Chapter 3

Routing Protocols

2.1
 Chapter_3 Syllabus
Routing Algorithms: Types of routing algorithm,

Multicast Addressing

Unicast Routing Protocols: RIP, BGP and OSPF

Protocols

Multicast Routing Protocols: IGMP, MOSPF,

DVMRP and MBONE Protocols.

2.2
Routing Algorithms

2.3
 Introduction
 An internet is a network of networks which are connected by
routers

 A packet is routed from source to destination in a optimum

pathway.

 Optical Path is chosen by router depends on the metric:

 Metric: a cost assigned for passing through a network
 A router should choose the route with the smallest metric

2.4
 Introduction . . .
• Routing Algorithm is

– Part of the network layer software.

– Responsible for deciding which output line an incoming
packet should be transmitted on.
• Properties of Routing Algorithm:
• Correctness
• Simplicity
• Robustness
• Stability
• Fairness
• Optimality

2.5
 Functions of a Router

Why Routing?
• The router is responsible for the routing of
traffic between networks.
 Functions of a Router

Routers are Computers

• Routers are specialized computers
containing the following required
components to operate:
– Central processing unit (CPU)
– Operating system (OS) - Routers use Cisco IOS
– Memory and storage (RAM, ROM, NVRAM,
Flash, hard drive)
• Routers utilize the following memory:
 Functions of a Router

Routers Interconnect Networks

• Routers can connect multiple networks.
• Routers have multiple interfaces, each on a different IP network.
 Functions of a Router

Routers Choose Best Paths

• Determine the best path to send packets
– Uses its routing table to determine path
• Forward packets toward their destination
– Forwards packet to interface indicated in
routing table.
– Encapsulates the packet and forwards out
toward destination.
• Routers use static routes and dynamic
routing protocols to learn about remote
networks and build their routing tables.
Switching Packets between Networks

Send a Packet
 Switching Packets between Networks

Forward to the Next Hop

Switching Packets between Networks

Packet Routing
 Switching Packets between Networks

Reach the Destination

 Path Determination

Routing Decisions
 The Routing Table

The Routing Table

 Routing Table is a file stored in RAM that contains information about
 Directly Connected Routes
 Remote Routes
 Network or Next hop Associations
 Types of Routing Algorithms

• Two Categories
– Based on Routing Table Updating
– Based on Forwarding Principle

Other ways of Classification

– Proactive / Reactive
– Static / Dynamic
– Distance Vector RP / Link Status RP
– Intranetwork (Interior) RP / Internetwork (Exterior)
– (Adoptive) / (Non adaptive)
2.16
 Types of Routing Protocols
Classifying Routing Protocols
 Types of Routing Protocols
IGP and EGP Routing Protocols

Interior Gateway Protocols

(IGP) -
 Used for routing within
an AS
 Include RIP, EIGRP,
OSPF, and IS-IS
Exterior Gateway
Protocols (EGP) -
 Used for routing
between AS
 Official routing
protocol used by the
Internet
Based on Routing Table Updating . . .
 Interior Routing
 Routing inside an autonomous system.
 An interior protocol handles intradomain routing.

 Each AS can chose its own interior routing protocol

 Examples: RIP, OSPF , EIGRP
 Exterior Routing
 Routing between autonomous systems

 An exterior protocol handles inter- domain routing.

 Examples: BGP
2.19
Based on Routing Table Updating . . .
Example. 1

Fig. Autonomous Systems

2.20
Based on Routing Table Updating . . .
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
 Treat each network as equals
 Cost is calculated based on number of Hop Count

 The cost of passing through each network is the same: one hop count
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Allow administrator to assign a cost for passing through a network
based on the type of serviced required
 For example, maximum throughput or minimum delay
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
 The criterion is the policy, which can be set by the administrator
2.21
 Based on Forwarding Principle

• As per forwarding principle / Delivery Models relate to the

Internet,

» Unicasting

» Multicasting

» Broadcasting.

2.22
Based on Forwarding Principle . . .
• Unicasting
– One source, one destination

– Widely used (web, p2p, streaming, many other

protocols)

Fig. Example Unicasting Systems

2.23
Based on Forwarding Principle . . .
• Multicasting
– One source, several (pre specified) destinations.

– Is a group communication where data communication

is addressed to a group of destination computers

Fig. Example Multicasting Systems

2.24
Based on Forwarding Principle . . .
 Broadcasting
 One source, all destinations .

 Used to disseminate control information, perform service

discovery

Fig. Example Multicasting Systems

2.25
Multicast Addressing
• A multicast address is a logical identifier for a group of
hosts in a computer network

• Unicast address represents a single receiver where as

multicast address represents a group of receiver

• A packet that uses a multicast address as a destination

can reach all members of the group.

• Multicast addresses in both data link and network layers.

• Multicast addresses in the network layer - IPv4 protocol.

2.26
 Multicast Addressing
• The multicast address space is divided into some smaller ranges
based on RFC 3171.

CIDR Range Assignment

224.0.0.0/24 224.0.0.0 -> 224.0.0.255 Local Network Control Block
224.0.1.0/24 224.0.1.0 -> 224.0.1.255 Internetwork Control Block
224.0.2.0 -> 224.0.255.255 AD HOC Block
224.1.0.0/16 224.1.0.0 -> 224.1.255.255 ST Multicast Group Block
224.2.0.0/16 224.2.0.0 -> 224.2.255.255 SDP/SAP Block
224.3.0.0 -> 231.255.255.255 Reserved
Source Specific Multicast
232.0.0.0/8 232.0.0.0 -> 224.255.255.255
(SSM)
233.0.0.0/8 233.0.0.0 -> 233.255.255.255 GLOP Block
234.0.0.0 -> 238.255.255.255 Reserved
239.0.0.0/8 239.0.0.0 -> 239.255.255.255 Administratively Scoped Block 2.27
 Multicast Addressing . . .
• Types
• One to Many
• Many to Many
• Selecting Multicast Address
• The selection of address depends on the type of application.
• Let us discuss some cases.

– Limited Group
 The administrator can use the AS number (x.y) and choose an
address between 239.x.y.0 and 239.x.y.255 (Administratively
Scoped Block) that is not used by any other group as the multicast
address for that particular group.

– Larger Group
» If the group is spread beyond an AS territory, the previous solution
does not work. The group needs to choose an address from the SSM
block (232.0.0.0/8). 2.28
Unicast Routing Algorithms

2.29
 RIP:
Routing Information Protocol

2.30
 RIP
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 Based on distance vector routing

 Bellman-Ford algorithm - calculating the routing tables
 Each router periodically shares its knowledge with its neighbors

 Sharing knowledge about the entire AS

 At the start, a router’s knowledge may be sparse

 Sharing only with neighbors

 Sends its knowledge only to neighbors

 Sharing at regular intervals

2.31
2.32
 RIP - Message Types
 RIP uses two type of messages

 Request and Response

 Request

 Sent by a router that has just come up or has some time-out

entries

 Can ask specific entries or all entries

2.33
 RIP - Message Types . . .

 Response: Solicited or Unsolicited

 A Solicited Response: Sent only in answer to a request

 Contain information about the destination specified in the

corresponding request

 An Unsolicited Response: Sent Periodically

 Every 30s / 120s no reply – assumes failed / after 240 sec –

removes routing table entry on particular router

 Contains information about the entire routing table

 Also called Update Packet

2.34
RIP - Message Types . . .
Example 1

 What is the periodic response sent by router R1?

 Assume R1 knows about the whole autonomous system.

2.35
RIP - Message Types . . .
Solution
 R1 can advertise three networks 144.2.7.0, 144.2.9.0, and
144.2.12.0.

 The periodic response (update packet) is shown in below

2.36
 RIP - Routing Table Updating
 Initializing the Routing Table
 When a router is added to a network

 It initializes a routing table for itself using its

configuration file
 The table contains only the directly attached networks
and the hop count (= 1)
 Updating the Routing Table
 Each routing table is updated upon receipt of RIP
Response message

2.37
Distance Vector Routing Tables
Initialization of Tables in Distance
Vector Routing
Updating in Distance Vector Routing
• In distance vector routing, each node shares its
routing table with its immediate neighbors
periodically and when there is a change.
 RIP - Routing table Updating . . .
 Add one hop to the hop count for each advertised destination
 Using the RIP updating message algorithm shown below
 Repeat the following steps for each advertised destination

If (destination not in the routing table)

Add the advertised information to the table
Else
If (next-hop field is the same)
Replace retry in the table with the advertised one
Else
If (advertised hop count smaller than one in the table)
Replace entry in the routing table
Return
2.41
RIP - Routing table Updating . . .

Fig. Example of Updating a Routing Table

2.42
 RIP - Message Format
 Command: 8-bit
 The type of message:
request (1) or response (2)
 Version: 8-bit
 Define the RIP version
 Family: 16-bit
 Define the family of the protocol used
 TCP/IP: value is 2
 Address: 14 bytes
 Defines the address of the destination network
 14 bytes for this field to be applicable to any protocol
 However, IP currently uses only 4 bytes, the rest are all 0s
 Distance: 32-bit
2.43
 The hop count from the advertising router to the destination network
 RIP -- Timers
 RIP uses three timers

 Periodic timer
 Expiration timer
 Garbage collection timer

 Periodic timer
 Control the advertising of regular update message
 Although protocol specifies 30s, the working model uses a random
number between 25 and 35s.
 Prevent routers update simultaneously

2.44
RIP – Timers . . .
 Expiration Timer

• Govern the validity of a route

• Set to 180s for a route when a router receives update

information for a route

• If a new update for the route is received, the timer is reset

• In normal operation, this occurs every 30 s

• If timer goes off, the route is considered expired

• The hop count of the route is set to 16, which means

destination is unreachable
2.45
RIP – Timers . . .
 Garbage Collection Timer
 When a route becomes invalid, the router does not immediately
purge that route from its table.

 It continues advertise the route with a metric value of 16.

 A garbage collection timer is set to 120 s for that route.

 When the count reaches zero, the route is purged from the table
and allow neighbors to become aware of the invalidity of a
route prior to purging.

2.46
RIP – Timers . . .
Example 2
 A routing table has 20 entries.
 It does not receive information about five routes for 200
seconds.
 How many timers are running at this time?

Solution
 The timers are listed below:

 Periodic timer: 1

 Expiration timer: 20 - 5 = 15

 Garbage collection timer: 5 2.47

 RIP - Encapsulation
 RIP message are encapsulated in UDP user datagram

 The well-known port assigned to RIP in UDP is port 520

RIP - Problems
 Slow Convergence

 Instability

2.48
 BGP:
Border Gateway Protocol

2.49
2.50
 BGP
 First appeared in 1989
 An inter-autonomous system routing protocol
 Based on the path vector routing method

 Each entry in the routing table contains

 The destination network

 The next router
 The path to reach the destination, usually defined as ordered list
of ASs

2.51
2.52
2.53
BGP

Network Next Router Path

NO1 R01 AS14, AS23, AS67
NO2 R05 AS22, AS67, AS05, AS89
NO3 RO6 AS67, AS89, AS09, AS34
NO4 R12 AS62, AS02, AS09
Example of a Path Vector Routing Table

2.54
2.55
BGP . . .
 Autonomous boundary routers advertise the reachability of
networks in their own AS to neighbor autonomous boundary
routers
 Each router receives a path vector message

 Verify the advertised path is in agreement with its policy

 If yes, update its routing table and modify the message
before sending it to the next router.
 Add its AS number to the path and replacing the next
router entry with its own identification
2.56
BGP . . .
Example 3
 R1 send a path vector message

 Advertise the reachability of N1

 R2 receives the message

 Update it routing table

 Send the message to R3 with adding its AS to the path and

inserting itself as the next router

2.57
2.58
BGP . . .
 Path vector routing can solve

 The instability of distance vector routing

 The creation of loops

 When a router receive a message, it checks to see if its AS is

in the path list or not
 If yes, looping is involved and the message is ignored

2.59
BGP . . .
 Policy Routing can be easily implemented through path vector
routing
 Once a router receives a message, it can check the path.
 If one of the AS listed in the path is against its policy,
 It can ignore that path and that destination
 Does not update its routing table with this path
 Does not send this message to its neighbors
 Thus, path vector routing are not based on the smallest hop count
or the minimum metric. Based on the policy imposed on the router
by the administrator
2.60
 BGP - Packet Format
 All BGP packets share the same common header
 Header format
 Marker: 16-bit
 Reserved for authentication
 Length: 2-bytes

 Define the length of the total message, including the

header
 Type: 1-byte
 Define the type of the packet
2.61
BGP - Packet Format . . .

Fig. BGP Packet Header

2.62
 BGP - Types of Messages
 BGP uses four different types of messages

2.63
2.64
BGP - Types of Messages . . .
1. Open Message

 Used to create a neighborhood relationship

 A router running BGP opens a TCP connection with a neighbor

and sends an open message

 If the neighbor accepts

 It responses with a keepalive message

 The relationship then has been established between the two

router

2.65
BGP - Types of Messages . . .

Fig. Open Message

2.66
BGP - Types of Messages . . .
2. Update Message

 Used by a router to

 Withdraw destination that have advertised previously

 Announce a route to a new destination

 Note, a router can withdraw several destinations in a single

update message

 However, it can only advertise one new destination in a

single update message

2.67
BGP - Types of Messages . . .

Fig. Update Message

2.68
BGP - Types of Messages . . .
3. Keepalive Message

 The BGP routers exchange keepalive message regularly

 Tell each other that they are alive

 Format

 Consist of only the common header

Fig. Keepalive Message

2.69
BGP - Types of Messages . . .
4. Notification Message

 Sent by a router
 Whenever an error condition is detected
 A router wants to close the connection

Fig. Notification Message 2.70

BGP - Sessions
o The exchange of routing information between two routers using BGP takes

place in a session.

o A session is a connection that is established between two BGP routers only

for the sake of exchanging routing information.

o To create a reliable environment, BGP uses the services of TCP.

o BGP sessions are sometimes referred to as semipermanent connections.

2.71
BGP – Sessions . . .
 BGP can have two types of sessions.
• External BGP (E-BGP)
 Used to exchange information between two speaker
nodes belonging to two different autonomous systems.
• Internal BGP (I-BGP)
 Used to exchange routing information between two
routers inside an autonomous system.

Fig. Internal and External BGP sessions 2.72

 BGP - Encapsulation
 BGP message are encapsulated in TCP segments using the well-
known port 179.

 No need for error control and flow control

 Thus, when a TCP connection is opened

 The exchange of update, keepalive, and notification message is

continued

 Until a notification message of type cease is sent

2.73
2.74