RESEARCH METHODS IN
BIOPSYCHOLOGY
MK Biopsikologi
Fak. Psikologi Universitas Airlangga
Smt Gasal 2021-2022
METHODS TO STUDY THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
⚫ Brain Imaging & Brain Stimulation
Techniques in Living Humans
⚫ Psychophysiological Techniques
⚫ Invasive Physiological Methods
⚫ Neuropharmacological Methods
⚫ Genetic Engineering
BEHAVIORAL METHODS IN
BIOPSYCHOLOGY
⚫ Neuropsychological Testing
⚫ Behavioral Methods in Cognitive
Neuroscience
⚫ Animal Behavior Paradigms
IMAGING & STIMULATING THE
LIVING BRAIN
⚫ Contrast X-rays
– cerebral angiography
⚫ Computed Tomography (CT)
⚫ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
⚫ Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
⚫ Functional MRI (fMRI)
⚫ Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
⚫ Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
CT SCANS
⚫ A computer assisted X-ray
procedure
⚫ An X-ray scanner is rotated
1o at a time over 180 o
⚫ Computer reconstruction
⚫ Horizontal sections
⚫ Reveal structural
abnormalities, such as
cortical atrophy or lesions
caused by a stroke or
trauma.
MRI SCANS
⚫ A strong magnetic field causes
hydrogen atoms to align in the
same orientation.
⚫ When a radio frequency wave
is passed through the head,
atomic nuclei emit
electromagnetic energy.
⚫ The MRI scanner is tuned to
detect radiation emitted from
the hydrogen molecules.
⚫ Computer reconstructs image.
⚫ Structural
information is
provided by
magnetic
resonance imaging
(MRI) and diffusion
tensor imaging
(DTI) scans in
alcoholic and
healthy control
subjects.
MRI VS. CT SCANS
⚫ Advantages of MRI
– No ionizing radiation exposure
– Better spatial resolution
– Horizontal, Frontal or Sagittal planes
⚫ Disadvantages
– Cost
– No ferrous metal!
PET SCANS
⚫ A positron emitting radionuclide is
injected (e.g., 2-deoxyglucose).
⚫ Positrons interact with electrons
which produce photons (gamma rays)
traveling in opposite directions.
⚫ PET scanner detects the photons.
⚫ Computer determines how many
gamma rays from a particular region
and a map is made showing areas of
high to low activity.
PET Versus CT
⚫ CT scans show brain structures.
⚫ PET scans reveal brain activity.
⚫ CT involves absorption of X-rays.
⚫ PET involves emission of radiation
by an injected or inhaled isotope.
FUNCTIONAL MRI
⚫ Images brain hemodynamics.
⚫ Advantages over PET:
– No injections need to be
given
– Structure and Function
– Shorter imaging time
– Better spatial resolution
– 3-D images
⚫ Check out this website for more info on fMRI
methods: http://www.fmri.org/fmri.htm
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
⚫ MEG measures changes in magnetic fields on the
scalp surface that are produced by changes in
patterns of neural activity.
⚫ Advantage over fMRI
– faster temporal resolution
⚫ Advantage over EEG
– greater accuracy and more reliable localization due to
minimal distortion of the signal
⚫ Clinical Uses
– Evaluation of epilepsy: to localize the source of epileptiform
brain activity, usually performed with simultaneous EEG
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
⚫ TMS disrupts neural activity by creating a
magnetic field under a coil positioned near
the skull.
– Disruption of specific cortical locations are
produced while participants engage in cognitive
and/or behavioral tasks.
– This allows researchers to assess functions of
specific cortical areas.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY
⚫ Electroencephalography
(EEG)
⚫ Electromyography (EMG)
⚫ Electrooculography (EOG)
⚫ Electrodermal activity (Skin
Conductance)
⚫ Cardiovascular activity
– Heart rate (EKG)
– Blood Pressure
– Plethysmography
INVASIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS
IN NONHUMANS
⚫ Stereotaxic Surgery
⚫ Lesion Methods
⚫ Electrical Stimulation
⚫ Electrophysiological
Recording
LESIONING TECHNIQUES
⚫ Aspiration lesions
⚫ Radio-frequency lesions
⚫ Knife cuts
⚫ Cryogenic blockade
⚫ Chemical Lesions
NEUROHISTOLOGY TECHNIQUES
⚫ Fixation, preservation of tissue,
sectioning and staining of tissue
⚫ Uses of histological techniques
– Confirming lesion sites or electrode
locations
– In combination with neural tracing
techniques (anterograde,
retrograde labeling)
– In combination with
autoradiography or
immunohistochemistry techniques
NEUROHISTOLOGICAL STAINING
TECHNIQUES
⚫ Nissl Stains
– e.g., cresyl violet
– stains mainly cell bodies
⚫ Golgi Silver Stain
– stains whole neurons
⚫ Myelin Stains (Fiber stains)
– e.g., Weigert stain
– stains mainly myelin
For more information on neurohistological stains, visit:
http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab9/Lab9.htm
Brain images obtained from
http://www.brainmuseum.org
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY TECHNIQUES
⚫ Intracellular unit
recording
⚫ Extracellular unit
recording
⚫ Multiple-unit recording
NEUROPHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
Measuring Chemical Activity in the Brain
⚫ 2-DG Autoradiography
– Radioactive 2-deoxyglucose is injected
– Animal engages in behavior of interest
– Animal is euthanized, brain tissue is removed and sliced
– Tissue slices are coated with photographic emulsion and
stored in the dark (much like film processing)
– Areas that absorbed high levels of radioactive substance
will appear darker
– Using computer imaging, differences in density can be color
coded.
NEUROPHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
⚫ Cerebral Dialysis (in vivo microdialysis)
– Under anesthesia and stereotaxic guidance, a cannula is
inserted into a specific brain site.
– Following recovery, a small probe with a semipermeable
membrane is inserted into the cannula.
– Fluid is perfused through the probe and chemicals in the
extracellular fluid diffuse across the membrane and are
collected into a sample vial.
– The samples are then analyzed using a chromatography
methods. (e.g. HPLC)
NEUROPHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
Localizing Neurotransmitters and Receptors
⚫ Immunocytochemistry
– Makes use of antibodies for specific proteins, such as receptors or
enzymes.
– The antibody is labeled with a fluorescent die or a radioactive element
(commercially available).
– Brain tissue is sliced and exposed to a solution containing the labeled
antibody.
– Brain slices are viewed under microscope to identify the regions where
protein of interest is distributed.
⚫ In situ hybridization
– Also used to locate peptides or proteins in tissue
– Hybrid strands of mRNA are artificially created and labeled with a dye
or radioactive element
– Brain tissue slices are exposed to solution containing the labeled
mRNA
– Brain slices are viewed under microscope to identify regions where the
mRNA expression is highest
GENETIC ENGINEERING
⚫ Gene Knockout Techniques
– Creating organisms lacking certain genes
– Limitations regarding interpretation of knockout effects
⚫ Most behavioral traits are influenced by the activities of multiple genes
⚫ Elimination of a gene may modify the expression of other genes
– Effects of gene knockout may be masked by compensatory changes to
other genes
⚫ Experience influences gene expression, so effects of knockout may
interact with experience in complex ways
⚫ Gene Replacement Techniques
– Creating transgenic organisms
⚫ e.g. inserting human genetic material into mice
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR PARADIGMS
⚫ Species-common behaviors
– Aggressive Behaviors
– Defensive Behaviors (e.g., anxiety paradigms)
– Reproductive Behaviors
– Locomotor Activity
⚫ Traditional Conditioning Paradigms
– Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR PARADIGMS
⚫ Common Learning Paradigms
– Conditioned Taste Aversion
– Conditioned Escape/Avoidance
– Conditioned Place Preference
– Radial Arm Maze
– Morris Water Maze
Operant Conditioning Apparatus
Conditioned Place Preference
Apparatus
Radial Arm Maze
Open Field Apparatus
