Fundamentals of Photonics

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- 1.Ünite
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EXERCISE 1.1-1

Proof of Snell's Law. The proof of Snell's law !s exerc!se !n the appl!cat!on of Fermat's
an

pr!nc!ple. Referr!ng to F!g 1.1-4, we seek to m!n!m!ze the opt!cal pathlength NAB+ n,BC between
po!nts A and C. We therefore have the follow!ng opt!m!zat!on problem: M!n!m!ze n!d1 sec 01 +
n2d2 sec 02 w!th respect to the angles 0r and (2, subject to the cond!t!on d tan 61 + d2 tan (2 = d.
Show that the solut!on of th!s constra!ned m!n!m!zat!on problem y!elds Snell's law.

02
F!gure 1.1-4 Construct!on to prove Snell's law.
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1.1-2 Fermat's Pr!nc!ple w!th Max!mum T!me. Cons!der the ell!pt!cal m!rror
2(a), whose foc! are denoted A and B. Geometr!cal propert!es of the ell!pse d!ctate that the
pathlength APB !s !dent!cal to the pathlengths AP B and AP"B for adjacent po!nts on the
ell!pse.
(a) Now cons!der another m!rror w!th a rad!us of curvature smaller than that of the ell!pt!cal
m!rror, but tangent to !t at P. as d!splayed !n F!g. P1.1-2(b). Show that the path APB
followed by the l!ght rayan travel!ng between po!nts A and B !s a path of max!mum t!me,
!.e.. !s greater than the adjacent paths AQ B and AQ"B.

(b) F!nally, cons!der a m!rror that crosses the ell!pse, but !s tangent to !t at P. as !llustrated
!n F!g. P1.1-2(c). Show that the poss!ble ray paths AQ'B. APB, and AQ"B exh!b!t
a

po!nt of !nflect!on.

Reflect!on from an ell!pt!cal m!rror. (b) Reflect!on from an !nscr!bed

F!gure P1.1-2
m!rror w!th greater curvature. () Reflect!on from tangent!al m!rror w!th
tangent!al
curvature chang!ng from concave to convex.
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EXERCISE 1.2-1

Image Format!on by a Spher!cal M!rror. Show that. w!th!n the parax!al approx!mat!on, rays
or!g!nat!ng from po!nt P!
a (91.21) are reflected to a po!nt P2 = (12. 22), where 21 and 22 sat!sfy

(1.2-4) and y2 -9172/21 (F!g. 1.2-7). Th!s means that rays from each po!nt !n the plane 2 = 21
meet at a s!ngle correspond!ng po!nt !n the plane = 22. so that the m!rror acts as an !mage-format!on
system w!th magn!f!cat!on 22/31. Negat!ve magn!f!cat!on means that the !mage !s !nverted.

F!gure 1.2-7 Image format!on by a

spher!cal m!rror.Four part!cular
rays are
!llustrated.
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1. Adım :

2. Adım :

3. Adım : 4. Adım:
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EXERCISE 1.2-2

Image Format!on. Der!ve (1.2-8). Prove that parax!al rays or!g!nat!ng from Pt pass through P2
en (1.2-9) and (1.2-10) are sat!sf!ed.

EXERCISE 1.2-3

Aberrat!on-Free Imag!ng Surface. Determ!ne the equat!on of a convex aspher!cal (nonspher!-

cal) surface between med!a of refract!ve !nd!ces 72 and n> such that all rays (not necessar!lyparax!al)
from an ax!al po!nt P at a d!stance to the left of the surface are !maged onto anax!al po!nt P2 at
a d!stance 72 to the r!ght of the surface [F!g. 1.2-13(0)]. H!nt: In accordance w!th Fermat's pr!nc!ple
the opt!cal pathlengths between the two po!nts must be equal for all paths.
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EXERCISE 1.2-4

Proof of the Th!n Lens Formulas. Us!ng (1.2-8), along w!th the def!n!t!on of the focal length
g!ven !n (1.2-12). prove (1.2-11) and (1.2-13).
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EXERCISE 1.2-5

Numer!cal Aperture and Angle of Acceptance of an Opt!cal F!ber. An opt!cal f!ber

!s !llum!nated by l!ght from a source l!ght-em!tt!ng d!ode, LED). The refract!ve !nd!ces of
(e.g., a

the core and cladd!ng of the f!ber are 721 and n2,
respect!vely, and the refract!ve !ndex of a!r !s
(see F!g. 1.2-21). Show that the half-angle 0. of the cone of rays accepted by the f!ber (transm!tted
through the f!ber w!thout undergo!ng refract!on at the cladd!ng) !s g!ven by

NA - s!n0, 115 (1.2-15)

Numer!cal Aperture
Opt!cal F!ber
Theangle 0. IS called the acceptance angle and the parameter NA = s!n 0. Is known as the
numer!cal aperture of the f!ber. Calculate the numer!cal aperture and acceptance angle for a s!l!ca-
glass f!ber w!th 11 #1.475 and ny = 1.460. S!l!ca glass, also known as fused s!l!ca, !s amorphous
s!l!con d!ox!de (S!O.). It !s w!dely used because of !ts excellent opt!cal and mechan!cal propert!es.
Moreover, !ts refract!ve !ndex can be read!ly mod!f!ed by dop!ng (e.g., w!th GeO2).

Cladd!ng
A!r
Core

F!gure 1.2-21 Acceptance angle of an opt!cal f!ber.

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EXERCISE 1.2-6

L!ght Trapped !n a L!ght-Em!tt!ng D!ode.

the
(a) Assume that l!ght !s generated !n all d!rect!ons !ns!de a mater!al of refract!ve !ndex n cut !n
refract!ve
shape of a parallelep!ped (F!g. 1.2-22). The mater!al IS surrounded by a!r w!th un!ty
the
!ndex. Th!s process occurs !n l!ght-em!tt!ng d!odes (see Sec. 18.1B). What !s the angle of
cone of l!ght rays (!ns!de the Later!al) that w!ll emerge from each face? What happens to the

other rays? What !s the numer!cal value of th!s angle for GaAs (n 3.6)?

F!gure 1.2-22 Trapp!ng of l!ght !n paral-

lelep!ped of h!gh refract!ve !ndex.

(b) Assume that when l!ght !s generated !sotrop!cally the amount of opt!cal power assoc!ated w!th
the rays !n a g!ven cone !s proport!onal to the sol!d angle of the cone. Show that the rat!o of

the opt!cal power that !s extracted from the mater!al to the total generated opt!cal power Is

1 1/n2 prov!ded that n . V2. What !s the numer!cal value of th!s rat!o for GaAs?
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1.2-7 Transm!ss!on through Planar Plates.

(a) Use Snell's law to show that a ray enter!ng a planar plate of th!ckness d and refract!ve
!ndex 72-1 (placed !n a!r: N A 1) emerges parallel to !ts !n!t!al d!rect!on. The ray need not

be parax!al. Der!ve an express!on for the lateral d!splacement of the ray as a funct!on of
the angle of !nc!dence 0. Expla!n your results !n terms of Fermat's pr!nc!ple.
(b) If the plate !nstead compr!ses a stack of Nparallel layers stacked aga!nst cach other
w!th th!cknesses d!,d2.....dn and refract!ve !nd!ces D1.n2, ...nw, show that the
transm!tted ray !s parallel to the !nc!dent ray. If 0. !s the angle of the ray !n the mth
layer, show that nm s!n Im = s!n (). m a 1.2.1
1.2-8 Lens !n Water. Determ!ne the focal length f of a b!convex lens w!th rad!! 20 cm and 30 cm
and refract!ve !ndex n 1.5. What !s the focal length when the lens 15 !mmersed !n water
(n - 4/3)?
1.2-9 Numer!cal Aperture of a Cladless F!ber. Determ!ne the numer!cal aperture and the accep-
tance angle of an opt!cal f!ber !f the refract!ve !ndex of the core !s 111 1.46 and the cladd!ng

!s str!pped out (replaced w!th a!r 712 Ad

1.2-10 F!ber Coupl!ng Spheres. T!ny glass balls are often used as lenses to couple l!ght !nto and
out of opt!cal f!bers. The f!ber end !s located at H1 d!stance f from the sphere. For a sphere of
rad!us 0 = 1 mm and refract!ve !ndex n! ant 1.8. determ!ne such that A ray parallel
to the
opt!cal ax!s at a d!stance 0.7 mm !s focused onto the f!ber, as !llustrated !n F!g. P1.2-10.

L!ens

F!gure P1.2-10 Focus!ng l!ght !nto an opt!cal f!ber w!th a spher!cal glass ball.
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1.2-11 Extract!on of L!ght from a H!gh-Refract!ve-Index Med!um. Assume that l!ght !s gener-
all d!rect!ons !ns!de a mater!al of refract!ve !ndex 11 3.7 cut !n the

shape of a parallelep!ped and placed !n a!r (n = 1) (see Exerc!se 1.2-6).

a perfect m!rror IS coated all s!des except the front

(a) If a reflect!ve mater!al act!ng as on
 s!de, determ!ne the percentage of l!ght that may be extracted from the front s!de.

(b) If another transparent mater!al of refract!ve !ndex 7 1.4 !s placed on the front s!de,
would that help extract some of the trapped l!ght?
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EXERCISE 1.3-1

The GRIN Slab as a Lens. Show that a SELFOC slab of length d < 7/2a and refract!ve !ndex
g!ven by (1.3-9) acts as a cyl!ndr!cal lens (a lens w!th focus!ng power !n the y-2 plane) of focal length

(1.3-13)
noo s!n(ad)

Show that the pr!nc!pal po!nt (def!ned !n F!g. 1.3-6) l!es at a d!stance from the slab edge AHI ~

(1/moo) tan(od/2). Sketch the ray trajector!es !n the spec!al cases d T/o and 7/2a.

F!gure 1.3-6 The SELFOC slab used as

a lens: F !s the focal po!nt and H !s the
H
pr!nc!pal po!nt.
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EXERCISE 1.3-2

Numer!cal Aperture of the Graded-Index F!ber. Cons!der a graded-!ndex f!ber w!th the
!ndex prof!le prov!ded !n (1.3-14) and rad!us a. A ray !s !nc!dent from a!r !nto the f!ber at !ts center,
wh!ch then makes an angle to w!th the f!ber ax!s !n the med!um (see F!g. 1.3-8). Show, !n the parax!al
approx!mat!on, that the numer!cal aperture !s

NA = s!n 0. - nood, (1.3-18)

Numer!cal Aperture
Graded-Index F!ber

where 0. !s the max!mum acceptance angle for wh!ch the ray trajectory !s conf!ned w!th!n the f!ber.
Compare th!s to the numer!cal aperture of a step-!ndex f!ber such as the one d!scussed !n Exerc!se 1.2-
5. To make the compar!son fa!r, take the refract!ve !nd!ces of the core and cladd!ng of the step-!ndex
f!ber to be 721 = no and 112 FE TON respect!vely.

F!gure 1.3-8 Acceptance angle of a graded-!ndex opt!cal f!ber.

1.3-3 Ax!ally Graded Plate. A plate of th!ckness d !s or!ented normal to the 2 ax!s. The refract!ve
!ndex n(z) !s graded !n the 2 d!rect!on. Show that a ray enter!ng the plate from a!r at an
!nc!dence angle to !n the y-2 plane makes an angle 0(2) at pos!t!on z !n the med!um g!ven
by n( z) s!n 0(z) = s!n (o. Show that the ray emerges !nto a!r parallel to the or!g!nal !nc!dent
ray. H!nt: You may use the results of Prob. 1.2-7. Show that the ray pos!t!on y(2) !ns!de the
plate obeys the d!fferent!al equat!on (dy/d2)- - (n?/s!n? 0 - 1)-1.
1.3-4 Ray Trajector!es !n GRIN F!bers. Cons!der a graded-!ndex opt!cal f!ber w!th cyl!ndr!cal
symmetry about the z ax!s and refract!ve !ndex n(p), Va? + y?. Let (p.O.z) be the
vector !n a cyl!ndr!cal coord!nate system. Rewr!te the parax!al ray equat!ons, (1.3-
pos!t!on
as funct!ons of 2.
evl!ndr!cal system and der!ve d!fferent!al equat!ons for p and O
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EXERCISE 1.4-1

Spec!al Forms the Ray-Transfer Matr!x.

of Cons!der the follow!ng s!tuat!ons !n wh!ch one
of the four elements of the ray-transfer matr!x van!shes:

(a) Show that A = 0 represents a focus!ng system, !n wh!ch all rays enter!ng the system at a part!cular
angle, whatever the!r pos!t!on, leave at a s!ngle pos!t!on.
(b) Show that B = 0 represents an !mag!ng system, !n wh!ch all rays enter!ng the system at a
part!cular pos!t!on, whatever the!r angle, leave at a s!ngle pos!t!on.
(c) What are the spec!al features of a system for wh!ch C = 0 or D = 0?
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EXERCISE 1.4-2

A Set of Parallel Transparent Plates. Cons!der a set of N parallel planar transparent plates
of refract!ve !nd!ces n1, n2,..., nw and th!cknesses d1, d2,..., dy, placed !n a!r (n 1) normal to
the 2 ax!s. Us!ng !nduct!on, show that the ray-transfer matr!x !s

M (1.4-11)
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Note that the order !n wh!ch the plates are placed

does not affect the overall ray-transfer matr!x. What
!s the
ray-transfer matr!x of an !nhomogeneous transparent plate of th!ckness do and refract!ve !ndex
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EXERCISE 1.4-3
of free
A Gap Followed by a Th!n Lens. Show that the ray-transfer matr!x of a d!stance d
space followed by a lens of focal length / !s

d
(1.4-12)

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EXERCISE 1.4-4

Imag!ng w!th a Th!n Lens. Der!ve an express!on for the ray-transfer matr!x of a system com-

pr!sed of free space/th!n lens/free space, as shown !n F!g. 1.4-3. Show that !f the !mag!ng cond!t!on
(1/d!+1/d2 = 1/f) !s sat!sf!ed, all rays or!g!nat!ng from s!ngle po!nt !n the !nput plane reach
a the

output plane at the s!ngle po!nt 12. regardless of the!r angles. Also show that !f d2 = f. all parallel
!nc!dent rays are focused by the lens onto a s!ngle po!nt !n the output plane.

F!gure 1.4-3 S!ngle-lens !mag!ng

system.
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EXERCISE 1.4-5

Imag!ng w!th a Th!ck Lens. Cons!der a glass lens of refract!ve !ndex n, th!ckness d, and two
spher!cal surfaces of equal rad!! R. Determ!ne the ray-transfer matr!x of the lens assum!ng that !t !s
placed !n a!r (un!ty refract!ve !ndex). Show that the back and front focal lengths are equal (f'
and that the pr!nc!pal po!nts are located at equal d!stances from the vert!ces (h' h), where

-1 d
(1.4-17)
R

h (1.4-18)

Demonstrate that the transfer matr!x of the system between two conjugate planes at d!stances 21 and
22 from the pr!nc!pal po!nts of the lens (!.e., at d!stances d! - 22 h from the
vert!ces) that sat!sf!es the !mag!ng equat!on y!elds B 0, !nd!cat!ng that !t does !ndeed sat!sfy the
!mag!ng cond!t!on [see Exerc!se 1.4-1(b)].
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EXERCISE 1.4-6

A Per!od!c Set of Pa!rs of D!fferent Lenses. Exam!ne the trajector!es of parax!al rays
through a per!od!c system compr!s!ng 2 sequence of lens pa!rs w!th alternat!ng focal lengths f, and
f2 as shown !n F!g. 1.4-9. Show that the ray trajectory !s bounded (stable) !f

(1.4-36)

F!gure 1.4-9 A per!od!c sequence of lens pa!rs.

EXERCISE 1.4-7

An Opt!cal Resonator. Parax!al rays are reflected repeatedly between two spher!cal m!rrors of
rad!! R, and R2 separated by d!stance d (F!g. 1.4-10). Regard!ng th!s as a per!od!c system whose
un!t system 1s a s!ngle round tr!p between the m!rrors. determ!ne the cond!t!on of stab!l!ty for the ray
trajectory. Opt!cal resonators w!ll be stud!ed !n deta!l !n Chapter 11.

F!gure 1.4-10 The opt!cal resonator as 21

per!od!c opt!cal system.

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1.4-8 Ray-Transfer Matr!x of a
Lens System. Determ!ne the ray-transfer matr!x for an opt!cal
system made of a th!n convex lens of focal length f and a th!n concave lens of focal length
-f separated by a d!stance f. D!scuss the !mag!ng propert!es of th!s compos!te lens.
1.4-9 Ray-Transfer Matr!x of a GRIN Plate. Determ!ne the ray-transfer matr!x of a
SELFOC plate
[!.e., a graded-!ndex mater!al w!th parabol!c refract!ve !ndex
th!ckness d.
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410 The GRIN Plate as Per!od!c System. Cons!der the trajector!es of parax!al rays !ns!de
a

a SELFOC plate normal to the 2 ax!s. Th!s system may be regarded as a per!od!c system
compr!s!ng a sequence of !dent!cal cont!guous plates, each of th!ckness d. Us!ng the result of
Prob. 1.4-9, determ!ne the stab!l!ty cond!t!on of the ray trajectory. Is th!s cond!t!on dependent
on the cho!ce of d?

1.4-11 Recurrence Relat!on for a Planar-M!rror Resonator. Cons!der a planar-m!rror opt!cal

resonator, w!th m!rror separat!ontd, as a per!od!c opt!cal system. Determ!ne the un!t ray-
transfer matr!x for th!s system, demonstrat!ng that b = 1 and F Show that there !s then

only a s!ngle root to the quadrat!c equat!on (1.4-28) so that the ray pos!t!on must then take
the form a + mB. where o and 3 are constants.
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1. 4- Il
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0 descr!be skewed parax!al rays !n c!rcularly symmetr!c systems, and to ast!gmat!c (non-
4 Ray-Transfer Matr!x for Skewed Rays. Matr!x methods may be general!zed to

c!rcularly symmetr!c) systems. A ray cross!ng the plane z = 0 !s generally character!zed by

four var!ables the coord!nates (z, y) of !ts pos!t!on !n the plane, and the angles (61,0,)
that !ts project!ons !n the x-z and y-z planes make w!th the 2 ax!s. The emerg!ng ray !s
also character!zed by four var!ables that are l!nearly related to the !n!t!al four var!ables. The
opt!cal system may then be character!zed completely, w!th!n the parax!al approx!mat!on, by
a4 x 4 matr!x.

(a) Determ!ne the 4 x 4 ray-transfer matr!x of a d!stance d !n free

space.

(b) Determ!ne the 4 x 4 ray-transfer matr!x of a th!n cyl!ndr!cal lens

w!th focal length f or!ented !n the y d!rect!on. The cyl!ndr!cal lens
has focal length f for rays !n the y-~ plane, and no focus!ng power
for rays !n the c-z plane.
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