Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

Chapter 2: Assemblers

王振傑 (Chen-Chieh Wang)

ccwang@mail ee ncku edu tw
[email protected]
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System Programming, Spring 2010

Deparrtment o

Assemblers
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2
System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Assembler Directives

Assembler directives (or pseudo-instructions)

pseudo instructions) are
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not translated into machine instructions. Instead,

theyy provide
p instructions to the assembler itself.

START Specify name and starting address for the program.

END Indicate the end of the source program and (optionally)
specify the first executable instruction in the program.
BYTE Generate character or hexadecimal constant
constant, occupying
as many bytes as needed to represent the constant.
WORD Generate one-word integer constant.
RESB Reserve the indicated number of bytes for a data area.
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RESW Reserve the indicated number of words for a data area.

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
A SIC Assembly
y Program
g Example
p
[ Figure 2.1 ]
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

A Simple SIC Assembler

1
1. Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine
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language equivalents. (e.g., translate STL to 14)

2. Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine
addresses. (e.g., translate RETADR to 1033)
3. Build the machine instructions in the proper format.
4. Convert the data constants specified in the source program
into their internal machine representations. (e.g., translate
EOF to 454F46)
5. Write the object program and the assembly listing.
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All of these functions except number 2 can easily be accomplished by

sequential processing of the source program, one line at a time.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
Program
g from Figure
g 2.1 with Object
j Code
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Object Program Format

Column Contents
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1 H
Header 2-7 Program name
Record 8-13 Starting address of object program (HEX)
14-19 Length of object program in bytes (HEX)
1 T
Text 2-7 Starting address for object code in this record (HEX)
Record 8-9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (HEX)
10-69 Object code (HEX, 2 columns per byte of object code)
1 E
End
Record 2-7 Address off first
f executable instruction in object program
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(HEX)
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Object
j Program
( Corresponding to Figure 2.2 )
[ Figure 2.3 ]
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Note that there is no object code corresponding to addressed 1033-2038.

This storage is simply reserved by the loader for use by the program
during execution
execution.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Two-pass
Two pass SIC Assembler

Pass 1 (define symbols):

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1. Assign addresses to all statements in the program.

2. Save the values (addresses) assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2.
3
3. Perform some processing of assembler directives.
directives (This includes
processing that affects address assignment, such as determining the
length of data areas defined by BYTE, RESW, etc.)
4. Write intermediate file.

Pass 2 (assemble instructions and generate object program):

1
1. Assemble instructions (translating operation codes and looking up
addresses).
2. Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD, etc.
3
3. Perform processing of assembler directives not done during Pass1.
Pass1
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4. Write the object program and the assembly listing.

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Data Structures

Operation Code Table (OPTAB) is used to look up

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mnemonic operation codes and translate them to their

machine language equivalents.

Symbol Table (SYMTAB) is used to store values (addresses)

assigned to labels
labels.

Location Counter ((LOCCTR)) is a variable that is used to help

p
in the assignment of addresses.
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System Programming, Spring 2010

Pass 1
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System Programming, Spring 2010
 Pass 2
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Complete!
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
A SIC/XE Assembly Program Example
SIC ( Figure 2.1 ) SIC/XE ( Figure 2.5 )
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Program from Figure 2.5 with Object Code

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Addressing

Program Counter relative addressing (Format 3)

Program-Counter
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 -2048 ≤ Displacement ≤ +2047

Base relative addressing (Format 3)

 0 ≤ Displacement ≤ 4095

Extended instruction format (Format 4)

 20-bit address field, which is large enough to contain the
full memory address.
 Using the prefix +
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
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Deparrtment o

Example 2: PC Relative Addressing

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Base Relative Addressing
Difference between PC-relative and Base-relative
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addressing
 The assembler knows what the contents of the Program Counter
will be at execution time. Base register ?
 The base register is under control of the programmer. Therefore,
the programmer must tell the assembler what the base register
will contain during execution of the program

Assembler Directives
BASE Informs the assembler that the base register will contain
the address of #[Operand]
NOBASE IInforms
f the
th assembler
bl th
thatt th
the contents
t t off the
th base
b
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register can no longer be relied upon for addressing

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Example : Base Relative Addressing

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Program Relocation

Multiprogramming
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 Running multiple programs (processes) that share

system resources (e.g. memory, CPU)

Absolute Programs
 Must be loaded at exact address in order to execute
properly

Relocatable Programs
 Can be loaded into memory wherever these is room,
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rather than specifying a fixed address at assembly time

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
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Deparrtment o

Object Program Format

Column Contents
1 H
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Header 2-7 Program name

Record 8-13 Starting address of object program (HEX)
14-19 Length of object program in bytes (HEX)
1 T
Text 2-7
2 7 Starting address for object code in this record (HEX)
Record 8-9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (HEX)
10-69 Object code (HEX, 2 columns per byte of object code)
1 M
2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified,
Mod.
relative to the beginning of the program (HEX)
Record
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8-9 Length of the address field to be modified, in half-bytes

(HEX)
End 1 E
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Record 2-7 Address of first executable instruction (HEX)

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
Object program
( Corresponding to Figure 2.6 )
[ Figure 2.8 ]
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
Additional assembler features
Figure 2.5 Figure 2.9
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
2.3.2 Symbol-Defining
y g Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Literals (1/3)

It is often convenient for the programmer to be able to write

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the value of a constant operand as a part of the instruction that

uses it.

This avoids having to define the constant elsewhere in the

program and make up a label for it.

Such an operand is called a literal because the value is stated

literally in the instruction
“literally” instruction.

In SIC/XE assembler language notation, a literal is identified

with the prefix
ith th fi =, which
hi h is
i followed
f ll d by
b a specification
ifi ti off th
the
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literal value, using the same notation as in the BYTE

statement.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Literals (2/3)

The difference between a literal and an immediate operand

operand.
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 (#) Immediate addressing: the operand value is

assembled as part of the machine instruction.
 (=) Literal addressing: the assembler generates the
specified value as a constant at some other memory
l
location.
ti
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Literals (3/3)

All of the literal operands used in a program are gathered

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together into one or more literal pools. Normally literals are

placed into a pool at the end of the program.

When the assembler encounters a LTORG statement, it

creates a literal operands
p used since the p
previous LTORG
(or the beginning of the program).

Mostt assemblers
M bl recognize
i duplicate
d li t litliterals
l and
d store
t only
l
one copy of the specified data value.
 By comparison of the character strings defining them.
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 EX: the literal =X’05’ ( Figure 2.9, Line 215 and 230 )
 EX: =C’EOF’ and =X’454F45’ ?
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o The implementation of literals

The basic data structure needed is a literal table (LITTAB)

(LITTAB).
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 Literal name, value, length, and address

Pass1:
 Search and update LITTAB for the specified literal name
 When encounters a LTORG statement or the end of the program,
the assembler makes a scan of the LITTAB and assigns an
address for all unallocated literals
 Update the location counter to reflect the number of bytes
p
occupied by
y each literal

Pass2:
 Search LITTAB for the address of each literal encountered
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 Literal values placed at correct locations in the object program

 If a literal value represents an address in the program, the
assembler must also generate the appropriate Modification record.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o EQU assembler directive

EQU ( for “equate”

equate ) assembler directive allows the
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programmer to define symbols and specify their values.

 Improve readability in place of numeric values
 EX: “MAXLEN” and “ * ” ( Figure 2.9, Line 106 and 107 )
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

EQU assembler directive

The resulting object code is exactly the same as in the

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original version of the instruction; however, the source

statement is easier to understand.

Another common use of EQU is in defining mnemonic names

for registers.

A EQU 0
X EQU 1
L EQU 2

INDEX EQU X
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BASE EQU B
FLOAT EQU F
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o ORG assembler directive

ORG ( for “origin”

origin ) assembler directive
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 When ORG is encountered during assembly of a program, the

assembler resets its location counter (LOCCTR) to the specified
value
value.

Example:
 SYMBOL is 6-byte, VALUE is 1-word, and FLAGS is 2-byte
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

Use EQU assembler directives

Use ORG assembler directives

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Restrictions

EQU:
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all symbols used on the right-hand side of the statement

must have been defined previously in the program.

 

ORG:
all symbols used to specify the new location counter value
must have been previously defined.


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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Expressions

Assemblers generally allow arithmetic expressions formed

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according to the normal rules using the operators +, -, *, / .

Division is usually defined to produce an integer result.
Individual terms in the expression may be constants, user-
defined symbols, or special terms.
“ * “ : This special term represents the value of the next
unassigned memory location.

106 BUFEND EQU *

Expression Terms
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 Relative terms: defined relative to the beginning of the program

 Absolute terms: independent of program location
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Absolute and Relative Expressions

Absolute Expressions
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 Contains only absolute terms

 Contains relative terms provided the relative terms occur in
i with
pairs ith opposite
it signs;
i th
the d d
dependency on th
the program
starting address is canceled out; the result is an absolute value

107 MAXLEN EQU BUFEND BUFFER

BUFEND-BUFFER

R l ti E
Relative Expressions
i
 Contains an odd number of relative terms, with one more
positive terms than negative terms
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 No relative term may enter into a multiplication or division

operation
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System Programming, Spring 2010
 Defining Symbol Types in the
Deparrtment o
S
Symbol
b l T
Table
bl
To determine the type of an expression,
expression we must keep track of the
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types of all symbols defined in the program.

For this purpose we need a flag in the symbol table to indicate type
of value (absolute or relative) in addition to the value itself.
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With this information the assembler can easily determine the type of
each expression used as an operand and generate Modification
records in the object program for relative values
values.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
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2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Program Blocks vs.
vs Control Sections

Program Blocks
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 Refer to segments of code that are rearranged within a

single object program unit

Control Sections
 Refer to segments that are translated into independent
object program units
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Program Blocks
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Deparrtment o Program Blocks (1/2)

The source programs logically contained subroutines

subroutines, data
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areas, etc. However, they were handled by the assembler as

one entity, resulting in a single block of object code.

Many assemblers provide features that allow more flexible

handling of the source and object programs.

 Some features allow the generated machine instructions

and data to appear in the object program in a different
order from the corresponding source statements.
 Other features result in the creation of several
independent
i d d t parts
t off the
th object
bj t program.
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 These parts maintain their identity and are handled

separately
p y by
y the loader.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Program Blocks (2/2)

The assembler directive USE indicates which portions of the

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source program belong to the various blocks.

E h program bl
Each k may actually
block t ll contain
t i severall separate
t
segments of the source program. The assembler will (logically)
rearrange these segments to gather together the pieces of
each block.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
Program
g from Fig.
g 2.11 with object
j code
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ersity [ Figure 2.12 ]

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System Programming, Spring 2010

SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

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SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o The implementation of Program Blocks (1/2)

Pass 1
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

 A separate location counter for each program block.

 The current value of this location counter is saved when
switching to another block, and the saved value is
restored when resuming a previous block.
 Each label in the program is assigned an address that is
relative to the start of the block that contains it.
 The latest value of the location counter for each block
indicates the length of that block.
 At the end of Pass 1 the assembler constructs a table
that contains the starting addresses and lengths for all
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blocks.
( see next page )
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Deparrtment o

The implementation of Program Blocks (2/2)

of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

Pass 2
 The address for each symbol relative to the start of the
object program is easily found from the information in
SYMTAB.
 The assembler simply adds the location of the symbol
symbol,
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relative to the start of its block, to the assigned block

starting address.
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o
Object
j Program
g
( Corresponding to Figure 2.11 )
[ Figure 2.13 ]
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

Default(1)
( )

Default(2)
CDATA(2)
Default(3)
CDATA(3)
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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62
System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Assembler Directives

<symbol> CSECT
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

 The CSECT assembler directive signals the start of a new

control section named <symbol>

EXTDEF < symbol1, symbol2, … symboln >

 The EXTDEF (external definition) statement in a control section
names symbols
symbols, called external symbols
symbols, that are defined in this
control section and may be used by other sections.
 Control section names do not need to be named in an EXTDEF
statement because theyy are automaticallyy considered to be
external symbols.

EXTREF < symbol1, symbol2, … symboln >

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 The EXTREF (external reference) statement names symbols

that are used in this control section and are defined elsewhere.
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Deparrtment o
Control Section : COPY
[ Figure 2.16 ]
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Control Section : RDREC

[ Figure 2.16 ]
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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Deparrtment o
Control Section : WRREC
[ Figure 2.16 ]
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Object Program Format

Column
Co u Contents
Co e s
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

1 D
Define 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section
Record 8 13
8-13 Relative address of symbol within this control section (HEX)
14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols
1 R
Refer
27
2-7 N
Name off external
t l symbol
b l referred
f d tto iin thi
this control
t l section
ti
Record
8-73 Names of other external reference symbols
1 M
2-7 Starting address of the field to be modified, relative to the
beginning of the program (HEX)
Mod.
8-9 Length of the field to be modified, in half-bytes (HEX)
eco d
Record
10 Modification flag (+ or -)
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11-16 External symbol whose value is to be added to or subtracted

from the indicated field
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Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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69
System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

One-Pass
One Pass Assemblers

The main problem in trying to assemble a program in one

of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

pass involves forward references.

Eli i t fforward
Eliminate d references
f
 Data items are defined before they are referenced.
 But,, forward references to labels on instructions cannot be
eliminated as easily.
 Prohibit forward references to data items.

There are two main types of one-pass assembler.

 Load-and-Go : Produces object code directly in memory for
immediate execution
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 Object Program Output : Produces the usual kind of object

program for late execution.
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Deparrtment o
Sample
p program
p g for a one-pass
p assembler
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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73
System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

SUBROUTINE TO READ RECORD INTO BUFFER

SUBROUTINE TO WRITE RECORD FROM BUFFER

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Load-and-Go
Load and Go Assemblers (1/2)

This kind of load-and-go assembler is useful in a system that is

of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

oriented toward program development and testing.

i t ti operand
If an instruction d is
i a symbol
b l th
thatt h
has nott yett b
been
defined, the operand address is omitted when the instruction is
assembled.

 The symbol used as an operand is entered into the symbol table.

 This entry is flagged to indicate that the symbol is undefined.
undefined
 The address of the operand field of the instruction that refers to
the undefined symbol is added to a list of forward references
associated with the symbol table entry
entry.
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( Cont.)
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Load-and-Go
Load and Go Assemblers (2/2)

When the definition for a symbol is encountered

encountered, the forward
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

reference list for that symbol is scanned, and the proper

address is inserted into any instructions previously generated.

At the end of the program, all symbols must be defined

without any * in SYMTAB.

For a load-and-go assembler, the actual address must be

known at assembly time
time.
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Deparrtment o
Object code in memory and symbol table entries
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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ersity f program in
for i Fig.
Fi 2.18
2 18 after
ft scanning
i line
li 40

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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Object code in memory and symbol table entries

f program in
for i Fig.
Fi 2.18
2 18 after
ft scanning
i liline 160
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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Deparrtment o Object Program Output Assemblers

One-pass assemblers that produce object programs as

of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

output are often used on systems where external working-

storage devices are not available.

The assembler generate another Text record with the correct

operand address.

When the program is loaded, this address will be inserted

into the instruction by the action of the loader.
loader

The object program records must be kept in their original

order
d when
h th they are presented
t d tto the
th loader.
l d
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o

Object program from one-pass assembler for

program in
i Fig.
Fi 2.18
2 18
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch
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80
System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Outline

2 1 Basic Assembler Functions

2.1
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler

2.1.2 Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures
22M
2.2 Machine-Dependent
hi D d tA Assembler
bl F Features
t
2.2.1 Instruction Formats and Addressing Modes
2.2.2 Program Relocation
2.3 Machine-Independent Assembler Features
2.3.1 Literals
y
2.3.2 Symbol-Definingg Statements
2.3.3 Expressions
2.3.4 Program Blocks
2.3.5 Control Sections and Program Linking
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2.4 Assembler Design Options

2.4.1 One-Pass Assemblers
2 4 2 Multi
2.4.2 Multi-Pass
Pass Assemblers
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Deparrtment o

Multi-Pass
Multi Pass Assemblers

In our discussion of the EQU assembler directive

directive,
of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

we required that any symbol used on the RHS be

defined ppreviously
y in the source p
program.
g

Consider, for example, the sequence

ALPHA EQU BETA
BETA EQU DELTA
DELTA RESW 1

 Two pass assemblers

Two-pass 
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System Programming, Spring 2010
Deparrtment o Multi-Pass
Multi Pass Assemblers

The general solution is a multi-pass assembler that can

of Electrrical Engineering,, Feng-Ch

make as many passes as are needed to process the

definitions of symbols.

It is not necessary for such an assembler to make more than

two p passes over the entire p
program.
g

The method we describe involves storing those symbol

definitions that involve forward references in the symbol table.
table

 This table also indicates which symbols are dependent

on the values of others, to facilitate symbol evaluation.
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