Chapter Two

WHflt A r e New Religious

Movements?

Much of the debate over the future of religion in North America is repro-
duced in a recent clash of two theoretical paradigms. An understanding of
these two perspectives helps clarify many of the issues raised by the study
of NRMs. As to the nature of NRMs themselves, we should also look at what
sociologists call church-sect theory, which helps us distinguish a cult from
other forms of religious organization.

Religion ond Its Continuing Significnnce

The first of the two paradigms is derived from the seminal writings of the
American sociologist Peter Berger, in particular his book The Sacred Canopy
(1967). The second paradigm is from the American sociologists of religion
Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge ( 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 7 ) , developed further
in later writings by Stark with Roger Finke and also Laurence Iannaccone.
Berger's theory of religion offers an account of the most essential social
grounds of religious belief and practice; his theory is repeatedly called upon
in relation to NRMs. Its logic tends to suggest, though, that society is destined
to become ever more secular, and that neither old nor new religions will have
much importance in advanced industrial societies. In contrast, the theory
offered by Stark and his colleagues argues against the demise of religion,
breaking with the tendency to equate this with progress towards more ratio-
nal forms of social management.1 The result provides alternative criteria for
assessing the nature, appeal, success, or failure of various kinds of NRMs. A
close reading of the divergent theoretical paradigms of Berger and of Stark
reveals some interesting points of convergence, however, which may point the
way to an even better understanding of NRMs. We will be discussing this last
point further in Chapter 8.
BERGER'S THEORY OF RELIGION

Berger's theory grew out of his earlier and equally important work with
Thomas Luckmann on the social construction of reality (Berger and
Luckmann, 1966). Building on a masterful synthesis of the insights of foun-
dational thinkers of contemporary social science (Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, Max Weber, George Herbert Mead, Sigmund Freud, Max
Scheler, Karl Mannheim, Alfred Schutz, and others), this theory begins with
the simple premise that 'every human society is an enterprise of world-
building' (Berger, 1967: 3). The world we live in, the world as perceived by
humans, is constantly being created and re-created through a 'dialectical
process' that has three aspects: 'externalization, objectivation, and internal-
ization'. Our thoughts become embodied in the things we make and do in
the world—they are externalized. Once out there, these products of our
thought (e.g. machines, art forms, institutions) take on an independent
existence as objects of our awareness—objectivation occurs—and they act
back upon us, shaping and changing our behaviour and our further
thoughts. We internalize the lessons of living in the world of these objects
(physical, social, and cultural), adapting ourselves in thought, word, and
deed to the presumed requirements of 'reality'. We are the creators of our
world, but we are in turn shaped by our creation and become one of its
objects, in part because we are not fully aware of our creativity. This lack of
awareness stems from the fact that the creativity is a collective undertaking.
World-building is a social process, so complex and dispersed as to defy the
ready comprehension or control of any individual or group.
Berger argues that human participation in world construction is an
'anthropological necessity'. Unlike other animals, humans are born 'unfin-
ished'. Since our biological programming is deficient, to survive we must
complete our natures by learning how to function in our environment. To
this end we have created culture. Culture is the truly 'natural' world of
humans, and it stands protectively between individuals and the forces of
nature. The problem is that culture is also unstable, fluctuating with the
changing conditions of collective life. Thus, Berger proposes, we are eter-
nally trapped between a biologically given imperative to secure a stable and
safe environment through culture and the inherent instability of the cul-
tures we create. This is the human predicament.
Religion is the ultimate response to this predicament. The success of a
culture in providing a stable environment for human development 'depends
upon the establishment of symmetry between the objective world of society
and the subjective world of the individual' (Berger, 1967: 15). The upshot
of such a symmetry is that the institutions of society and the roles these pre-
scribe for individuals strike us as 'factual', which is to say that we think we
must abide by their dictates, by society's traditional ways of doing things,
because these are seen as somehow belonging to reality itself. Under such
conditions people do not merely perform their assigned roles in social life,
they freely identify with these roles. They seek what another sociologist,
Ralph Turner, calls 'role-person merger'—they become their roles—and in
the process they impart great stability to the received social order. Human
activity becomes very regular and predictable, providing practical and psy-
chological reassurance to everyone about their own and other people's
behaviour. Hence, under ideal circumstances, which are never actually
achieved, most aspects of the social order should come to be 'taken for
granted'. The relatively stable human environment that results is what
Berger calls a 'nomos', a meaningful world order.
The collective effort to fashion this nomos is 'totalizing', in that to
become more stable the meaningful order must grow to encompass all
aspects of society. The nomos does not, however, embrace all the discrete
experiences of individuals; on the margins of everyday life are less pre-
dictable experiences that can induce 'anomie', an anxiety-inducing sense of
normlessness. In dreams, death, defeat, and unexpected events, we are
repeatedly threatened with separation from the social world and hence with
a loss of meaningful order in our lives. In Berger's words (1967: 23), 'every
nomos is an edifice erected in the face of the potent and alien forces of
chaos'. Religion seeks to provide the 'ultimate shield against the terror of
anomie' (1967: 25) by supplying the most effective legitimation of the social
order. Religious myths, rites, doctrines, and practices seek to assert the
merger of the nomos and the cosmos. The social order, in Berger's words, is
'cosmosized' and rendered 'sacred'. It is no longer a human construct, sub-
ject to change, but a divinely given order subject to the will of the gods (or
other supernatural forces) alone. In such a world, any attempt to deny the
order that the religiously sanctioned society imposes is an act of evil as well
as madness (Berger, 1967: 39). Of course, it must be remembered that
Berger is speaking hypothetically about the earliest stages of human social
development, but there has been no real mass awareness of the creative role
of humans in the construction of the world until modern times. Rather, as
best we can tell, the gods evolved hand in hand with society from the begin-
ning. Historically, ^ergetfulness' is the normal state, and 'awareness' is the
modern aberration brought on by philosophy, science, and technology.
In a world where the human microcosm has been merged with the nat-
ural macrocosm, where social roles become reiterations of cosmic realities,
the experience of anomie is much more tolerable. It is not eliminated, since
death, nightmares, and unanticipated twists of fate persist. But these events
are given a meaning in light of some larger divine scheme, whether through
reference to the will of a supreme God, the struggle of supernatural forces
of good and evil, or the consequences of karma. This meaningfulness helps
individuals to maintain hope and endure suffering. The promise of ultimate
order provides comfort, and more, it ensures that individuals will continue
to willingly sacrifice themselves and their own selfish interests for the ben-
efit and survival of the group, the social system, and the culture. The price
of this security is 'alienation', or the forgetfulness 1 just mentioned. For the
illusion of world-building to work, humans must 'forget' their own creative
role in the dialectic. They must become estranged from their own responsi-
bility for the nature and fate of their society. To consider one's creative role
would be to question the objectivity of the social order and hence the ulti-
mate meaning attributed to life. In Berger's theory, every society strikes
some balance between the evils of anomie and alienation. The former can
only be staved off by a certain amount of the latter.
Berger's theory is full of complexities, such as his description of reli-
gions existing in 'plausibility structures'. Just as religion may justify cer-
tain habits or institutions of society, a social system can provide a kind of
material justification for its religion; a powerful, viable society lends cre-
dence to the belief system associated with it. Conversely, the military
defeat or social disruption of a society may discredit its religious ideolo-
gy. (Ari exception to this pattern would be Judaism, which managed to
fashion a new ideology of hope out of disruptions such as the Babylonian
exile and later the Diaspora, developing a nomos from the notion of
redemptive suffering.)
Although Berger meant to provide only broad guidelines, he has deci-
sively influenced the academic study of religion in general and the study
of NRMs in particular. Since the 1960s, discussions about the emergence of
NRMs have tended to lean heavily on Berger's ideas, partly due to another
major aspect of his theory, his analysis of the process of secularization. The
differences between this approach and that of Stark and his colleagues has
largely framed the debate over the cultural significance of NRMs.

BERGER'S THEORY OF SECULARIZATION

For the first time in history many humans, especially members of the
advanced industrial West, live in largely non-religious societies. Our soci-
eties have become increasingly secular since at least the middle of the nine-
teenth century, a process that is the overriding feature of religion in the
modern world, and hence the backdrop to all contemporary research in the
sociology of religion, in particular the study of NRMs. Berger defines secu-
larization as 'the process by which sectors of society and culture are
removed from the domination of religious institutions and symbols' (1967:
107). He suggests that this represents a highly significant break with the
dominant pattern of human history.
In a manner that is now conventional, Berger sees all this as beginning
with the rise of industrial society. Following the work of Max Weber
(1958a, 1958b), Berger links secularization to the processes of 'rational-
ization' crucial to the capitalist economy. From as early as the seventeenth
century, with the economic and then the political spheres of activity in
society starting to become liberated from religious tutelage, religious sys-
tems have been compelled to adapt to a new social structure. Specifically,
Berger argues that religions have met with two new realities. First, religion
has become a matter of choice; religious orientations are no longer the
legitimating requirements of society so much as the preferences of indi-
viduals or nuclear families. Religion has undergone what sociologists call
'privatization' (Berger, 1967: 133-5). In the modern world, as Berger rue-
fully remarks (1967: 134), 'religion manifests itself as public rhetoric and
private virtue. In other words, in so far as religion is common it lacks "real-
ity", and in so far as it is "real" it lacks commonality.' Seen as a private mat-
ter, one of individual choice, religious beliefs and practices do not provide
a common universe of meaning for the members of society, and thus the
traditional task of religion has been ruptured.
Second, while religions must struggle with privatization, they must also
cope with 'pluralism' (Berger, 1967: 135-8). Religious choice is possible
because the monopolies of the past (such as the nearly universal rule of the
Catholic Church in Europe until the sixteenth century) were broken by the
Protestant Reformation and the increased exposure of the West to the cul-
tures of India, the Far East, and Africa (see, for example, Fields, 1981;
Tweed, 1992; Prebish and Tanaka, 1998; McLellan, 1999).
Privatization and pluralism went hand in hand. By the nineteenth cen-
tury, religious allegiances had become largely voluntary, especially in North
America, and a competitive market for these allegiances emerged. In
Berger's words (1967: 138), this means that 'the religious tradition, which
previously could be authoritatively imposed, now has to be marketed. It
must be "sold" to a clientele that is no longer constrained to "buy".'
Religious institutions have become marketing agencies and the religious tra-
ditions consumer commodities.2
This shift has far-reaching consequences, Berger believes, for both the
structure and the ideologies of Western religions. In order to compete in the
new marketplace, religious organizations have become increasingly bureau-
cratic, with the result that they have also become more similar in form and
functioning. As in other markets, the pressures of competition have led orga-
nizations to mute the harshness of competition by forming cartels. This
means that, having splintered into many competing smaller groups, the reli-
gious landscape then experienced a kind of reverse shift in which small orga-
nizations struck agreements with other religions in order to apportion and
stabilize their market share. A result of this was the movement of autonomous
church communities into larger denominations in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, and Berger sees it continuing in the strong ecumenical
movement and merger of many American Christian denominations since the
Second World War (see e.g. Wuthnow, 1988: 71-99).
The products of religion fall prey to the same irony (i.e. that the
growth of pluralism has produced homogenizing pressures). In econom-
ic terms, we would talk about 'standardization' and 'marginal differentia-
tion': products are made to suit the same consumer preferences, mini-
mizing of any real differences in substance while maintaining a competi-
tive edge with small differences in style and approach. As with tooth-
pastes and cars, a follower of Berger might say, so with religions. The
product must also conform to the dictates of its new location—the pri-
vate sphere. Religions that place a priority on private matters such as sex-
uality, marriage, child rearing, and family norms and activities, gain a
competitive advantage (or so it is thought). Moreover, so do religions that
offer a product 'consonant with the secularized consciousness' of inhabi-
tants of advanced industrial states, for example, by conforming with the
findings of science.
The net result, Berger laments, is that in the pluralistic competition of
many look-alike religions (at least in the Christian context of the modern
West), the plausibility of all is undermined as the content of each becomes
seen as a kind of relative version of truth rather than objective fact. The reli-
gious beliefs that support a nomos 'are "de-objectivated", that is, deprived of
their status as taken-for-granted, objective reality' (Berger, 1967: 151). The
veracity of religious claims becomes a matter of subjective consciousness
and conviction alone. In conclusion, Berger (1967: 153) proposes, two
options seem to confront religions in the conditions of the modern world:

They can either accommodate themselves to the situation, play the plu-
ralistic game of religious free enterprise, and come to terms as best they
can with the plausibility problem by modifying their product in accor-
dance with consumer demands. Or they can refuse to accommodate them-
selves, entrench themselves behind whatever socio-religious structures
they can maintain or construct, and continue to profess the old objectivi-
ties as much as possible as if nothing had happened.
 For most religions, the reality lies somewhere in between these two
extremes. And in ways that Berger did not foresee, perhaps could not have
foreseen in the mid-1960s, other new options have arisen. Many NRMS
(such as Krishna Consciousness) refuse to accommodate themselves to sec-
ular modernity, and offer new conceptions of the objective order of the
world, in a Western context. Others, like Scientology, fashion new ways of
adapting to modernity while reconfiguring the very nature of the religious
marketplace (e.g. by openly turning religion into a business). In either case,
we get a radicalization of the conditions of religious life compared to the
contentions of the denominational Christianity dominant in North
America. Some groups tend to become more totalistic in the commitments
demanded, while others become more limited in their demands and more
consumer-oriented. In other words, we get movement towards the division
of types of NRMs mentioned in Chapter 1.
Berger was clearly disturbed by these developments, and The Sacred
Canopy has been read largely as a prognosis of religious demise, although its
author may not have intended that and has since offered a more optimistic
view (see Berger, 1969, 1999).

STARK AND BAINBRIDGE'S THEORY OF RELIGION

The fact that some sort of secularization has occurred is a point commonly
agreed. Ample debate takes place, however, about its precise nature, caus-
es, and prospects. Berger helped to establish the prevalent view for the last
several decades, but his theory presents only one set of possibilities for
explaining things like cults. The alternative reading by Stark and his col-
leagues offers different possibilities and has stimulated renewed debate
about secularization and the significance of NRMS.
At least since the Enlightenment,' Stark and Bainbridge note (1985: 1),
'most Western intellectuals have anticipated the death of religion as eagerly as
ancient Israel awaited the messiah. . . . But, as one generation has followed
another, religion has persisted.' In response, Stark and Bainbridge have sought
to fashion a simple theory that explains this persistence while acknowledging
secularization as 'a major trend in modern times' (1985: 1). They suggest that
many scholars may be mistaking the secularization of certain traditional forms
of religious life for 'the doom of religion in general' (1985: 3).
Stark and Bainbridge's theory of religion grows out of four simple
premises. The first is that any meaningful discussion of religious phenome-
na must acknowledge the pivotal role of the 'supernatural'. Religions, they
argue (1985: 5), 'involve some conception of a supernatural being, world,
or force, and the notion that the supernatural is active, that events and con-
 ditions here on earth are influenced by the supernatural.' Some scholars are
inclined to see many things as religious, even though they lack any explic-
it reference to the supernatural (for example, the fanatical cult of personal-
ity surrounding the Communist Chinese leader Mao Tse-tung in the 1960s,
or the life-consuming commitment of certain radical environmentalists).
But these can only be deemed 'religions' insofar as they resemble activities
that actually do refer to the supernatural; the description is the result of
drawing an analogy, but an incomplete one.
The second premise is that 'humans seek what they perceive to be
rewards and try to avoid what they perceive to be costs' (1985: 5). Stark and
Bainbridge claim that this simple utilitarian adage accounts for most human
action, including religious acts.
The third premise is that the rewards people seek are often scarce.
Throughout human history some of the most desired rewards seem to be
things that are not readily available at all, like life after death or an end
to suffering.
The fourth and last premise is that, in the absence of real rewards, peo-
ple often create and exchange what Stark and Bainbridge call 'compensators',
promises of reward at some later time or in some other place. These range
from the specific to the highly general. When a child is promised a future
trip to the amusement park in exchange for chores done now, a specific com-
pensator is being invoked. The promises of a happy life, knowledge of the
meaning of life, or immortality, which are common to the religions of the
world, are obviously very general; these can be provided only, Stark and
Bainbridge assert, with the assistance of some supernatural agency.
Combining these four, Stark and Bainbridge (1985: 8) propose that reli-
gions should be viewed as 'human organizations primarily engaged in pro-
viding general compensators based on supernatural assumptions'. They see
little reason to be pessimistic about the future of religion, arguing that his-
tory suggests that

so long as humans intensely seek certain rewards of great magnitude that

remain unavailable through direct actions, they will be able to obtain
credible compensators only from sources predicated on the supernatural.
In this market, no purely naturalistic ideologies can compete. Systems of
thought that reject the supernatural lack all means to credibly promise
such rewards as eternal life in any fashion. Similarly naturalistic philoso-
phies can argue that statements such as 'What is the meaning of life?' or
'What is the purpose of the universe?' are meaningless utterances. But
they cannot provide answers to these questions in the terms in which they
are asked. (1985: 7 - 8 )
 Implicitly, like Weber and Berger before them, Stark and Bainbridge
are positing that humans need to live in a meaningful world and that nei-
ther the wonders of modern science nor the material abundance of
advanced industrial societies has displaced this need and the consequent
quest for supernatural reassurances. The way in which these reassur-
ances are offered is another matter. Religion, in their opinion, is chang-
ing, not dying.3

STARK AND BAINBRIDGE'S THEORY OF SECULARIZATION

Secularization, in the sense Berger proposes, is indeed happening. But

Stark and Bainbridge introduce an important qualification: continuing the
economic imagery introduced by Berger, they propose ( 1 9 8 5 : 4 2 9 - 3 0 )
that secularization is a constant element of all 'religious economies', and
not a unique attribute of the contemporary world. The process of secu-
larization is part of the primary dynamic of religious economies, a self-
limiting process that engenders religious renewal, and not the sheer
demise of religion. Properly understood, secularization refers to the peri-
odic collapse of specific and dominant religious organizations as a conse-
quence of their becoming more worldly, more accommodating to the non-
religious aspects of their cultural contexts. Contrary to Berger (and most
other sociologists), in this more limited sense secularization should not be
confused with the loss of the need for general supernatural compensators.
The reverse is true. It is the failure to provide sufficiently vivid and con-
sistently supernatural compensators that accounts for the decline of
established religions.
In the modern era, the spread of an increasingly scientific and ratio-
nalistic world view has pushed magic (one of the more specific forms of
supernatural compensators) out of religion and forced the dominant tra-
ditional religions into a full-scale retreat from their essential principles.
But the existential questions persist, and hence so does the demand for
the kind of totalistic and ultimately unconfirmable responses provided by
religions in the past. Commenting on this state of affairs, Stark and
Bainbridge (1985: 4 3 4 ) note:

The conception of the supernatural [sustained by the dominant contem-

porary traditions] . . . has receded to a remote, inactive, almost non-exis-
tent divinity. We see bishops and theologians denouncing as mere super-
stition the notion of a god 'up there'. Does a god who is not 'up there'
plausibly preside over heaven and offer triumph over death? Many of the
most prestigious denominations offer mixed signals at best in answer to
 this question. Such religions have reached the point where they can no
longer offer the quality of general compensators that has been the historic
raison d'etre of religions. They offer little solace to the bereaved, to the
dying, to the poor, or to those who seek to understand the enigmas of
existence.

When religions ossify in this way, when their rituals and beliefs become
dead and hollow formalities disconnected from any moving personal expe-
riences, there are two possible socio-religious responses: revival and inno-
vation. Stark and Bainbridge associate the revival option with the formation
of what sociologists call sects. They associate the innovation option with the
formation of cults. Sects tend to be splinter groups from mainstream tradi-
tions that are seeking to revive what they think to be the original or pure
spirit of the religious tradition they are rebelling against. Cults signify the
introduction of a more unconventional mode of religious expression, one
that tends to depart altogether from the dominant traditions of the church-
es that are being secularized. This distinction is discussed more fully below;
here we are simply interested in sketching the links that Stark and
Bainbridge forge between a more limited conception of secularization and
the processes by which new religions are created.
Writing almost twenty years after Berger, Stark and Bainbridge wit-
nessed the unprecedented decline in the 1960s and early 1970s of the size
and social influence of the liberal Protestant denominations that dominated
North America for centuries, such as Anglicans and Episcopalians,
Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists, and Lutherans. They also
saw that this decline coincided with the rise, on what might be called the
religious right, of more conservative and experiential forms of Christianity
(such as Pentecostalism, Charismatic Renewal, and evangelicalism in gen-
eral; see Wuthnow, 1988; Roof, 1999) and the rise, on the religious left, of
NRMs (such as Scientology, Neo-Paganism, and Tibetan Buddhism). Many of
the resultant sects and cults were and will continue to be short-lived and
inconsequential. But as Stark and Bainbridge are fond of repeating,
Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism all began as cults.
To test at least partially whether these developments are linked, Stark and
Bainbridge (1985: 4 4 4 - 8 ) tallied the locations of sect and cult headquarters
in the fifty US states (in the absence of accurate state-by-state membership fig-
ures) and showed strong negative correlations between the locations of cults
and churches on the one hand, and between sects and cults on the other. It
seems that where cults abound, conventional churches are weakest; and
where either sects or cults abound, the other tends to be absent. The latter
observation suggests that cults and sects are not just interchangeable respons-
es to secularization. They would seem to have different constituencies, and
hence their presence may mean different things. Sects, it should be noted, are
not actually correlated strongly with church decline; in fact, they seem to
thrive in the same environments where churches persist. This leads Stark and
Bainbridge (1985: 445) to speculate that 'sect formation is, in part, a response
to early stages of weakness in the general compensators provided by the con-
ventional churches. Cult formation tends to erupt in later stages of church
weakness, when large sectors of the population have drifted away from all
organizational ties to the prevailing faiths.' Cult formation reflects, they think,
'the efforts of the unchurched to become churched' (1985: 444). Most inter-
estingly, Bader and Demaris (1996) provided significant empirical corrobora-
tion of these findings. Using a sample of 12,415 subjects from the National
Survey of Families and Households in the United States, they confirmed that
the strength of conventional religious organizations in the subject's area is
strongly correlated with the likelihood of cult and sect membership. Where
conventional religions are weak, cults, but not necessarily sects, are strong.
Predictably perhaps, the highest rates of cult activity seem to be on the
west coast of the United States, particularly in California, and in the sunbelt
(New Mexico, Nevada, and Arizona). Those are places to which large num-
bers of people have migrated in this century, severing their past religious
affiliations. On the other hand, the Deep South and parts of the Midwest
remain strongholds of sectarianism and conventional church membership
(Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: ch. 6 and 9).
Commenting on the value of their theory, Stark and Bainbridge con-
clude (1985: 455):

We do not posit a steady-state religious economy in which cults immedi-

ately make up deficits in conventional religious affiliation. We argue only
that, to the degree a population is unchurched, there will be efforts to fill
the void. Most such efforts will be abortive. . . . Only once in a while will
an effective, rapidly growing cult movement appear. We cannot predict
accurately when that will happen. But we think we can say where this is
apt to happen and why.

APPLYING THE THEORIES TO NRMS

One does not have to accept all aspects of Stark and Bainbridge's theories of
religion and secularization to see the utility of their views in trying to
understand NRMS. The same can be said of Berger's theories. In conjunction,
the theories of Berger and of Stark and Bainbridge set the broad context for
understanding NRMS in three ways.
 In the first place, they guide our understanding of the most fundamen-
tal nature of NRMs. Whether or not secularization will ultimately prove to
be a permanent condition leading to the near-disappearance of all forms of
religion, the evidence discussed in this text supports the view that the rise
of NRMs is symptomatic of some sociocultural resistance to recent secular-
izing trends. Berger's discussion of secularization helps us to see the reli-
gious context of the sixties in which NRMS first proliferated. His analysis of
the human conditions that require the creation and extension of a sacred
canopy clarifies and reinforces Stark and Bainbridge's presumption of a con-
tinued need for supernatural compensators.
Second, Berger's theory also alerts us to the reason why many NRMS
display the desire to influence, even control, all aspects of the lives of their
followers. The attainment of religious monopoly may no longer be possi-
ble, but it may remain the expectation of even the most marginal religious
group. After all, that expectation is historically rooted in the dominant
social function of religion itself. In general, the interpretive frameworks
provided by Berger and by Stark and Bainbridge begin to unravel the mys-
tery of why some people turn to NRMS, without presupposing some abnor-
mality or deviant motivation. These theories get us thinking about the
context of exchange in which NRMs exist. In every religion, after all, there
is an exchange of commitments between individuals and groups, an
exchange of sacrifices and benefits, which in most cases can be reasonably
delineated and assessed.
Third, it seems that an awareness of these theories sets our options for
discerning the social and cultural significance of NRMS and their future. As
mentioned above, if Berger is right, NRMs may only be emblematic of the
last gasp of religion in the advanced industrial world. Or—and this may
amount to the same thing—they may only represent the final triumph of a
modern commercial and consumer ethic in the affairs of humanity. From
this vantage point, religion has been reduced to just another product to be
matched with the private needs and desires of individual consumers. As
such, its relative importance has been greatly diminished and the prospects
for the survival and growth of most NRMs are not bright (see Wilson, 1976,
1988). Alternatively, if, as Stark and Bainbridge suppose, the rise of NRMs
is a sign more of a changing of the guard than of the end of religion, the
prospects of at least some NRMs may be brighter than our generation can
foresee. And finally, in Chapter 8 we will see that the situation may well be
even more complex, for there is a further possibility: many NRMs may be
engaged in the process of adapting religion to the conditions of the mod-
ern world but in ways that ensure rather than diminish their continuing
cultural significance.
Churches, Sects, find Cults
To permit comparisons across time and cultures, sociologists have tried to
put particular religious activities into categories according to the dominant
form of social organization within which they occur. This process of cate-
gorization, which is known as church-sect typology, provides us with the
insights we need to understand what kind of religious organization or form
of religious life cults belong to.
The first distinction between churches and sects was drawn by Max
Weber in 1904 (Weber, 1958a), but it is best known in the form elaborat-
ed by his colleague Ernst Troeltsch in 1911 (Troeltsch, 1931). This
Troeltschian dichotomy of churches and sects has been broadly accepted
and developed in myriad ways, creating a confusing array of types and sub-
types of religious organizations. It is out of this process that the concept of
'cults' emerged, and in recent years, with the proliferation of NRMs, many
scholars have tried to frame a 'subtypology' of different types of cults (e.g.
Campbell, 1978; Bird, 1979; Robbins and Anthony, 1979a, 1987; Wallis,
1984; Lofland and Richardson, 1984; Beckford, 1985; Anthony and Ecker,
1987; Robbins, 1988). We do not need to survey all the permutations and'
merits of church-sect-cult typologizing here, but some understanding of the
procedure and its options is useful in a study of NRMs.4

CHURCH-SECT THEORY AND DEFINING 'CULT'

As framed by Troeltsch, with the Christian tradition in mind, the church-

sect dichotomy is commonly described as follows. Churches are organiza-
tions into which people are born and baptized as infants. Membership is
involuntary. Sects are voluntary organizations to which people usually con-
vert, frequently as the result of very emotional experiences. All kinds of
people belong to churches; they are inclusive and their membership is het-
erogeneous. Sects tend to be much more homogeneous in their member-
ship, drawing disproportionately from the underprivileged. This situation
often reflects the fact that sects are created by schisms within a church that
is aligned with the dominant social structure. The beliefs and practices of
sects, then, tend to be more radical and ethically stricter than those of
churches, and they constitute an act of protest against the values of the rest
of society. Sects tend to be exclusive; that is, individuals must meet and
maintain certain clear requirements to belong. Sectarians consider them-
selves to be an 'elect'—a group of people specially chosen for salvation—
and those who contravene the group's precepts are subject to expulsion
much more readily than in the case of churches. The leaders of churches are
usually hired or appointed on the basis of special educational qualifications.
They operate within a hierarchical and impersonal administrative structure.
Sectarian leaders tend to be charismatic, and sects tend to have smaller,
more democratic, and more personal organizational structures. In theology
and liturgy, churches are inclined to be dogmatic and ritualistic. Sects are
more inspirational, volatile, and even anti-ritualistic.
In the years since Troeltsch formulated his contrast between churches
and sects, two other typologies of religious organizations have won favour
amongst sociologists: those of J. Milton Yinger (1970) and Bryan R. Wilson
(1970). Yinger divides religious organizations into six types; Wilson has
proffered a sevenfold sub typology of sects.
In order of decreasing inclusiveness and also decreasing attention to the
social integration of members, Yinger distinguishes the following types: the
'universal church' (e.g. the Roman Catholic Church); the 'ecclesia', or estab-
lished national church (e.g. the Church of England or the Sunni faith of
Saudi Arabia); the 'denomination'5 (e.g. Baptists or Presbyterians); the
'established sect' (e.g. Jehovah's Witnesses or Christian Science); the 'sect'
(e.g. Pentecostalists or the Worldwide Church of God); and the 'cult' (e.g.
the Unification Church or Scientology).
The last of these distinctions, of course, adds the sole truly new cate-
gory to church-sect typology and is the focus of our attention. Cults are
placed on a continuum with sects, which makes sense in that, compared
to churches, cults indeed share much with sectarian forms of religion. But
as Gordon Melton complains (2004: 18), for Yinger and his contempo-
raries the term remained a rather vague 'catch-all' for groups that did not
fit into the other categories. Cults were somehow just more at odds with
the religious establishment than sects, and consequently 'their status and
role in culture was continually being contested'. They were 'feared, dis-
liked (even hated)' (Melton, 2004: 21). This negative connotation was
influenced perhaps by the other context in which the term 'cult' had
gained currency since the early twentieth century. Christian writers, par-
ticularly evangelical ones (e.g. Martin 1977, Cowan 2003), used the term
to identify groups in American society that they thought were deviating
dangerously from orthodox Christianity (e.g. Church of Latter Day Saints,
Christian Science, Spiritualism, Jehovah's Witnesses). This pejorative
meaning was heightened and extended to other new and often non-
Christian groups when the 'cult scare' of the 1970s and 1980s gripped
North America. By the time sociologists turned to the task of delineating
what a cult is, the anti-cult movement had further impaired the scientific
utility of the term by identifying cults with accusations of deception, psy-
chological manipulation, and fraud. In fact, the leadership of the anti-cult
movement has chosen to integrate these criticisms into the very definition
of the word 'cult' (e.g. Hassan, 1988: 55 and Singer, 1995: 7).
Michael Langone (1993: 5), for example, defines a cult as '. . . a group
or movement that, to a significant degree, (a) exhibits great or excessive
devotion or dedication to some person, idea, or thing, (b) uses a thought-
reform program to persuade, control, and socialize members . . . , (c) sys-
tematically induces states of psychological dependency in members, (d)
exploits members to advance the leadership's goals, and (e) causes psycho-
logical harm to members, their families, and community.' Focusing this def-
inition on certain assumptions about the behaviour and effects of a group
breaks sharply with the more neutral focus offered by church-sect theory.
Langone's definition shows a 'normative' approach, meaning that it tries to
establish a norm and then either include or exclude groups from this,
implying a common prior understanding of what constitutes the legitimate
expression of religion. Such an assumption is problematic, especially when
the criteria are not clearly specified; what counts as a 'thought-reform pro-
gram', for instance, and how is this distinct from more mainstream reli-
gions? Such an approach, relying heavily on a set of implicit value judge-
ments, tends to support the inclination to dismiss all new and unusual
forms of religion as dangerous.
Even if Langone's definition were not wrongly used to form judgements
about the groups, his approach still has a problem. By limiting the use of
the word 'cult' to those few groups clearly known to be harmful (in some-
body's judgement), he leaves the vast majority of religions that might con-
ventionally be identified as cults undefined. We are therefore returned to
the very problem all this classifying was intended to resolve. Yinger and
others introduced the term 'cult' to help identify the full range of religious
possibilities. The definitions employed by the anti-cult movement are
unhelpful, then, for two reasons: (1) they impose a value judgement on
cults that is not present in the classification of other kinds of religious orga-
nizations; (2) they leave a large number of religious groups unclassified.
There is no consensus amongst sociologists on a satisfactory definition.
The sheer variety of new religions poses problems in framing a definition
suitable to all or even most of the activities. It would be convenient if cults
could just be described as very radical versions of sects but the word is used
far too broadly for'such a simple solution to be useful.
W e need not entirely give up the idea of describing what we might
mean by the word 'cult', however. I would venture to say that cults share
the following cluster of traits:
1. Cults are almost always centred on a charismatic leader, who is usu-
ally the inspirational founder of the religion. The authority of this leader is
relatively unrestricted. Consequently, these groups are subject to gradual
disintegration when the leader dies or is discredited (Miller, 1991). Not sur-
prisingly, then, the vast majority of cults are relatively short-lived and small.
2. Cults usually lay claim to some esoteric knowledge that has been
lost, repressed, or newly discovered, and they offer their believers some
more direct kind of ecstatic or transfiguring experience than traditional
modes of religious life.
3. Cults often display no systematic orientation to the broader society,
since their primary focus is on the spiritual development of their members.
This commonly means they are loosely organized and subject to frequent
organizational changes.
4. To borrow from the sociologist Bryan Wilson: In comparison to
established faiths, cults tend to 'offer a surer, shorter, swifter, or clearer way
to salvation.' They offer a more 'proximate salvation' and, in principle, one
more readily attained by more people. 'In new religions,' Wilson explains,
'there is prospect of spiritual abundance' (1982b: 17, 20).
This profile fits most cults, which are relatively unknown. You may
have noticed, however, that it does not really describe several of the more
famous groups figuring in the public controversy about NRMs. Scientology,
Krishna Consciousness, and the Unification Church, for example, are quite
long-lived and large. Accordingly, many of their features are sect-like. They
are more organized and sophisticated in their relations with the larger
world. With the exception of the Unification Church, whose founding
leader is still alive, they have also managed to survive the death of their
charismatic founder. Originally, though, these groups did display the traits
I have suggested, and they do continue to have many of the other attitudes
and practices, such as the emphasis on esoteric teachings and the satisfac-
tion of individual needs. Perhaps, then, yet another intermediate category
should be added to church-sect typology, that of 'established cult'.

Creating R Typology of Cults

We move now to Bryan Wilson's differentiation between types of sects.
Following Max Weber, Wilson thinks we should make sense of religions in
light of their manifest function: they offer paths to salvation. Accordingly,
he distinguishes sects in terms of the supposedly deviant responses to the
world generated by their answers to the question: 'What shall we do to be
saved?' (Wilson, 1970: 3 6 - 4 0 ) . Wilson labels as 'conversionist' the sects
that view the world and its institutions as evil, with the belief that salvation
can be had only as a result of a profound change in oneself (e.g. Salvation
Army and Pentecostalists). Sects which 'declare that the world is evil, and
that the only prospect of salvation is the overturning of the world by super-
natural action', he calls 'revolutionist' (e.g. Jehovah's Witnesses and
Christadelphians). Those groups which call the world evil and seek salva-
tion by withdrawing from it, he calls 'introversionist' (e.g. Hutterites and
Exclusive Brethren). 'Manipulationist' groups such as Christian Science seek
salvation in the world, but by special means not generally known or accept-
ed in the world. 'Thaumaturgical' groups (which could include
Spiritualism) are geared to the relief of present individual physical and men-
tal ills^by special, almost magical dispensation . . . from the normal laws of
causality'. Sects which believe that some of the evil in the world might be
overcome through reform, in line with the dictates of a divinely inspired
conscience, he terms 'reformist' (e.g. Quakers). And finally, he calls 'Utopi-
an' the groups that wish to reconstruct society 'by returning to the basic
principles by which the creator intended [us] to live,' (e.g. the Oneida and
Bruderhof communities). As Wilson demonstrates, in accordance with their
ideas about salvation, each of these groups uses different elements of the
Christian tradition and adopts a distinctive mode of social organization.
For our purposes, the merits of Wilson's specific typology are not
important, nor is an understanding of his distinctions or knowledge of the
groups he discusses. Rather, his typology suggests to us that if sects are sub-
ject to such subdivision, so might cults be; Wilson's typology could in fact
be adapted to this end. Many other writers have devised their own methods
of classifying new religions: Bruce Campbell (1978), for example, suggests
that cults are marked primarily by their orientation to the 'divine within'.
He argues that we can distinguish them according to how they respond to
a particular tension between the sacred and the profane, specifically
between the sacred ideal of individual potential and the profane world in
which one's personality is actually rooted. He divides cults into two main
groups plus a rather amorphous third possibility. The two main categories
distinguish the 'illumination' cult, 'which emphasizes detachment from the
personality and the search for direct inner personal experience of the divine'
(for example, Theosophy and Spiritualism), from the 'instrumental' cult, in
which 'inner experience is sought for its effects, its ability to transform the
everyday personality so that it can better meet the demands made upon it'
(for example, Scientology and Soka Gakkai). The third possibility includes
groups resembling*either category but with a less individualistic orienta-
tion. These he calls 'service-oriented' cults. No illustration of the latter,
however, is provided.
Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (e.g. 1979a, 1987) choose anoth-
er approach, dividing cults according to how they deal with metaphysical
ideas such as good and evil, and how these ideas affect a group's response
to the 'moral indeterminacy' of modern societies. The scholars distinguish
'dualistic' movements, which promote an absolute dichotomy of good and
evil forces, and 'monistic' movements, which teach the ultimate unity of all
things and a mode of moral relativism. They make another distinction
between 'unilevel' and 'multilevel' religions: unilevel groups tend to be lit-
eral in their approach to language and texts; multilevel groups display an
appreciation of the symbolic and metaphorical aspects of language and
regard spiritual teachings as encompassing various levels of meaning.
These two sets of divisions are combined with yet another, between 'tech-
nical' movements that offer procedures for manipulating consciousness
and 'charismatic' movements that stress the emulation of a spiritual leader.
The combination of all these sets of categories produces an elaborate array
of possible classifications.
Another approach is the much more simple method proposed by Roy
Wallis, dividing cults into three types using a modified form of Max
Weber's (1963) well-known differentiation between types of religious sys-
tems. Wallis distinguishes between cults according to their attitude to the
social world in which they emerge: 'A new movement may embrace the
world, affirming its normatively approved goals and values; it may reject
that world, denigrating those things held dear within it; or it may remain
as far as possible indifferent to the world in terms of its religious practice,
accommodating to it otherwise, and exhibiting only mild acquiescence to,
or disapprobation of, the ways of the world' (Wallis, 1984: 4; emphasis
added). Again, each orientation gives rise to a distinctive social structure
for the groups.
These examples indicate the riches and confusions born of the typo-
logical art. For most purposes, typologies like Robbins and Anthony's are
too complex, whereas that of Wallis is too beguilingly simple. Before saying
more, however, we should consider two basic features of all church-sect-
cult typologies: (1) their 'developmental' and (2) their 'relative' character.
The developmental point is characteristic of almost all church-sect-cult
typologies and conditioned by the observations of H. Richard Niebuhr. In
The Social Sources of Denominationalism, Niebuhr (1929) argues that sects
eventually tend to become like churches. As new generations are born and
socialized into the sects and their ways become set, the original impetus to
reject the norms and activities of the dominant society wanes. Likewise, if
a cult is fortunate enough to survive and grow it will tend to take on the
features and the increased stability of a sect. As sects become churches, and
sometimes as cults become more sect-like as well, a new sect or cult may
be spawned out of discontent or loss of interest. We are faced, Stark and
Bainbridge (1979: 123) observe, with 'an endless cycle of birth, transfor-
mation, schism, and rebirth of religious movements'. Certainly much of
the growth of new religions in North America stems from this tendency for
established groups to splinter.
Building on Stark and Bainbridge's theoretical perspective, Finke and
Stark (1992) argue forcefully in The Churching of America, 1776-1990 that
this pattern accounts for much of the more conventional religious history
of the United States as well. In the nineteenth century, long-established reli-
gions such as Congregationalists and Presbyterians lost their dominance to
younger, more sectarian creeds, such as Methodism. In the twentieth cen-
tury, Methodism in turn became too church-like and worldly, and it has
been surpassed by other new sectarian developments, like the Southern
Baptist Convention and the Pentecostal movement.
The second point, about church-sect-cult distinctions being relative,
is often forgotten. In most of North America, the Mormons (the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) operate as a sect. At the same time,
however, they should probably be considered a church or ecclesia in the
state of Utah, where most people are Mormon, and a denomination in
southern Alberta, where Mormons account for a third of the population.
In other words, the classification of any group depends on the time and
place in question. By way of further illustration, let us consider the
Roman Catholic Church. In medieval France it was an ecclesia, but in
eighteenth-century America, which was dominated by Protestant denom-
inations, it was treated as if it were a sect, or even a cult. By the late twen-
tieth century, in both France and the United States, it is probably best
deemed a denomination. In Quebec, the Roman Catholic Church was
essentially an ecclesia until the 1960s but is now also better described as
a denomination.
So, keeping the developmental and relative character of all church-sect-
cult typologizing in mind, what typology should we use to make sense of
the diversity of cults in our midst? I favour a typology based on one dimen-
sion—in other words, one in which different cults, sects, and churches can
be arranged along a continuum based on changes in one variable. As for
what this variable should be, I favour Weber's original choice for distin-
guishing churches and sects: the mode of membership of different groups
and the consequent form of their social organization.
Amongst othe^things, a one-dimensional approach has the theoretical
advantage of simplicity. Multidimensional types tend to get confusing
because of all the combinations possible, resulting in a kind of infinite
regress. This impairs the making of comparisons, and hence the explaining
of differences. The one-dimensional approach better accommodates the
developmental aspect of typologizing as well, since we can easily envisage
groups moving along the spectrum over time. Stark and Bainbridge (1985:
23) stress the need for a common measure theorizing about the movement
from sect to church, or cult to sect. I have found Weber's focus on mem-
bership and social organization to be the most convenient and reliable for
callibrating such a measure, and for making useful comparisons between
different groups and types.
In line with this, Stark and Bainbridge differentiate between 'audience
cults', 'client cults', and 'cult movements'. Each of these may exist in perpe-
tuity, but as cults gain in size and social stature they will tend to change
from the audience type to client and eventually to movements. The same
NRM may exist simultaneously in two or more of these forms; it might be a
movement in California, but only a client cult in Connecticut or France. But
what do these distinctions entail?
'Audience cults' are the least organized, yet perhaps most pervasive
expression of cult activity in North America. The label refers to the loosely
structured events at which individuals lecture and distribute literature
about a variety of esoteric, mystical, eccentric, and occult topics. At various
conferences and meetings certain sets of ideas and certain lecturers may
attract a consistent following, but no formal and persistent organization
results. The audience for the ideas in question remain mere consumers of
cultic goods. This level of cult activity is characteristic of much of the inter-
est displayed in UFO-related material and much so-called Neo-Pagan and
New Age spirituality. In some respects, however, it also holds true for the
early years of even such established sects as the Jehovah's Witnesses (see
Penton, 1985: 1 3 - 3 3 ) , an organization that began as a loose network of
Bible study groups reading the same new literature about biblical prophe-
cies. Similarly, the Church of Scientology began as a series of spontaneous-
ly arising study groups applying the method of psychological therapy devel-
oped by L. Ron Hubbard in his best-selling book Dianetics: The Modern
Science of Mental Health (1975; originally published in 1950).
'Client cults' may emerge from audience cults, or arise independently.
Here, 'the relationship between those promulgating cult doctrines and those
partaking of it most closely resembles the relationship between therapist
and patient or between consultant and client', Stark and Bainbridge suggest
(1985: 26). The services of the cult leader or leaders may become highly
organized, but little effort is made to 'weld the clients into a social move-
ment. Indeed, client involvement is so partial that clients often retain an
active commitment to another religious movement or institution.' In many
respects, Theosophy began this way, while Scientology and numerous other
popular groups like 'est' (Erhard Seminar Training, mentioned in the previ-
ous chapter) seem to have sought to remain at this organizational level. 'In
the past, the primary services sold were medical miracles, forecasts of the
future, or contact with the dead' (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985: 28). To this
list can be added meditation, induced memories of past lives, astral projec-
tions to other times and places, UFO contactee accounts, and general expe-
riences and knowledge of an expanded universe or levels of reality.
Finally, with success, a group may become a 'cult movement'. Using the
Spiritualist movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
as an illustration, Stark and Bainbridge (1985: 2 9 ) argue as follows:

When the spiritualist medium is able to get his or her clients to attend reg-
ularly on Sunday morning, and thus, in a Christian context, to sever ties
with other religious organizations, we observe the birth of a cult move-
ment. Cult movements are full-fledged religious organizations that
attempt to satisfy all the religious needs of converts.. . . Attempts to cause
social change, by converting others, become central to the group agenda.

Examples of cult movements are Theosophy in its maturity, Krishna

Consciousness, the Unification Church, the Raelians, and the Church
Universal and Triumphant.

B o x 2 H o w N E W RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS CHANGE W I T H V-

*V ' SUCCESS - J • " . *; - - TI
s s « f , ' . „ * j'„ • -s. • j* :•,>».•. -y ' % t i fip, „ iV-« 'Vft.

To date much of the research on NRMS has focused on the description of '
.: the beliefs, practices, and organizational histories of groups that rose to
' prominence after the 1960s. It is important to realize now that these ..
' groups have changed with the passing decades. In fact, NRMs provide schol- : ;
t a r s with natural laboratories for the observation and analysis of the
processes of religious change. < ' .r ' • - -
Reflecting on her thnse decades of research on NRMs, sociologist Eileen
v ' Barker (1995b) discusses changes in the characteristics of those NRMs that i }
have survived and grown. First, there has been a shift from familial forms of '
association to more organized bureaucratic forms, with a corresponding
increase in the .division of labour and an expansion of the rules governing
interaction between different categories of members. Likewise the very
range of ways of organizing such movements has expanded, creating a
greater diversity of types of NRMS. ' " ' V'1;V
Second, there has been a significant shift in the membership of many »
; groups, as the balance of young to old and new to long-term members
changes. The number of children now being born into cults has tended to
reduce the need for movements to engage in aggressive proselytizing, and
also introduced new demands and priorities. In Barker's words, 'ft does not
take much imagination to recognize that a movement [composed] of enthu-
siastic and inexperienced young converts with few if any responsibilities will
differ fundamentally from one in which middle-aged adults, with 10 to 20
years experience of the movement, have a large number of dependent chil-'
dnen' (1995b: 169). " \ * - \v- " ' > f | | | |
Third, the day-to-day activities and the financial dealings of NRMs have
shifted with the need to cane for, discipline, and socialize a second genera-
tion of members. The children born into the movement also may precipi-
tate changes in the policies and practices of these groups. Again, though,
marked diversity is evident in how specific NRMs have actually responded to
this challenge.; • ; • • . "
' Fourth, leadership and types of authority have changed, shifting from
the charismatic to the more traditional and rational. This often results in a
diffusion of power and responsibilities, 'increased accountability for deci-
sions', and 'more room for [the] interpretation and negotiation' of beliefs
and practices by different cult members (1995b: 171). 'i
• Fifth, the belief systems of these NRMs have become more elaborate, in
part because they also tend to become less extreme. Millennial beliefs, for
example, are muted in the face of the postponement of the predicted end
of the world. As indicated already, a greater diversity of interpretive posi-'
tions is tolerated within the movements. %
' Sixth, there has been a weakening of lifestyle requirements and a corre-
sponding softening in the distinction between insiders and outsiders. Groups
that were strictly communal and adamant in their rejection of important
aspects of the larger society (e.g. higher education) have started to institu-
tionalize many levels of acceptable membership, 'ranging from the totally
committed . . . through the rank-and-file faithful to fringe members who
accept the beliefs but do not want to commit their whole lives to the move-
ment ..', and, finally, sympathizers who may owe allegiance to another reli-
gion' (1995b: 174), Likewise extreme stances on issues like sex or gender rela-
tions have drifted toward the social norm', and the groups have sought active
alliances with other groups in society in the support of various causes. '
V The moderating effect of these changes is what sociologists and histo-
rians would expect. With time, Barker argues, the differences between most
NRMs and the wider society will decrease. But along with this, given the high-
ly pluralistic character of contemporary Western societies, the differences
 among the NRMs may well increase as each group can accommodate itself .
: to a different set of accepted norms (Barker 1995b: 165 and 179).This fact :'
may also partially account for the emergence of'established cufts' as a new
•V.yf order of religious life in the contemporary religious envinonmerrt.

Drawn from Lome L. Dawson, 'New Religious Movements.' Forthcoming in Robert

Segal, ed.. Blackwell Companion to Religious Studies. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005. Used with
the-permission of Blackwell Publishers. • • J •
<-:?'> *'"" • ••., V- 4- i'*. ' • . ' • " . • . ' . ' • » • • • ' ' • ' " '• • ' •: .» V- y\ •- '•

CULT TYPOLOGIES AND THE INTERNAL DYNAMICS OF CULTS

Cult movements are the main subject of this book because their success
gives them significance as religions in North America. Their histories reveal
different aspects of the path of development suggested by Stark and
Bainbridge; each movement grew from humble beginnings, and some, such
as Theosophy, have had a reversal of fortunes that has moved them back
again into something like the client cult status. As useful as Stark and
Bainbridge's distinctions are, however, two anomalous features of cult
movements point to the need to modify the typology.
In the first place, as Stark and Bainbridge recognized, there is much vari-
ation in degree of commitment and organization, even within the single cat-
egory of cult movements. These groups entail everything from situations
demanding mere assent to the beliefs of a group, regular attendance, and
some financial support, to situations of total involvement, where every aspect
of an individual's life is given over to the group's maintenance and advance-
ment. Clearly, then, within the category of cult movements itself, there is a
range of groups that to some degree replicates the larger contrasts with regard
to membership and social organization. Stark and Bainbridge, however, have
not followed through on this observation. 6 1 believe it would be useful, then,
to subdivide 'cult movements' along the same Weberian lines.
That suggestion is supported by the second anomalous feature. As some
keen observers of contemporary religion have suggested, NRMs that either
have stayed in forms reminiscent of audience or client cults or have
returned to these .forms may be experiencing neither a failure to develop
properly nor a regression to some more primitive form (e.g. Westley, 1983;
Bromley and Shupe, 1993; Greil, 1993; Wilson, 1993). On the contrary,
religion in the guise of audience or client cults may actually be a sign of
things to come, the religious success stories of tomorrow. Whether this is
indeed the case hinges, of course, on whether one favours Berger's or Stark
and Bainbridge's reading of the overall condition of religion in contempo-
rary society. Is the 'commercialization' of religion evidence of its near-
demise or just of its transformation? Whatever conclusion one draws,
repeated observations of this kind suggest that cult movements themselves
tend to cluster around two poles of a continuum with regard to member-
ship and organization, as expressed most clearly in the variant norms of
commitment in these groups. Some cult movements tend to resemble audi-
ence or client cults in that they are non-communal and more tolerant of
multiple commitments. As cults, that is, they display many of the features,
with regard to mode of membership and organization, associated with
churches. Scientology is a good example. Other cult movements are more
communal, and exclusive in their commitment demands. In other words,
they are more sect-like; a good example is Krishna Consciousness.
Recognition of this internal subdivision of cult movements can be made
to conform even more with Stark and Bainbridge's theory of cults, and
implicitly with Weber's theory of churches and sects, by incorporating
insights provided by Wallis (1984). He proposes that the tendency of a new
religious movement to move towards a more exclusive organizational type
depends on the extent to which its message and practices are thought to be
(1) important and relevant for a broad range of individual concerns, and (2)
unavailable elsewhere. 'That is, a movement is more likely to be exclusive if
it is of wide salvational scope, or lays claim to a broad salvational efficacy,
showing the path of truth, salvation or the good life, over a wide range of
human preoccupations; and if it lays claim to unique legitimacy as the path
to these ends' (Wallis, 1984: 125-6). The intent to be comprehensive and
the belief in uniqueness lead to a greater exclusivity in commitment
demands, a pattern that characterizes the general developmental movement
from audience cults through to cult movements, and which is then repli-
cated again, like a set of wooden Ukrainian dolls nested one inside the
other, as a gradient amongst the cult movements themselves.
In fact, as Wallis (1984: 1 2 3 - 5 ) persuasively argues, we find this range
of membership commitment, from inclusive to exclusive, whenever we look
at how individuals are involved in any type of new religious movement,
whether audience cult, client cult, or cult movement. The pattern still
applies: the more convinced the participants are of the comprehensiveness
and uniqueness of the religious message, the greater their involvement with
the group. In a kind of feedback loop, this conviction usually grows out of
greater involvement.
As a consequence, and replicating the pattern further, most groups con-
tain an internal division between a core of devotees engaged in a highly
exclusive organizational commitment and a larger group of less exclusively
engaged followers or clients. Amongst cult movements, for example,
Scientology certainly appears to be one of the most inclusive in its organi-
zational commitments, allowing its members to freely retain and practice
other faiths. But at the heart of Scientology is the 'Sea Org' (Sea
Organization), an elite body that originally accompanied the reclusive L.
Ron Hubbard aboard a fleet of ships. Members of the paramilitary Sea Org
sign billion-year contracts of absolute loyalty and service to the highest
leadership of the Church of Scientology; clearly, these members represent
the exclusive end of the continuum within the movement. This sort of
structural pattern varies in form, intensity, and significance regarding a
group's development, according to the influence of other factors. For exam-
ple, if a group is persecuted, the whole group may implode into the cadre
and its more exclusive style; this may have either beneficial or disastrous
results for the survival and growth of the new religion. (See, for example,
Bainbridge's [1978] account of the Process, Carter's [1990] study of
Rajneeshpuram, and Palmer's [1996] and Mayer's [1999] analyses of the
Solar Temple.) It is conceivable that the same thing may happen because of
the unanticipated and sudden success of a group. Lucas's [1995] account of
The Holy Order of MANS comes close to this pattern. With all the compli-
cated dynamics involved, such changes are very difficult to predict.
Having taken such a collection of theoretical tools in hand, let us now
use them to consider why so many new NRMS have arisen in the West
since the 1960s.