ఫ ం . సక మ సన ల ప మ క
ంచ ఇ ఉప ంచబడ .
3. దశల అ ॓ : ఇక డ అ ॓ తరం ల త క ఇంట
సృ ంచ త న దశ వ సం అ ॓ తరం ల కమం ప ధ మం ప రం
యబ ం . ఈ తరం , ప ంబం త త కంస ఇంట న
సృ . ఏౖ పం ఉం , ఇంట న ం . డౖ నౖ ౖ ల
మ ప న ల ద ల ఒ ంచ ఇ ఉప ంచబడ .

SONAR అం ం ష మ ం .ఈ ॓ ఉప ం అ ॓ తరం ల
క థ క ల ణం ఏ టం అ ప ం ంచగల . బ అ ॓ తరం ల
పంపడం మ అ ॓ క ఉప ం ప ధ క ంచడం , పడవ ప ల
సమయం జ ంత , ద ప , అడం మ వ ల ంచవ .
ఈ పద ఉప ం , ంద క వ ల ప ప వం ఆ రం ంచవ .
ప ం ం మ ప రం యబ న అ ॓ గ క ల ల డం
ల ం క గం మ క నవ .
స ద ధ గం మన . ప ం ం మ ప రం యబ న
అ ॓ గ మధ సమయ వ వ ంచడం మనం స ద క నవ .

ష సమయం అ న అడం ల ంచ అ వృ యబ ం .
ఇ 1912 ప దౖ ॓ ప దం త త1 ల అ వృ యబ ం . ఈ ం కత
1912 చ స త ం యబ ం మ 1914 ం ప క అ వృ
. ప ల న గం 1940 వ ం .

526
blood velocity vector along the direction of the incident beam is given
by cos .
Since the component of velocity is opposite to the source
wave, the velocity of source wave decreases by cos . This
decrement is considered as source velocity. Thus = − cos .
Since the object wave is along the component of particle
velocity, observer wave velocity increases by . This increment
can be considered as observer velocity Δ = cos , giving Δ =
2 cos . Thus, for Doppler scan the change in frequency recorded
is given by
2 cos
Δ =

This relation implies that the Doppler shift in frequency is maximum

when the ultrasonic wave is incident normal to the blood flow.

NDT (NDE) Applications

1. In non-destructive evaluation / non-destructive testing
applications, ultrasonic waves are passed onto the material
to be tested. Here, a graph of intensity of the ultrasonic wave
(taken along y-axis) is plotted as a function of depth (taken
along x-axis). If there are no defects in the material, the top
surface reflected echo peak and the bottom surface reflected
echo peak separation gives the thickness of the material. If
there are multiple peaks, one can predict the location of
defect and also the size of defect.

Fig. NDE technique

527
 మ అ ం ర . ల ట
మ వ ం ఉం . య వ ల త క
ఉం . మం ండల ంచ , పల ం ల అధ యనం య ,స ద
అ గం క కణ ణ అధ యనం య ల
ఉప ంచబడ . య క ష సం మ ఇతర గ ల
ంచ ఉప ంచబడ .

లమ య వ వసల వ ంచ ఉప ం ం
ధం ఉ .

ప క ల ర ంచబ న :

క ల . (SL)

య శబ (NL)

కరణ శ క (DI)

క (DT)

అ (AG)

ధ మం ర ంచబ న

ప ర నష ం (TL)

ప ధ (RL)

ప సర శబ (NL)

ల ం ర ంచబ న

ల బలం (TS)

ల లం (SL).

ఇక డ ఒ నం సంబంధం ం ఒ ధౖ న ల ఇవ బ .

య షయం , లం SL బలం హం ఉం ం .ప రన ల రణం

క ంచబ న గ TL క రకం త ంచబ ం . ఇం అం న గ
ం యం (NL) వలన ప తం అ ం . వ క శ క (DI)
గ బలం పరచబ ం . అం ; వ లం ఉన అ శ ఉం , గ
ణత ప ం , ం . , య వ క ' గ
'ఇ ర ంచబ ం

SNR=(SL-TL)-(NL-DI)=SL+DI-TL-NL

528
2. Picosecond ultrasonics: They use acousto-optic
transducers for generation and detection of ultrasound
waves. Here the material to be tested is coated with a thin
substrate. Ultrasonic waves are focused onto the substrate
using acoustic lens to generate a shock wave. The shock wave
reaches the other end of the test sample and reflects back.
These are used to identify the cracks and fractures in
nanostructures and thin films.

Fig. Picosecond ultrasonics

3. Phased array ultrasonic sensors: Here a sequence of
ultrasonic waves with suitable phase difference are
transmitted into the test medium to create constructive
interference of ultrasonic waves. These waves, after
reflection also create similar interference pattern with
symmetry. If there exists any defect, the interference
pattern changes. These are used for detecting defects in long
pipe lines and large sheets of test samples in one shot.

Fig: Phased array ultrasonic sensor.

529
 ల షయం , రంభ గ ఉత యబ ం మ
అ ల ం ద ప వర నం ం ం .ల ం ం ప వర నం ం నత త, గ బ
ల బలం (TS) ం .అ ప ర న ల (TL) ప తం అ ం .ఆ
ధం సం ' గ 'ఇ ర ంచ వ .

SNR=(SL-TL)+(TS-TL)-(NL-DI)=SL+TS+DI-2TL-NL

SNR క క ఎ వఅ ,అ ంచబ ం . క అ ంచబడ .

అం ;

SNR>DT

ౖ క ప ధ మ భం ప గ ంచబ ,అ

SNR>DT+RL+AG

ఇక డ అ ధ ౖ వద యబ న ధ డన (SPL ) ట
. ఇ ర ంచవ

SPL=20 (p/1μPa)

ఇక డ 1μPa=1 ౖ స అ చన . అం వలౖ న న స కర ల
ం లవ క నప , అవ డన ల ష ల గ థ ల క ఉం .

ప 3 వ క ం .

త వ ప (1Hz-1KHz)

మధ ప (1KHz-10KHz)

అ క ప (10KHz-1MHz మ అంతకం ఎ వ)

గ క ,అ ఎ వ దర ం . అం వలన అ క
గ సం ప త వ ఉం ం . అ క గ సం అం న స రం
క ణ తఎ వ ఉం ం . అం వలన గ క ణ తమ ప మధ
ఉం ం . సంద ల , గ ఉప ంచబడ .

వ వసల క ప వరణ ప ఏ టం అ మ ంగ ల క
క ష వ వస మ ఎ ష జంౖ ప వం .అ ॓శ ల
సమ ం ప కం రవ . మ ంగ
ప ం ం య గమ ంచబ ం .

530
 SONAR

SONAR
SONAR stands for sound navigation and ranging. The basic
property of ultrasonic waves used in this technique is that they can
be reflected. So by sending Ultrasonic waves and receiving the echo
using ultrasonic detector, one can detect submarines, big fishes,
obstacles and objects during boat accidents.
Using this technique, moving objects under water can be detected on
the basis of doppler effect. By comparing frequencies of reflected and
transmitted ultrasonic signals one can find the velocity and hardness
of the target .
We know velocity of sound through sea water. By calculating time
interval between reflected and transmitted ultrasonic signals we can
find the depth of the sea.

Did You Know?

SONAR was developed to detect underwater obstacles

during navigation. This was developed within 1 month after
the famous TITANIC ship mishap in 1912. The technique
was patented by Richerdson in 1912 and device was
developed by Fessenden in 1914. Full pledged SONAR usage
came in 1940.

SONAR are of two types namely active and passive sonars. Active
sonars have both transmitter and receiver components within them.
Passive sonars have only receiver components. Active sonars are used
to detect ice bergs, study fish schools, morphology of sea bed etc.
Passive sonars are used for communication and to detect other sonar
signals.
The parameters that can be used to describe the active and passive
sonar systems are as follows.
Parameters determined by equipment:
Projector source level. (SL)

531
 SONAR
Self noise level (NL)
Receiving Direction Index (DI)
Detector threshold (DT)
Array gain (AG)
Parameters determined by the medium
Transmission loss (TL)
Reverberation level (RL)
Ambielt noise level (NL)
Parameters determined by the target
Target strength (TS)
Target source level (SL).
Here same symbols are given to similar parameters irrespective of
their location.
In the case of passive sonar, the source is external with strength SL.
The signal received is reduced by a factor of TL due to transmission
losses. Further the signal received is effected by the ambient
noise(NL). Signal strength is enhanced by the Direction index (DI) of
the receiver. i.e.; if the receiver is in the same direction as the source,
the signal quality improves, otherwise not. With these, the signal to
noise ration of passive receiver is defined as
=( − )−( − )= + − −
In the case of active sonar, initial source signal is produced by the
sonar itself and it is further reflected by the target. After reflection
from the target, the signal strength is termed as the target strength
(TS). That also will get effected by transmission losses (TL). Thus the
signal to noise ratio for Active sonar is given by
=( − )+( − )−( − )
= + + −2 −
If SNR is grater then the detector threshold, then it will get detected.
Otherwise it will not get detected. i.e.;
>

532
 SONAR

If reverberation levels and Array gain of hydrophone are also

considered, then
> + +
Here all sound levels are measured in the units of sound pressure
level recorded at the hydrophone. This can be defined as
= 20 log
1
Here 1 =1 is the reference level. Thus though all
the above equations look like additions, they all contain logerithms
of ratios of pressure levels.
Sonars have frequency range classified into 3 levels.
1. Low frequency range (1Hz-1KHz)
2. Mid frequency range (1KHz-10KHz)
3. High frequency range (10KHz-1MHz and above)
As the frequency of the signal increases, it scatters more in the
water. Thus the range is lower for high frequency signals. But the
quality of information received is more for high frequency signals.
Thus there will be a trade of between the quality of the signal and the
range. In majority of the cases, mid frequency signals are used.
The ecological effects of ths sonar systems is that they effect the
communication system and echo location mechanism of the dolphins
and whales. Fish may become deaf temporarily in the presence of
ultrasonic sounds. It was observed that the dolphins and whales show
mass stranding in the mid frequency range.
E - Corner
https://man.fas.org/dod-
101/navy/docs/es310/uw_acous/uw_acous.htm
https://dosits.org/animals/effects-of-sound/anthropogenic-
sources/sonar/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar
Principles of under water sound, R. J. Urik, 3rd Ed., Mc. Graw
Hill (1983)

533
 Solved problems and Exercises

Solved problems and Exercises

Problem 1: If an ultrasound generator generates 100 number of
cycles with pulse of duration 1msec then find the time period and
frequency of an ultrasound wave.
Solution:
Given N=100
and t=1 msec = 1 x 10-3 sec
we know that t = NT
=
=
T= 10-5 sec
Frequency (f) =
f=
f=105 Hz

Ans: T=10-5 sec & f= 105 Hz

Problem 2: In a surgical operation an ultrasound of intensity of

10W/cm2 is used to incident on a tissue of thickness 0.5cm and
observe the output intensity of 0.05W/cm2. Find the absorption
coefficient of the tissue.
Solution:
Given Io=10W/cm2
I= 0.05W/cm2
t= 0.5cm
We know that = dB/cm
10 0.05
=
0.5 10
= 20 (−2.3)
= −46 /
Ans: = −46 /

Problem 3: Find the percent of reduction in intensity for a 1 MHz

ultrasound beam traversing 1 cm of material having an attenuation
of 10 dB/cm.
Solution:

534
 Solved problems and Exercises

Given thickness of material (t) = 1cm

Attenuation per unit length (α) = -10 dB/cm
The reduction of intensity is = α t
= 10 x 1
= -10dB
= 10

−10 = 10

= 10

=
10

= 10
100
Therefore, reflectivity is 10%
And the reduction of intensity is = 100-10
= 90%
Ans: 90%
Problem 4: Find the percent reduction in intensity for a 1 MHz
ultrasound beam traversing 10 cm of material having an attenuation
of 1 dB/cm.
Ans: 90%
Problem 4: If an ultrasound having 1MHz frequency is reduced to
90%. Determine the intensity reduction if the ultrasound frequency
were increased to 2MHz.
Solution:
Reduction to 90% means
Reflection intensity = (100-90) = 10% only

I=Io x 10/100
I=Io/10
Attenuation = 10 dB
1
= 10
10
= −10 reduction in intensity

535
 Solved problems and Exercises
But we know that the reduction is directly proportional to the
frequency of wave
Therefore, for 1MHz reduction is -10dB
Similarly, for 2MHZ reduction is -20dB
−20 = 10

−2 =

= 10

= 1
100
Therefore, Reflectivity 1 % only
Reduction in intensity is 99%
Ans: -20dB (99%)
Problem 5: Find the attenuation co-efficient of tissue when an
ultrasound wave of 1MHz frequency having the intensity of 5W/cm2
is incident and observed the output intensity from the tissue is
0.5mW/cm2.

Ans: -30dB.

Problem 6: In a surgical operation an ultrasound of intensity

10W/cm2 is used to incident on a tissue of thickness 0.5cm and
observed the output intensity of 0.05W/cm2. Find the absorption
coefficient of the tissue.
Problem 7: Find the sound intensity level in decibels of 2x10−2 W/m2
ultrasound used in medical diagnostics.
Solution:
We know that = 10
I=2x10−2 W/m2
Io=10−12 W/m2
2 10
= 10
10
= 10 ( 2 10 )
= 10[ ( 2) + ( 10 )]
= 10[0.3 + 10]

536
 Solved problems and Exercises

= 103
Ans: 103 dB. Note: dB =10log[I/Io], Io= 10-12w/m2

Problem 8: In the clinical use of ultrasound, transducers are always

coupled to the skin by a thin layer of gel or oil, replacing the air that
would otherwise exist between the transducer and the skin. (a) Using
the values of acoustic impedance given in Table 1 calculate the
intensity reflection coefficient between transducer material and air.
(b) Calculate the intensity reflection coefficient between transducer
material and gel (assuming for this problem that its acoustic
impedance is identical to that of water). (c) Based on the results of
your calculations, explain why the gel is used.
Table 1. The Ultrasound Properties of Various Media, Including
Soft Tissue Found in the Body

Speed of Acoustic
Density
Medium Ultrasound Impedance
(kg/m3)
(m/s) (kg/(m2 · s))

Air 1.3 330 429

Water 1000 1500 1.5 × 106

Barium
titanate
5600 5500 30.8 × 106
(transducer
material)

Solution:
(a) We know that
−
− ( ) =
+
In this case Z1 = 429
Z2 = 30.8 x 106
Therefore
−
=
+

537
 Solved problems and Exercises
30.8 10 − 429
=
30.8 10 + 429
Since Z2>> Z1
= 1

(b) In this case Z1 = 1.5 x 106

Z2 = 30.8 x 106
Therefore
−
=
+
30.8 10 − 1.5 10
=
30.8 10 + 1.5 10
30.8 − 1.5
=
30.8 + 1.5
29.3
=
32.3
= 0.89
In case (a), reflectivity (R) = =1, therefore transmissivity = 1 −
= 0. Whereas in case (b), Reflectivity = 0.791 and
transmissivity = 1 − =0.2079.
Therefore, gel has the more transmissivity than the air.
Ans: Gel has more transmissivity than air.
Problem 9: The time delay between transmission and the arrival of
the reflected wave of a signal using ultrasound traveling through a
piece of fat tissue was 0.13 ms. At what depth did this reflection
occur?
Ans: 0.09425m
Problem 10. Ultrasound that has a frequency of 3 MHz is sent
toward blood in an artery that is moving toward the source at 25.0
cm/s. Use the speed of sound in human tissue as 1540 m/s.
1. What frequency does the blood receive?
2. What frequency returns to the source?
3. What beat frequency is produced if the source and returning
frequencies are mixed?

538
 Solved problems and Exercises

Solution:
Case i : Transducer Transmit ultrasound waves at freq fs towards
blood flow.
Blood is moving with velocity v at angle θ=0
So the frequency it receives is given by
fo = ((c+v cos θ)/c) fs
c is the ultra sound velocity in the medium =1540m/sec
and the plus sign is chosen because the motion is toward the
source.
Enter the given values into the equation.
fo = (3,000,000) ((1540 +0.25) /1540)
fo = (3,000,000) ((1540 +0.25)/1540 m/s)
fo = 3,000,487 Hz.
Case ii: The blood acts as a moving source.
The reciever in transducer acts as a stationary observer.
The frequency leaving the blood is fo = 3,000,487 Hz, but it is moving
upward.
Transducer receives this wave with freq fT = fo (c/ (c - v cos θ)) The
minus sign is used because the motion is toward the observer.
Enter the given values into the equation:
fT = (3,000,487 Hz) (1540 / (1540 −0.25))
=3,000,974 Hz.
Case iii: The beat frequency is simply the absolute value of the
difference between fs and fT, as stated in:
fB = |fT − fs|.
Substitute known values:
|3,000,974 Hz − 3,000,000 Hz|
the beat frequency: 974 Hz.
Problem 11: Ultrasound reflected from an oncoming bloodstream
that is moving at 40.0 cm/s is mixed with the original frequency of

539
 Solved problems and Exercises
3.50 MHz to produce beats. What is the beat frequency? (The velocity
of ultrasound in tissue is 1540 m/sec).)
Solution: Given that
Blood stream velocity (v) = 40cm/sec = 40 x 10-2
m/sec
Velocity of sound in blood (c) = 1540 m/sec
Initial frequency fo = 2.5MHz = 3.5 x 106 Hz
Usually prefers the angle of incidence (θ) =0
We know that, Beat frequency (or) Doppler
frequency shift is
2
∆ =

2 40 10 (0)
∆ = 3.5 10
1540
∆f = 1818Hz
Problem 12: A diagnostic ultrasound echo is reflected from moving
blood and returns with a frequency 500 Hz higher than its original 2
MHz. What is the velocity of the blood? (The velocity of ultrasound
in tissue is 1540 m/sec).)
Solution:
Given that
Blood stream velocity (v) = ?
Velocity of sound in blood (c) = 1540 m/sec
Initial frequency fo = 2 MHz = 2 x 106 Hz
Change in frequency (∆f ) = 500Hz
Usually, angle of incidence (θ) =0
∆ =
∆
=
2
500 1540
=
2(0) 2 10
= 19.25 /
Ans: 19.25cm.sec Hint: DFS= [2vCos(θ)/C]fo
Problem 13: a) Find the size of the smallest detail observable in
human tissue with 20.0-MHz ultrasound. (b) Is its effective
penetration depth great enough to examine the entire eye (about
3.00 cm is needed)? (c) What is the wavelength of such ultrasound in
0ºC air? (The velocity of ultrasound in tissue is 1540 m/sec).)

540
 Solved problems and Exercises

Solution:
(a) Given frequency of ultrasound (f) =20 MHz =20 x 106
Hz
The velocity of ultrasound in tissue (v) = 1540 m/sec
We know that v=fλ
ℎ , =

1540
=
20 10
= 77 10
= 0.077
We know that the smallest size of the object can be find using the
ultrasound scan is equal to the wavelength of the ultrasound wave.
Therefore, from the above result, the smallest size is 0.077mm.
(b) As rule of thumb, effective scan can be done to a depth of about
500λ into tissue.
Therefore, the penetration depth limit = 500λ
= 500 x 0.077
= 0.0385m
As penetration limit is 3.85cm, so given frequency is enough to
examine the entire eye

(c) We know that =

330
=
20 10
= 16.5
Ans: (a) Wavelength = 77µm, (b) penetration limit is 3.85cm so given
frequency is enough to examine the entire eye
(c) Wavelength =16.5 µm
Problem 14: (a) A bat uses ultrasound to find its way among trees.
If this bat can detect echoes 1.00 ms apart, what minimum distance
between objects can it detect? (b) Could this distance explain the
difficulty that bats have finding an open door when they accidentally
get into a house?
Ans: 77cm, yes
Problem 15: A dolphin is able to tell in the dark that the ultrasound
echoes received from two sharks come from two different objects

541
 Solved problems and Exercises
only if the sharks are separated by 3.50 m, one being that much
farther away than the other. (a) If the ultrasound has a frequency of
100 kHz, show this ability is not limited by its wavelength. (b) If this
ability is due to the dolphin’s ability to detect the arrival times of
echoes, what is the minimum time difference the dolphin can
perceive?(given ultrasound velocity=1540m/sec)
Solution: (a) Given that
Ultrasound frequency=100kHz
Ultrasound velocity=1540m/sec
Then wavelength = = 1540/100x103
= 0.0154m

wavelength= 0.0154m<3.5m, so the ability of dolphin to identify

distict objects separated by 3.5m is not limited by wavelength.
(b) Given distance between the two sharks is 3.5m
The difference between the two echos received from the sharks
separated by 3.5m, ∆t=?
∆t=2(∆x/v)
∆t= 2(3.5/1540)
= 4.545msec
Problem 16: Write your observations from the figure given below

Solution:
Findings from the figure are
1. Pulse echo method is used for detecting flaws in the testing
material.
2. Figure (a) tells transmitted pulse at starting position and
reflected echo pulse at other end of the testing material
3. Figure (b) tells that there is a defect as extra peak observed
due to reflection at this defect before the echo pulse peak
4. Figure © tells that due to large size of the defect not able to
observe echo pulse peak

542
 Solved problems and Exercises

Problem 17: Given frequency of ultrasonic waves is 5MHz, velocity

of sound in the steel medium is 1018m/sec and diameter of
transducer is 10mm. Calculate near field distance for ultrasonic
waves?
Solution: Near field distance =
Here N= near field distance
D= diameter of the transducer= 10mm= 0.01m
v= velocity of sound in steel = 1018m/sec
f= frequency of ultrasonics = 5MHz

. ×
=
×
= 12mm
Problem 18: Find the velocity of 2MHz ultrasonic wave through
water using ultrasonic interferometer. Distance between the two
successive maxima of current is 0.375mm.
Solution: Ultrasound velocity in a medium using interferometer =

Here found from interferometer is = 2 = 2x0.375=0.75mm

So velocity of ultrasound waves in water v= 2x106x0.75x10-3
= 1500m/sec
Problem 19: Ultrasonic wave velocity in acetone using ultrasonic
interferometer found 2700m/sec. Find the wavelength of ultrasonics
waves in acetone.? (Given frequency of ultrasonics is 5MHz).
Ans: 540µm
Problem 20: Deduce acoustic impedance Z= ρv from Z=

Here ρ is density of the medium

v is velocity of sound in the medium
p is pressure applied on the medium

543
 Glossary
Grade your Understanding
1. Ultrasonic waves have short wavelengths than [ ]
that of audible sound
2. Velocity of Ultrasonic waves is greater than that [ ]
of audible sound
3. Sonoluminescence is a concept that shows [ ]
conversion of sound energy to Lightenergy
4. Natural logarithm of ratio of two amplitudes of [ ]
ultrasonic waves is measured in decibel
5. Ultrasonic waves does not obey Snell’s law [ ]
6. The frequency of oscillations of the ferromagnetic [ ]
bar will be twice the frequency of the applied field
7. Piezoelectric generators whose fundamental [ ]
frequency is in the range of 40KHz
8. In Y Cut crystal ,the frequency of longitudinal [ ]
oscillations generated will be half of the frequency
of the crystal
9. Kundt’s tube method, Piezo-electric detector and [ ]
MEMS can also detect audible sound
10. A drill that oscillates with ultrasonic frequency [ ]
can bore any hard material
Checks: 1. Yes 2. No 3.Yes 4.No 5.No 6.Yes 7. Yes 8. Yes 9. Yes
10. Yes

Glossary

Glossary: Ultrasonics
The formation of vapor phase cavities, or
bubbles, within a liquid, usually due to rapid
Cavitation changes in localized pressure
A physical phenomenon (long-range
ordering), in which certain materials like
Ferromagnetic iron strongly attract each other.
Speed is one that exceeds 5 times the speed of
Hypersonic sound

544
 Glossary

Sound waves of frequencies greater than 1013

Hypersound hertz
The layer of the earth's atmosphere lies
above the mesosphere and extends from
about 80 to 1,000 km above the earth's
Ionosphere surface.

Longitudinal Running lengthwise rather than across

A property of ferromagnetic materials which
causes them to expand or contract in
Magnetostriction response to a magnetic field
Quer Comes from Latin, meaning seek or look for
An elastic wave in the earth produced by an
Seismic wave earthquake or other means
Luminescence excited in a substance by the
Sonoluminescence passage of sound waves through it
Involving or denoting a speed greater than
Supersonic that of sound

Transverse Running across rather than lengthwise

Violent or unsteady movement of air or

Turbulence water, or of some other fluid
Having a frequency above the human ear's
Ultrasonic audibility limit of about 20000 hertz
A sound or other vibrations having an
Ultrasound ultrasonic frequency
The formation of vapor phase cavities, or
bubbles, within a liquid, usually due to rapid
Cavitation changes in localized pressure
A physical phenomenon (long-range
ordering), in which certain materials like
Ferromagnetic iron strongly attract each other.

545
 Glossary
Speed is one that exceeds 5 times the speed of
personic sound

Sound waves of frequencies greater than 1013

Hypersound hertz
The layer of the earth's atmosphere lies
above the mesosphere and extends from
about 80 to 1,000 km above the earth's
Ionosphere surface.

Longitudinal Running lengthwise rather than across

A property of ferromagnetic materials which
causes them to expand or contract in
Magnetostriction response to a magnetic field
Quer Comes from Latin, meaning seek or look for
An elastic wave in the earth produced by an
Seismic wave earthquake or other means
Luminescence excited in a substance by the
Sonoluminescence passage of sound waves through it
Involving or denoting a speed greater than
Supersonic that of sound

Transverse Running across rather than lengthwise

Violent or unsteady movement of air or

Turbulence water, or of some other fluid
Having a frequency above the human ear's
Ultrasonic audibility limit of about 20000 hertz
A sound or other vibrations having an
Ultrasound ultrasonic frequency

546
 CHE

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