MAK 4009E

Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Part #7

Asst. Prof. Dr. Osman Taha Şen

İstanbul Technical University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]
www.adl.itu.edu.tr

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Today ?

Electric Machines (Motors)

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 Electric Motor Usage in Vehicles

Electric machines find a place in conventional vehicles as starters and

alternators.

The starter boost the engine to reach its idle speed and to start delivering
torque.

The alternator produce electricity to charge the 12V battery and to feed the
electric auxiliary loads.

Electric motors basically can be organized in two main categories: direct

current (DC) motors and alternating-current (AC) motors.

All types of motors have a stationary part, called the stator, and a rotating
part, called the rotor.

The rotor is connected to the output shaft on which the motor torque is
acting.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Electric Motors for EV Applications

A rough comparison among these types shows DC motors to be simpler and

less expensive, since they need relatively uncomplicated control
electronics to be fed using the DC supply already present on a vehicle. Their
main disadvantage is the high maintenance requirement, since brushes must
be changed periodically. A solution can be : Permanent Magnet Brushless DC
Motors !!

AC motors are in general less expensive, but they require more

sophisticated control electronics (inverters), which cause the overall cost
to be higher than that of DC motors. However, they have higher power
density and higher efficiency than DC motors.

The majority of vehicle applications therefore use AC motors. Among

them, induction motors are generally characterized by a higher specific
power than permanent-magnet motors.

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Electric Motors
Characteristic curve of a brushless DC motor

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Typical EM Characteristic
Constant
Torque

Constant
Power

Co
que t
Tor nstan

n
Pow stant
er
Co

Reference: Ehsani, M. et. al., Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, CRC Press, 2005.
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 Typical EM Characteristic
Variable-speed electric motor drives usually have the characteristics shown in the
previous figure.

At the low-speed region (less than the base speed), the motor has a constant
torque. In the high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a
constant power. This characteristic is usually represented by a speed ratio x,
defined as the ratio of its maximum speed to its base speed.

Reference: Ehsani, M. et. al., Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles, CRC Press, 2005.
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 Electric Motors
Two-quadrant measured
efficiency map for a
typical traction motor

Reference: Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A., Vehicle Propulsion Systems, Springer, 2007.
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 Brushed DC Electric Motor
Due to historical, technical, and economical incentives DC-brushed
machines have been the favorite choice for numerous automotive
applications ranging from starters to auxiliary devices.

Ease of control, capital investment, and relatively low cost of

manufacturing compared to other energy conversion devices are among the
main reasons.

DC-brushed motor drives are primarily employed for smaller size motors.

Electromagnetic torque in brushed DC-motor drives may be viewed as a

product of interaction between two magnetic fields constructed by armature
(rotor winding) and field (permanent magnet on the stator).

Airgap, as a media in which electromechanical energy conversion takes place,

has an essential role in this process.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Cross-view of a segment of Brushless DC (BLDC)
machine (cut and rolled)

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 IMPACT OF TEMPERATURE ON PERFORMANCE OF A
BLDC DRIVE

Temperature variations is an inevitable attribute of many industrial applications

such as automotive products.

In fact, in some automotive applications a temperature range of –40 to 150°C is

reported. This, in turn, alters the properties of permanent magnets used in
brushed DC-motor drives.

A rise in temperature reduces the remnant magnetism.

If a modest range of temperatures can be accommodated, employment of

NdFeB (Neodymium) magnets are recommended.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Neodymium magnet (NdFeB)

A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet), the most
widely used type of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent magnet made from an
alloy of neodymium, iron and boron to form the Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline
structure.

Developed in 1982 by General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals,

neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet
commercially available.

They have replaced other types of magnet in the many applications in modern
products that require strong permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless
tools, hard disk drives and magnetic fasteners.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neodymium_magnet.
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 Samarium–cobalt magnet (SmCo5)

A samarium–cobalt (SmCo) magnet, a type of rare earth magnet, is a strong

permanent magnet made of an alloy of samarium and cobalt. They were
developed in the early 1970s. They are generally ranked similarly in strength
to neodymium magnets, but have higher temperature ratings and higher
coercivity.

Coercivity : In materials science, the coercivity, also called the coercive field or
coercive force, is a measure of a ferromagnetic or ferroelectric material to
withstand an external magnetic or electric field. Coercivity measures the
resistance of a ferromagnetic material to becoming demagnetized.
Ferromagnetic materials with high coercivity are called magnetically hard
materials, and are used to make permanent magnets. Materials with low
coercivity are said to be magnetically soft. They are used in transformer and
inductor cores, recording heads, microwave devices, and magnetic shielding.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarium–cobalt_magnet.
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 Effects of temperature on electromagnetic torque in
brushed DC-motor drives.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Induction (or Asynchronous) Motor Drives

Selection of an induction motor and its control scheme depends on the applied
load characteristics and how the system is to be controlled.

Loads can be classified according to inertia or torque-speed characteristics or

by the load control dynamic.

An electric vehicle is considered to be of the high inertia load that needs

to be controlled during the acceleration and deceleration and be able to
maintain constant speed during cruising.

Moreover, electric vehicles are rapidly started and stopped.

Therefore, the drive needs to be designed ultimately for driving the motor in the
four operating quadrants.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Induction (Asynchronous) Motor Drives
Four operating quadrants in the (ωm, Td) plane
The concept of operating quadrants plays
an important role in the theory and
practice of Adjustable Speed Drives
(ASDs). Both the torque developed in the
motor Td, and rotational speed ωm, of the
rotor can assume two polarities: one for
motoring, in which the product of the
torque and the speed produce positive
mechanical power (i.e., power is drawn
from the source), and another for
generating or braking (i.e., power is fed
into the source).
Operating in the four quadrants : the
drive is motoring forward in the first
quadrant, braking in the second
quadrant, reversing in the third
quadrant, and reverse braking in the
fourth quadrant.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Induction (Asynchronous) Motor Drives
Four operating quadrants in the (ωm, Td) plane

1. Mode I is for motoring in the positive

torque-speed and is used to drive the
vehicle in forward directions.
2. Mode III is for motoring in the negative
torque-speed and is used to drive the
vehicle in reverse directions.
3. Mode II is the braking mode in the
positive torque-speed and is used for
electronic slowing down before the
mechanical brake is applied.
4. Mode IV is also a braking mode in the
negative torque-speed and has the
same function of mode II but when
the vehicle is reversing.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) Drives

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a type of a stepper motor, an electric

motor that runs by reluctance torque.

Unlike common DC motor types, power is delivered to windings in the

stator (case) rather than the rotor.

This greatly simplifies mechanical design as power does not have to be

delivered to a moving part, but it complicates the electrical design as
some sort of switching system needs to be used to deliver power to the
different windings.

With modern electronic devices this is not a problem, and the SRM is a popular
design for modern motors. Its main drawback is torque ripple.

Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_reluctance_motor.
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 Various operational regions in SRM

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Various operational regions in SRM

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM-BLDC) Machines

A brushless DC motor is a rotating self-synchronous machine with a

permanent magnet rotor and with known rotor shaft positions for
electronic commutation. A motor meets this definition whether the drive
electronics are integral with the motor or separate from it.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
Atabay - Istanbul Technical University 21
 Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM-BLDC) Machines
Advantages
1. Low noise: There are no mechanical brushes or slip-rings required in the PMBLDC.
This eliminates virtually all mechanical noise except that of the bearings, coupling, and
load.

2. High efficiency: PM-BLDCs have been shown to be the highest efficiency machines
available today. The higher efficiency of PM-BLDC can primarily be accredited to the
presence of the permanent magnet field that provides a nearly constant and continuous
magnetic field and consumes no electrical power. Another important feature of magnets is
their longevity. Under proper operating conditions magnets have extremely small
remagnetizing coefficients; i.e., permanent magnets tend to keep their magnetic
properties over long periods of time. Another efficiency factor is that there is no additional
torque requirement for friction caused by brushes or slip-rings, as in DC and some AC
machines.

3. Reduction of excitation requirements: As stated above, permanent magnets provide

a constant field which increases the efficiency by reducing the need for the creation of an
electromagnetic field as required in most other machines

4. Low maintenance and greater longevity : No brushes and no slip-rings are required
and thus the lifetime of the motor is based solely on insulation, bearing, and magnet life.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM-BLDC) Machines
Advantages
5. Lighter, more compact construction : Aerospace and automotive applications
demand lighter, more compact devices to increase fuel efficiency and reduce fuel storage
requirements. Recently, higher energy density magnets, samarium cobalt and
neodymium iron boron, have come into use to provide increased power density machines
for use in these applications.

6. The ease in cooling : As the armature (stator) windings are on the outside of the
motor, the PM-BLDC has the inherent property of being thermally manageable. It is well
known that the majority of losses occurring in a PM-BLDC will be in the windings as I2R
losses. As the windings are on the outside of the machine, heat may freely pass out of
the machine via its outer surface. This offers advantages over the DC machine, in which
heat may be trapped on the rotor (armature).

7. Ease of control: Continuing advancements in control and inverter semiconductor

packaging have reduced the technical requirements in design and fabrication of BLDC
drives. Many semiconductor manufacturers produce control integrated circuits (ICs)
specifically for BLDC control, enabling the development of an extremely inexpensive one-
chip drive controller.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Permanent Magnet Brushless DC (PM-BLDC) Machines
Disadvantages
1. Cost of permanent magnets: Costs of the higher energy density magnets prohibits
their use in applications where initial cost is more a concern than obtaining a system with
all of the advantages previously listed. Typically, ceramics are the least expensive and
have the lowest energy density. Neodymium iron boron magnets have the highest energy
density products, at about 3 times the cost of ceramics. Samarium cobalt magnets have
energy densities comparable to neodymium iron boron magnets at around 6 times the
cost of ceramics. The cost is primarily a function of the availability of the raw materials
used to fabricate the magnets.

2. The possibility of demagnetization of the permanent magnets: Extreme care must

be taken in utilizing permanent magnets, as high levels of demagnetizing force applied to
the magnets or subjecting the magnets to high temperatures can cause demagnetization
of the magnets.

3. The dangerous nature of large magnets: Permanent magnet machines have rarely
been utilized in larger drives, i.e., > 100 Hp. One reason for this is the difficulty in
handling the larger permanent magnets, and the danger presented by large permanent
magnets. It has been reported that attempts to build large permanent magnet machines
have resulted in injuries due to metallic objects flying across a room toward the magnets.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Sensorless Control of BLDC Motors

Sensorless BLDC motor control refers to the operation of the BLDC without its
usually required rotor position sensor. The study of sensorless control, and
the use of sensorless methods, is found only infrequently in today’s industrial
applications; however, it is the method of BLDC control of the future.

Sensorless means fewer parts, i.e., the elimination of optical encoder, Hall-
effect sensors, resolver, small-signal lines to the position transducer, and
associated decoding circuitry. This means savings in manufacturing costs,
which is of primary importance in today’s industry, as well as increased
reliability and durability. High-performance BLDC drives require highly accurate
rotor position information in order to know when to commutate the phases to
optimize performance, i.e., maintain an optimal torque per amp, optimal
machine or drive efficiency, or maximum torque output. Many academic and
industrial studies in the area of sensorless BLDC control in high-performance
drives have utilized some type of microprocessor to implement computationally
intensive algorithms to estimate rotor position and optimize one of these figures
of merit.

Reference: Emadi, A., Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Taylor & Francis, 2005.
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 Tesla Model S

Electric motor : 310 kW (416 bhp), 600 N·m, Three-phase AC induction motor
Transmission : 1-speed fixed gear (9.73:1)
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 BMW i3

The electric
motor is located
between the rear
wheels. The
empty space at
the right of the
motor is
reserved to
accommodate
the range-
extending
gasoline engine.

Electric motor : 130 kW (170 hp)

Transmission : Single speed with fixed ratio

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