Introduction to Nuclear Reactions

A typical experimental area for making measurements on the scattering of a beam of particles accelerated by a cyclotron.
(Photograph courtesy of E. E. Gross, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.)
INTRODUCTION TO
NUCLEAR REACTIONS

G. R. SATCHLER, MA, DSc(Oxon), FAPS

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831

SECOND EDITION

M
MACMILLAN
©G. R. Satchler 1980, 1990
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First edition 1980

Second edition 1990

Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Satchler, G. R. (George Raymond)
Introduction to nuclear reactions.-2nd ed
1. Nuclear reactions
I. Title
539.7'5
ISBN 978-0-333-51484-9 ISBN 978-1-349-20531-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-20531-8
Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xi

Preface to the First Edition xiii
1. Some Background Information 1
1.1 Discovery of the nucleus 1
1.2 Constitution of the nucleus 2
1.3 The study of the nucleus by nuclear reactions 2
1.4 Some practical applications 4
1.5 The role of models 4
I.6 Conservation laws and symmetry principles 6
I.7 Some basic facts about nuclei 8
1.7.1 Mass, charge and binding energy 8
1. 7.2 Size and radial shap~ 9
I. 7.3 Spins, parities and moments 10
I. 7.4 Excited states I2
1. 7. 5 Time scales I5
I. 7.6 Relativity and nuclear physics I6
References I6
Exercises I7
2. Introduction to Nuclear Reactions 21
2.I Introduction 2I
2.2 The centre-of-mass coordinate system 22
2.3 Types of reaction 24
2.4 Energy and mass balance 26
2.5 Other conserved quantities 27
2.6 Cross-sections 28
2.7 Attenuation of a beam 30
2.8 Nuclear sizes from neutron scattering and a simple transmission
experiment 31
2.9 A typical accelerator experiment 33

v
vi CONTENTS

2.10 Coulomb scattering and Rutherford's formula 34

2.1 0.1 Classical derivation 35
2.1 0.2 Quantum and relativistic effects 39
2.1 0.3 Extended particles 40
2.1 0.4 Classical relations for Coulomb orbits 43
2.11 Electron scattering 44
2.12 Coulomb excitation 49
2.13 Polarisation 50
2.14 Angular correlations 53
2.15 Partial waves and the wave mechanics of scattering 54
2.16 Scattering of identical particles 59
2.17 Inverse reactions 60
2.18 Qualitative features of nuclear reactions 62
2.18.1 Compound nucleus formation and direct reactions 64
2.18.2 Compound resonances 69
2.18.3 Reaction times 71
2.18.4 Energy spectra 71
2.18.5 Branching ratios 73
2.18.6 Importance of direct reactions 74
2.18. 7 Characteristic angular distributions 74
2.18.8 Coulomb effects 77
2.18.9 Giant resonances and strength functions 78
2.18.1 0 Cross-section fluctuations 79
2.18.11 Strong and weak absorption; diffraction and the
optical model 80
2.18.12 Some characteristics of heavy-ion reactions 81
References 83
Exercises 85
3. Elementary Scattering Theory 89
3.1 Form of the wave function 89
3.1.1 The incident wave 90
3.1.2 laboratory and centre-of-mass systems 92
3.1.3 Internal states 93
3.1.4 The scattered waves 94
3.2 Differential cross-sections 95
3.3 The Schrodinger equation 96
3.3.1 Coupled equations form of the Schrodinger equation 97
3.3.2 Integral form of the Schrodinger equation for scattering
by a potential 99
3.3.3 The Born and the distorted-wave Born approximations 100
3.3.4 Integral equation for a general collision 102
3.4 Partial waves 104
3.4.1 Significance of partial waves 104
3.4.2 Partial wave expansions 106
 CONTENTS vii

3.4.3 Ingoing and outgoing waves 107

3.4.4 Scattering matrix and phase shifts 109
3.4.5 Phase shifts for potential scattering 110
3.4.6 Partial wave expression for scattering amplitudes 112
3.4.7 Effects of Coulomb forces 113
3.4.8 Partial wave expressions for cross-sections 115
3.4.9 Integrated cross-sections 115
3.4.10 Limits on partial cross-sections 116
3.5 Total cross-section and the optical theorem 118
3.6 Penetration and reflection at potential barriers 120
3.6.1 Reflection by an absorptive region 120
3.6.2 Coulomb barriers 121
3.6.3 Transmission across a rounded barrier 123
3. 7 Behaviour of cross-sections near threshold 124
3.8 Collisions with spin: general theory 126
3 .8.1 Spins and channel spin 126
3.8.2 Collision channels with spins 129
3.8.3 The scattering wave function and the scattering matrix 129
3.8.4 Cross-sections and inverse reactions 130
3.9 R-matrix and boundary-matching theories 131
3.10 Classical and semi-classical descriptions of scattering 132
3.1 0.1 Classical elastic scattering of particles 133
3.10.1.1 Deflection function, orbits and cross-sections 134
3.10.1.2 Rainbows and glories 137
3.1 0.2 Semi-classical treatments 139
3.10.2.1 The WKB approximation 140
3.10.2.2 The eikonal approximation 141
3.1 0.3 Diffraction and the effects of strong absorption 143
3.11 The impulse approximation 146
References 148
Exercises 150
4. Models of Nuclear Reactions 153
4.1 Partial waves and strong absorption 154
4.1.1 Sharp cut-off model 154
4.1.2 Comparison with experiment 155
4.1.3 Smooth cut-off models 15 5
4.1.4 The nuclear radius and surface thickness 157
4.2 Effects of the Coulomb field 158
4.3 Diffraction models and strong-absorption scattering 161
4.3.1 FraunhOfer diffraction 161
4.3.2 Fresnel diffraction 165
4.3 .3 Relation between diffraction and partial wave descriptions 166
4.4 Strong-absorption models for inelastic scattering 167
4.4.1 Adiabatic approximation 167
viii CONTENTS

4.4.2 FraunhOfer diffraction 170

4.4.3 Applications of the FraunhOfer model 172
4.4.4 Coulomb effects and Coulomb excitation 172
4.4.5 Extensions of the model 174
4.4.6 Strong absorption and other direct reactions 174
4.5 The optical model for elastic scattering 175
4.5 .1 Introduction 175
4.5.2 'Echoes' in neutron cross-sections 177
4.5.3 Average interaction potential for nucleons 181
4.5.4 Energy dependence of the potential 183
4.5.5 Spin-orbit coupling 185
4.5.6 Average potentials for composite projectiles 186
4.5.7 Imaginary potentials and absorption 187
4.5.8 Analyses of scattering experiments 189
4.5.8.1 Nucleon scattering 190
4.5.8.2 Scattering of composite particles 194
4.6 The meaning of a nuclear radius 198
4.7 Direct reactions 201
4. 7.1 A semi-classical model 202
4.7.2 Perturbation theory and the Born approximations 204
4.7.2.1 Plane-wave Born approximation 204
4. 7 .2.2 Distorted-wave Born approximation 206
4. 7.3 Inelastic scattering 210
4.7.4 Stripping and pick-up reactions 212
4.7.4.1 Deuteron stripping and pick-up 212
4.7.4.2 Other stripping and pick-up reactions 214
4.7.5 Knock-out reactions 215
4.7.6 Multi-step processes and strong coupling 218
4.8 Compound nucleus resonances 223
4.8.1 Simple theory of a resonant cross-section 226
4.8.2 More formal theory of a resonance 229
4.8.2.1 Single isolated resonance 230
4.8.2.2 The wave function at resonance 234
4.8.2.3 Time delay and interferences 235
4.8.3 Resonances with charged particles 237
4.8.4 Angular momentum and spin 237
4.8.5 Umits on the cross-sections 238
4.8.6 Overlapping resonances 238
4.8.7 Resonances as poles in the scattering matrix 239
4.8.8 Isobaric analogue resonances 239
4.9 Continuum or statistical theory of the compound nucleus 242
4.9.1 Statistical model for formation and decay of the
compound nucleus 244
 CONTENTS ~

4.9.2 The evaporation model for decay of the compound

nucleus 248
4.9 .3 Pre-equilibrium decays 250
4.9.4 Fluctuation phenomena 252
4.9.5 Direct reactions 256
4.10 The optical model at low energies and the neutron strength
function 257
4.11 Nuclear reactions with light ions of high energies 265
4.12 Reactions between heavy ions 267
References 273
Exercises 277

Appendix A Angular Momentum and Spherical Harmonics 283

Al Angular momentum in quantum theory 283
A2 Angular momentum coupling and systems composed of two
or more parts 286
A3 Spherical harmonics 291
A4 Example 1: radioactive decay of a nucleus 293
AS Example 2: formation of a compound nucleus and statistical
weights 294
References 296
Appendix B Transformations between LAB and CM Coordinate Systems 297
Bl Elastic scattering 298
B2 Non-elastic collisions 301
B3 Special cases 301
Reference 302
Appendix C Some Useful Data 303
Cl Prefixes 303
C2 Physical constants 303
C3 Rest masses 304
C4 Related quantities 304
CS The elements 305
Append~ D Penetration of Potential Barriers and the Fusion of
Very Ught Nuclei 307
Solutions to Exercises 310

Index 315
Preface to the Second Edition

The past decade has seen a remarkable growth in the extent and variety of
experiments being done on nuclear reactions. The range of energies available has
increased by two orders of magnitude. Because of the rapid expansion of heavy-
ion science, the number of projectiles in use is very much greater and now
includes nuclei as heavy as those of uranium atoms. However, the basic physical
principles and techniques involved in the description of these reactions has
remained unchanged, although the emphasis may have shifted to some degree.
For example, the application of semi-classical ideas became more extensive with
the increased interest in heavy-ion reactions, while relativistic considerations
became more important as the energy increased.
These advances have resulted in some changes being made in the text, together
with some modernisation of the references. Again, the reader is urged to consult
review journals and the proceedings of recent conferences for the latest develop-
ments. The many experimental examples shown in the figures have not been
changed; these were mostly drawn from work done at energies lower than those
currently available. Nonetheless, the features illustrated remain relevant at these
higher energies.
The opportunity has been taken to correct some misprints, euors, omissions
and obscurities that were present in the original. I am indebted to numerous
people for bringing many of these to my attention, especially R. C. Johnson,
S. Kobayashi and A. G. Tibell.

OakRidge, Tennessee, 1990 G.R.S.

xi
Preface to the First Edition

This book is aimed primarily at the undergraduate or beginning graduate student,

although I believe others will also find it useful. The specialist from another field
may find here a summary of the present situation in our understanding of
nuclear-reaction phenomena. The established nuclear physicist may find reading
it to be helpful in refreshing his memory about areas in which he is not currently
working himself.
Chapters 1 and 2 are intended to provide an overview of the subject which can
be readily understood by the novice. They also serve as an introduction to the
somewhat more serious remainder. Chapter 3 reviews scattering theory with
emphasis on the underlying physical ideas. It also provides schematic entrees to
the more advanced topics. (There are other excellent texts available which ex-
pound these more formal and mathematical aspects of scattering theory.) The
discussion is not specific to nuclei, so that Chapter 3 may serve equally well as
an introduction to the theory of atomic and molecular collisions. The physical
models which have been developed to account for the various aspects of nuclear
reaction phenomena are described in more detail in Chapter 4, which is the
largest section of the book. I believe that this arrangement enables the book to
cater to the needs of a variety of readers without sacrificing any coherence of
the presentation as a whole.
Some acquaintance with quantum mechanics is assumed, but not to any
great depth. In general, the emphasis here is on the word 'introduction' in the
title. There are a number of books and many review articles which treat various
parts of the subject in detail and at a higher level; some of these are referred to
in the text and are listed in the references at the end of each chapter. Many
references are made also to original research papers in the belief that the reader
should be encouraged to dip into these other sources of material even if generally
they do seem to be more technically advanced than he needs.
Nuclear physics is still very much a living, developing field of study. Conse-
quently any book such as this one is in danger of being obsolescent in some res-
xiii
xiv PREFACE

pect as soon as it appears. (This is particularly liable to apply to the descriptions

of heavy-ion reactions). This is another reason to urge the reader to supplement
the material presented here by resorting freely to the current literature such as
review journals and books, and reports of the proceedings of conferences.
The instrumental, experimental and technological aspects of studying nuclear
reactions are scarcely mentioned in the present volume; the purpose here is to
understand the results of measurements rather than to describe how they are
made. There are a number of good books available which address themselves to
experimental problems and techniques; we mention in particular Atomic Nuclei
and Their Particles by E. J. Burge (Oxford University Press, 1977) and, at a more
advanced level, the excellent Techniques in Nuclear Strncture Physics by
J. B. A. England (Halsted, New York, 1974).
The first draft of this book was written in the summer of 19 70 while the
author was a guest of the Aspen Center for Physics, Colorado. I am indebted
to the Center for providing a climate so conducive to this achievement. Various
sections of the text were read by D. M. Brink, K. T. Hecht and D. K. Scott; I am
grateful for their helpful comments. I am also grateful to the many colleagues
who have permitted me to reproduce their illustrations here. Finally, I am in-
debted to Mrs. Althea Tate for efficiently, patiently and cheerfully typing and
retyping the manuscript.

Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1980 G.R.S.