PALGRAVE STUDIES IN INDIAN MANAGEMENT

In association with Indian Academy of Management

Spirituality in
Management
Insights from India

Edited by 
Sushanta Kumar Mishra · Arup Varma
Palgrave Studies in Indian Management

Series Editors
Pawan Budhwar
Aston Business School
Aston University
Birmingham, UK

Arup Varma
Quinlan School of Business
Loyola University Chicago
Chicago, IL, USA
Palgrave Studies in Indian Management
In Association with the Indian Academy of Management
Series Editors: Pawan Budhwar, Aston University, UK, and Arup
Varma, Loyola University, US
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the Indian Academy of Management, publishes books which are designed
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interest in understanding the issues involved in management of organiza-
tions in India.
Since the economic reforms began in the early 1990’s, the Indian economy
has been growing at a steady pace, and the country has rightfully assumed its
place among the leading economies of the world. Indian organizations are
increasingly going global and setting up operations and/or acquiring organi-
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Titles include:
Naresh Khatri and Abhoy Ojha CRONY CAPITALISM IN INDIA
Establishing Robust Counteractive Institutional Frameworks

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Sushanta Kumar Mishra  •  Arup Varma
Editors

Spirituality in
Management
Insights from India
Editors
Sushanta Kumar Mishra Arup Varma
Indian Institute of Management Indore Quinlan School of Business
Indore, India Loyola University Chicago
Chicago, IL, USA

ISSN 2662-1126     ISSN 2662-1134 (electronic)

Palgrave Studies in Indian Management
ISBN 978-3-030-13983-4    ISBN 978-3-030-13984-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1

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 Contents

1 Introduction: Spirituality and Organization  1

Sushanta Kumar Mishra and Arup Varma

Part I The Evolution and Characteristics of Workplace

Spirituality    7

2 Spirituality in Management: Towards Management by

Higher Consciousness  9
Subhash Sharma

3 
AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition and
Elaboration Using Multiple Methods 19
Dharm Prakash Bhawuk

4 Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian

Context: A Study on Working Professionals 41
Jatin Pandey

v
vi Contents

5 Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or

Reality? 65
Ayatakshee Sarkar and Sasmita Palo

Part II Empirical Evidence of Workplace Spirituality   83

6 Finding Spirituality at Work Through Employee

Volunteerism 85
Devyani Mourya

7 Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The

Case of Faking News 97
Animesh Bahadur and Kunal Kamal Kumar

8 Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways

to Happiness117
Rajesh Premchandran and Pushpendra Priyadarshi

Part III Predictors of Workplace Spirituality  139

9 Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig Economy141

Arti Sharma and Himanshu Sharma

10 Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor of Employee

Engagement153
Rupa Rathee and Vandana Sharma

11 Rethinking Management Education: Integrating Spiritual

Values into Education as Envisaged by Swami
Vivekananda169
Moitreyee Paul
  Contents  vii

Part IV Critical Perspectives  177

12 Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and

Workplace Spirituality179
Vivek Khanna and Prabhjot Dutta Khanna

13 Workplace Spirituality: An Agenda for Future Research195

Arup Varma and Sushanta Kumar Mishra

Index201
 Notes on Contributors

Animesh  Bahadur is Professor and Chair of Human Resource

Management at TA Pai Management Institute, Manipal, India. He is
involved with consultancy for non-profit organizations and social enter-
prises since 1996, including the conduct of strategic reviews, social audit
and Management development programs for working executives. His
teaching interests are employee relations and labour laws, cross-cultural
management and organizational theory. His research interests include
diversity and affirmative action in the Indian private sector, marginaliza-
tion and workplace, CSR and sustainability.

Dharm Prakash Bhawuk  is Professor of Management and Culture and

Community Psychology at Shidler College of Business, University of
Hawaií at Manoa. His research interest is in indigenous psychology and
management (Indian psychology and management), intercultural train-
ing (also study abroad), culture theories (especially individualism and
collectivism), diversity in the global workplace (also intercultural sensi-
tivity, multiculturalism), culture and creativity, culture and positive psy-
chology (also spirituality, peace), culture and leadership (also Gandhi,
leader-member exchange), culture and ethics (also whistleblowing), cul-
ture and entrepreneurship (also microfinance, self-help groups, joint-­
liability groups and entrepreneurship in Nepal and India). His research

ix
x  Notes on Contributors

has appeared in various handbooks and edited volumes as well journals

such as the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, International Journal of Psychology, Cross-Cultural
Research, Applied Psychology: International Review, Psychology and
Developing Societies, Indian Psychological Review, Delhi Business Review,
Journal of Environmental Engineering and Policy, and Journal of
Management.

Prabhjot Dutta Khanna  holds a PhD from Guru Nanak Dev University,

Amritsar, India. Her research interests lie in the areas of corporate gover-
nance, resource-based view of the firm, corruption and critical manage-
ment studies. Her article ‘An Empirical Analysis of Resources in the
Indian Pharmaceutical Industry’ has appeared in the International Journal
of Emerging Markets. She has co-authored two chapters: ‘Perceptual
Apparatus and Corruption’ in Anti-Corruption as a Topic in Research and
the Classroom and ‘Building Integrity by Understanding the Nuances of
Corruption’ in Humanistic Values from an Academic Community
Perspective. She has presented her work in conferences such as the Annual
Meeting of the Academy of Management and the EGOS (European
Group of Organization Studies) Colloquium.

Vivek  Khanna is an assistant professor at the Vellore Institute of

Technology Business School (VITBS), Chennai, India. He is a fellow of
the Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Indore. His research interests
lie in the area of critical management studies, business ethics, workplace
spirituality, leadership, corruption and emotional intelligence. He has co-­
authored three chapters: ‘The Dark Side of Emotional Intelligence’ in
Corporate Social Irresponsibility: Individual Behaviors and Organizational
Practices, ‘Perceptual Apparatus and Corruption’ in Anti-Corruption as a
Topic in Research and the Classroom and ‘Building Integrity by
Understanding the Nuances of Corruption’ in Humanistic Values from an
Academic Community Perspective. He has presented papers at the Irish
Academy of Management Annual conference, the ISA World Congress of
Sociology, the EGOS Colloquium and at a workshop conducted by the
European Philosophical Society for the Study of Emotions (EPSSE) in
Israel.
   Notes on Contributors  xi

Kunal Kamal Kumar  is a faculty at IIM Udaipur. His research interests

are business ethics, cross-cultural studies, language issues in organizations
and individual and group behaviour in organizations. He has published
his work in top-tier journals including Human Resource Management. He
has also presented his work in many conferences including Academy of
Management Meeting and EGOS Colloquium.

Sushanta Kumar Mishra  is a professor in the OB & HRM area at IIM

Indore. He is the First Young Faculty Research Chair at IIM Indore.
His research is in the area of emotions in organizations, stress, well-
being and career issues. One of his papers has been adjudged as the Best
Accepted Paper in the Academy of Management Meeting held at
Chicago. He is the recipient of the Emerging Diversity Scholar Award
from National Centre for Institutional Diversity, University of
Michigan. He has received the Industrial Finance Corporation of India
(IFCI) Award at IIM Ahmadabad for the Best Thesis Proposal. He is in
the editorial board of Academy of Management Learning and Education
and in the review panel of many international journals including
Human Resource Management, British Journal of Management, Journal of
Business Ethics, Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations, Personnel
Review.

Devyani Mourya  an FPM (Fellow Program in Management) candidate

at IIM Indore is working on her dissertation project ‘Motives & Impact
of Volunteerism: An Empirical Study’. She holds a Masters in Human
Resource Management from Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur.
Her research interests include volunteerism, positive psychology and peo-
ple management. One of her studies received the Highly Commended
Runner-Up Award from Emerald/INDAM Indian Management Research
Fund for the year 2017.

Sasmita Palo  is Dean of School of Management and Labour Studies at

Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. Her areas of specialization
include diversity at workplace and topics related to organization
behaviour.
xii  Notes on Contributors

Jatin Pandey  is a fellow of IIM Ahmedabad. He has worked as Assistant

Professor of Organizational Behaviour and Human Resources at IIM
Kozhikode. He was awarded the Junior Research Fellowship and the Best
Thesis Award for his doctoral work by IIM Ahmedabad where he also
assisted in the seventh pay commission consultancy team.
His research interests focus on management, spirituality and religion,
emotions at workplace, job performance, HR for healthcare, manage-
ment for rural and difficult geographies. His articles have appeared in
journals such as Business and Society, Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,
Health Policy and Planning, International Journal of Knowledge
Management, International Journal of Work Organisation and Emotions to
name a few. He has published two books and is also the co-guest editor
of special issues in International Journal of Knowledge Management and
Australasian Journal of Information Systems.

Moitreyee Paul  is a PhD Scholar at Xavier School of Human Resources

Management, Xavier University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. She was
an assistant professor at K. L. Deemed to be University Business School,
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh. She is pursuing her research in the area of
‘Workplace Spirituality’ and her research papers have been cited in
reputed journals like Journal of Religion & Health, Environment,
Development & Sustainability, Information Systems Journal to name a few.

Rajesh Premchandran  is an engineer by training and has completed his

doctoral research at the IIM Lucknow. He is a senior technology profes-
sional with a telecom major. He has over 18 years of industry experience
in people development, large-scale transformation management and
driving strategic initiatives across financial services, manufacturing and
telecom. He has published several papers on employee well-being and
continues to research work-life balance and positive psychology.

Pushpendra  Priyadarshi is Associate Professor of Human Resource

Management at IIM Lucknow. Work engagement, coaching and mentor-
ing, positive psychology and work-life interface are his current research
areas. Besides practice-based courses on coaching and mentoring, he also
teaches organizational structure and design, organizational behaviour
and human resource management.
   Notes on Contributors  xiii

Rupa Rathee  is a faculty at the Department of Management studies in

the Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology
Murthal, Sonipat. She was awarded with the Best Teacher Award, insti-
tuted by the Sonepat Hindu Educational and Charitable Society for her
outstanding performance.

Ayatakshee Sarkar  is a research scholar at the School of Management

and Labour Studies in Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai.

Arti  Sharma  is a doctoral student in Organizational Behaviour and

Human Resource Management at IIM Indore. She has a diverse experi-
ence in both the industry and the academia. Her research interests include
emotions, group emotions, spirituality and group dynamics. She has
published her work as research papers, case studies and edited books.

Himanshu  Sharma is a senior IT consultant based at Melbourne,

Australia. He has over 12 years of experience with a demonstrable track
record of successful project deliveries. He has worked with a wide range
of technologies, delivery models, budgets with customers across various
industries including finance, e-commerce, education, governance and
insurance to name a few. He has been instrumental in learning and
implementing various change management methods to reduce project
failure risks. Apart from IT domain, his research interests lie in spiritual-
ity, relationship dynamics in human behaviour.

Subhash Sharma  is a leading Indian management thinker and author of

well-known creative and thought-provoking books such as Creation from
Shunya, Management in New Age: Western Windows Eastern Door,
Quantum Rope: Science, Mysticism & Management, New Mantras in
Corporate Corridors, New Earth Sastra and Wisdom & Consciousness from
the East: Life, Living & Leadership (French translation, Leadership Par La
Sagesse & La Conscience). His academic contributions have been acknowl-
edged as ‘creative and original’ with ‘quite a few exciting, non-traditional
and revolutionary points of view’ (Business Standard). He is the founding
member of WISDOM (Women’s Institute for Studies in Development
Oriented Management), Banasthali University, Banasthali, the founding
director of Indian Institute of Plantation Management, Bangalore, and
xiv  Notes on Contributors

the director of Indus Business Academy (IBA), Bangalore. He is a recipi-

ent of excellence, achievement and leadership awards for his significant
contributions to management and social thought.

Vandana Sharma  is a faculty at the Department of Management studies

in the Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology
Murthal, Sonipat. Her research interests are employee engagement, work-
life balance, organizational development and emotional intelligence.

Arup  Varma is a professor at Quinlan School of Business, Loyola

University Chicago, Chicago. He has published over 50 articles in lead-
ing refereed journals such as the Academy of Management Journal,
Personnel Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, and Human Resource
Management. He has also presented over 90 refereed research papers at
leading international conferences and authored 35 book chapters. His
research focuses on expatriate categorization and adjustment issues and is
widely cited. He has been recognized by his colleagues and students with
multiple awards for teaching, research and service.
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Evolution of management thought (Source: Sharma 2013a, b) 11

Fig. 2.2 Evolution of HOPE.  Indian thinkers have been asking the
HOPE question since ancient times 11
Fig. 2.3 SPIRIT and spirituality defined (Source: Sharma 2010) 12
Fig. 2.4 OSHA-OSHE model of spirituality in management (Sharma
1996, 1999, 2007) 13
Fig. 2.5 Historical perspective of changes in human society 14
Fig. 2.6 Model II (ISRON) 16
Fig. 2.7 Old and new paradigm of CEO 17
Fig. 3.1 A nomological network of adhyAtma and brahman, adhib-
huta, adhidaiva, adhiyajJa, and karma26
Fig. 4.1 Terminal states 51
Fig. 4.2 Instrumental practices 56
Fig. 8.1 Proposed model along with hypothesis (affect includes both
positive and negative components, Fam Sat  =  Family
Satisfaction)123
Fig. 10.1 Workplace spirituality and employee engagement 160

xv
 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Sample characteristics 44

Table 8.1 Descriptive statistics, correlations and reliabilities 126
Table 8.2 Discriminant validity of the constructs of interest 127
Table 10.1 Definition of workplace spirituality from varied dimensions 156
Table 10.2 Definitions of employee engagement 158
Table 10.3 Dimensions of meaningful work 159

xvii
 1
Introduction: Spirituality
and Organization
Sushanta Kumar Mishra and Arup Varma

Spirituality is increasingly accepted as an emerging area in management

literature (Chawla and Guda 2003). Spirituality in workplace was found
to be positively related to job satisfaction (Gupta et al. 2014), unit-level
performance (Fry et al. 2011), and organization performance (Fry and
Matherly 2006). India presents the perfect context to examine the rela-
tionship between spirituality and the workplace, given its history as the
land of spiritual pursuits through different religions. Indeed, many of the
world’s major religions originated/spread from India, including Hinduism,
Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism. In addition, the Indian culture and
people have always welcomed other religious practices—for example,
Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism found a home in India centuries ago.
The chapters provide exciting readings on spirituality in management.

S. K. Mishra (*)
Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indore, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Varma
Quinlan School of Business, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 1

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_1
2  S. K. Mishra and A. Varma

Spirituality is relatively a new concept in the management domain.

Chapter 2 puts spirituality in the context of management. It describes the
evolution of 100 years of management thought into four stages of devel-
opment: (1) scientific management, (2) human dimension in manage-
ment, (3) environmental sensitivity, good governance, and ethics in
management, and (4) spirituality in management. The chapter further
argues that the four stages of evolution and development of management
thought broadly correspond to the evolution of human consciousness
from ‘matter’ to ‘heart-mind’ and ‘spiritual consciousness’ corresponding
to the body-heart-spirit (BHS) perspective of human beings.
Chapter 3 derives the essential characteristics of spirituality (Indian
concept of adhyAtma) from the bhagavadgItA. The bhagavadgItA is a spir-
itual treatise revered in India. It presents an evidence of how spirituality
(adhyAtma) translates in the daily behaviour of an individual. The chap-
ter provides a synthesis of both the micro-world and the life-world in
order to define and elaborate the construct of adhyAtma.
Chapter 4 argues that the sociocultural and the religious prism of every
society colours a concept into its realities. Being a culturally sensitive
construct, spirituality has had multiple interpretations. Based on in-­
depth interviews of 23 working professionals, this chapter tries to con-
struct spirituality as perceived by the working professionals of India. It
further establishes a close link between religiosity and spirituality, which
is in contrast with those who propose them to be very distinct concepts.
Chapter 5 argues that rather than managing conflict, organizations
should strive to promote nonviolence. Nonviolence behaviour focuses on
positive human values and it believes that the triggers of violence can
only be broken by nonviolence interventions. AhiMsA or nonviolence is
a construct derived from Indian wisdom traditions normally associated
with Gandhi’s ‘political weapon’ to free India from the colonial suprem-
acy. The chapter argues that organizations high on spiritual climate can
relate to nonviolence behaviour and thus lead to outcomes such as com-
passion, empathy, and forgiveness at the workplace.
As work continues to become more demanding, “anxiety and stress”
are increasingly becoming common among the workforce. Indeed,
studies have noted that in addition to rising stress levels among work-
ers, over half of the global workforce is close to burnout (see Fernandez
   Introduction: Spirituality and Organization  3

2016). In fact, sustaining the workforce productive is a major challenge

for many organizations. In this connection, scholars have identified
numerous factors that can help in reducing the negative consequences
of a demanding workplace. As an example, empirical studies have pro-
vided support for the role of mindfulness in decreasing stress and
increasing well-being. Relatedly, it has been argued that, as “spiritual
elements enhance the effectiveness of mindfulness”, there is a case to be
made for looking at spirituality in organizations (Feuille and Pargament
2015, 1092). Given the importance of spirituality in management,
there is a need to understand how to fulfil the spiritual need of the
workforce.
Chapter 6 agrees that spirituality at the workplace has beneficial effects
for both the employees and the organization. As a result, there are
increased initiatives by the organizations aimed towards the spiritual ful-
filment of their employees. Scholars have predominantly looked at the
internal mechanisms and neglected the external mechanisms that might
fulfil the spiritual need of employees. Based on interviews of the volun-
teers, the chapter argues that volunteerism provides the external mecha-
nism for employees’ spiritual fulfilment. The chapter examines two
perspectives of employee volunteerism: namely, compensatory and spill-
over effects in relation to workplace spirituality.
Chapter 7 challenges the scholars citing that studies on spirituality
have predominantly been discussed in the context of large organizations
and paid limited attention on its manifestations in the emerging forms of
organizations. Based on an in-depth interview of the leader in an organi-
zation named Faking News, a pioneering venture in online satirical news
content in India, the chapter elaborates how the elements of spirituality
helped the venture.
Chapter 8 brings the concept of family into the discussion, citing its
importance in India. It provides instances to support this assertion. For
example, marriage in India is not just between two individuals; rather it
is between two families. The chapter investigates the impact of work-­
family enrichment on both forms of well-being: hedonia and eudai-
monia. Based on an empirical study among 504 married individuals
having at least one child, the chapter argues in favour of work-family
enrichment.
4  S. K. Mishra and A. Varma

Given the increasing interest in the role of spirituality in the work-

place, scholars have recently begun examining spirituality in diverse set-
tings, from banking (Iqbal and Hassan 2016) to healthcare (Bhat and
Yadavannavar 2016). In this connection, Sandelands (2003, 170) has
argued that “Without God … management theory is nonsense”. In fact,
spirituality is argued to be important for management and management
education (Neal 1997).
Chapter 9 highlights the emergence of ‘gig workforce’, that is, the on-­
demand workforce or contractual employees. Given the absence of any
formal contract and its virtual nature, the chapter argues the challenges
in managing gig workforce compared to the traditional workforce. The
authors bring in the concept of ‘spiritual intelligence’ to argue that it will
help integrating by bringing together the goals of the gig workers and the
organization. The chapter concludes with a conceptual understanding of
spirituality to advance the discussion on spiritual intelligence.
Chapter 10 of the book provides a review of the literature on work-
place spirituality and investigates its effect on employee engagement. In
addition to the direct effect, the chapter argues that workplace spirituality
affects work engagement indirectly through meaningful work.
Chapter 11 turns the attention from management to management
education. Indian management education is realigning itself with global
trends, striving for academic excellence. The chapter is based on the
teachings of Swami Vivekananda, a spiritual leader, who believed that
education is the way by which lack of knowledge is replaced by intelli-
gence and spiritual wisdom. Based on his work, the chapter argues in
favour of spiritualism to instil among the students the sense of intercon-
nectedness, empathy, and compassion.
In the drive to improve their bottom line, organizations run the risk of
trivializing spirituality. Carrette and King (2005) argued how religion has
silently taken over spirituality. They argued that “‘spirituality’ has become
a new cultural addiction” (p. 1) and there is “commodification, packag-
ing and selling of one’s soul” in the market place (p. 124). Further they
argued that ‘spirituality’ has become the brand name for selling the assets
of religion. Spirituality has been conceptualized and practised in such a
narrow way that it serves organizational interests and not the individual
interests. Thus, there is a need to look at spirituality through a critical
   Introduction: Spirituality and Organization  5

lens. In fact, workplace spirituality seems an oxymoron. Chapter 12 offers

some critical perspectives on the practices of corporate mindfulness and
workplace spirituality. It argues that the concept of mindfulness as pro-
jected in the modern workplace is at odds with its original conceptualiza-
tion. The chapter goes on to argue that spirituality at the workplace is
being used just as a ‘technique’ for improving the bottom line of the
organizations without any concern for the spiritual well-­being of the
employees. The concluding section argues that the continued instrumen-
tal use of the practices of mindfulness and spirituality would rob human-
ity of essential wisdom from ancient traditions.
Chapter 13 brings forward the debate on spirituality versus organiza-
tions. On the one hand it argues in favour of bringing the self to the
work, while on the other it is sceptic about the exploitation of ‘spiritual-
ity’ in the workplace. It concludes with the directions for future research.
It is argued that an understanding of the context helps in developing
appropriate management systems for the success of the organizations
(Budhwar and Varma 2011). However, the societal and cultural context
is so varied in India that it is difficult to define any specific management
system (Varma et al. 2005). Given that spirituality is a common thread
across the religious practices in India, it has the potential to provide the
right insights to practitioners towards a better understanding of the con-
text. We hope the chapters will contribute in appreciating the spiritual
aspect of management.

References
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Knowledge, Attitude and Practices amongst Medical Professionals in a
Tertiary Care Hospital. International Journal of Community Medicine and
Public Health 3 (11): 3212–3215.
Budhwar, P., and A.  Varma. 2011. Introduction: The Business Context. In
Doing Business in India, ed. P. Budhwar and A. Varma. London: Routledge.
Carrette, J., and R.  King. 2005. Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of
Religion. London: Routledge.
6  S. K. Mishra and A. Varma

Chawla, V., and S.  Guda. 2003. Workplace Spirituality as a Precursor to

Relationship-Oriented Selling Characteristics. Journal of Business Ethics 115:
63–73.
Fernandez, R. 2016. Help Your Team Manage Stress, Anxiety, and Burnout.
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 Part I
The Evolution and Characteristics of
Workplace Spirituality
 2
Spirituality in Management: Towards
Management by Higher Consciousness
Subhash Sharma

Introduction
In its journey over the last 100 years, management thought has moved
from ‘science in management’ to ‘spirituality in management’. The jour-
ney made a shift from Taylor to transcendence. The journey can be clas-
sified into four evolutionary stages: scientific management (from 1900 to
the 1950s), human side of management (from the 1960s to the 1990s),
ethics and values in management (1990s onwards) and spirituality in
management (2000 onwards). This transition in management thought
can also be attributed to environmental factors: For example, manage-
ment thought evolved in the context of a stable environment and the
factory context. Over the years the environment has become more com-
plex and as a result new concerns have emerged.

This chapter is based on the author’s earlier writings presented in the references.

S. Sharma (*)
Indus Business Academy, Bangalore, Bengaluru, India

© The Author(s) 2019 9

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_2
10  S. Sharma

Evolution of Management Thought

The field of management has borrowed from different disciplines in each
stage of its evolution. During the scientific era, the major concerns were
efficiency and productivity; as a result, both the engineering and the eco-
nomics disciplines played a dominant role. Consequently, the techniques
and the associated tools were primarily focused on task accomplishment
and production efficiency. In the subsequent period, that is, during the
human side of management, concern for people became important and
tools and techniques were borrowed from the discipline of psychology,
such as management by objective (MBO), the grid by Blake and Mouton
and leadership concepts such as transactional and transformational lead-
ership. The concern for good governance is gaining ground in manage-
ment and as a result the discipline of philosophy has entered the field of
management as it is the foundation for ethics and values. However, the
phase of ethics and values is yet to enter fully into the field of manage-
ment. In this phase, concepts such as principle-centred leadership gained
importance. With the growing scope of the field of management, new
issues such as environmental concerns, sustainability and well-being have
gained importance, and, consequently, the idea of spirituality in manage-
ment has gained acceptance. As a result, ideas from the field of spiritual-
ity/consciousness studies have started impacting management thought.
Newer concepts such as spiritual leadership and triple bottom line have
occupied their space in discussions and dialogues of management
thought. The arrival of ‘consciousness revolution’ has facilitated the idea
of spirituality in management. It may be indicated that many Indian
spiritual movements with their origin in the 1960s have been an impor-
tant source of ‘consciousness revolution’, which the world is witnessing in
many forms. They have also contributed to the global popularity of yoga
and meditation in general and to their relevance for management.
Figure 2.1 provides the summary of the above discussions.
The tools and techniques were developed in different stages of manage-
ment thought. In the current period, management thought with its four
walls provides a holistic vision of the concept of management and leader-
ship. The essence of the above discussion can also be explained in terms
of the flow of ideas reflecting American, Japanese and Indian manage-
ment approaches (Fig. 2.2).
   Spirituality in Management: Towards Management by Higher…  11

Scientific Human Side in Ethics & Values in Spirituality in

Management Management Management Management
Focus on Technical side Focus on Human side Focus on Ethical side Focus on Spiritual side
Concern for Productivity and Concern for people dimension Concern for Good Governance Concern for Environment,
Cost Illustrative tools: Blake and Illustrative tools: Management Sustainability and Well-being
Illustrative tools: Time and Mount Grid; Transformational by higher Objective, Principles Illustrative tools: Higher order
Motion study. Leadership. Centered Leadership. purpose of existence; Triple
Influencing Discipline(s): Influencing Discipline: Influencing Discipline: bottom line; Wisdom leadership.
Engineering and Economics Psychology Philosophy Influencing Discipline(s):
Spirituality, Consciousness
Studies

Fig. 2.1  Evolution of management thought (Source: Sharma 2013a, b)

MBHO
MBO Management by Higher Objectives HOPE*
(e.g. super-ordinate goals in Japanese management)

Fig. 2.2  Evolution of HOPE. Indian thinkers have been asking the HOPE question
since ancient times

Among the Indian thinkers and scholars of management, Professors

Chakraborty, Athreya, Gupta and others have explored the theme of spir-
ituality in management. Chakraborty (1991, 1995) explores spirituality
in management through the Vedantic route and through the idea of man-
agement by values. Athreya (2002) pursues spirituality in management
through the route of Indian dimension in management and Gupta (1991)
through the need to move beyond the American and Japanese models.

Defining Spirituality
Spirituality has been defined in various ways by different scholars.
However, de-codification of the word SPIRIT provides a general defini-
tion. The word ‘SPIRIT’ has three components, that is, SP-IR-IT, in
which SP stands for sense pleasures, IR for intuition and reason, and IT
for infinity and transcendence. These three components capture the dif-
ferent dimensions of the consciousness of being. SP represents the
physical, IR the psychological and IT the spiritual dimension of
SPIRIT. These three components of SPIRIT capture the essence of spir-
ituality. This definition is also in consonance with the body, mind soul
model of human beings. Sense perception (pleasure-pain) experienced
through the body is moderated by mind (intuition and reason). Mind
12  S. Sharma

Components of SPIRIT/
Expressions Equivalent Interpretations
Spirituality
SP: Sense Pleasures Bliss and Peace Body Gross (Sthoola) Mass

IR: Intuition and Reason Joy of Creativity Mind Subtle (Sukshma) Energy

IT: Infinity and Transcendence Pleasure-Pain Soul Supra-subtle (Karan) Consciousness

Fig. 2.3  SPIRIT and spirituality defined (Source: Sharma 2010)

in turn is moderated by soul (infinity and transcendence). These three

levels of existence are also referred to as matter, mind and consciousness
representing gross (sthoola), subtle (sukshma) and supra-subtle (karan)
levels. These three levels of human existence are also represented by
mass (m), energy (e) and consciousness (c).
Figure 2.3 provides the key aspects of the definition of SPIRIT.

 ypology of Energies and OSHA-OSHE Model

T
of Human Beings
The scriptures in the Hindu religion consider three types of energies in
nature: violent, vibrant and silent. Human beings experience all these
three types of energies in varying degrees within the course of a day,
including in their workplaces.
The ‘OSHA-OSHE’ model explains the use of these energies by human
beings in their workplace or in their day-to-day existence (Sharma 1996,
1999, 2007). According to the OSHA model, there are four levels of
existence—Oneness (O), Spiritual (S), Humanistic (H) and Aggression/
Aggressiveness (A)—which are manifested in the workplace. The OSHE
model, on the other hand, represents the OSHA model with a replace-
ment of the aggressiveness dimension by the existential dimension. When
applied to the workplace context, this model raises the following ques-
tion: How can negative energy be reduced at the workplace? Figure 2.4
presents the OSHA-OSHE model of spirituality in management in a
diagrammatic form. The proposed model provides the logic to reduce
negative energy and enhance positive energy and synergy not only at the
workplace but also in one’s life. The model proposes that the energy rep-
resented at the oneness (O) and the spiritual (S) level provides the
   Spirituality in Management: Towards Management by Higher…  13

O O

S S

H H

A E

Fig. 2.4  OSHA-OSHE model of spirituality in management (Sharma 1996, 1999,

2007)

resources to handle the negative energies in the workplace. The OSHA-­

OSHE model can be explained through the ‘Shiva-Shakti’ concept from
the Indian spiritual tradition and the ‘Yin-Yang’ concept from the
Chinese thought. As a model it provides the resources at different levels
(oneness and spirituality) on which the managers and leaders may focus
their attention to create positive energy in their organizations.

 eligion, Science, Spirituality: Historical

R
Perspective
In human history, we observe three important movements: religion, sci-
ence and spirituality. God, nature and inner self are the central theme of
these three paradigms of human thinking. These are reflected in terms of
church/organized religion, research and inner-search approaches to view-
ing reality. Church is represented by Commandments and Codes
approach to organize social life. Science brought in cause and effect
approach to view reality. Inner-search approach is based on the idea of
consciousness and is the basic foundation of spirituality. Thus, we observe
a shift as well as an evolution from ‘organized religion’ to science to spiri-
tuality that is also reflected in many New Age and New Era spiritual
movements. Most Indian spiritual movements such as Ramakrishna
Mission, Brahmakumaries, Gayatri Parivar, Art of Living and so on are
rooted in the idea of inner search; hence their emphasis on yoga, medita-
tion and spirituality. This historical perspective of paradigm shifts in
human society is presented in Fig. 2.5.
14  S. Sharma

Religion Science Spirituality

Church Research Inner-search

Commandments & Codes Cause and effect Consciousness

Organized
Spirituality
Religion’

Fig. 2.5  Historical perspective of changes in human society

It may be indicated that the ‘Church’ (organized religion) is trying to

cope with these challenges to retain its relevance and in many cases is
undergoing an ‘adaptive transformation’ due to questions and challenges
created by science and spirituality/inner-search movements/conscious-
ness revolution. Earlier the challenge was by science, now it is by both
science and spirituality. In fact, in Western secularized societies, science
and spirituality (inner-search movements) have acquired more promi-
nence and dominance compared to ‘organized religion’.
Giri (2010) suggests the need for ‘practical spirituality’. He states that
“Practical Spirituality involves a transformation of both science and reli-
gion. In the field of religion practical spirituality emerges in varieties of
transformative movements and seeking of self, culture and society which
interrogate existing structures of domination and strive for a new mode
of self-realization, God realization and world realization”. Thus, the
future movement of religion, science and spirituality could be towards
‘practical spirituality’.

Three Models of Spirituality/Inner Search

In this section we provide the following three models of inner search/
spirituality:

I. IBA Model
II. ISRON
III. JHS

Brief discussions on these models are provided below.

   Spirituality in Management: Towards Management by Higher…  15

Model I: IBA (Inner Being-Anchor) Model

When an individual is in crisis, he/she connects his/her Inner Being (IB)

to an Anchor (A) to tap the cosmic energy. The anchors differ across cul-
tures, thus, individuals differ in their anchors that connect to the cosmic
energy. I do a simple exercise with my participants to find out the nature
of the anchor that people generally rely upon. In fact, the nature provides
us many anchors for establishing and experiencing cosmic connectivity
and thereby enabling the flow of cosmic energy.

 odel II: ISRON (Inner Search for Realization

M
of Oneness-Nirvana)

To understand the concept of ISRON, we need to understand nine levels

of evolution of consciousness in consonance with BHS (body-heart-­
spirit) model: levels 1, 2 and 3 represent body consciousness; levels 4, 5
and 6 represent heart consciousness; and levels 7, 8 and 9 represent spiri-
tual consciousness.
Body consciousness: Numbers 1, 2, 3 capture the idea of body conscious-
ness at three levels. The three levels of body consciousness represent the
three aspects of matter, namely, solid, liquid (representing flow) and gas
(moving upwards), with their respective properties. In the context of
management, ‘body consciousness’ implies a focus on physical and tan-
gible aspects in the process of management.
Heart consciousness: Numbers 4, 5, 6 stand for physical heart, psychic
heart and sacred heart. In this framework, mind (‘head & heart’) is con-
sidered a part of a larger concept called ‘heart’.
Spiritual consciousness: Number 7 represents the seventh heaven, 8 rep-
resents the eighth chakra and 9 represents the ninth cloud experiences of
consciousness. The self (originating from shunya represented by 0)
evolves through these nine levels of consciousness, and it establishes con-
nectivity with the ‘realm of infinity’ represented by number 10. Thus, the
model of self-evolution from ‘Shunya Point’ is represented by 0 to
‘Nirvana Point’ represented by number 10.
At levels 7, 8, 9 an individual moves in the direction of a realization of
infinity and divinity in oneself. This realization takes us towards the realm
16  S. Sharma

0 1, 2, 3 4, 5, 6 7, 8, 9 10

Shunya Body (B) Heart (H) Spirit (S) Harmony (H)

(Gross) (Subtle) (Supra-subtle)

Fig. 2.6  Model II (ISRON)

of infinity (ROI) represented by number 10 in Fig. 2.6. As leaders move

towards higher levels of consciousness, their creativity and imagination
finds new expression in the form of new ideas, new perspectives and
new visions.

Model III: JHS (Joining of Heart and Spirit) Model

JHS stands for Joining of Heart and Spirit. When heart and spirit get
connected there is positive energy and synergy (spiritual energy). Once
this happens, divisions of caste, class, community, nations and so on dis-
appear and a ‘unified vision’ emerges. Arriving at a unified vision is the
essence of spirituality. For such a vision, self should evolve to higher levels
of consciousness. When a leader operates from a higher level of conscious-
ness, his/her ‘circle of consciousness’ expands and he/she takes decisions
based on a ‘unified vision’ rather than a ‘division-divided vision’ approach.
When practised, these three models of spirituality lead to positive
energy and synergy at the workplace and in organizations, making the
workplace as pleasant a place to work in as possible. Employees feel
engaged, motivated and happy. This is the essence of the idea of spiritual-
ity in management.

Implications for Management and Leadership

From Old Paradigm of CEO to New Paradigm of CEO

The evolution of management thought from management by objective

(MBO) to management by higher objectives (MBHO) to higher order
purpose of existence (HOPE) implies a shift in consciousness. It suggests
   Spirituality in Management: Towards Management by Higher…  17

Old Paradigm of CEO New Paradigm of CEO

C: Competition C: Creative

E: Efficiency E: Enlightened

O: Objectives O: Organic relationships

Fig. 2.7  Old and new paradigm of CEO

a move towards management by higher consciousness (MBHC) based on

three interconnected models: IBA (inner being & anchor),
ISRON and JHS.
This implies the need for a shift from the old paradigm based on com-
petition, efficiency, objectives (CEO) to the new paradigm based on cre-
ative, enlightened, organic relationship (CEO). This shift is presented
in Fig. 2.7.
The old paradigm of CEO was based on 1, 2 and 3 levels of con-
sciousness. In contrast, the new paradigm is based on higher levels of
consciousness represented by 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 levels of consciousness.
The new paradigm implies that through creativity and imagination, a
CEO can ‘jump over the competition’ as demonstrated by Steve Jobs
and others.
‘Science in management’ provided foundations for the old CEO con-
cept with its roots in competition, efficiency and objectives. Now, ‘spiri-
tuality in management’ is leading us towards a new foundation for the
new CEO with its roots in a creative, enlightened and organic perspective
of higher consciousness.

References
Athreya, M.B. 2002. Indian Dimension of Management. In Indian Management
for Nation Building: New Ideas for New Millennium, ed. S. Siddharth, 61–69.
Banasthali: Banasthali Vidyapith.
18  S. Sharma

Chakraborty, S.K. 1991. Management by Values. New Delhi: Oxford

University Press.
———. 1995. Ethics in Management: Vedantic Perspectives. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Giri, Ananta. 2010. The Calling of Practical Spirituality. IBA Journal of
Management & Leadership 1 (2): 7–17.
Gupta, Rajen. 1991. Employees and Organizations in India: Need to Move
beyond American and Japanese Models. Economic and Political Weekly 26:
M68–M76.
Sharma, Subhash. 1996/2006. Management in New Age: Western Windows
Eastern Doors. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
———. 1999. Quantum Rope: Science, Mysticism and Management. New Delhi:
New Age International Publishers.
———. 2007. New Mantras in Corporate Corridors: From Ancient Roots to Global
Routes. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.
———. 2010. Divinity Quotient (DQ) and OSHE Philosophy of Management
and Leadership. IBA Journal of Management and Leadership 2 (1): 30–33.
———. 2013a. Three Paradigms in Management: American, Japanese and
Indian. International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior 16
(1): 30–41.
———. 2013b. ‘Atmo-Sphere’ Theory for Management and Leadership:
Exploring ‘Atmo-Sphere’ Through ISRON.  In Perspectives in Indian
Psychology, ed. A.  Choudry and B.K.  Vinaychandra, 165–176. Bangalore:
Jain University Press.
 3
AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct
Definition and Elaboration Using
Multiple Methods
Dharm Prakash Bhawuk

I am grateful to Dr vijayan munusAmI and Professor pawan budhwAr for

their insightful comments that helped me improve the chapter. Different parts
of this chapter were presented at NAoP conference (2017) at IIT Kharagpur,
Indian Academy of Management (INDAM) conference (2017) at IIM
indore, and Academy of Management (AoM) conference in Chicago in 2018.

Introduction
The role of meditation in reducing stress has been studied since the
1950s. However, spirituality has emerged in management literature only
since the 1990s (Dale 1991; Dehler and Welsh 1994; Holland 1989; Lee

Harvard-Kyoto protocol for transliteration for devanagarI is used for all saMskRta and hindI
words and names, and the first letters of names are not capitalized. All non-English words are
italicized.
अ a आ A इ i ई I उ u ऊ U ए e ऐ ai ओ o औ au ऋṛ R ॠṝ RR ऌ lR ॡ lRR अं M अः H क ka ख kha ग
ga घ kha ङ Ga च ca छ cha ज ja झ jha ञ Ja ट Ta ठ Tha ड Da ढ Dha ण Na त ta थ tha द da ध dha न
na प pa फ pha ब ba भ bha म ma य ya र ra ल la व va श za ष Sa स sa ह ha क्ष kSa त्र tra ज्ञ jJa श्र
zra

D. P. Bhawuk (*)
Shidler College of Business, University of Hawaií, Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 19

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_3
20  D. P. Bhawuk

1991; Mitroff et al. 1999), and little research is devoted to the develop-
ment of indigenous constructs of spirituality. Bhawuk (2019a, b)
attempted to bridge this gap in the literature by developing the construct
of adhyAtma from the bhagavadgItA and showed how it permeates the
daily life of people in India. In this chapter, an attempt is made to system-
atically develop and elaborate the construct of adhyAtma using multi-
ple methods.
Bhawuk (2017) developed the construct of lajjA, and presented a
methodology for systematically developing indigenous constructs.
Building on the proposal by Hwang (2007) that indigenous theories can
be developed by synthesizing ideas from the life-world and micro-world,
Bhawuk (2019a) posited that Indian philosophical texts like the bhaga-
vadgItA and upaniSads constitute micro-worlds, whereas the biographical
stories of saints and dialogues of knowledge seekers with them constitute
knowledge in the life-world, and utilized both in developing a spirituality-­
based theory of creativity. Life-world refers to knowledge created by peo-
ple to solve problems of daily life, and wisdom is the highest form of
coded knowledge in the life-world. On the other hand, micro-world
refers to theories developed by researchers that are used to explain phe-
nomena or to solve problems in the life-world, and accumulation of a
body of knowledge leads to the creation of specific or discipline-based
micro-worlds that are necessarily academic in nature.
In this chapter, an attempt is made to employ both the approaches
presented by Bhawuk (2017, 2019a) to synthesize micro-world and life-­
world to present a thick description (Geertz 1973) of the construct of
adhyAtma or spirituality. First, a lexical analysis is performed on the dic-
tionary meaning of the word. The synonyms and antonyms of the word
are also examined. Following this, the meaning of adhyAtma is derived
from a scriptural text, the bhagavadgItA, and how its meaning is closely
related to other constructs like brahman, adhibhUta, adhidaiva, ­adhiyajJa,
and karma is elaborated upon. Then, ideas relevant to the practice of
adhyAtma are examined in another scriptural text, pAtaJjalayogasUtra.
This allows an enrichment of the construct of adhyAtma. Finally, how
adhyAtma translates in the daily behaviour of an exemplar spiritual prac-
titioner is examined. This is done by presenting examples from the life of
pramukh swAmIjI, past president (May 21, 1950, to August 13, 2016) of
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  21

BAPS. Thus, a synthesis of micro-world (bhagavadgItA and pAtaJjalayo-

gasUtra) and life-world (pramukh swAmIjI) is employed in defining and
elaborating the construct of adhyAtma (see Bhawuk 2019a, for an elabo-
ration of this approach). The chapter ends with a discussion of the impli-
cations of adhyAtma for the extant Western theories and global
psychology.

AdhyAtma: A Lexical Analysis

Most Indian and Nepali bilinguals translate spirituality as adhyAtma and
spiritual as adhyAtmika or dhArmika in common parlance. AdhyAtmika is
also contrasted with sAMsArika, which refers to a person who is chasing
material goods and success, and so saMsArika may be considered the ant-
onym of adhyAtmika. Thus, adhyAtma refers to a reflective internal life
with an inward focus, whereas saMsArika refers to people who are follow-
ing the external life or a life that is preoccupied with sense organs and
material things. This difference between the external and internal focused
lives is captured by the wise saints of India, which shows convergence in
the understanding between lay people and exemplar practitioners of
adhyAtma that the saints are.
ramaNa maharsI noted that “It is only rarely that a man becomes
introverted. The intellect delights in investigating the past and the future
but does not look to the present” (ramaNa maharSI, March 3, 1939).
Similarly, swAmi Chinmayanand noted that “When I slip outside, I fall;
when I slip inside, I rise.” Finally, nisargadatta mahArAja noted that when
on an internal journey we are not grasping and holding or coveting and
acquiring—“The jJAni is not grasping and holding” (nisargadatta 1973,
506). When one is on the internal journey, his or her maturity is reflected
in not being selfish—“Love is not selective, desire is selective. In love
there are no strangers. When the center of selfishness is no longer, all
desires for pleasure and fear of pain cease; one is no longer interested in
being happy; beyond happiness there is pure intensity, inexhaustible
energy, the ecstasy of giving from a perennial source” (nisargadatta 1973,
489). The advanced pursuant of spirituality naturally feels “I am the
world, the world is myself,” and lives in the “vastness beyond the farthest
22  D. P. Bhawuk

reaches of the mind” (nisargadatta 1973, 507) and becomes that vastness,
which is love, himself or herself.
The saMskRta to English dictionary by Monier-Williams (1899)
defines adhyAtma as “the Supreme Spirit, own, belonging to self, con-
cerning self or individual personality,” and the one by Apte (1890) defines
adhyAtma as (“Atmana saMbaddhaM, Atmani adhikRtaM vA”) “belong-
ing to self or person, or concerning an individual.” Thus, adhyAtma is
related to self, the Supreme Spirit or bramha, and the individual being or
person that we are, and we will see that these definitions are close to the
scriptural texts as they are derived from these sources.
The comparison between adhyAtma and spirituality would be useful.
According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, in English, spiritual means
“not composed of matter.” A sceptic or a realist is likely to scoff at the
very notion of spiritual entities, which includes ghosts. The synonyms of
spiritual include bodiless, ethereal, formless, immaterial, incorporeal,
insubstantial, nonmaterial, nonphysical, unbodied, unsubstantial. Other
words related to spiritual are metaphysical, psychic (also psychical),
supernatural, impalpable, insensible, intangible, invisible, airy, diapha-
nous, gaseous, gossamery, tenuous, thin, vaporous, and wispish. The ant-
onyms of spiritual include animal, carnal, fleshly, detectable, discernible
(also discernable), noticeable, observable, palpable, sensible, tangible, vis-
ible, bulky, heavy, massive, and solid. Other antonyms of spiritual include
“bodily, corporeal, material, physical, and substantial.” The words in
bold face provide shared understanding between saMskRta and English,
and other words show cultural differences.
Spiritual also means “of, relating to, or used in the practice or worship
services of a religion” (e.g., spiritual songs). The synonyms of spiritual
include devotional, religious, sacred. Other words related to spiritual
are blessed, consecrated, hallowed, holy, sacrosanct, sanctified, solemn,
liturgical, ritual, sacramental, semi-religious, and semi-sacred. The near
antonyms of spiritual include earthly, mundane, terrene, terrestrial, and
worldly. The antonyms of spiritual include “nonreligious, profane, and
secular.” Again, the words in bold face provide shared understanding
between saMskRta and English, and other words show cultural
differences.
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  23

AdhyAtma in the bhagavadgItA
BhagavadgItA is a rich source for developing psychological constructs and
models, which make intuitive sense, and can be applied by lay people in
their daily lives without much preparation and training (Bhawuk 2011,
2019b, in press). These models cover a variety of ideas and constructs
pertaining to lajjA (Bhawuk 2017), lokasaMgraha, and leadership
(Bhawuk 2019a, b), how we get angry and how we can control anger
(Bhawuk 1999), what is work and how we should work (Bhawuk 2011),
emotion and stress management (Bhawuk 2008), adhyAtma or spiritual-
ity (Bhawuk in press), and so forth.
In the bhagavadgItA, adhyAtma appears eight times in verses 3.30,
7.29, 8.1, 8.3, 10.32, 11.1, 13.11, and 15.5. AdhyAtma is defined suc-
cinctly in the eighth canto, though it appears for the first time in the
third canto. The definition in the eighth canto follows the discussion
in the seventh canto, so first the definition is presented as it appears in
the context of the seventh and eighth cantos, and then the meaning of
the construct is elaborated upon by discussing the verses in the
other cantos.
The discourse in the seventh canto is started by kRSNa promising to
arjuna that he would explain to him how arjuna would, beyond any
doubt, completely come to know kRSNa by practising yoga, by attaching
his manas to kRSNa, and by taking refuge in kRSNa.1 Thus, at the end of
seventh canto, it is only fitting that kRSNa succinctly explain what he had
promised, and he does that in the last two verses. kRSNa states that those
who make an effort to be free of the birth and death cycle by taking ref-
uge in kRSNa come to know bramha, adhyAtma, and karma completely
(verse 7.292). Further, those who are one with the self or Atman know
kRSNa completely in all the three forms—adhibhUta (or in the physical

1
 Verse 7.1: mayyAsaktamanaH pArtha yogaM yuJjanmadAzrayaH, asaMzayaM samagraM mAM
jJAsyasi tatchRNu. O pArtha, let me explain to you how beyond doubt you will know me com-
pletely by making effort to connect with me if you attach the manas and take shelter in me.
2
 Verse 7.29: jarAmaraNamokSAya mAmAzritya yatanti ye, te bramha tadviduH kRtsnamadhyAt-
maM karma cAkhilam. Those who make effort to be free of birth and death by taking refuge in me
know bramha, adhyAtma, and karma completely.
24  D. P. Bhawuk

form), adhidaiva (or in the divine form), and adhiyajJa (or in the sacri-
fices); and they know kRSNa completely even at the time of death (verse
7.303). Thus, in verses 7.29 and 7.30, kRSNa presents the six constructs
(i.e., bramha, adhyAtma, karma, adhibhUta, adhidaiva, and adhiyajJa)
that arjuna asks about in the beginning of the eighth canto.
In verse 8.1,4 arjuna asks kRSNa “What is adhyAtmaM?” But the ques-
tion itself is embedded in a set of eight questions providing a nomological
network for the construct in verses 8.1 and 8.25: What is bramha? What
is adhyAtmaM? What is karma? What is called adhibhUtam? What is
called adhidaivam? Who is adhiyajJaH? How is it in the body? And how
do people know it at the end of their life? So, it would be meaningful to
understand adhyAtma in the context that is presented in verses 8.1–8.5 in
the dialogue between arjuna and kRSNa.
In verse 8.3,6 kRSNa defines bramha as akSaraM or that which does
not decay, is immutable, indestructible, or imperishable. Some interpret
bramha as the “subjective Essence behind the phenomenal world”
(Chinmayanand 1992, 545), that “which penetrates everything, which is
all-­pervading” (madhusudan saraswati translated by gambhIrAnanda
1998), or that which “is big and causes everything to grow in it” (abhi-
navagupta, translated by saGkaranArAyaNan 1985). These interpreta-
tions are consistent with the definition of bramha in the Indian cultural
texts of the vedas and the upaniSads.
Further, kRSNa defines adhyAtma as svabhAva or the intrinsic nature
of bramha. Some interpret svabhAva as the presence of bramha in each
individual body (Chinmayanand 1992), that which exists in the context
of the body as the enjoyer (madhusudan saraswati, translated by gambhI-
3
 Verse 7.30: sAdhibhUtAdhidaivaM mAM sAdhiyajnaM ca ye viduH, prayANakAle’pi ca mAM te
viduryuktacetasaH. Those who are one with the self or Atman know me completely in all the three
forms—adhibhUta (or in the physical form), adhidaiva (or in the divine form), and adhiyajJa (or
in the sacrifices)—and they know me even at the time of death.
4
 Verse 8.1: kiM tadbrahma kimadhyAtmaM kiM karma puruSottama, adhibhUtaM ca kiM prokta-
madhidaivaM kimucyate. What is bramha? What is adhyAtmaM? What is karma? What is called
adhibhUtaM? What is called adhidaivaM?
5
 Verse 8.2: adhiyajJaH kathaM ko’atra dehe’asminmadhusudana, prayANakAle ca kathaM jJeyo’si
niyatAtmabhiH. Who is adhiyajJaH? How is it in the body? And how do people know it at the end
of their life?
6
 Verse 8.3: akSaraM bramha paramaM svabhAvo’dhyAamucyate, bhUtabhAvodbhavakaro visargaH
karmasaJjJitaH.
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  25

rAnanda 1998, 537), or “as the Lord-of-self is that which bears the name
Consciousness which never ceases to be in It (bramha) and which is noth-
ing but the bramha” (abhinavagupta, translated by saGkaranArAyaNan
1985). Thus, adhyAtma is defined and interpreted as the presence of
bramha in the human body.
Finally, in verse 8.3, kRSNa states that karma is said to be bhUtab-
hAvaudbhavakaraH visargaH or that sacrifice which is the cause of the
creation of all beings. All yajJas require sacrifice and are considered the
cause of the creation and growth of beings (see Bhawuk 2011, 192).
Therefore, karma refers to yajJa. Here we can see that even mundane
activities are made into non-mundane and spiritual, implying that all
karma is spiritual. In other words, there is never a gap between secular
and spiritual; all is spiritual. Thus, we see the Indian emphasis on spiritu-
ality in all domains of life.
In verse 8.4,7 kRSNa defines adhibhUta as kSaraH bhAvaH or the per-
ishable or changing entities. Anything that is born and dies, or all of the
material world, is captured in adhibhUta. adhidaiva is defined as puru-
SaH or that which permeates every entity in the world. And kRSNa calls
himself the adhiyajJa. And he says he resides in every being, equating
himself with bramha. In verse 8.5,8 kRSNa tells arjuna that one who
leaves the body at the time of death by thinking of kRSNa, beyond doubt,
merges with kRSNa or achieves kRSNa’s essence. This has been referred to
as mokSA (or liberation) or self-realization, which is the ultimate objec-
tive of human life in the Indian world view. There is consensus in
the  interpretation of these verses among scholars from across various
schools of Indian philosophy (Chinmayanand 1992; madhusudan saras-
wati, translated by gambhIrAnanda 1998; abhinavagupta, translated by
saGkaranArAyaNan 1985), allowing for a convergence in the relationship
among various constructs and adhyAtma.
In Fig. 3.1, we can see that adhyAtma is located between the two banks
of the metaphorical river akSara, the immutable (or brahman), and kSara,
the mutable (or physical self and all of prakRti or nature). On the one
7
 Verse 8.4: adhibhUtaM kSaro bhAvaH puruSazcAdhidaivatam, adhiyajno’hamevAtra dehe dehab-
hRtAM vara.
8
 Verse 8.5: antakAle ca mAmeva smaranmuktvA kalevaram, yaH prayAti sa madbhAvam yAti nAsty-
atra saMzayaH.
26  D. P. Bhawuk

adhibhuta kSaro bhAvah

adhiyajJa karma bhutabhAvaudbhavakaro visargaH

adhidaiva puruSaH
adhyAtma svabhAva

bramhan akSara

Fig. 3.1  A nomological network of adhyAtma and brahman, adhibhuta, adhid-

aiva, adhiyajJa, and karma

hand, adhyAtma is closely associated with brahman, which is also adhiya-

jJa, and, on the other hand, it is related to adhidaiva, which permeates all
that is mutable or all of nature, including the human physical self. The
mutable is constantly into karma or action, and karma causes mutation.
But in all the mutation associated with prakRti (or nature) and karma (or
actions), the unchanging self, adhyAtma, remains unconditioned like the
immutable brahman itself. Thus, the objective of life is to experience this
unchanging self in the flow of actions that takes place between the two
banks of akSara and kSara. The other verses that refer to adhyAtma in the
bhagavadgItA clearly emphasize this.
In verse 3.30, kRSNa asks arjuna to offer all karmas (or actions) to him
by being conscious that the self is bramha, and to fight in the battle
­without any hope, sense of self, or sorrow.9 Adizankara explains adhyAt-
macetasA as “vivekabuddhayA ahaM kartA IzvarAya bhRtyavat karomi iti
anayA buddhayA” or having the buddhi (or discriminating understand-
ing) that one is the servant of God and one always does all actions with
that mindset. “To act as the servant of God,” thus, is one of the defini-

9
 Verse 3.30: mayi sarvANi karmANi sannyasyAdhyAtmacetasA, nirAzIrnirmamo bhUtvA yudhyasva
vigatjvaraH. Offering all karmas (or actions) to me by being conscious that the self is bramha, fight
in the battle without any hope, sense of self, or affliction (or anxiety).
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  27

tions of spirituality, as applied to action. swAmi gambhIrAnand translates

adhyAtmacetasA as “mind spiritually imbued”;10 swAmi prabhupAda
translates it as “with the full knowledge of the self ”;11 swAmi Chinmayanand
translates it as “with a mind soaked with devoted remembrances of the
Self ” (Holy gItA, p. 234) and also as “with the mind centered on the Self ”
(Holy gItA: Ready Reference, p. 61). Therefore, the definition of adhyAtma,
“working as the servant of God,” presented in verse 3.30 is consistent as
a method to realize the presence of bramha in one’s self or to become one
with bramha in one’s daily living. In other words, to be one with God,
one has to work as the servant of God, and that is an Indian perspective
on work and spirituality.
In the tenth canto, kRSNa describes his various manifestations, and in
verse 10.32,12 he calls himself adhyAtma-vidyA or knowledge of self among
all kinds of vidyA or knowledge. In verse 11.1,13 adhyAtma is used in the
same sense as the pious knowledge of the self. In verse 13.11,14 adhyAtma
is used in association with jJAna or knowledge, and ­adhyAtmajJAna or
knowledge of self alone is said to be knowledge, and all else is non-­
knowledge. This emphasizes spirituality as the foundation of knowledge
in the Indian world view, and all other knowledge as secondary. Knowing
the self becomes the raison d’être of human existence in the Indian world
view, and it is no surprise that people who have some form of spiritual
practice are referred to as adhyAtmika or dhArmika in everyday life as

10
 swAmi gambhIrAnand translates this verse as follows: “By becoming free from desires, devoid of
the idea of ‘mine’ and devoid of the fever of the soul, engage in battle by dedicating all actions to
Me with (your) mind spiritually imbued.”
11
 Using the word meaning presented by swAmi prabhupAda, the verse translates as follows: “O
arjuna, fight without desire for profit, without ownership, and without being lethargic, by surren-
dering all activities completely unto me (i.e., unto kRSNa), with full knowledge of the self in the
consciousness.”
12
 Verse 10.32: sargANAmAdirantazca madhyaM caivAhamrjuna, adhyAtma-vidyA vidyAnAM
vAdaH pravadatAmaham. O arjuna, I am the beginning, middle, and the end of the creation. I am
the knowledge of self among all knowledge, and the debate in which truth is sought.
13
 Verse 11.1: arjuna uvAca: madanugrahAya paramaMguhyamadhyAtmasaJjnitam, attvayoktaM
vacastena moho’yam vigato mama. Arjuna said: “You have kindly spoken about the secret knowledge
of self to me, and your words have cleared my delusion or confusion.”
14
 Verse 13.11: adhyAtmajJAnanityatvaM tattvajJAnArthadarzanam, etajjJAnamiti proktamajJAnaM
adato’nyathA.
28  D. P. Bhawuk

noted above. Thus, adhyAtma is not an esoteric term but a commonly

used construct.
In verse 15.5,15 kRSNa tells arjuna that those who are devoid of pride
and delusion (nirmAnamohA), without the faults of attachment (jitasaG-
gadoSA), devoted to spirituality or ever immersed in the reflection on self
(adhyAtmanityA), free from all desires (vinivRttakAmAH), free of duality
(dvandvairvimuktAH), and equipoised in happiness and sorrow
(sukhaduHkhasaJjnaiH), such wise ones (amUDhAH) reach the undecay-
ing state of perfection (gacchanti padamavyayaM), or become self-­realized.
We see that adhyAtma or spirituality is embedded in another nomological
network of five practices—(i) eradicating pride and delusion, (ii) con-
quering the flaw of attachment, (iii) uprooting all tendencies towards
desires, (iv) freeing oneself of all dualities, and (v) remaining equipoised
in pleasure and pain—that lead to enlightenment. Thus, adhyAtma is not
only a construct but also a practice; it encompasses the state, the presence
of bramhan in the human body, and the method that leads to realizing
brahman, thus emphasizing the role of spirituality in the pursuit of mokSa
or liberation.
To summarize, adhyAtma is related to bramha, karma, adhibhUta (the
entity existing in the physical plane), adhidaiva (the entity existing in the
divine plane), and AdhiyajJa (the entity existing in the sacrifices or all
actions). AdhyAtma is the pious knowledge (jJAna or vidyA) of self, and
knowledge related to adhyAtma is superior to all types of knowledge.
AdhyAtma is about centring the mind on the Self or Atman. It is a prac-
tice that leads to mokSa or freedom that goes hand in hand with other
practices like eradicating pride and delusion, uprooting attachment,
eradicating desires, practising equanimity, and freeing oneself of all dual-
ity like happiness and sorrow. It is to act without agency or as the servant
of God in pursuit of mokSa or liberation. AdhyAtma is the inward-looking
process that leads to find pleasure, contentment, and satisfaction in Atman
(bhagavadgItA 3.1716) such that the person interacts energetically with

15
 Verse 15.5: nirmAnamohA jitasaGgadoSA adhyAtmanityA vinivRttakAmAH, dvandvairvimuktAH
sukhaduHkhasaJjnairgacchantyamUDhAH padamavyayaM tat.
16
 Verse 3.17: yastvAtmaratireva syAdAtmatRptazca mAnavaH, Atmanyeva ca santuSTastasya kAryaM
na vidyate.
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  29

the outside world without neglecting it or getting snared in it (bhaga-

vadgItA 18.2617).

 dhyAtmic AcaraNa: yama and niyama

A
in pAtaJjalayogasUtra
In pAtaJjalayogasUtra, the foundation of the eightfold path of yoga is said
to be the first two steps that include yama and niyama, each of which
includes five practices. yama includes ahiMsA, satya, asteya, brahmacarya,
and aparigraha; and niyama includes zauca, santoSa, tapaH, svAdhyAya,
and IzwarapraNidhAna. These practices are recommended for all spiritual
aspirants, whatever path they may follow. Thus, they unequivocally con-
stitute the most common denomination of all spiritual practices in India.
Each of these practices is conducted at three levels—in physical behav-
iour (kAyA), in speech (vAcA), and in thought (manasA)—purifying
physical behaviour being the grossest and cleansing the manas being the
subtlest; speech lies in between these two practices.
AhiMsA calls for cultivating nonviolence towards all beings. Causing
harm to others is viewed as causing harm to oneself, so one should not
cause harm to others in any situation. The practice of ahiMsA leads to the
realization that there is no other—all is self. This leads to a complete stop-
page of otherization. The cultivation of satya is founded on the practice
of speaking the truth and acting in a manner that is transparent and
without any deceit. Cultivation of satya culminates in taking Atman or
self as the only truth, and seeing oneself in all beings and all beings in
oneself. When such a mindset is cultivated, one’s behaviour, speech, and
thought are purified and one has no need to speak a lie or act in a manner
that is inauthentic. In other words, the practice of satya is cultivating
authenticity.
The practice of asteya, on the surface, translates as non-stealing.
However, it leads to the cultivation of not taking anything that does not
belong to the self. The deeper meaning is the appreciation that one is the

 Verse 18.26: muktasaGgo’nahaMvAdI dhRtyutsAhasamanvitaH, siddhyasiddhayornirvikAraH

17

kartA sAttvika ucyate.

30  D. P. Bhawuk

Universe, one is complete; and hence, there is no need or tendency for

one to take anything from anybody else. The practice of bramhacarya is
often meant to be the cultivation of celibacy in the first (brahmacarya
Azrama) and last two phases of life (vAnaparastha and sannyAsa Azramas),
whereas it means being faithful to one’s spouse in the second phase of life
(gRhastha Azrama). It could be interpreted as the practice of seeing brah-
man wherever the senses go, thus there would be no attachment to any
material aspect of prakRti or nature. Thus, the desire for sex would also
not be there.
Finally, the cultivation of aparigraha is about not collecting material
things and leads to non-possessiveness. When one views oneself as com-
plete or the Universe, there is no need to collect anything. However, in
the early phases of spiritual practice, aparigraha helps slowly weaken the
desire to possess material things, one at a time, thus leading to the unclut-
tered life with only a few possessions that are necessary to keep the body
and mind going. Both aparigraha and asteya lead one to go beyond the
deficit theory of self.
The first niyama is zauca, and it calls for purifying the body, speech,
and manas. It could be interpreted as cleaning the tendency to collect
material things (prakRti), and so being adhyAtmika means withdrawing
oneself from the material things. The second niyama, santoSa, is about
being contented about life in general, and accepting whatever comes ones
way (see verse 4.22 in the bhagavadgItA, especially the concept of yadRc-
chAlabhasantuSTaH). Contentment in Atman (see verse 3.17  in the
bhagavadgItA) instead of material things is a practice of leading a spiritual
life. It is an important practice, and aSTAvakra asks janaka to practise it
along with forgiveness (kSamA), simplicity (Arjava), compassion (dayA),
and truth (satya).18
The third niyama, tapaH, is about cultivating austerity. We seek physi-
cal comfort, and material things make us comfortable. Austerity is giving
up the material comfort and hankerings, and is considered a basic prac-
tice for spiritual aspirants. In the bhagavadgItA, tapaH is considered one
of the 26 daivik sampadAs (see verse 16.1 in the bhagavadgItA) or divine

18
 muktiM ichasi cettAta viSayAn viSavattyaja; kSamArjavadayAtoSasatyaM pIyuSavad bhaja. Son, if
you desire freedom, reject material things like poison, and cultivate forgiveness, simplicity, compas-
sion, contentment, and truth like nectar.
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  31

virtues, and it is classified as sAtvika, rAjasika, and tAmasika following the

three guNas (see verses 17.13–19 in the bhagavadgItA).
The fourth niyama, svAdhyAya, is about cultivating regular daily study
of the scriptures that helps the spiritual aspirant to emphasize the value of
spiritual growth and weaken the bonds of material life. It was noted above
that adhyAtma-vidyA is superior to all knowledge, and, therefore, study-
ing about Atman and unlearning material knowledge is a spiritual prac-
tice. In the bhagavadgItA (verse 17.15), svAdhyAya is referred to as
vaGmayamtapa, or the tapaH of speech.
The fifth niyama, IzwarpraNidhAna, is about constantly contemplat-
ing about Izwara or the controller of the universe. This practice leads to
shedding our control over the material world by contemplation on brah-
man or constantly thinking about the controller of the Atman (which is a
definition of adhyAtma). Thus, spirituality is about contemplation and
surrender and letting go of the tendency to control things.
The following additional five yamas are presented in zAnDilyopaniSad:
kSamA or forgiveness, dhRti or resoluteness, dayA or compassion, Arjava
or simplicity, and mitAhAra or eating little. The AcAra or behaviour of a
sAdhaka or spiritual aspirant was focused on the parmArthika or beyond
the material world. It is what is referred to as niHzreyasa or called
nivrittilakSaNa.
To summarize, yama and niyama are practices for spiritual aspirants
that are consistent with the practices of adhyAtma derived from the
bhagavadgItA. AhiMsA, satya, zauca, santoSa, and tapaH are also pre-
sented in the bhagavadgItA as daivik sampadA or divine virtues in canto
16 (verses 1–3), which are to be cultivated by all aspirants of spirituality.
As noted above, svAdhyAya is referred to as tapaH of speech, and tapaH
is also a daivika sampadA. Thus, there is much convergence about the
practice of adhyAtma in the bhagavadgItA and pAtaJjalayogasUtra.

 ehavioural Anchors of adhyAtma: pramukh

B
swAmIjI as an Exemplar
pramukh swAmIjI was born on December 7, 1921, as zAantIlAl patel, in
chAnsad, gujarAt, India. He left the world or returned to akSardhAma on
August 13, 2016, when he was visiting sAlaGpur, gujarAt. He was blessed
32  D. P. Bhawuk

by zAstrIji mahArAj, his adhyAtmika or spiritual guru, at birth, and

showed interest in pursuing a monastic life from early years. He was
invited by zAstriji mahArAj to join the monastic order on November 7,
1939, and with the permission of his parents he left home right away. He
received his pArzad dikSA at amblivADI pol in amdAbAd on November
22, 1939, and was called zAnti bhagat. He later received bhAgvati dikSA
and was initiated as a sAdhu on January 10, 1940, at the akSar Deri in
gonDal, gujarAt. He received the name nArAyaNaswarUpadAs (Shelat
2005). As a sAdhu, he took the five vows that sAdhus in his sampradAya
or monastic order observe: nizkAma (or celibacy), nirlobha (not to touch
money, not to keep possessions, or have others keep them on one’s behalf;
complete non-covetousness), nisswAda (or non-taste; sAdhus mix food in
a wooden bowl and then add a little water to wash the taste before eating
it), nissneha (or non-attachment; not to become lovingly attached to any-
one other than God; renunciation of one’s native place and near relatives;
the sAdhus never meet their mother after taking bhAgvati dikSA), and
nirmAna (or humility). The sAdhus also commit to a lifelong service to
God and humanity, which he showed in his everyday life to the end. A
strict practice of nizkAma entails renouncing the contact of women
through mind, body, and speech: (1) not to listen to talks by women; (2)
not to talk about women; (3) not to talk to women; (4) not to indulge in
entertainment with women; (5) not to intentionally look at women; (6)
not to think about women; (7) not to attempt to secure the company of
women; and (8) not to have sexual contact with women.
He was appointed pramukh or president of BAPS by zAstrIji mahArAj
on May 21, 1950, at the age of 28 despite his multiple refusals, in humil-
ity, in the past. His austere practice of the vow of nirmAna could be seen
when he was cleaning utensils in the evening the day he was appointment
pramukh (akAarvatsaldAs 2007). He worked under the guidance of yogiji
mahArAj as pramukh, and both as guru of the sampradAya and pramukh
from January 23, 1971, until he returned to akSardhAma on August 13,
2016. During his tenure as pramukh, BAPS became an international
organization with 3850 centres all over the world, and over a million
devotees who are vegetarians practise fidelity, and do not take alcohol or
other addictive substances. The devotees begin their day with pujA and
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  33

japa (chanting), serve regularly as volunteers, and many donate 10 per

cent of their income to support the temple and its service activities.
Many biographical accounts of pramukh swAmijI are available. In this
section, a number of quotes are excerpted from the writings of mahant
swAmijI, the current president of BAPS, who is himself an exemplar prac-
titioner. Key words that characterize how spiritual practitioners act in
society are presented in bold face, and then synthesized and summarized
at the end.

“Constantly immersed in an ocean of other people’s problems, he has never

become irritated or ruffled. His speech has never become rude or harsh.
On the contrary, he has become more and more generous and friendly.”
(mahant swAmI 1997, 63)
“An open, straight-forward life. Never egotistic. Never has he tried to
portray himself as great; never has he tried to make a show of his tal-
ents; never has he tried to pull others down.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 60)
“[N]o matter who he meets, he always views others with respect. He
always shows genuine love no matter how many times the individual
return[s] with problems.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 60)
“He honestly believes that his work is devotion to God. He feels that
God is watching.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 58)
When the General Secretary of BAPS elaborated upon the tremendous
growth experienced by BAPS, he emphasized “greater importance of
internal progress as compared to external progress” by stating that “We
must maintain our vows, our saintliness and a spirit of service.” (mahant
swAmI 1997, 58)
“Spiritually he is of an extremely lofty level and yet he remains quiet, non-
boasting. Yet, even with his quiet, he can move thousands around him
into action.” (swAmI AtmanAnanda quoted in mahant swAmI 1997, 56)
“His distinguishing qualities are his simplicity, straightforwardness,
and openness. Through such a pure life he is constantly inspiring others.”
(rAmaswarUpa zAstrI quoted in mahant swAmI 1997, 56)
“He is the essence of simplicity. Even in his talks there is no show through
flowery language; we don’t find complexities in thoughts; no attempts to
appear big.” (mohanbhAI patel quoted in mahant swAmI 1997, 57)
“He has always put aside his greatness and taken any available opportu-
nity to serve others.” (mahant swAmI 1997, 57)
34  D. P. Bhawuk

“He has no hypocrisy or deception. He does not have the slightest

trace of ego (p.  51).” “He is extremely honest. He is absolutely pure.”
(mahant swAmI 1997, 55)

We can identify the following ten individual level or personal behavioural

anchors from the above: (i) quiet, non-boasting, (ii) simplicity (straight-
forwardness, openness), (iii) honest (no hypocrisy or deception), (iv) no
ego absolutely pure; not portraying himself as great, (v) not showing off
talents, (vi) never become irritated or ruffled, (vii) never become rude or
harsh, (viii) generous and friendly, (ix) work is devotion to God, and (x)
God is watching.
We can also identify five other related behavioural anchors: (i) views
others with respect, (ii) shows genuine love, (iii) never pulls others down,
(iv) serves others, inspires others, and (v) can move thousands around
him into action. There is also an organization-related behavioural
anchor—internal progress is more important than external progress.
These behavioural anchors are consistent with the ones identified from
the bhagavadgItA and pAtaJjalayogasUtra, thus providing convergence
and enrichment of the construct of adhyAtma.

Discussion
The five vows that pramukh swAmIji practised all his life—nizkAmi vart-
mAn, nirlobhi vartmAn, nisswAdI vartmAn, nissnehI vartmAna, and nir-
mAnI vartmAn—closely resemble yama and niyama proposed in
pAtaJjalayogasUtra. nizkAmi captures both brahmacarya and zauca of
manas; nirlobhI captures aparigraha, asteya, and zauca of manas; nisswAdI
captures tapaH of the senses, especially taste, and santoSa; nissnehI cap-
tures aparigraha; and nirmAnI captures zauca of manas. Thus, we see con-
vergence between micro-world and life-world, providing credence to the
practice-related aspects of adhyAtma. Similarly, we can find convergence
between the characteristics that refer to adhyAtma as a practice in the
bhagavadgItA and the daily life of pramukh swAmIjI. AdhyAtma is about
centring the mind on the Atman and pramukh swAmIji was always
focused on ThAkurji. When he was recognized in the British Parliament,
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  35

instead of standing up to receive the accolade, he asked the accompany-

ing sAdhu, who was carrying ThAkurji, to stand. When Bill Clinton, past
president of the United States, commented that ThAkurji was a symbol of
God, pramukh swAmIjI corrected him by saying that ThAkurjI was not a
symbol, but God in person.
AdhyAtma is associated with a nomological network of other practices
like having no pride, delusion, attachment, or desire that lead to mokSa
which are supported in the austere vows pramukh swAmIjI has practised
all his life. Similarly, other practices like being free of all duality such as
happiness and sorrow, to act without agency or as the servant of God,
practices noted in the bhagavadgItA, are supported in the life of pramukh
swAmIjI who always acted with a view that “God is watching.” Finally,
adhyAtma is the inward-looking process that leads to find pleasure, con-
tentment, and satisfaction in Atman, which is also supported in the life of
pramukh swAmIji in that he emphasized internal progress over external
progress as noted above. The bhagavadgItA also exemplifies an adhyAt-
mika person as one who interacts energetically with the outside world
without neglecting it or getting snared in it, which was amply exempli-
fied in the life of pramukh swAmIjI. Thus, we can see a convergence in
the construct of adhyAtma and its practice in the micro-world and
life-world.
India has a long tradition of adhyAtma or spirituality (Bhawuk 2003,
2011, 2012, 2019a, b). Moore (1967) distilled 17 themes from a thor-
ough study and analyses of Indian philosophical thoughts. The most
important theme, he concluded, was spirituality—“a universal and pri-
mary concern for, and almost a preoccupation with, matters of spiritual
significance” (p. 12). In stating how closely Indian philosophy is related
to life, the general agreement seems to be that truth should be realized,
rather than simply known intellectually. This further emphasizes and
clarifies adhyAtma or spirituality as the way of living, to not merely know
the truth but to become one with the truth (Sheldon 1951).
The Indian concept of self consists of gross and subtle elements, which
can be further categorized as physical, social, and metaphysical selves
(Bhawuk 2011). More specifically, in the Indian world view there is a
social self that is ever-expanding by additions of various social roles and
attributes. Though it is socially constructed, it has concrete attributes and
36  D. P. Bhawuk

also psychological characteristics. The physical self and sense organs are
the grossest. The internal self that consists of ahaGkAra, manas, and bud-
dhi is also called antaHkaraNa19 or the internal organ or agent. Beyond
all this is Atman, which is the subtlest (Bhawuk 2011). Thus, the very
concept of self is affiliated to adhyAtma or spirituality in the Indian
world view.
There is general agreement that the metaphysical self, Atman, is the
real self. This metaphysical self is embodied in a biological or physical
self, and situated, right at birth, in a social structure as a result of past
karma. The importance of the metaphysical self is reflected in the belief
that of all the living beings, human beings are the only ones that can
pursue mokSa (or liberation), enlightenment, jJAna (or knowledge), or
self-realization, which is presented as the highest pursuit of human life.
Most Indians, including Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and people of
many other religious groups believe that they go through many life forms
on their way to ultimatum liberation, and the pursuit of self-realization is
a common shared belief. Thus, adhyAtma or spirituality is embedded in
social life and karma or work in India.
Spirituality, which emerges as the highest desideratum of human living
and pursuit in Indian culture, is not only captured in the concept of self,
but also in the normative prescription about how to lead one’s life in
phases. The last two phases (vAnaprastha or forest-dwelling and sannyAsa
or monkhood) of life are clearly dedicated to the pursuit of spiritual
advancement, and of the four pursuits of life recommended by tradition,
which include dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kAma (pleasure), and
mokSa (release from birth and death cycle), both dharma and mokSa are
related to adhyAtma or spirituality.
Bhawuk (in press) emphasized that the Indian spiritual value empha-
sizes the concept of jIvanmukta or being free while living in the material

19
 See Bhawuk (2011), chap. 4, for a definition and discussion of manas, buddhi, ahaGkAra, and
antaHkaraNa. The closest translation of ahaGkAra would be ego, which comes at the cost of much
loss of meaning. People often use mind for manas, which is simply wrong, since manas is the locus
of cognition, affect, and behaviour, whereas mind is only cognitive. And buddhi is closest to the
super-ego in Freudian parlance, but without ego, which makes the similarity rather superficial. And
antaHkaraNa is the composite internal organ or agent combining manas, buddhi, and ahaGkAra.
Adizankara also includes citta in the definition of antaHkaraNa (see Bhawuk 2014 for a discussion
of citta).
   AdhyAtma or Spirituality: Construct Definition…  37

world, and so the material world is not neglected in the Indian ethos. It
is this love for the material that is captured in the love for gold jewellery,
silk, hundreds of varieties of food, music, movies, and so forth in India.
Therefore, the focus on spirituality in Indian culture should not be con-
strued as the neglect of material world. AdhyAtma is about living in the
world without getting snared in it as is succinctly captured in the bhaga-
vadgItA (verse 5.1020).
The commonality between Hinduism and other religions (e.g., Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, and others) lies in the path of devotion (see Bhawuk
2011, chap. 7) followed in Hinduism and other religions. The path of
devotion is a practice in which one surrenders oneself to kRSNa, rAma,
ziva, or durgA in Hinduism; to Jesus in Christianity (i.e., taking Jesus as
one’s saviour); to Allah in Islam (praying five times and following the five
pillars of Islam: shahada or faith, salat or prayer, zakat or charity, sawm or
fasting, and Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca); and to waheguru in Sikhism.
Surrendering the physical-psychological-social self to the divine was
noted above as a characteristic of adhyAtma or spirituality. In advait
vedAnta, this is achieved through the cultivation of neti-neti or “I am not
this-I am not this,” which leads to the erasure of the physical-­psychological-­
social self, and what is left is the AdhyAtmika or spiritual self or Atman.
In Buddhism, the same process of neti-neti is used to achieve the erasure
of self, what the Buddhists refer to as anatta, through the chanting of
mantra and meditation. Thus, it is no surprise that religious diversity
founded on spirituality has been the core of Indian culture for millennia
(Bhawuk 2003, 2011, 2012, 2019a, b, in press).
The implications of adhyAtma or spirituality in social life can be seen
in how many human hours are spent in holy places like tirupati, harid-
wAr, RSikeza, vAraNasi, zirdi, rAmezwaram, and so forth, which led
Bhawuk (in press) to call India the spiritual capital of the world. He also
noted the commingling of spirituality and social entrepreneurship as seen
in the growth of spirituality-based organizations led by spiritual leaders
like ammA, rAmadeva bAbA, sadguru, and zri zri ravizankar. India is also

 BhagavadgItA verse 5.10: brahmaNyAdhyAya karmANi saGgaM tyaktvA karoti yaH; lipyate na sa
20

pApen padmapatramivAmbhasA. One who performs actions by placing his or her manas in brahman
and without attachment does not get entangled in the material world just like a lotus is above water.
38  D. P. Bhawuk

a wonderful destination for spirituality-based tourism, and economic

reform has opened India so that people can travel to India freely, which is
likely to help the spiritual aspirants visiting India for their sAdhanA or
practice. In the increasingly stressful world, meditation and yoga may
provide relief and help foster well-being, and India could lead the world
with its spiritual heritage. And, finally, India also offers a spirituality-­
based model of anti-terrorism philosophy through the integration of
various religious faiths present in India and the teachings of the Sufi
saints. Thus, adhyAtma or spirituality is a comprehensive and meaningful
construct that can help us study many aspects of Indian culture, and also
facilitate cross-cultural comparisons to enrich global psychology.

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 4
Constructing Workplace Spirituality
in an Indian Context: A Study
on Working Professionals
Jatin Pandey

Introduction
The concept of spirituality is at a nascent stage in the domain of manage-
ment, with growing theoretical and empirical support from academicians
and practitioners alike. However, this concept is believed to have many
“ill-defined constructs and definitions” (Roof 2015). This strong conten-
tion stems from numerous definitions of this construct by many authors
(Brown 2003); for instance, the literature review by Karakas (2010) doc-
uments the existence of more than 70 distinct definitions of the con-
struct. This evolving, dynamic and multifaceted perspective of spirituality
(Klenke 2003) thereby makes it a complex construct; and thus, a single
definition for the construct is not amenable. Despite such challenges,
spirituality at the workplace can be defined (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz
2003); this chapter tries to construct a definition of spirituality for work-
ing professionals in India.

J. Pandey (*)
Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indore, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 41

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_4
42  J. Pandey

Although most of the research on spirituality has been done in the

West, the construct of spirituality would have similarities and peculiari-
ties when studied in the Eastern context. There is a dearth of studies on
spirituality in an Indian context that focuses specially on working profes-
sionals; this chapter fills this lacuna by taking a respondent cen-
tric approach.

Spirituality for Working Professionals

It’s only recently that spirituality has garnered attention in management
literature, especially at the workplace. It is an important variable to study
for working professionals, since it has been found to be both conceptually
and empirically associated positively with important outcomes: engage-
ment, vigour and dedication (Roof 2015), job satisfaction and connect-
edness (Pawar 2008), loyalty and commitment (Sheep and Foreman
2012), job performance (Karakas 2010), and negatively related to frus-
tration (Kolodinsky et  al. 2008) earnings manipulation (Ming-Chia
2012) to name a few.
Some scholars believe that everyone is a spiritual being (Neal 1997)
and spirituality is omnipresent in the workplace (Lips-Wiersma and Mills
2002). There is a relation between individual spirituality and one’s emo-
tions and spirit in the workplace (Saks 2011), especially when it comes to
working professionals, which offers them “possibilities for making a dif-
ference” (Hoppe 2005).
Reasons why people embrace spirituality at the workplace are varied:
for instance, inclination to improve the quality of work life (Lee et al.
2003); integration of spiritual dimension at work (Fry 2003); connecting
with a greater dimension (Marques et al. 2005) managing oneself in trou-
bled times (Marques 2010); and unhappiness (Karakas 2010). These rea-
sons point to the existence of a higher order need that is not satisfied by
work and life rewards.
In the organizational context, spirituality is finding a footing as part of
training (Phipps 2012) and interventions of mindfulness (Nandram and
Borden 2011). The concept of “workplace spirituality” has also evolved
(Gockel 2004) to segregate the domain of spirituality under the work
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  43

settings. However, the quantum and quality of research into this con-
struct is not up to the mark (Sass 2000; Karakas 2010), since there is no
single universally accepted definition of spirituality (Bruce 2000), and
the construct is partially unique to each individual (Freshman 1999).

Research Question
The present study tries to define the construct of spirituality as perceived
by Indian working professionals. This study takes a bottom-up approach
to answer the moot question:
What is spirituality for Indian working professionals?
In the course of the study, the author realized that it is indeed difficult
to find a direct answer to the moot research question on defining spiritu-
ality for working professionals; therefore, it had to be constructed through
surrogate questions.

Method
This study draws from the subjective experiences of working professionals
about what they believe spirituality at the workplace is. A more rigorous
and exploratory nature of the research question makes it more amenable
to qualitative methods (Lee 1999; Locke 2001). This objective paved the
way for the use of a phenomenological approach to the research. Van
Manen’s (1998) hermeneutic phenomenology was used to uncover the
personal meaning of spirituality for the respondents. This approach is in
line with studies that tend to focus on subjective experiences of the tar-
gets, and have been successfully used in Indian settings (D’Cruz and
Noronha 2017).
People working in the information technology sector in the Delhi
NCR region were chosen for the study. Snowball sampling initiated
through personal contacts was used as organizations were not willing to
provide access to employees at the workplace. Face-to-face interviews
were thus conducted at places outside the workplace under comfortable
settings lasting for about 45–90 minutes. An incremental spiral process
44  J. Pandey

of selection of respondents, data collection and analysis was used; this

provided the basis for seeking new respondents, resulting in an incremen-
tal sample until saturation was reached (Glaser and Strauss 1967) after 21
respondents. Additionally, two more were added, taking the final sample
size to 23 respondents. High ethical standards were maintained by
informing the study participants about the research question, obtaining
verbal permission to conduct and record the interviews, assuring ano-
nymity of their responses. The interviews were primarily conducted in
English with the occasional use of Hindi in order to explain certain con-
cepts. These interviews were transcribed and translated (when applicable
in the use of Hindi) verbatim. Table  4.1 gives the description of the
sample.
At the outset, it was very important to create a rapport with the respon-
dents in order to gain their trust, thereby ensuring genuine responses.
The initial questions therefore focused on gathering personal information
about the respondents, following which the questions were veered to
understand their interpretation of spirituality. Since spirituality is an
abstract phenomenon, a direct question on ‘what according to you is
spirituality?’ did not yield an insightful description. The interviews there-
fore progressed with questions that they could easily identify with: for
instance, whom do you see/consider as a spiritual person? Why and what
are her/his traits and practices that make her/him spiritual? A fine balance
was maintained between free-flowing open-ended and close-ended
questions.
Van Manen’s (1998) conversational interview approach was used to
gather experiential narratives. This approach has been widely used in the
Indian settings (D’Cruz and Noronha 2013). Data analysis followed the
hermeneutic phenomenological reflection (Van Manen 1998) to elicit

Table 4.1  Sample characteristics

Characteristics Male Female
Number 12 11
Education 10 (graduate) 11 (graduate)
2 (postgraduate)
Age Mean 27 SD 3 Mean 24 SD 4
Sector IT/ITES IT/ITES
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  45

themes that address the moot research question. To uncover the meaning
of the respondent’s experiences, the narrative was read in its entirety. The
text was coded and standardized across different respondents and themes
were generated. The rigour in this qualitative study was maintained by
following the directions of Krefting (1991):

• Credibility measures of reflexivity through field journals and peer

examination of the process
• Transferability through dense descriptions in terms of answers to
the questions
• Dependability through peer examination of the whole process
• Confirmation through reflexivity by being aware of the biases of the
researcher’s own background, interests and perceptions

All these paved the way for the theoretical generalizability (Thompson
1999) of our findings.

Findings
Inability to Articulate Spirituality Initially

One of the important findings of this research is that people actually

found it hard to articulate what spirituality is. Largely, it was described as
an ‘experience,’ but people found it difficult to exactly define it, as may
be noted from the following response:

“I don’t know how to put it into words but it is something very close to
you, or rather within you.”
“You cannot say what spirituality is, it can be experienced.”

As can be seen from the responses, it is an internal conceptualization

rather than any outward expression. These responses thereby elicited
the use of surrogate questions to interpret their understanding of
spirituality.
46  J. Pandey

Identifying a Spiritual Person

The answer to this question had many spiritual leaders some of who had
religious backgrounds like religious leaders whereas others were famous
for universal human values like Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi and
Dalai Lama to name a few. They also included others like bosses, family
members or friends who were perceived to be spiritual. The common
values among these people were compassion, nonviolence and a strong
personal character. These spiritual idols could be classified into the
following.

Saints, Reformers and Social Activists

People closely linked sainthood to spiritual people, with many compar-

ing their choice of spiritual person to that of a saint. The concept of a
saint in the Indian context was of individuals who could rise above indi-
vidualistic concerns and develop a broad societal consensus. The follow-
ing are some examples:

“Gandhi was a saint … that’s why he was called mahatma (high-souled)”;

“Dalai Lama is a living saint”; “Mother Teresa was a saint, see how she has
offered her life for the services of others.”

These descriptions point to spiritual people possessing a larger-than-­

life persona; thereby, social reformers were also seen as spiritual people.
For instance, those who were instrumental in abolishing practices like
‘sati’ and the ‘caste system’ in India were seen as spiritual people (e.g.
B.R. Ambedkar and Raja Ram Mohan Roy). Many of the respondents
also equated social activists who are fighting or had fought in the past for
change in society as spiritual people (e.g. Anna Hazare, a civil rights
activist).

“Anna is a saint. He is spirituality in action”; some others said: “What

Ambedkar did for the downtrodden, made him a spiritual person in my
opinion; he uplifted the lower castes.” “Ram Mohan Roy actually did a
great spiritual work when he helped abolish the sati pratha.”
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  47

Religious Leaders as Spiritual People

Religious heads were seen by respondents as spiritual people. These lead-

ers have been active in propagation of spirituality in India. They are
engaged in propagation of meditation and yoga around the globe but
identified with a particular religion.

“I find Sri Sri (spiritual leader from India) to be a spiritual person. Sri Sri
is a perfect example I can think of.”
“No doubt Swami Ramdev (Yoga teacher from India) is a spiritual per-
son. You can see the glow on his face.”

There has been an upsurge of religious media channels in India, which

has led to broadcasting of sermons by many religious leaders, accessible
to masses across the country. It is important to note that all these reli-
gious leaders have strong religious identities in terms of views and
external displays, and people do not distinguish them as religious or
spiritual.

Close Networks as Spiritual

Many people had an idea of their close relative, co-worker, friend among
others as spiritual people. It was seen that they were impressed by one or
the other traits of these individuals like control over anger, helpful nature,
and charity to name a few.

“My boss is a spiritual person. … You will never find him angry or
agitated.”
“My friend helps everyone without prejudice.”
“My father gives away half his pension to charity; he has that deep spiri-
tual connect with everyone.”

Apart from larger-than-life figures, people also identified people in

their close network who exhibited certain qualities to be spiritual. This
led us to the question on uncovering what these traits or behaviours
were.
48  J. Pandey

Traits and Behaviours of a Spiritual Person

Traits were seen as inherent psychological characteristics of individuals,

and behaviours were seen as manifestations of these qualities. Some of
them include the following.

Immaterialist

Many respondents saw spiritualism as a lifestyle with simple living and

high thinking. Materialism was seen as an impediment to spiritualism.
These thoughts stem from classic Indian philosophy that treats material-
ism as Maya or illusion. Though many believed immaterialism to be an
important spiritual trait, almost none of the working professionals
thought they could actually have this trait. This was more of a desired
trait, as can be seen from the following response:

All spiritual people are above money and material possession, which is why
they are spiritual … though it is difficult for people like me.

There were also a few respondents who considered attachment to material

things an impediment to spiritual life; this is highlighted through the
following:

It is not bad to earn money. But in my view getting attached to it is the

problem … people who are spiritual earn money but are not attached to it.

Compassionate and Helping

The respondents saw compassion, in terms of helping and serving others

for a larger and common good, as an inherent trait of a spiritual person.
Helping was bound not solely to monetary support but to social and
psychological support as well. Notably, these behaviours were not con-
fined to near and dear ones alone, but to people at large; note the
following:
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  49

“When I hear any of the speeches of the Dalai Lama, I see that he is full of
compassion. … I don’t think I am in that stage (of spirituality).”
“Mother Teresa helped the poorest of the poor … and according to me
that is the most important practice of a spiritual person.”

Forgiving

Forgiving others was also seen as an important and noble attribute of

spiritual personalities; this is again largely influenced by Eastern philoso-
phers. Forgiving others for a grave mistake was seen to involve an effort,
which spiritual people were perceived to exert, but the respondents
found it hard.

“To forgive is a great virtue. A true spiritualist will have the courage to
forgive some who has harmed him.”
“Forgiving needs great inner strength. All spiritual people are therefore
forgiving. … I am not that forgiving. … I need to develop that quality.”

Calm and Composed

Calmness was also seen as a virtue of spiritual individuals. Agitation and

anger were identified as impediments to becoming spiritual. This was
perceived as a tough state to achieve by working professionals due to
many stressors in their work lives; however, they believed this goal was
realizable.

“I have never seen my boss angry or agitated. … He handles stress with ease
whereas it is very tough for me.”
“See Dalai Lama, He had to leave his country and live in exile but he
never lost his calm, if I was there in his place I would have lost it.”

Nonviolent

Respondents conceptualized violence at two levels: physical and men-

tal; they believed that spiritual people were nonviolent at both levels.
50  J. Pandey

The concept of nonviolence again stems from the concept of ahiMsA,

which emphasizes nonviolence and negation of violence even
towards animals.

“A spiritual person cannot even think of harming others … even thinking

of harming someone is a form of violence.”
“We can take example of our Mahatma Gandhi; he got us freedom but
used no form of violence; it was a nonviolent movement all along and that
is why he is recognized as a Mahatma (saint).”

Enlightened

Some of the respondents believed that a spiritual person must be enlight-

ened. Enlightenment in itself was a complex construct and could have
differing interpretations for each individual. Studying the construct in
depth was out of the scope of the present study, hence the author did not
dwell upon what enlightenment actually meant for each individual. But
a generic understanding of the term was of one who has complete knowl-
edge, and is liberated from the world. “Spiritual people know the secret
of life; they know how to live it to the fullest.”

Dalai lama is an enlightened being he is like walking Buddha.

Otherworldly

The respondents believed in non-permanency of the world as is perceived

by us all. They believed in the existence of other worlds and believed that
a spiritual person gains knowledge about the world beyond, which a non-­
spiritual person cannot fathom. The temporariness of this world was seen
to be known as a fact to others but this was experienced only by
spiritualists.

“We were born empty hand, and we will die empty hand, so own nothing
from this world and we give nothing to this world. Everything is temporary
in this world … we know this truth but spiritual people experience it.”
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  51

“One world is what we can see and feel, another world is what we cannot
see but can feel its existence. Where do we go after death? A spiritualist
knows his final destiny.”

Figure 4.1 summarizes the findings.

From the findings above, all the traits and behaviours were seen to be
terminal or end states of a spiritual person, which the respondents desired.
This prompted a question on what according to the respondents are the
practices to achieve these terminal states.

Actions to Become a Spiritual Person

Herein, the respondents brought forth many practices that they believed
made them spiritual. A person who adhered to certain practices was per-
ceived by some respondents to be spiritual. It was seen that they
­emphasized on the recurrence or repetition of the practice to be of signifi-
cance. These practices, though religious in nature, were perceived to be

Immaterialist

Compassionate and Helping

Terminal States

Forgiving

Calm and composed

Non Violent

Enlightened

Otherworldly

Fig. 4.1  Terminal states

52  J. Pandey

instru­mental in achieving the terminal states of spirituality listed above.

The following are some of the major practices.

Belief and Devotion

All respondents’ notion of spirituality acknowledged the existence of

god.

Without his (God’s) will, even leaves do not move with the wind, birds do
not flock their feathers, rivers cannot flow to quench the draught, Life can-
not exist, it’s him (God) who does it all.

Belief in god was seen as a precursor to spirituality, and a source of

strength for the individual.

“I have a firm belief in god and this is my source of strength.”

“According to me spirituality stems from belief.”

Devotion too was seen to be an essential accompaniment to belief and an

essential element to be spiritual.

If you believe, you automatically have devotion. Devotion is essential for a

person to be spiritual.

Remembrance

Remembering god was an important facet to be spiritual. It involved ritu-

alistic repetition of the names of God or just praying to God at certain
times of the day. This act of remembrance gave them the confidence of
being on the spiritual path.

“As Kabir says that everyone remembers god in times of sorrow, one who
remembers god in times of joy is a spiritual person.”
“I do japa (repeating the name of the god) everyday; it gives me confi-
dence that God is by my side.”
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  53

The continuous or cyclical nature of this activity was also emphasized by

some. This led to a reinforcement of their beliefs.

You need to be doing this daily, doesn’t matter you’re busy, you’re driving,
you’re playing, doing home stuff, reading, writing etc., you just need to
remember god always.

Discipline and Adherence to Values

It was observed that a majority of the respondents referred to some form

of practice that they considered made them spiritual. This discipline was
also reflective in their lifestyle, such as, waking up early in the morning,
restricting themselves to vegetarian food and so on. The effort required to
maintain this lifestyle was seen as a source of well-being.

“I get up early in the morning, it is a form of spiritual practice and I feel

good for the whole day after that. … It is energizing.”
“I am a vegetarian and I maintain this habit even when I am
travelling.”

Yoga and Meditation

The prevalence of yoga and meditation with the rise of its accessibility
through TV and the internet has played a vital role in people being aware
of their benefits. They saw yoga more as a physical exercise and medita-
tion than as a training of the mind. Recognition and appreciation of
these techniques in the West has also acted as a catalyst for adopting these
practices in India.

“Yoga means union and spirituality also signifies union with god, I came to
know about it through morning TV programme of Baba Ramdev (Yoga
teacher from India).”
“Meditation is the tool to becoming spiritual, it is the key or rather it
is the technique or an instrument. Even people from west now recog-
nize this.”
54  J. Pandey

Following Spiritual Idols

The concept of spiritual master or Guru was deeply engraved in the

minds of people when they spoke about spirituality. Most of them wished
to follow the path popularized by their Guru to be spiritual. These idols
also were people who were no more, but their books were seen as a source
of spiritual guidance.

“As she hugged me, I felt all my sorrows disappearing in her. She is Mother
of all. No other feeling can be improvised so soon and with such intensity.
I just wanted that moment to continue forever and follow her teachings on
spirituality.”
“I have read many books by Swami Vivekananda; I read books by these
spiritual people and try to follow them.”

Surrender

Closer to the concept of belief and devotion, some also emphasized sur-
render to god as a spiritual practice. This surrender helped them accept
pleasures and pains in life equally. A positive life event was identified as a
boon from God, whereas a life stressor was seen as a test from God.

“I believe if you surrender to god, then you become more spiritual. All
good in my life is God’s grace.”
“I do my work and leave the rest to God. … God tests you with adversi-
ties but surrendering to God makes you stronger (spiritually).”
“Complete surrender to God is needed to be spiritual, and I have left
everything to God.”

Rituals

Some of the respondents believed that there is a close connection between

religion and spirituality. Hinduism and Eastern religious traditions heav-
ily influenced these practices; it indicates an intertwining between reli-
gion and spirituality in India. Visiting places of worship and performing
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  55

pujas (prayer) were major religious activities perceived to be associated

with spirituality among working professionals in India.

“It’s been 11 years have been visiting **** consecutively, and due to ***
blessings I have been growing in my life, since then…”
“I regularly do puja (prayer); it gives me strength and helps in my spiri-
tual growth.”

Charity

Charity or daan as it is called in India was seen as an act of helping God

through helping other people. Charity could be both monetary and non-­
monetary, in the form of food and clothes to the poor, for instance.

“I don’t like to brag about it, but I donate some part of my salary for poor.
It is my spiritual practice.”
“Spirituality teaches me to love everyone. So when I started praying
daily, I made sure to offer food to the hungry and poor people too.
Gradually a time came that I was into a habit of this and it made me
feel good.”

Figure 4.2 summarizes the practices.

Benefits of Spirituality

Respondents with interest and active practice of spirituality also indi-

cated the effects of spirituality in their work and family lives: major ben-
efits being personal well-being, personal growth and interpersonal
effectiveness.

Well-being

Since many respondents considered yoga to be a spiritual practice, they

indicated that they have benefitted from Yoga physically, as it helped
56  J. Pandey

Belief and devotion

Remembrance

Instrumental Practices Discipline and adherence to values

Yoga and meditation

Following spiritual idols

Surrender

Rituals

Charity

Fig. 4.2  Instrumental practices

reduce their ailments. Yoga’s connection to spirituality in their psyche

made them believe that spirituality helped in aiding physical ailments.

“I started anulom vilom (breathing exercise) as I was suffering from migraine

… the power of spirituality is such that now I don’t have migraine.”
“I had serious backaches due to working all day in front of computer;
once I started yoga it benefitted me.”

Respondents who perceived meditation’s connection with spirituality

reported that they experienced benefits relating to mental health. The
outcomes of Yoga and meditation were thus substituted as benefits of
spirituality. These outcomes consisted of control over anger, handling
depression and mood swings to name a few.

“I was so angry at work. When my boss introduced me to meditation, and

I started practicing it I saw a considerable change; now, I don’t get angry
easily.”
“After the death of my husband I was really depressed, I started medita-
tion … and it is because of this spiritual practice that I could get out of
depression.”
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  57

Those who combined both meditation and yoga reported physical and
mental well-being.

“It became easy day by day. I see myself physically and mentally fit then
[sic] before. Moreover I see myself more stable in decision making.”

Personal Growth

Spirituality was seen as a buffer to deal with major life stressors like
divorce, loss of closed ones and so on. Tenets of spirituality helped them
redefine their life stressors and deal with negative effects associated with
the stressor.

I went through a bitter divorce; I could not handle it if I was not a spiri-
tual person.

The loss of loved ones was a major stressor and people who practised
spirituality said:

I lost my mother two years back and I was very close to her and it was only
that I had developed a spiritual bent of mind that I could handle it.

There were work-life stressors too from which spirituality provided hope
for a better future.

I never had tasted success in my life; if it has to be there it’s not for me. I
have never done wrong to anyone and god knows this. I know I’ll be suc-
cessful in my life and that would be the day when everyone else would see
me rising. I know this will happen one day, I believe in him (god) and he
can’t be wrong.

People were of the view that they became more confident after embracing
practices that they associated with spirituality. People reported that they
were more prepared to deal with challenges in personal and work life after
spiritual practices.
58  J. Pandey

“Reciting God’s name gives me strength and confidence to deal with any
situation.”
“I feel more confident now in my job.”

The respondents also reported a change in their outlook towards life; for
instance, those who had a pessimistic approach reported as being more
optimistic after adopting spirituality. Their narrations also brought forth
that there was a change in how the respondents evaluated others. An
outcome related to the positive outlook was that respondents learnt from
the good as well as the bad phases of their life; they saw that as a learning
opportunity.

“I was a pessimist before, I saw the negatives in life but spirituality made
me realize my mistake and now I have a positive outlook towards life.”
“I always judged others and though[t] of every one as my adversary, now
I do see people in different light. I try to see the situation from their point
of view.”
“I have been through a bad phase of my life but I learnt a lot from it, it
gave me the clear view of what life is all about. It’s our karma, the only way
to salvation or the only way to God.”

Interpersonal Effectiveness

The awareness levels of respondents were reported to have increased.

They believed that their perception levels were enhanced, which made
them more empathetic. Accepting life situations and people was also an
important outcome that some respondents emphasized.

“My awareness level has increased; I believe there is more to every

situation.”
“I can feel what others feel, and for that case even animals. We have one
god, we live on one planet, we survive on same food and water, then why
can’t we understand what others [are] feeling. I am more aware about
myself and others.”
“I believe everything is controlled by God. He (The God) does it and he
ruins it. So I accept what and who (people) comes in my life.”
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  59

Defining Spirituality … Again

Analysing the answers led the author of this study to decipher some major
points about spirituality as perceived by Indian working professionals:

1 . It is an internal phenomenon.
2. Its effects are internally as well as externally observed.
3. Spirituality deals with gaining some terminal qualities.
4. There exist practices and behaviours that are instrumental in achieving
these terminal qualities.
5. There are benefits of these practices.

Based on the discussion so far, spirituality could possibly be defined as

the attainment of terminal qualities through instrumental practices and
behaviours that lead to benefits in terms of well-being, personal growth
and interpersonal effectiveness. The terminal qualities include immateri-
alism, compassion, forgiveness, otherworldliness and calmness. The
instrumental practices are ritualism, charity, following others (spiritual
leaders), remembrance, belief and devotion.

Discussion
The variety of answers to questions related to spirituality brings forth its
multifaceted nature. It is in congruence with the observations that a mul-
titude of things can be said about spirituality, which include a plethora of
explanations; there is no unique answer to what spirituality is, and there
are multiple ways through which it may be understood (Freshman 1999).
It is also important to note that it is hard for people to define spirituality;
therefore the scholarly top-down approach of scholars and, many times,
spiritualists and religious leaders to define spirituality for masses needs a
critical revaluation.
The existence of many indigenous constructs in terms of terminal
states and instrumental practices like japa, puja and yoga posits that the
sociocultural and religious prism customizes the interpretation of spiritu-
ality. The conceptualization of spirituality by working professionals from
60  J. Pandey

India also amalgamates concepts like connectivity and higher purpose to

name a few (Sass 2000) to ones like goodness, peace, harmony, altruism
and aesthetics (Altaf and Awan 2011) that are derived through practices
like prayer, meditation, reading scripture or religious practices (Freeman
2011; Altaf and Awan 2011; Brown 2003). Certainly, there is a division
between the terminal or end state of spirituality and the instrumental
practices that lead to such a state. There are also benefits in terms of well-­
being, which encompasses both physical as well as mental health benefits.
Spirituality is also being seen as a route, enhancing oneself and one’s rela-
tionship with others.
From the frame of humanistic psychology, the terminal states repre-
sent the process of self-actualization and noogenic motivation (sense of
meaning as the ultimate human motive) (Maslow 1969; Frankl 1962).
Similarly, from the transpersonal psychology perspective, instrumental
processes can be seen as bridges that connect the individual with tran-
scendental reality (Tart 1990). On the other hand, from the frame of
conservation of resource (Hobfoll 1989), spirituality may be seen as a
personal resource that results in benefits like well-being and interpersonal
effectiveness. Holistically, therefore, spirituality at the workplace is essen-
tial, as it provides dual benefits; at the group level, it reduces conflicts
and, at the individual level, it enhances performance by enhancing indi-
vidual well-being.

Intertwined Conception of Religion and Spirituality

There is a raging debate over the issue of whether religion is a part of

spirituality (Fernando and Jackson 2006). While some claim it to be dif-
ferent (Garcia-Zamor 2003), others see an alignment (Quatro 2004)
between the two. This study shows an overlap of the two constructs
(Reave 2005). Some consider spirituality to be a broader construct
(Phipps 2012), but many of the tenets of spirituality stem from religion
(Quatro 2004), as can be observed in the teachings of major world reli-
gions. The terminal values of nonviolence, compassion and so on are
preached in many religions, and the instrumental practices are closely
related to religious practices. Thus religion cannot be discarded from
faith and connection with god (Fernando and Jackson 2006). The prox-
   Constructing Workplace Spirituality in an Indian Context…  61

imity of religion to other disciplines in Indian settings have been

well established (Pandey and Gupta 2018; Pandey et al. 2016; Pandey
and Singh 2015a, b; Pandey and Varkkey 2017; Sinha et al. 2017).

Limitations, Future Research and Conclusion

The study focuses exclusively on Indian working professionals particularly
residing in the northern part of India, professionally engaged in a specific
industry (i.e. IT industry). Hence, any generalization outside this parame-
ter must be done with caution. This research also focuses only on Hindu
respondents; thus, inclusion of people with other religions could certainly
give a rich flavour to the existing findings. Future researchers could look to
develop a scale, and empirically test the findings of this study. Further, this
study takes a bottom-up approach for building a construct on spirituality,
and takes the perspective of working professionals. Thus, constructs of
spirituality are culled through their (i.e. Indian working professionals)
lenses and bring a multifaceted nature of spirituality of terminal state and
instrumental practices. Additionally, it constructs a definition of spiritual-
ity and highlights the perceived benefits of spirituality. In the academic
domain, there has been substantial progress with special interest groups and
divisions in reputed associations like the Academy of Management and the
American Psychological Association. A concerted effort is needed to high-
light the representation of Eastern thought in these forums.

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 5
Nonviolence Behaviour
in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?
Ayatakshee Sarkar and Sasmita Palo

Introduction
AhiMsA or nonviolence is more than nonappearance of violence or non-­
harming but a condition of mental ablution and positive acts through
body, mind and speech. It is also a process of self-reflection and tapping
one’s inner resources to seek love and understanding of others (Walz and
Ritchie 2000). The Bhagawad Gita, in chap. 10, verse 5, says that ahiMsA
or nonviolence is the very nature of human existence which is evolution-
ary and always progressing (Prabhupāda 2000). According to Swami
Prabhupada, texts 8–12 of the Bhagawad Gita explains that violence is
caused when one doesn’t understand the basic human nature and is
entangled with only the material existence (Prabhupāda 2000).
Detachment from material entanglement leads to nonviolence. In ancient
wisdom, nonviolence is also ordained in the eightfold path (Ashtanga
Yoga) to master the body, mind and senses (Sharma 2003). It is the basic

A. Sarkar (*) • S. Palo

Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 65

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_5
66  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

tenet of human spiritual development. Without practising nonviolence,

one cannot manifest spiritual values at the workplace such as benevo-
lence, generativity, humanism, integrity, justice, receptivity, respect,
responsibility and trust (Jurkiewicz and Giacalone 2004).
The aim of this chapter is to elucidate the multidisciplinary dimension
of nonviolence, aspects and opinions of nonviolence in the workplace,
antecedents of nonviolence behaviour, the role of organisational spiritual
climate in determining nonviolence behaviour and, lastly, the scope of
nonviolence in applied positive psychology and positive organisation
behaviour. In this chapter, we have used ahiMsA and nonviolence inter-
changeably as appropriate, though nonviolence primarily focuses
on ahiMsA.

Multidisciplinary Dimension of Nonviolence

Nonviolence is a multidisciplinary construct. The meaning and defini-
tion of nonviolence can be explained and understood from various
dimensions such as philosophical or wisdom traditions, psychological
and workplace context. A brief discussion on these perspectives of non-
violence will set the context of how the construct can be operationalised
in the workplace.

Religious Traditions and Philosophical Dimension

AhiMsA is a Sanskrit word that has been translated as nonviolence in the

west. A means ‘non’ and himsa means ‘violence’ but its meaning is much
more profound than merely translating it in the literal sense (Altman as
cited in Mayton 2009, 6). Nonviolence is not harming others not only by
actions but also by thoughts, words and at the highest cognitive level
(George 2008). Interestingly, nonviolence is practised as a way of life in
some traditional Indian religions. One such religion is Jainism, which
believes that the way to liberation of the soul is to live a life of harmless-
ness towards any living creature that exists on the planet (Bhalerao and
Kumar 2015). According to the Bhagawad Gita, nonviolence is a spiritual
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  67

alertness of the true body that leads to the evolutionary progressive life of
a living entity (Prabhupāda 2000). In the Bhagawad Gita as illustrated by
Gandhi, it is stated that violence is caused when one is captured in the
ignorance of the materialistic aspects of life (Desai 1946). Gandhi further
resonates the teachings of the Bhagawad Gita which mentions that only
in the absence of the appetite for fruit will there be no temptation for
untruth or himsa. Any instance of untruth or violence may be found
when it is back with the will to attain an admirable end.
According to ancient Indian philosophy, nonviolence is practised in
one’s actions, speech and in the manas (Bhawuk 2011). Practising non-
violence in action and speech is not enough; it has to be practised at the
highest level in the manas, so that it gets manifested in action and speech
later. Manas is a Sanskrit word which cannot be literally translated as
‘mind’; saying that nonviolence is practised in the mind does not do jus-
tice because when it is done with the manas, it includes other aspects such
as emotions, cognition and behavioural intentions, which are not
included in the case with the mind. Thus, nonviolence is not only about
not going to war, not using abusive speech, not displaying aggressive
behaviour or being indifferent at the mind level, it also includes having
no ill feelings about any person in thoughts, intentions and emotions. A
simple demonstration of this would be to criticise someone internally—
the vibration reaches the person and creates a discomfort. Thus, nonvio-
lence at the level of thoughts and emotions is very important, as the
negative vibes can be easily felt and this may disrupt the flow of
communication.
Within the Buddhist belief system, ways to relieve human pain and
suffering are found in the moral precept of ahiMsA or refraining from
harming any living being. To practise nonviolence, Buddhists strive to
counter the three roots of evil: acrimony, avarice and deception. Acrimony
is dealt with compassion, absolute love and kindness towards others; ava-
rice is handled by goodness and deception by wisdom. The Buddhist
ideal of ahiMsA not only ceases to harm others but also removes the
‘causes of harm’ to others (Kraft 1992). Queen points to the “practices of
loving, kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity (brahma-
viharas); the doctrines of selfishness (anatta); interdependence (paticcasa-
muppada), and nondualism (sunyatta)” (p. 25) as important to the realisation
68  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

of peaceful and nonviolent methods. Fear is an emotion which some-

times moves people to violent actions (Fleischman 2002). Nonviolence
overcomes the fear and it is a necessary aspect of human self-development
because it embodies the essence of well-being and frees the mind from
jealousy, evil thinking, hatred, self-delusion and even fear.
It is also quite well known to all that Mahatma Gandhi viewed nonvio-
lence as a philosophy of life (Mayton 2001), and the three principles that
guided his life were ahiMsA, satyagraha and tapasya. All of these principles
were embedded in his spiritual beliefs. Gandhi’s satyagraha means ‘hold-
ing on to truth’. Gandhi considered satyagraha to be a truth force or soul
force in which humans need to endeavour for absolute truth on a con-
tinual basis throughout life. Tapasya, on the other hand, means self-­
suffering. Tapasya is the eagerness to take the burden of suffering on
oneself rather than inflict it on one’s opponent in a conflict in order to
break the pattern of violence with a lesser amount of total violence
(Mayton 2009). AhiMsA and tapasya are the ways to attain absolute truth
in one’s life, that is, satyagraha. The attempt to cultivate absolute truth
can never be fully satiated; one can obtain only relative truth at a particu-
lar time in some situation. So, when conflict arises, neither side can be
sure of the sanctity of truthfulness, hence neither side can be presumed to
be correct. Gandhi therefore believed that it would be audacious to be
violent, since pain or harm may be directed towards individuals who are
closer to the truth.

Psychological Dimensions

From a psychological perspective, the theories of Kool (1990) and Teixeira

(1987) and the model of Brenes (1999) have been discussed. Incorporating
the work of Sharp (1979), Kool illustrates nonviolence within current
psychological theories and concepts. Kool discerns ‘acts of nonviolence’
from ‘nonviolence acts’. ‘Acts of nonviolence’ are absolute in nature and
are alternatives to violence. These acts attempt to broadcast that alterna-
tives to violence are possible and can be used to avoid injury to one’s
opponent. The purpose of the ‘acts of nonviolence’ is to resolve conflicts
where aggression or violence might be an appropriate response. ‘Acts of
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  69

nonviolence’ might be a march, a consumer boycott or a demonstration.

‘Nonviolent acts’ are different in that these behaviours do not use vio-
lence. Kool cites acts such as nurturing children or caring for animals as
examples of nonviolent acts.
In analysing the psychology of nonviolence, a second concept dis-
cussed by Kool (1990) is moral development. Drawing upon the work of
Kohlberg, Gilligan, Piaget, Rest and Eriksan, Kool states that nonvio-
lence has a moral dimension inculcating both lawfulness and affection. A
person high on lawfulness and low on affection is characterised by follow-
ing rules like equality and equity. On the other hand, a person high on
affection and low on lawfulness demonstrates supreme compassion. If a
person is low on both lawfulness and affection, then what works in a
particular instance is good. A person high on both lawfulness and affec-
tion acts upon alternatives that are fair and compassionate.
The third component is power or the capacity to influence the behav-
iour of others. Power that is relevant to nonviolence is ‘integrative power’.
It derives from the trust and goodwill given to those who are in a position
of power by their followers. Kool believes that nonviolent individuals
who attempt to achieve social harmony via moral behaviour obtain power
that affects the conscience of the perpetrators of violence.

Teixeira’s Theory of Nonviolence

Teixeira (1987) has incorporated a comprehensive theory of nonvio-
lence that is directed towards an inclusive and humanistic approach.
The aim of the general theory of nonviolence is to have a more inclusive
and humane society where the marginalised groups are respected and
exploitation against them is condemned. According to Teixeira, nonvio-
lence is an action that bares its intent of any kind of violence. It has an
overall goal to achieve ‘a pluralistic society, multi-ethnic, multicultural,
and multi-faith’ (p. 558). The goal can only be achieved if there is har-
mony in the society and it has achieved societal metamorphosis. At an
intrapersonal level, nonviolent action emphasises on strengthening
one’s inner self, which heightens one’s self-esteem. At the interpersonal
level, self-­respect is enhanced by extending respect to other people in the
70  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

community in the form of interconnectedness with all beings. Teixeira

further elaborates ‘fundamental ways of perceiving and thinking about
oneself and the world’ and ‘assumes an interconnectedness that is
transpersonal or spiritual’ (p. 558). It is the transpersonal aspect that
motivates nonviolent practitioners like King or Gandhi to suffer instead
of causing harm to their opponent in a conflict. The theory acknowl-
edges the human emotion of anger, which means that nonviolence
doesn’t ignore the emotion but at the same time the energy generated
due to the negative emotion of anger must be channelised into active
change tactics, prevention and respect. In fact, this theory looks at
anger as a positive motivator for change if it is approached in a socially
responsible manner. Thus, the holistic nonviolence theory of Teixeira
(1987) has a core value of interconnectedness with individual, commu-
nity and social systems. Conflict resolution, social struggle and con-
frontation, rewards and childbearing practices are the norms that
impact individuals’ relations at the intrapersonal, interpersonal and
transpersonal levels.

Brene’s Model of Peaceful Selfhood

This is a psychological theory of nonviolence developed in the context of
the United Nation’s University of Peace Program. The theory attempts to
answer question such as ‘What kind of person is needed to promote
peaceful culture?’ According to the model, establishing peace is the uni-
versal responsibility for every human being. This can be realised by estab-
lishing peace with the body, good health for all and maintaining balance
and harmony in the environment. In order to establish peace within the
body, there has to be peace in the heart, mind, oneself and the entire
community. Health for all can be realised through political, social and
cultural participation by all. Lastly, harmony in the environment can be
established through ecological consciousness and biodiversity. The
­following three dimensions are the three necessary shifts in consciousness
to allow for nonviolence: (1) equality, that is, a shift from the egoistic
nature to a collective orientation of equanimity, (2) equanimity, that is,
to treat everyone with equal compassion and (3) commitment to altruis-
tic life practices.
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  71

Workplace Dimension

AhiMsA is an age-old concept that cuts across all spheres and areas of life.
Even in management literature, we come across various concepts that are
similar to the practice of ahiMsA. For example, in Jurkiewicz and
Giacalone’s (2004) value framework for workplace spirituality, the value
of ‘benevolence’ is to show kindness towards others and work to generate
happiness and prosperity of employees. Similarly, Chodron (2005) advo-
cated six universal moral values in which ‘caring’ is a concern for some-
one, which indirectly means avoiding harm to the person. He defines
‘caring as the notion of avoiding unnecessary harm’ (Schwartz 2005, 39).
AhiMsA is advocated as an individual practice that can be adopted by any
employee at his or her workplace (Corner 2009). Kernochan, as cited in
Corner (2009), states that management educators embrace the virtue of
‘non-harming’ in their role as teachers working with students. The author
also states that the idea of non-harming comes from demonstrating com-
passion, which the author defines as the aspiration that all beings be free
of suffering and its causes (Chodron 2005). Bhalerao and Kumar (2015,
41) attempted to operationalise the definition of nonviolence in the con-
text of a workplace setting in which they stated that ‘it is the propensity
of an individual to constructively respond to provocation such as viola-
tion of norms of respect and justice at workplace or any provocation in a
way so as to not cause harm to the opponent in thoughts, words and
deeds’. There is a classic example of an Indian firm—Excel Industries Pvt.
Ltd—in which the chairman Mr Narayana has very well articulated his
practice of ahiMsA or nonviolence at the workplace. He describes his
leadership style as ‘reaching the hurts of others through love and avoiding
hurting other’. Narayana also states that ‘The first measure of success is
the happiness of all stakeholders’ (Pruzan and Mikkelson as cited in
Corner 2009, 383).

Outcomes of Nonviolence Behaviour

In the organisational context, there have been limited empirical stud-
ies conducted on the outcomes of nonviolence that can directly
impact job performance, job satisfaction, organisational citizenship
72  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

behaviours and so on. However, there is literature which has directly

or indirectly acknowledged the benefits of nonviolence behaviour in
organisations.
A person demonstrating nonviolence behaviour can stimulate a cul-
ture of peace in the organisation (Mayton 2009). Personality and
behavioural tendencies of a nonviolent person are agreeableness, for-
giveness, cooperativeness and trustworthiness (Mayton et  al. 1999).
Individuals who are prone to nonviolent behaviour associate themselves
with transcendental values of equality, lawfulness, endurance, wisdom
and sheltering the environment (Mayton et  al. 1999). A nonviolent
individual will not only approach a problem or a conflict situation in a
constructive manner but also have concern for the environment and
business at the same time. The cooperative context which is predomi-
nant in the nonviolence approach leads to constructive outcomes such
as healthy relations between several stakeholders for a longer run.
Integrative negotiation, which is again a nonviolent approach to deal
with conflict, shows appreciation of counterparts where negative emo-
tions are avoided. Wall et al. (2001) paradigm includes three types of
outcomes such as reputation—social skills that are drawn from the
mediation literature.

View of Nonviolence in Organisation: A Mixed Reality

In organisations, people are well equipped to hear several prevention

mechanisms of conflict, aggression or any deviance behaviours but ‘non-
violence as an organisational peace culture’ is ideological and abstract.
Mayton rightly adds that people often feel that old methods are no longer
relevant as their situation is quite different now (Mayton 2001).
Nonviolence is often understood as absence of violence, physical aggres-
sion and assault, and one who abstains from abusive language is a nonvio-
lent personality. It is also perceived that external factors such as policies,
rules and regulations are responsible for implementing nonviolent behav-
iour in the workplace. Less attention is given to the deeper meaning of
nonviolence which includes focusing on internal resources rather than
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  73

external stimulants, thus for some it is a myth. A respondent who is a

senior HR manager believes:

Organisation has [a] set of rules and regulations. People work in a controlled
environment. So even if there is an external stimuli, a person will not react, he
will keep quiet and work as any sort of reaction will be handled by disciplinary
action.
Respondent 1, Male, Sr. Manager HR, Manufacturing

Leaders need to assess whether the rules and regulations are abided wil-
fully or fearfully. In a healthy organisation, employees will always abide
by the rules wilfully. Failure to understand the prolonged silence of an
employee can sometimes be a cause of violence. The prolonged silence
may mean that the employee isn’t happy with something and at the same
time it may be difficult to voice such opinions due to fear of some kind.
One must understand that peace is not devoid of violence; rather it cul-
tivates and prepares a society with better resilience and human endurance
(De Villiers 2008). To embolden peace that stimulates sustenance not
only reduces violence but also contributes to the fulfilment of human
development (Richani 2013). The following is one instance when a man-
ager working on the shop floor narrated the consequences of unwillingly
abiding to the organisational rules and regulations:

In shop floor, people use authority which means introducing the fear factor to
get the work done but the subtle effect of that is nobody is happy to be there, they
go because it is a source of livelihood but the environment is not conducive to
develop cordial relationships with people or enjoy the work. Hence they silently
suffer.
Respondent 2, Male, Consultant, Manufacturing

One demonstrates nonviolent behaviour when he or she can have a

meaningful dialogue with their subordinate or peer on a routine basis and
is genuinely concerned for their well-being and happiness. To leave an
employee unattended is equivalent to being least concern for him or her,
making the employee feel that he or she is no longer important in con-
tributing to the organisation.
74  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

In an organisation, most people are familiar with nonviolence through

the lives of Gandhi and King. The nonviolent activism of these two indi-
viduals has helped shape its understanding both as a philosophy of life
and as a political strategy. Some of the respondents realised the fact that
organisations which earmarked competition, power and politics for
materialising a nonviolence work culture would not only transform indi-
vidual attitudes and behaviours but also create an overall positive shift in
organisational culture, thus leading to citizenship behaviours, enhanced
performance and improved customer satisfaction. They characterised
nonviolence behaviour as being more inclusive and cooperative rather
than exclusive and competitive. Nonviolence uses intergroup contact and
focuses more on cooperation. It also becomes a technique of creating
goodwill and wins the opponent’s trust through a reflective process which
directly touches the opponent’s conscience. A respondent who is a man-
ger in the R&D division of a manufacturing company states as follows:

My team works in innovative solutions for the clients. It works under high pres-
sure all the time. They need to amicably work together to come up with better
solutions, so nonviolence behaviour will definitely help my team to work in
cooperation so that the conflict is less, pressure is less and they work more
efficiently.
Respondent 3, Male, Sr. Project Lead, IT services

Well-functioning people and communities are essential for the effective

function of an organisation. Even Gandhian principles of nonviolence
have advocated a set of philosophical beliefs such as cooperation, inter-
dependence, compassion and social justice over individual achievement
(Walz and Ritchie 2000). For nonviolence to succeed as a method of
organisational transformation and social change there must be mutual
interdependence among the parties for mutual benefits. In terms of
­negotiations, there must also be an initiation of integrative rather than
distributive solutions. Integrative negotiation doesn’t mean that there is
guaranteed peace which is established but people proceed keeping the
overarching mutual benefits in mind. The same approach can also be
used in terms of an organisation’s decision-making process (Mayton
2009).
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  75

Nonviolence as Organisation Culture Is Time Bound

Workplaces in which nonviolence is functional also say that it is time

bound and the transformation does not happen overnight. For the cul-
ture to change it must not only be displayed in the company’s objectives,
mission, vision and values but also be disseminated in the behaviour of
each individual at all levels. A respondent working in corporate
CSR hub says:

I think in corporate things are very short term and everyone demands quarter
results … concepts like nonviolence, spirituality are time bound, as it takes time
to reap real benefits. To my knowledge, an average tenure in corporate is 3 to 5
years, i.e. the longest time people stay. … In longer terms such as 10, 20 or 30
years, it will bring transformation that may benefit because it changes your way
of reaction, character and overall personality.
Respondent 4, Male, Senior Consultant, IT Services

Thus there is a belief that nonviolence is definitely functional but at the

same time it will take a while to bring about an overall transformation in
the culture. Any change process goes through an array of phases that
takes a good amount of time. Omitting any steps creates only an illusion
of speed and never produces satisfactory results (Kotter 1995). Adopting
nonviolence behaviour may lead to slow solutions but its effect is long-­
lasting (Marlow et  al. 2012). Employees predisposed to nonviolence
behaviour understand the importance of commitment and they are
responsible for the tasks at hand. This is greatly beneficial for the organ-
isation as work never gets affected because employees find a constructive
alternative to deal with stress and conflicts rather than destructive
­mechanisms, which not only affect the employees but also bring down
the overall organisational performance.

Fruits of Nonviolence in a Form of Eudaimonia

Aristotle’s eudaimonia is a state of happiness devoid of pleasure-seeking,

whose source is sensorial pleasures. A participant who is also practising
76  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

spirituality recounts his experience of how organisations try to create

pleasure-seeking employee experiences.

Organisation must not try to create pleasure for their people through senses,
which do not last long; rather, it should emphasize to create a joyful environ-
ment for the people to realize to its fullest potentials. In organisation, the more
joyous side would be when you work for the larger purpose in life, or when you
do something without any expectations in return. A nonviolent behaviour or an
environment will create such joyful coexistence.
Respondent 2, Male, Consultant, Manufacturing

Pleasures ensue from a direct stimulation of the sense organs and satisfy
basic physiological needs. Webster’s defines pleasure ‘as a sense of sensual
gratification’. Webster’s description of joy as ‘emotions evoked by well-­
being, success, or good fortune or by the prospect of possessing what one
pleasure’ may imply a more deep-rooted rapturous emotion. Pleasure is
situated in the sense organs, while joy and happiness are states of the
‘heart-mind’ (Gier 2004, 153). Gandhi can be said to have supported
eudaimonism. Gandhi once said that human contentment is the greatest
treasure and such a state is derived from nonviolence (Gandhi and
Narayan 1949).

 onviolence as a Constructive Way to Conflict

N
Resolution

From the understanding of nonviolence as an absence of violence, many

may misunderstand that even an apathetic person is nonviolent, but a
mere act of abstaining doesn’t give a holistic understanding of ­nonviolence.
It encompasses the action component, which includes understanding of
fellow beings. Previous studies have shown high levels of empathy predis-
posed to nonviolence behaviour (Mayton et al. 1999). At the workplace
also, there is a provision for breaking the cycle of violence by being more
empathetic and understanding towards the opponent’s viewpoint. A
respondent narrates his journey of transforming his relationship by
adopting nonviolent behaviour exhibiting values of empathy.
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  77

In a situation, where my counterpart is not responding to my query, I have two

ways to deal. Per the rules, I can immediately escalate, the person may respond
to me but not with his heart. He is just doing his job. On the other hand, if I
talk to the person, show understanding and empathy which is [the] nonviolent
way, it will not only solve the problem but also create relationship between us.
In future, we will have the confidence to work together. Thus, if I adopt nonvio-
lence strategy, my relationships with peers is not damaged.
Respondent 3, Male, Sr. Project Lead, IT services

Thus, adopting nonviolent behaviour by having a meaningful dialogue

not only reconciles relationships but also gives confidence and trust to
pursue relations that will result in meaningful business outcomes in the
future. Nonviolence communication leads to a significant increase in
empathy level, which improves interpersonal relationships in all areas of
people’s lives.

Nonviolence Beyond Work Teams

There is a saying that charity begins at home; so it is in the case of practis-

ing nonviolence communication. One cannot be nonviolent at one’s
workplace and violent at home. In that case, the person will encounter
differences in personality. A veteran recalls an incident of how during his
time organisations facilitated building employee relations with their fam-
ily and helped create better understanding:

Way back in 90 itself, we had session where all the managers and workers sat
together to discuss and explore each other’s inner thoughts. We had Saturday
school in factory, where people used to take off from their work, bring their
families to discuss how they can make their life more enriching, understand
relation building at home, resolve conflict at home and create more harmonious
coexistence.
Respondent 2, Male, Consultant, Manufacturing

Organisations contribute a great deal in creating a society which is har-

monious in nature just as the backbone of any society is good familial
ties. Philosophers, theologians, sociologists, spiritual leaders and social
78  A. Sarkar and S. Palo

commenters of all sorts vouch on the belief that any form of moral obli-
gation or spiritual values are deeply based in family values and they move
towards communities and nations. Exhibiting nonviolence communica-
tion at home is also important so that both children and parents inculcate
the behaviour together, which will lead to prosocial behaviour.

 ntecedents of Nonviolence Behaviour

A
at the Workplace

The current study has revealed the importance of organisation culture in

facilitating spirituality at the workplace. Respondents agreed that organ-
isation plays a greater role in instilling spiritual climate, which in turn
affects nonviolence behaviour. Culture affects the vision, goals and values
which percolate into the behaviour of every employee. In fact, organisa-
tion culture is the setting in which vision is built (Bass and Avolio 1993).
Employees become socialised according to organisation culture.
Dissatisfaction happens when there is a friction between individual and
organisational values. One respondent articulates the influence of organ-
isation culture on individual values:

Culture of the organisation is always top down. I faced a situation when my

supervisor’s attitude was to get the job done with ‘carrot and stick approach’
which at times was emotionally abusive for others; on the other hand, I wanted
to get the job done by building good relationships. My boss believes in certain
methodology, certain types of tools to get the work done and I believe in building
up a relationship, then it becomes a conflict of methodology and yes it made me
suffer in such a situation when I don’t have choice but have to adapt to the violent
method of my boss. It gave me a nasty feeling and also affected my self-respect.
Respondent 4, Male, Senior Consultant, IT Services

The role of leadership in instilling spiritual climate is very critical.

Leadership helps in moulding organisational culture to a large extent
(Bass and Avolio 1993). Leaders not only build culture but also articulate
the same to their followers, which is exhibited in their behaviours. On
one instance, a leader narrates how he can affect the spiritual climate of
the organisation.
   Nonviolence Behaviour in the Workplace: Myth or Reality?  79

I have built a culture of customer centrism in my organisation. I have also

groomed other managers working with me, to build similar culture as I believe
culture is always top down and it is how I am driving it.
Respondent 5, Male, Chief People Officer, BFSI

Therefore, the climate of an organisation essentially consists of shared

perceptions which shape individual attitudes and values. Leadership
facilitation and support is one of the foremost dimensions of organisa-
tion climate (Jones and James 1979).

Conclusion
Although nonviolence has deeper historical roots, people barely recognise
its depth and applicability as a useful strategy tool. Even in academia, it
is unfortunate that research into violence, aggression or deviance behav-
iours is more than into nonviolence. Nonviolence action, even though
very powerful, is losing familiarity perhaps because people feel they need
to have a certain personality type or it can be exhibited only in certain
situations, under special circumstances. In modern organisations heavily
characterised by deadlines, time pressure and quick solutions, concepts
such as nonviolence or spirituality may seem a faraway reality to many
but it is a solution that can transform an organisation and last for many
years to come. One must know that both these concepts are very much
ingrained in our nature; with spiritual practices facilitated by ­organisations,
we need to be aware in order to fully recognise that its benefit lie at all
levels of individual, team and overall organisational performance.

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 Part II
Empirical Evidence of Workplace
Spirituality
 6
Finding Spirituality at Work Through
Employee Volunteerism
Devyani Mourya

Introduction
Spirituality at work (SAW) studies are not about ‘religion’ or getting peo-
ple indoctrinated into a particular common belief; instead, the focus is on
finding meaning and purpose beyond the mere completion of tasks.
These studies recognize that the workplace is populated with people who
have a ‘mind’ and ‘soul’ and are concerned with nourishing both. Ashmos
and Duchon (2000) consider man as a spiritual being who “seeks mean-
ingful work” and use it as a mean to express “inner life.” The idea of the
inner life is a space where human ‘spirit’ exists both at and away from the
workplace. It is fundamentally related to who employees think they are,
what they do, and how they want to contribute. Some other studies
related to SAW also treat it like a meaning-making construct (Cavanagh
1999; Neck and Milliman 1994). It is considered a search for meaning
and an endeavour to live one’s life as close to one’s integral values
as possible.

D. Mourya (*)
Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indore, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 85

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_6
86  D. Mourya

Terkel (1974), in a project on the oral history of work, interviewed

over 100 people about what they do all day and how they feel about it. It
included people from a wide variety of occupations, from gravediggers to
lawyers. He added to the spiritual perspective, saying that ‘meaning’ is as
important as a pay cheque in motivating workers. In this study, one com-
mon claim made by people who experienced satisfaction at the workplace
was that their work was over and beyond the monetary compensation.
Since this study, there have been more who agree that ‘Meaning is the
new Money.’ The notion that people work merely for ‘financial compen-
sation’ has been long challenged by scholars and practitioners. It is simply
impossible to ignore evidence of people who have chosen to forsake high-­
paying jobs in search of something ‘more.’
Henry Ford once infamously complained: “Why every time I
employ a pair of hands, it comes with a brain attached.” Things have
changed since then, and there is an increasing appreciation for people
bringing their whole self to work. There is a place at work not only for
intellect, talent, physical work, and emotions but also for the ‘spirit’
of the person. The SAW movement is gaining momentum by the rec-
ognition that providing opportunities to employees for nourishing
their spirit is good for business. Organizations are interested in ways
to seek, win, and increase employee engagement and motivation. This
interest is created in part because of changing expectations of the
workforce and in part because of the change in the nature of work
itself. Knowledge work has placed employees at the heart of an orga-
nization. Yet, they are not immune to continual re-engineering, de-
layering, and downsizing. These frequent upheavals lead to the trust
deficit and ultimately elevated stress levels. Not surprisingly, it
becomes even more important for the employees to seek something
more permanent like meaning and purpose in life. Organizations rec-
ognize this, and many corporations like Southwest, Microsoft,
American Express, and Marriott use words like “spirit” and “mean-
ing” in their communication and explicit mission statements.
However, while businesses no longer ignore how critical spirituality at
work is, they are far from understanding how to foster it at the
workplace.
   Finding Spirituality at Work Through Employee Volunteerism  87

F ostering Spirituality at Work

Through ‘Enriching Work’
There is a parable about three people working on a construction site. They were
each asked what they were doing. They considered the question for a while, and
each one gave a different answer. The first one said he was laying bricks; the
second said he was earning a pay-check, and the third one said he was building
a church. Who do you think was most satisfied with his work?

Work can be one of the most profound ways of experiencing spiritual-

ity. That’s why enriching work such that it becomes a source of meaning
would be the most obvious way of answering the employee’s need for
spirituality at work. In a review by Lips-Wiersma (2002), three interpre-
tations of ‘meaning’ emerged. One, purpose—this includes not only the
very reason an individual works but also what he or she considers the
ultimate goal of his or her life. Work must be designed in a way that it
not only is a means to earn a livelihood but also serves to fulfil a greater
objective in life. Two, sense-making—it is basic human nature to seek a
better understanding of the world around them. The work should pro-
vide an opportunity for this. Three, coherence—the work needs to bind
different parts of one’s life into a whole. The work done should be in
tune with the integral values of a person. A person’s work, if it provides
him or her with purpose, sense-making, and coherence, can be a source
of meaning. Hackman and Oldham (1976), while trying to understand
the structural properties of work, proposed a term called ‘task signifi-
cance.’ They described it as the “degree to which an employee’s work
contributed to the well-being of others.” If work is for the good of soci-
ety, an employee finds it fulfilling. With growing specialization, each
employee is involved in a particular area of expertise. They may some-
times struggle to understand their role in the entire process of producing
a good or a service. To view their contribution in the larger scheme of
things can be i­nstrumental in transforming work into a widely valued
experience in life (coherence).
SAW is about ‘connectedness.’ Employees want to feel a connection
with the work they are doing. They are also interested in how allied they
88  D. Mourya

are with the people around them. Relationships at the workplace are
increasingly a source of meaning. Dissolution of the support in their
personal lives causes people to rely more strongly on the relationships
formed at work. However, it is not always possible to develop enduring
bonds at work. Moreover, in modern businesses, we often have to per-
form tasks that may not come across as intrinsically motivating or
socially relevant. In such cases how do workers find and reaffirm mean-
ing in their lives? Adam Grant (2012) presented a perspective on how
employees deal with jobs that are lacking in meaning. He said that
when a person doesn’t get the nourishment to the spirit in the work
domain, they begin to look for it in other aspects of their lives. One
such area is ‘volunteer work.’ He explained it as a ‘meaning mainte-
nance’ model. People often turn to volunteerism for spiritual nourish-
ment that is denied to them in their paid work. Organizations
understand this and are providing more and more opportunities for
‘employee volunteerism (Rodell et  al. 2016)’. The new generation of
employees pays particular attention to volunteering opportunities while
picking up a job. While interviewing professionals participating in a
school volunteer programme, one of them pointed out the importance
of volunteering:

My earlier company was very active in socially active programs. When I joined
this new organization, I started missing that satisfaction that came with par-
ticipating in voluntary programs. That is when I decided to actively seek a
volunteer program outside. Yes, it makes me view ‘the earlier organization’ more
positively.
Hospitality Professional, 45

Employee Volunteerism
By a widely accepted definition, volunteerism is considered “freely chosen
activities that extend over time and are often performed through organi-
zations and on behalf of receptive causes and individuals” (Snyder and
Omoto 2008). Penner et al. (2005), while conceptualizing volunteerism,
   Finding Spirituality at Work Through Employee Volunteerism  89

offered six defining features. First, the decision to volunteer is a ‘free

choice’; it is devoid of coercion or any sense of obligation. Second, it is
not an impulsive act of helping others; there is some amount of delibera-
tion or thought that goes into it. Third, volunteerism is not a ‘one-­time’
activity but is carried out over a duration of time, thereby excluding all
the acts of spontaneous helping or bystanders’ interventions from the
definition of volunteerism. Fourth, volunteerism is done without hope of
any reward or of avoiding punishment: volunteers may sometimes receive
a stipend; however, the value of the stipend must be much less compared
to the service provided. Volunteering involves helping people or causes
that seek assistance. Sixth, volunteerism is performed through agencies or
organizations. Volunteering is an activity that the individuals choose out
of their free will. Motives of volunteering have always interested scholars.
The most popular inventory of volunteering motives was developed by
Clary et al. (1998). Scholars applied functionalist theory to explain vol-
unteer motivation. Individuals have a variety of motives for exhibiting
the same actions (in this case volunteerism), and it may serve distinct
psychological functions for them. Clary et al. (1998) have identified six
motives for volunteering: value, understanding, social relations, career,
protection, and enhancement. The six motives in Volunteer Functional
Inventory are as follows: (1) Values—these are the altruistic and human-
istic reasons expressed by volunteers for participating in the programmes.
These values are particular to an individual and denote what a person’s
core beliefs are. (2) Understanding—people have a desire to learn some-
thing new and for developing the self. Volunteering may offer an indi-
vidual an opportunity to learn a new skill or more about their environment.
(3) Social—individuals may volunteer to strengthen their social relations,
either as a means of socialization or because it is important to others in
their social circle. (4) Career—employees volunteer to gain entry into a
coveted workplace or because it makes their résumé look appealing. They
may participate in a volunteer project only because it is being endorsed
by top managers. (5) Protection—people try to protect themselves from
any negative feelings. Volunteering can help people escape feelings like
guilt for being more fortunate than others or loneliness. (6)
Enhancement—this is the ego-related motive which makes individuals
90  D. Mourya

feel better about themselves. An individual feels important by being in a

position to help others. Whatever the incentives of the employees, vol-
unteerism gives employees an opportunity to perform work that is
meaningful to the society, and that may be a source of experiencing
spirituality.

Compensation Approach to Volunteering

The compensation approach refers to when people seek what they are
missing in one domain of their life in other. When an individual’s spiri-
tual needs are neglected in their paid occupation, they are more likely to
seek volunteer opportunities. For example, people complaining of super-
ficial relationships at work appreciate the deep bonds developed with
people they are helping. Volunteering provides a twofold opportunity for
people to experience spirituality. They get to connect with society and
work towards increasing the well-being of others. Rodell (2013) applied
the concept of ‘Wanderlust’ to give another perspective to this approach.
According to the Oxford Dictionary, wanderlust is defined as “a strong
desire to travel to unknown places.” It is pinning for experiences that you
have never had before. This analogy is a great one to understand ‘unmet’
spiritual needs. While people are not sure what it is, they are aware of the
lack of it. Employees respond to a sense of wanderlust by seeking volun-
teering opportunity. Most people who join an employee volunteer pro-
gramme do it for a variety of motives as discussed earlier. Once they start
doing it, they get a sense of homecoming, which keeps them volunteer-
ing again and again. When an employee was interviewed about his vol-
unteering stint, he deliberated on how compensatory motive operated
in his case:

I was restless. When I met my peers, we hardly talked about things beyond the
latest cars and phones. I was getting more and more uncomfortable with it each
day. When I volunteered at the local school, the children would show me, love,
invite me to their houses and discuss new concepts. I felt immense happiness.
General Manager (L&T), 58
   Finding Spirituality at Work Through Employee Volunteerism  91

Spillover Effect on Volunteering

By compensatory approach, we mean that if a person’s present work is

inherently lacking in meaning, employee volunteerism can help in bal-
ancing it by providing it in other domain. By this logic, we can argue that
if the job design in itself is rich in ‘task significance,’ the employee volun-
teerism schemes would not be needed. However, studies show that is not
the case. Meaningful work and spiritual workplace can enhance partici-
pation in voluntary programmes as well. It conveys that experiences in
one facet of a person’s life have a ‘spillover effect’ on other domains too
(Burke and Greenglass 1987). Sometimes, the attitude acquired at work
can become so deeply ingrained in a person that they become a part of his
personality. This particular aspect of occupation often becomes dominant
and starts influencing self-perceptions and actions. If that view of the self
is particularly positive, like doing meaningful work, a person starts view-
ing himself as a humane and spiritual person. As an altruistic person, he
then starts seeking other pursuits which further consolidate this view like
doing socially relevant work. People who get value from their jobs, such
as a sense of spiritual satisfaction, develop an inclination to similar expe-
riences which translates into volunteering. This has also been described in
terms of appetite or ‘voracity.’
This is hunger or eagerness for an experience. It was first observed
in people suffering from substance abuse. They report a ‘craving’ and
drive to find more of the high after experiencing it once. Similarly,
people enjoy a certain aspect of their work so much that they begin
craving for it in other domains. As we had observed earlier with ‘wan-
derlust,’ this process may be particularly relevant to spirituality dis-
covered at the workplace. Volunteering literature has explored time
and again that people who have found meaning in their vocation
carry a desire for similar experiences outside the work domain, and
that leads them to volunteer (Clary et al. 1998; Wilson and Musick
2017). The organizations that foster spirituality at work develop
employees who engage in other activities that provide a similar sense
of purpose.
92  D. Mourya

How Voluntary Projects Help in Enriching Jobs

The extent to which voluntary programmes contribute to SAW depends
on the characteristics of work design at these projects. For a volunteer
work to be considered spiritually rewarding, it generally includes four
characteristics of job design as discussed earlier in the chapter. One, the
roles must have task significance (substantial contribution to the society).
Many corporates provide volunteer opportunities with schoolchildren,
girl child, and hospitals. All these activities have a significant impact on
the well-being of others. Two, the employees should get an opportunity
to develop their ‘work identity.’ They feel more satisfied with the work
they are doing if they are involved with the complete process instead of
just a part of it. At McGraw Hill, employee volunteer programmes allow
employees to be involved in fundraising projects from start to finish.
They develop the promotional ideas, marketing strategy, application of
grants, and even annual report preparation. This involvement increases
the sense of purpose in the employees. Three, autonomy (freedom to
make choices) is an essential element that enriches a job design. Voluntary
programmes allow the employees to choose the scheduling and how they
want to contribute. Four, feedback (information about performance) is
one of the task characteristics which provides jobs with meaningfulness,
In employee volunteering projects at Capital One, and Unum, efforts are
made to collect data about the impact of the initiative on the society.
Managers pay particular attention to providing this information to the
employees. All these facets of the volunteer programmes contribute
towards spiritual fulfilment workers seek at the workplace.
SAW scholars have paid special attention to the social characteristics of
work. Social components are the structures of jobs that impact workers’
relationships and interactions at work. Meaningful relationships at work
can support, encourage, and help employees. Volunteer programmes
allow these social needs to be addressed so that employees realize the
desire for connection with others, which is a core component of
­‘spirituality.’ At southwest airlines, employee volunteers are encouraged to
mentor ‘high-risk’ children. These interactions lead to the development of
genuine connections between the employee volunteers and the children.
   Finding Spirituality at Work Through Employee Volunteerism  93

The workers value these and say their relationship with the children com-
pensates for the transactional ties they have at the workplace.
Spirituality at the workplace rests on the development of knowledge.
People bring their values to the work, and if these are consistent with the
organization’s values, they look at the work as an enriching experience.
Personal growth and skill development are vital to an employee’s need to
grow intellectually and spiritually. Employees opt for volunteer work in
other domains if it gives them the opportunity to learn something new.
At Exxon-Mobil employees volunteer to prevent malaria, using this
opportunity to figure out how to fundraise and negotiate. One more such
example is IBM, where employees volunteer to generate creative solu-
tions to challenges in developing countries. It has a successful programme
where they offer students IT skills. The employees use this as a means to
learn ‘teaching skills.’

I am a long time IBMer, and in my career, I faced a few challenges that I was
proud to overcome. But the day I stepped into a classroom of 10 differently-­
abled children at SSK, I realized my accomplishments at work were small com-
pared to what these students can accomplish.
IBM Employee from IBM website

Therefore, formalization of company involvement in employee volun-

teerism as a means of achieving SAW is recommended. This support can
fit into three main categories. First and most prevalent is providing
employees with paid time to invest in social causes. Organizations also
allow employees to adjust their working hours to accommodate volun-
teering. Second, companies can offer donations to provide logistic sup-
port to the programmes. These may include sponsoring prizes, allowing
the use of company space, providing transportation, or reimbursing costs
of volunteering efforts. The third may come in the form of employee rec-
ognition, wherein employees are granted awards, lunches, or certificates
for participation in volunteer programmes. These investments also make
good business sense as organizations can use spirituality at the workplace
to distinguish themselves from other potential employers. In particular,
the companies that included information about their volunteer opportu-
nities in the recruitment material were considered a ‘good place to work.’
94  D. Mourya

Conclusion
I consider myself a spiritual person, but I am not the kind who will read reli-
gious books. No matter how busy I am at work, every once in a while, I ask
ourselves [sic] ‘Am I doing something meaningful?’ This search is a spiritual
journey for me.
Information Technology (IT) Professional, 31

Spirituality at Workplace has attracted substantial attention from both

practitioners and scholars. Although SAW is a relatively new idea, it has
always existed in personal lives, deeply ingrained in religious beliefs.
Earlier organizations were seen as impersonal, mechanical places with an
emphasis on the bureaucratic procedure but lately, it has been under-
stood that there is a need to accommodate every aspect of human beings
which includes spiritual well-being. There is an emphasis on ‘wholeness’
at work. This means that workers bring to work not only their intellectual
but also their emotional and spiritual selves. Spirituality at work is not
only tolerated but also encouraged as a powerful tool that supports per-
sonal fulfilment and job satisfaction. In this chapter, two elements of
spirituality—meaningful work and search of a purpose—are examined as
central to an understanding of SAW.
While organizations care about providing spiritual experiences at
work, they are still not sure about how to go about it. Core spiritual val-
ues involve a sense of connectedness with society and need to work
towards the well-being of others. One significant way of realizing both
these values is employee volunteerism. There are two perspectives on why
employees volunteer and its relationship with SAW. One is a compensa-
tory viewpoint, where an employee may suffer from a lack of meaning
and purpose (spirituality) at work and aim to make up for it by volun-
teering. The second is a spillover effect where, since a person experiences
spirituality at work, it spills over in other domains of his or her life.
Therefore, they may seek more opportunities to enhance spiritual experi-
ences in their lives. Either way, employee volunteerism is an effective way
to contribute towards SAW.
Corporate volunteering is facing an all-time rise as an employer-­
branding tool for cooperations. Organizations offer ‘paid time,’ transport,
   Finding Spirituality at Work Through Employee Volunteerism  95

and space and even reimbursement of expenses for participation in vari-

ous initiatives. Managers provide incentives and appreciation for par-
ticipation in employee volunteer programmes. Organization involvement
is a must in making any employee volunteer project a success.
Nevertheless, any investment in these projects is ultimately beneficial to
the organization as spirituality guides a person to reach his or her full
potential. SAW strives for each employee to reach their full potential,
which results in higher employee engagement, performance, and orga-
nizational commitment.

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 7
Spirituality and an Online Satirical News
Venture: The Case of Faking News
Animesh Bahadur and Kunal Kamal Kumar

Workplace Spirituality and Online Enterprise

The workplace spirituality ‘movement’, while found suitable for the post-­
bureaucratic workplaces (Gotsis and Kortezi 2008), seems to elicit
research mostly in large structured organizations. Though there are stud-
ies looking into spirituality in the context of entrepreneurship (Kauanui
et al. 2010) or innovation (Shinde and Fleck 2015) or even community
networks (Kurt et al. 2016), there is limited literature on how workplace
spirituality reflecting transcendence through meaningful work, connec-
tion to community, and feeling of wholeness (Gotsis and Kortezi 2008)
could be viewed in online ventures. Contemporary organizations often
defy the institutional logic associated with large organizations (Thornton
et  al. 2013). Democratization of knowledge through the internet has

A. Bahadur
TA Pai Management Institute, Manipal, India
K. K. Kumar (*)
Indian Institute of Management Udaipur, Udaipur, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 97

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_7
98  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

enabled the emergence of new forms of organizations including those

that could be totally online and in many cases without any regular/formal
employees (O’Mahony and Lakhani 2011). Members of such organiza-
tions could often be people from disparate backgrounds but with a com-
mon interest leading to working through mutual reinforcement,
self-governance (as opposed to institutional mechanisms), and decompo-
sition of teams based on projects (Markus et al. 2000). In addition, auto-
mation and flexible work systems are challenging the very premise of the
traditional firm (Powell and Snellman 2004; Smith 1997). It is hence
increasingly relevant to look at workplace spirituality in the emerging
forms of organizations. This chapter endeavours to apply the existing
workplace spirituality concepts to an online satirical content venture.
Taking the case of Faking News (one of the very first representatives of
alternative online platforms for journalism presenting a satirical perspec-
tive on current affairs) and its founder Rahul Roushan, we look into how
the core elements of workplace spirituality play out in such a context.
The internet era marks the emergence of alternative sources of news
and analysis enabled through the aforementioned new forms of organiza-
tions challenging the mainstream perceptions of fair and accessible news.
As a result, diverse groups are now capable of developing their own online
spaces (Bruns and Highfield 2012). Several such initiatives emerged from
the need to provide scope for dissent and express oneself amidst the tyr-
anny of the controlled mainstream media (Gillmor 2006). Many of these
initiatives across the media platforms, ideologies, and target groups have
been driven by the need to make a difference (Wall 2015). Based on infer-
ences from a detailed interview with Rahul Roushan, we argue that as
Faking News is a cause-driven venture, its founder and contributors reflect
elements of workplace spirituality through their commitment to make a
difference. Our view is that most of the significant aspects of workplace
spirituality expressed in the extant literature on the topic can be applied
in the case of Faking News in spite of its small team size and virtually no
standard institutional regulations. If fact, we propose that the absence of
a standard institutional framework could be conducive to the emergence
of greater commitment and sense of purpose. The chapter closes with the
limitations of this study and suggestions for further ­research.
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  99

 pirituality at Workplace: The Salient Elements

S
for the Study
In the present study we have separated spirituality from religion-based
spirituality in conformity with the view of major scholars in the arena
(see Houghton et al. 2016; Marques et al. 2005). Our focus is on the ele-
ments that make one experience the sense of the ‘whole’ (Kauanui et al.
2008) and can help explain the spirituality in the context of an entrepre-
neur as a leader (Fry 2003; Kauanui et al. 2010). Notions like ‘incorpo-
rating an individual’s mind, body and spirit into workplace’ (Ashmos and
Duchon 2000) and ‘intrinsic motivation’ (Fry 2003) are hence relevant
here and can be related to the desire to find meaning in one’s life (Mitroff
and Denton 1999). However, it needs to be understood that in the
absence of a defined institutional framework, the case of Faking News
cannot be one of usual probing of both the organizational and the indi-
vidual spirituality factors.
The case of Faking News fits more into the perspective on spirituality
in network organizations (Kurt et al. 2016) where elements of spirituality
are seen to help build trust and commitment. It is not just about sharing
the assumptions of the leader to define beliefs and principles as is seen in
traditional organizations. Nor is it simply the ‘organic’ development
based on reciprocity in networks (Kurt et  al. 2016). It represents the
combination of this reciprocity with what Fry (2003) called spiritual
leadership marked by intrinsic motivation, vision, and value congruence
leading to commitment. The leader who takes the initiative, in turn, also
helps develop consensus in the virtual networks to develop the desired
meaningfulness in the endeavour.
Despite these differences, most of the significant elements of work-
place spirituality as found in the literature, namely, meaningful and
engaging work, sense of community with compassion, connection, and
transcendence (Gotsis and Kortezi 2008; Gupta et al. 2014), matter here.
As discussed in the preceding paragraph, such an online venture can very
well incorporate community building by uniting people who share com-
mon values and thus achieve a sense of transcendence (Gotsis and Kortezi
2008). A few of these elements are presented in this chapter and are dis-
cussed below.
100  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

Spirituality and Meaningful Work

The first element of finding meaning is through work that the individual
can identify with. The sense of ‘bringing oneself to work’ (Gotsis and
Kortezi 2008; Hicks 2002) involves the need to be connected to the work
with a sense of integrity (Kurth 2003). It emerges not just from having a
liking for the work but also by making a positive impact and achieving
personal fulfilment and growth (Gotsis and Kortezi 2008). Making a
positive impact in turn strengthens the sense of connectedness to a cause
as well as to the fellow actors, thus giving a feeling of completeness often
described as ‘being part of the whole’ (Carroll 2001). This dimension is
hence much more than having the right job characteristics: it extends to
having meaningfulness and purpose in the job itself (Saks 2011). Fry
(2003) relates this to intrinsic motivation that incorporates vision, atti-
tude, and behaviours that lead to a sense of fulfilment. The sense of fulfil-
ment can also be linked to higher order spiritual dimensions of life (Rego
and Pina e Cunha 2008), leading to greater effectiveness. The meaning-
fulness in work referred to here is also associated with ethical leadership
as it fosters higher levels of spiritual well-being, developing a sense of
calling (Fry et al. 2006).

Spirituality and Transcendence

Transcendence in the context of workplace spirituality starts with a con-

nection to the domain of work (Kurth 2003) by giving a sense of related-
ness and hence of completeness. The implication here is of being a part of
a larger whole rather than being just a cog in the wheel. It can hence be
related to the aforementioned connectedness associated with meaningful
work. However, it extends further than that to incorporate hope/faith and
altruistic love, leading to psychological well-being and life satisfaction
(Fry 2003). It needs to be mentioned here that this transcendence does
not have other-worldly connotations but is human-centred and rooted in
pragmatism (Pava 2004). This has also been referred to as intelligent spiri-
tuality. The focus here is on transcending the differences, overcoming bar-
riers to work, and being connected through a larger purpose (Thompson
2000). It can therefore be related to a higher order of needs of Maslow
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  101

(Tischler 1999). In other words, connection to a larger cause or a sense of

calling is imperative for this transcendence. The transcendence is also in
terms of congruence of values, assertive membership, empowerment, and
overall high level of commitment in the organization (Fry 2003).
Transcendence is thus also from the individual level to the organizational
level with a higher vision, feeling of being understood and appreciated,
concern and care and appreciation for self and others (Fry 2003).

Spirituality and Entrepreneurship

Studies looking into the role of the founder/entrepreneur point out how
it can be directly related to meaningfulness since the entrepreneur has the
scope to create a (work) life that matters (Porras et al. 2007). The ‘calling’
is a self-expression showing the personal essence in entrepreneurship
since the whole creative process is in control of the entrepreneur (King-­
Kauanui et al. 2005). Entrepreneurship offers the potential to match the
challenges faced by the venture with personal skills and commitment to
goals (Csikszentmihalyi 2003). Personal freedom that is available to the
entrepreneur is the key to joy and makes the situation even more mean-
ingful and fulfilling by providing the scope for creativity.
In a start-up situation the task could commence from developing the
initial vision to attract attention and then moving forward with passion
and commitment (Freeman and Siegfried 2015). Entrepreneurship hence
offers ample scope to have meaningful work and to connect to the whole
(Kauanui et al. 2010). The very sense of relatedness to the idea and mak-
ing it real can be a spiritual experience as discussed in the sections above.
This becomes especially significant for innovation, which is no longer
considered an individual endeavour and calls for connecting with others
(Shinde and Fleck 2015).

Spirituality and Leadership

Studies on leadership and spirituality show enough divergence often con-

trasting between spirituality as an organizational factor (Mitroff and
Denton 1999) and a personal factor focused on the difference in the
spiritual perspective (Ashforth and Pratt 2003). The role of leadership in
102  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

providing vision and enabling development however includes issues

beyond the two aforementioned dichotomies. Some of these are direc-
tion, passion, and strategic thinking (Phipps 2012). Though these issues
are addressed in the context of entrepreneurship discussed above, it is the
sense of passion and direction for the team that is further emphasized in
the context of leadership as explained by Fry (2003) in his model. Hence,
both individual beliefs and perspectives and organizational factors
(including profile of the followers) remain important for having a leader
with a sense of the whole (Phipps 2012).

The Online Venture Context

The creation of online and virtual spaces has challenged the structural
paradigms. Bakardjieva (2003) uses the term ‘immobile socialization’ to
explain the process of online collective deliberation and action from
private locations often in the virtual context. Delineating the process of
formation of online communities through the development of fora, cre-
ation of content, and action taken, she mentions that this can be the
process for dissemination at both private and public levels. This process
not only enables sharing and expansion of knowledge but also repre-
sents a leap in the venture format with little or no expenditure required
in the beginning. Any such online venture can actively engage with geo-
graphically dispersed individuals or groups that relate to the cause to
form communities that were hitherto restricted in the absence of the
World Wide Web.
The online ventures based on virtual interactions are structurally often
marked by diverse, geographically dispersed, and laterally connected
entities that show highly dynamic processes, permeable boundaries, and
reconfigurable structures (DeSanctis and Monge 1999). Though they are
also supposed to be marked by contractual relationships (reflecting some
level of institutionalization), Markus et al. (2000) in their study of the
open-source movement show how mutually reinforcing motivations and
self-governance including adapting rules based on individual needs can
ensure success in such ventures. This conforms to the argument of Kurt
et  al. (2016) that spirituality based on identification with values and
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  103

s­ pecific kind of work comes even before the members join the network.
The argument can be appreciated looking at the success of various online
ventures including content-based ones like Faking News. The very sense
of convergence on beliefs and goals ensures strong commitment, which
may often be lacking in the online ventures of formalization-based large
organizations.
With respect to spirituality, such online and network-based entities
represent a different process of realizing the sense of meaningfulness and
transcendence. In their study of industry-based community networks in
Turkey, Kurt et al. (2016) emphasize that in such networks, spirituality
binds members in an organic way without any formal leadership to estab-
lish the shared assumptions. Spirituality as mentioned above is seen as an
a priori condition for commitment here, which is the key determinant of
network effectiveness (Clarke 2006). With a common defined value or
belief preceding the network membership, such networks can focus on
protecting and preserving whatever the members consider sacred. In
value-based alignment (Milliman et al. 2003) commitment comes in the
form of valuing and enduring the relationship (Morgan and Hunt 1994).
An enduring network relationship is marked by trust, which lowers con-
flict, reduces negotiation cost, fosters information sharing, and operates
as an efficient social control measure (Kurt et al. 2016). An online ven-
ture is, however, not just a community network but an enterprise with
defined leadership roles. Thus, it may not simply be a case of organic
emergence and commitment. This can be seen in the discussion on Faking
News as well.

Case: Rahul Roushan and Faking News

Ashar and Lane-Maher (2004), while integrating the various definitions

of workplace spirituality, not just included ‘innate search for transcen-
dent meaning’ but also considered ‘integration of inner life’ with one’s
professional role and ‘service of a greater good’. The case of Rahul
Roushan’s venture follows the same search, integration, and service.
Rahul Roushan started his career as a journalist with a news channel but
was soon disillusioned with the nature of news reporting and the falling
104  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

standards of journalism. He hence looked for an alternative meaningful

career and pursued his post-graduation in management from Indian
Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (IIM-A), the top-ranked business
school of India. The experience of IIM, however, exposed him to the
limitations of mainstream corporate jobs as well as of business education
itself. He hence looked at his inner calling in which he combined his past
interest in journalism with his good understanding of business. The result
of this was the founding of the online satirical news portal Faking News.
This was a major step given that he was a first-generation entrepreneur
and had no financial backing or other material support to initiate this
project. It was a calling that he believed in based on his goal of serving the
people by providing an alternative to the news and analysis being churned
out by the mainstream media.

Rationale for Initiating Faking News

Rahul Roushan, as mentioned above, was disillusioned by the way the

mainstream media was unable to uphold the values and responsibilities
that define journalism. Journalists have both ethical and professional
responsibilities (Painter and Hodges 2010), and the two at times may not
go hand in hand. While there is definitely the need for and existence of
professional safeguards, a strong sense of being ethical with respect to
fairness and independence in judgement is also important for journalists
to be considered the ‘watchdogs of society’ (Deuze 2005). However, as
Richards (2005, 3) argues, journalism is not a profession in its strictest
sense: the idea of professionalism or professional behaviour in the field of
journalism is vague and contradictory. Traditionally, journalists have also
opposed stronger codes of ethics as they are seen as a control mechanism
over the freedom of the press. This inherent tension has always been the
cause of dilemma for the average journalist and the disillusionment of the
discerning reader. The result is often the lack of a sense of purpose for the
journalists who are unable to fructify their view on freedom of speech
and expression. It is this lack of purpose that Rahul wanted to counter
through Faking News:
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  105

All the three i.e. freedom of expression, and informed public, and an increased
public participation in social activities, were the objectives and mission of the
way journalism started (in an era when there was no modern democracy and
easy flow of information). However, I believe that mainstream journalism is
struggling with these in the modern set up, where democracy is guaranteed by
constitution and flow of information is easy thanks to internet. In fact, in
India, mainstream journalists have of late cheered censorship (in name of “rea-
sonable restrictions” on freedom of speech) and have often found themselves at
odd[s] with an “informed public” that will point out failings in their reporting
or analysis.

The Faking News initiative was aimed at fulfilling the need to have alter-
native news and analysis spaces that could reflect the aspirations of the
current times. The aforementioned innate search related to a vision of
free and accessible source of information which related to the founder’s
as well as his readers’ need for freedom of speech. Thus, conforming to
Fry’s (2003) intrinsic motivation model, the founder’s sense of transcen-
dence came through work that in his view was meaningful not just in
terms of its content but also in its relationship with his values. There is a
set of values and beliefs that propels the leadership’s thinking and strate-
gic direction as a part of spirituality (Phipps 2012) and these beliefs in
turn have strong linkage to the sense of dos and don’ts. As Pawar (2009,
376) points out, “the topics of workplace spirituality and ethics have
linkages between them. Thus, study of workplace spirituality is likely to
have relevance to the area of ethics”. It is hence the set of work-related
values and beliefs that could be related to the vision and development of
Faking News.
As a purpose-centred venture, Faking News was inherently amenable to
value-based leadership and adaptation and innovation to achieve its goal.
The realization of the vision based on specific views regarding meaningful
work in the context of journalism calls for practices, attitudes, and behav-
iours as emphasized in Fry’s model (2003) which in this case are centred
on integrity and transparency. This calls for developing value congruence
and strong commitment (Fry and Cohen 2009). Rahul achieved the
same through some specific decisions and initiatives as explained in the
subsequent sections.
106  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

 alancing Professional Needs While Adhering

B
to the Core Values

A major source of challenge for freedom of expression and transparency

(the core values for Rahul) comes through economic factors. Mass media/
news being a profit-based industry has to generate enough revenues
through sources like advertisements which often turn into advertorials
(articles/news sponsored or supported by an interest group). In addition,
the public representatives as well as corporates wield their power to pres-
ent news as suited to their interest. This proverbial clash between business
imperatives and defined ideals makes most organizations either tread a
cautious path or surrender to the demands of the market. On the other
hand, some of the organizations have also been closed down due to lack
of a clear business model though they adhered to the ideals they stood for.
It is in such situations that hope in the transcendent vision and commit-
ment of service to key stakeholders (Fry and Cohen 2009) becomes
important. Based on the aforementioned values, Faking News as a venture
found its own way of dealing with these imperatives.
With respect to the ideals, Rahul’s model of satirical news itself was
suited to fostering fairness, transparency, and equity. Satire being  the
focus, Faking News did not have to work with any lobby or to face any
pressures. By having a satirical take on various incidents, Faking News
not only gave Rahul and his team the space to exercise freedom of expres-
sion but also helped create a significant stakeholder in the form of an
online community that identified with the concept. This can be under-
stood through the very nature of satirical news as it helps propagate
information to hitherto neglected sections of the audience and also helps
its readers develop a critical view on current happenings (Brewer and
Marquardt 2007).
While one can acknowledge that the satire format has its advantages, it
poses the challenge of being fair and independent for all audiences. In the
journalism context, one may have to look at the specific principles and
codes that are meant to uphold the freedom of expression and fairness
and independence in reporting to ensure fairness. With respect to work-
place spirituality, however, the same can be discerned through attitudes
and discrete actions to uphold the values (Fry and Cohen 2009) that do
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  107

not necessarily require any institutional system. In the specific case of

Faking News, the issue was taken care of by avoiding any financial associa-
tions that could have impacted on the freedom of the content. This was
not an easy decision as growth is an important imperative for any start-
­up. Since ad-based earnings are the main source of revenue in such con-
tent business (with the content itself being free), it was not easy to be
selective about the source. The online digital format as such comes with
its own challenges and complexities:

Internet is a disruptive technology in more ways than one. It’s almost a revolu-
tion. The “netizen” believes in free flow of information and it’s very difficult to
ask him to pay up for something, while he’s getting whole lot more for free.
Information, which is in shape of content, is born to be free on internet. In fact,
ideas like “copyright” and “patent”, and their commercial exploitation, are
increasingly being challenged in this new virtual world, where information
must be freely accessible to all.

The revenue sources were not much of a concern in the initial years of the
venture as the focus, as expected, was on growth in outreach. Rahul
wanted to target the right audience and funded the venture using his own
resources and some earnings through means like Google AdSense that do
not require any legwork for advertising revenue. With sustained growth
in reach, however, came the need for generating more revenues. Rahul
had thought about non-ad sources of revenue like subscription (which, as
mentioned above went against the very spirit of the venture) and volun-
tary contributions that are often not sustainable. Thus, neither of the
options was exercised.
The need for higher paying ads was strongly felt by now which could
involve selling web space to advertising agencies or going the ‘adverto-
rial’ way by mixing the content with advertisements. Rahul clearly chose
not to go the ‘advertorial’ way. He was committed to his belief that satire
is much more than just entertainment and had an informational pur-
pose. The use of sponsored content without disclosing the sponsor would
trivialize the belief, leading to doubts about the commitment. Secondly,
he believed that the very idea of not disclosing the sponsor would be
unethical. As a result, while going for more advertising, he decided about
108  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

being explicit about the source. This led to the emergence of a “spon-
sored category” of content. The step, though harmful to the financial
interests of the venture, was able to uphold the traditionally accepted
journalistic practices.
The whole approach to the above issue of revenues and sponsorship
shows not just a strong commitment to goals and principles but also to
overcoming the limitations, reframing the systems to suit the vision, and
transcending the existing venture models. This transcendence not only
related to having values as defining meaningful work but also extended to
finding a pragmatic solution to a dilemma (Pava 2004). It is also reflec-
tive of meeting entrepreneurship challenges with personal skills and com-
mitment to goals (Csikszentmihalyi 2003) and through support from
innovation.
In line with its view of transcendence through organizational commit-
ments of its founder and the online community, Faking News ensured
adherence to the principles of freedom of speech by raising issues that the
mainstream media did not want to touch upon. It utilized the route of
satire to make strong comments on issues that mattered but were hitherto
missing from the discourse. This space was further enriched by extending
community participation as discussed in the next section.

Connecting to the Community

Kurt et al. (2016) argue in their study that commitment is a major deter-
minant of the effectiveness of networks. Spirituality in such networks can
be a core bonding element and can also be the source of its longevity by
enhancing trust through commitment to a cause. However, in case of an
enterprise, it is also necessary that authentic leadership with value con-
gruence in stakeholders be displayed (Fry 2003) in order to develop a
strong team and online community. Faking News addressed these issues
through special efforts to involve and bond with the community.
Faking News not only provided the readers with satirical content they
could relate to but also created a community of practice through volun-
teers who contributed to the content. In due course, the readers were
given their own space to share their content called ‘My Faking News’. It
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  109

was largely through convergence of values that the entrepreneur, the

content developers, and the readers came together, leading to value
congruence and commitment based on the calling (Fry 2003). This
need for value congruence and commitment was addressed during the
formation of the core team as well when volunteers were asked to join
full time. This further united the content creators and the administra-
tors through common beliefs in the absence of any codes or formal
regulations.
Despite the strong community connect through the above mecha-
nisms, Rahul was also in touch with the audience’s opinions including
criticism. He used to take time to reply to readers’ queries as far as
possible and was ready to act on the things that were actionable in line
with the principles. The approach to team development and connect-
ing the community through common beliefs presents a unique spiri-
tual situation which, as argued by Gotsis and Kortezi (2008), can be
related to the concept of ‘respectful pluralism’ of Douglas Hicks
(2002, 2003), implying mutual respect and collaboration in a situa-
tion of diversity of personal beliefs. The development of the online
community ensured that the members could overcome their differ-
ences and focus on the larger goal to have a transcendental connection
view of their work.
There are several unique dimensions of Faking News that mark the
spirituality in the process of its formation and growth. First, by its very
admission of difference in the profile of the audience and the team, the
venture focused on overarching values to unite and provide meaning for
the association. Secondly, through discrete actions like focus on volun-
teers, developing the team from the community of practice and creating
a sponsored news category, Faking News ensured a strong bonding lead-
ing to strong commitment. The aforementioned innovations created a
spiritually driven organization with leadership based on transcendental
vision. An appropriate balance between the ideals and the commercial
imperative achieved by Faking News in its model could be considered a
precursor to many such ventures that emerged subsequently in the fast-­
changing media context. While many of these new ventures may exhibit
qualitatively different strategic models, they still tend to focus on balance
between revenue and values of the organization.
110  A. Bahadur and K. K. Kumar

Discussion
This study, though based on a single case, does show how the main ele-
ments of workplace spirituality as described in the current literature can
be related to an online content-based venture. Despite the difference in
format as well as the scale of operations, the case of Faking News shows
that clarity of professional beliefs, meaningful work, and value-driven
vision (Gotsis and Kortezi 2008; Hill and Smith 2003; Shinde and Fleck
2015) are very important to its context. In addition, the concept of spiri-
tual leadership and connecting to the whole (Freeman and Siegfried
2015; Kauanui et al. 2010) can well be extended to this enterprise.
There is, however, a challenge that emerges in the context of the study
of spirituality in new forms of organization. First, the focus till now has
been on vision and growth, which can be understood in terms of institu-
tionalization through development of work rules and processes. There is
dearth of value- or belief-centred discussion on spirituality despite a
strong body of literature affirming the development of common beliefs
and collaboration through a common cause as important in the virtual
context (Lu et al. 2006; Markus et al. 2000). With technological disrup-
tions through automation and artificial intelligence redefining work
itself, it is not enough to confine the study of spirituality to only tradi-
tional organizations or just networks.
The second challenge comes in defining the community connection
and sphere of leadership influence with respect to workplace spirituality.
While it is important to differentiate between the individual and organi-
zational levels as Phipps (2012) does, it would not be enough to relate it
or confine it to the internal actors in the era of stakeholder management.
The study on online communities like that of Kurt et al. (2016) does look
into the spiritual dimensions in the community context but fails to look
at the relationship between new forms of venture, their unique employ-
ment situation, and their larger stakeholders. Increasingly temps, out-
sourced workforce, or just volunteers and consultants are marking their
presence in mainstream organizations. It seems limiting to consider such
workforce as peripheral. The true sense of respectful pluralism may lie in
accepting the pluralism of employment categories as well.
   Spirituality and an Online Satirical News Venture: The Case…  111

The third challenge lies in looking at enterprises that are not driven
highly by larger principles of freedom of speech or universal rights, which
in any case are amenable to finding meaning in work. It would be instruc-
tive to see how a simple product or service-based venture (including apps,
aggregators, etc.) reflects the elements of spirituality. Apart from the ones
mentioned above there are other challenges in the study of workplace
spirituality which could also be considered for further research. These
include the pace of change in products/ownership and management,
high rate of mortality of ventures and ever-changing formats due to high
level of innovation.

Conclusion
The study of Faking News establishes the significance of workplace spiri-
tuality for an online content-based venture as understood in terms of
meaningful work, connectedness, and transcendence. Faking News shows
clear beliefs and values that compelled it to take tough commercial deci-
sions and focus on the larger issues of freedom. It also shows how the
beliefs and practices of leadership could be disseminated to the larger
‘community of practice’ or calling, to create a sustainable venture. Lastly,
the case of Faking News and its founder shows how a value-based approach
of ‘make me whole’ instead of ‘cash is king’ (Kauanui et al. 2008) can be
realized in the for-profit context. The study, however, is limited in its
scope with the focus on only one case and is also constrained by lack of
information from sources other than the founder. Still, the findings do
reflect that there is a need to study the dynamics of spirituality in the
emerging forms of organizations.

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 8
Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through
Enrichment: Pathways to Happiness
Rajesh Premchandran and Pushpendra Priyadarshi

Introduction
The contemporary debate between the two schools of well-being
research—“hedonia” and “eudaimonia”—has been inconclusive. However,
interest in exploring the distinction between eudaimonia and hedonia is
growing rapidly within the field of psychology (Huta and Waterman
2014). Though the concept of eudaimonia dates to Aristotle (third cen-
tury BC), it was only after Waterman (1993) published the first empirical
research contrasting eudaimonia and hedonia that the terms emerged at
the forefront of scientific enquiry. Ryan and Deci (2001) were the first to
highlight the dichotomy that underpins the two traditions of well-being
research, discussing the merits of distinguishing between hedonia and
eudaimonia. A PsycINFO search based on publications that contain both
‘eudaimonia’ and ‘hedonia’ in their full text reveals that there are ten
times as many articles post 2010 than in the entire period before. This is

R. Premchandran (*) • P. Priyadarshi

Indian Institute of Management Lucknow, Lucknow, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 117

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_8
118  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

expected as academicians and practitioners believe that achieving path-

ways to happiness poses a fundamental enquiry regarding human life.
Another reason for the increase is the emergence of positive psychology
that catalysed research into areas such as happiness and optimal human
functioning, resulting in a proliferation of research (Linley et al. 2006).
Studies on well-being have largely ignored the context of committed
relationships, such as marriage and the work-family interface, while
establishing the distinction between hedonia and eudaimonia. The work-­
family interface is one of the most significant aspects of working adults’
lives, influencing physical and psychological well-being. Studies have
shown how marital status predicts multiple indicators of psychological
and physical well-being (Lee and Ono 2012). In India, where family life
has been shaped by a long, venerated cultural heritage, there is a strong
emphasis on the sanctity of family unity and prosperity as a collective
(Bharat 1997; Mane 1991). The concept of Gruhastha (Sanskrit: gr̥hastha,
Radhakrishnan 1922), according to Hindu scriptures, literally means
“being in and occupied with home, family” or “householder”, and is one
of the four stages of a person’s life (the others being Brahmacharya—
bachelor student—which precedes Gruhastha, Vanaprastha (forest-­
dweller, retired), and finally Sannyasa (renunciation)). Employees in
India, who fall within the Gruhastha stage (married, with children), are
bound in their duties at home, in addition to the work they do outside.
Hence, it is imperative to consider the role that the work-family interface
plays in furthering the well-being of these employees. Second, most of
the studies attempting to distinguish hedonia and eudaimonia are con-
ducted mainly in Western settings limiting the generalizability of find-
ings. There exist differences between the well-being of the Easterners and
Westerners, based on traditions, beliefs, value systems and cultural
nuances (Tang et al. 2014). Kossek et al. (2011) have recently suggested
that there is limited international sampling in work-family studies as well.
Literature on well-being has already devoted considerable attention to
examining the conflict that can arise between work and family (Eby et al.
2005) and has found that work-family conflict is negatively related to
indicators of well-being (Diener and Ryan 2009). Comparatively very
little research has focused on positive well-being outcomes that result
from simultaneous participation in multiple roles. Driven by the scholar-
ship on positive psychology (e.g., Peterson and Seligman 2004; Compton
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  119

2004) and positive organization behaviour (POB; e.g., see Luthans 2002;
Shein and Chen 2011), there is renewed focus on exploring the positive
benefits across the work-family boundary (McNall et al. 2010; Greenhaus
and Powell 2006). Hence, the need to explore pathways towards well-­
being through the concept of work-family enrichment (WFE)—“the
extent to which experiences in one role improves the quality of life in the
other role” (Greenhaus and Powell 2006, 73).
Another area where research on hedonia and eudaimonia diverges is
the differences in operationalizations of the concepts. Most research
within hedonic psychology has used subjective well-being (SWB, Diener
and Lucas 1999), implying an acceptable degree of consistency. There is
less agreement about the way eudaimonic well-being should be measured
(see Huta and Waterman 2014 for a review). A new scale, called the
Flourishing Scale, developed by Diener et al. (2010) following a human-
istic, positive psychology perspective, focuses on flourishing as an impor-
tant aspect of well-being “to complement existing measures of subjective
well-being” (p. 144). While this scale has been tested in a few studies,
research testing the psychometric properties of this scale is still scant in
India and has focused on generic population samples and not specific
demographic cohorts (e.g., Singh and Junnarkar 2015).
In summary, to address the gaps outlined above, this study explores the
relationship between work-family enrichment and the two well-being
constructs, hedonia and eudaimonia, in an Indian services sector setting
specifically focusing on married employees with at least one child. In
doing so, the study also aims to test the Flourishing Scale while opera-
tionalizing eudaimonia and attempting to establish a distinction between
eudaimonic and hedonic happiness.

Theoretical Background and Hypothesis

Hedonia and Eudaimonia

Underpinning this contemporary psychological debate on the dichotomy

of two well-being constructs are two ancient Greek philosophical tradi-
tions: hedonia and eudaimonia (Delle Fave et  al. 2011). Philosophers
such as Aristippus, Epicurus, Bentham, Locke and Hobbes (Waterman
120  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

2008) who espoused hedonistic mindsets, associated well-being with the

positive emotional states that accompany gratification, satiation of desire;
therefore, experiences of indulgence, comfort, gaiety and enjoyment were
some aspects considered reflective of well-being (Diener 2009).
Psychologists have built on these conceptualizations to define hedonia as
how satisfying one evaluates his or her life to be. The most widely used
conceptualization of hedonia is Diener’s (1984) tripartite model of sub-
jective well-being, which contains three components: life satisfaction,
and the balance between positive and negative affect (for a recent review,
see Busseri and Sadava 2011). Many studies have used components or
variations of this model to measure well-being (e.g., Vittersø 2003). In
this study, we focus on family satisfaction instead of life satisfaction, with
an objective to evaluate the influence of WFE on SWB.
The eudaimonic school is frequently distinguished and thought to be
philosophically antithetical to the hedonic tradition (Deci and Ryan
2008). The concept of eudaimonia was first advanced by Aristotle
(Aristotle 1985) who described it as a matter of living well as a human
being. Portraying humans as sense-making social beings, he explicated
that our actions should be driven by a sound moral and virtuous purpose.
One of the most common theories of eudaimonia is psychological well-­
being, which equates to positive functioning (Ryff and Singer 1998). In
line with Aristotle’s suggestion that human beings are sense-making, self-­
evaluating and social creatures, Keyes (2002) used the concept of flourish-
ing to describe an individual who is filled with positive emotion and one
who functions well psychologically and socially. Hence, those individuals
who flourish live intensely, exceeding the mere existence (Keyes and Haidt
2003; Paludo and Koller 2007). Diener et  al. (2010) ­developed the
Flourishing Scale, that measures eudaimonic well-being encompassing a
broad and comprehensive perspective: competence, engagement, mean-
ing and purpose, optimism, self-acceptance, supportive relationships,
well-being of others and being respected (Ryff and Keyes 1995). We use
this operationalization of flourishing and eudaimonia in our present study.
The debate on the benefits of distinguishing between hedonia and
eudaimonia within the realm of well-being primarily started with Kashdan
et al. (2008) arguing that Aristotle’s conception of eudaimonia was unsuit-
able for psychological science as it was based on moral judgements, and it
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  121

tacitly assumed a form of exclusivity. Because of the heterogeneity of the

proposed eudaimonic definitions and the corresponding increase in com-
plexity and layering of well-being, they went on to suggest that research-
ers jettison the philosophical dichotomy of hedonic and eudaimonic
well-being. Waterman (2008) and Ryan and Huta (2009) responded by
arguing that the multitude of constructs and lack of consistency was
expected of nascent concepts. Many researchers have taken the position
that eudaimonia supplements measures of SWB or hedonia arguing that
increased levels of happiness cannot be equated to heightened well-being
(Ryan and Huta 2009). Keyes and Annas (2009) also contended that feel-
ings and functioning may overlap, but are empirically distinct. As an
example, Delle Fave and Bassi (2009) cited the purgative effects of mourn-
ing, which temporarily decreases affect levels, but the healing process is
clearly indicative of functioning well. Vittersø and Søholt (2011) argued
how phases of volatility and ambiguity in an individual’s life lead to a
degree of sense-making and ratiocination, again indicative of resilience
and growth despite lowering of affect levels. These examples beg the ques-
tion as to whether SWB in isolation is comprehensive enough to explain
well-being. Hence, this study follows a subjective interpretation of eudai-
monia that Diener et al. (2010) propose based on human flourishing, and
suggests that eudaimonic approaches represent an important supplement
to SWB. We assess aspects of consistency, reliability and discriminant
validity of the Flourishing Scale (referred to as PWB or psychological
well-being hereafter) along with the tripartite definition of hedonia oper-
ationalized as subjective well-being through our first hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1:
SWB (hedonia) and PWB (eudaimonia) are (a) positively related (b) but are
separate constructs.

Work-Family Enrichment (WFE) and Hedonia (SWB)

Drawing from positive psychology, work-family researchers (e.g., Carlson

et al. 2006; Greenhaus and Powell 2006) have begun to shift the focus
from negative and resource-depleting aspects of role multiplicity to dis-
covering the positive potential available to those who choose to juggle
122  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

both work and family roles. Work-family enrichment occurs when

resources gained in one role either directly improve performance in the
other role (instrumental) or indirectly through the influence on positive
affect (affective) (Carlson et al. 2006). Previous studies have shown that
WFE correlates with family satisfaction (Grzywacz et al. 2002) and mari-
tal satisfaction (van Steenbergen et al. 2014). We argue in this study that
when the work role enhances the family role, performance and quality of
life (including satisfaction) in the family role should increase. For the
other component of SWB, affect, Carlson et  al. (2006) used affective
events theory (AET) (Weiss and Cropanzano 1996) to show how WFE
influenced positive moods and emotions in employees consistent with
the affective pathway hypothesized by Greenhaus and Powell (2006).
Hence, while conceptualizing SWB, we include affect and family satisfac-
tion as underlying dimensions, and arrive at our second hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2:
Work-family enrichment is positively related to Hedonia (SWB).

 FE and Psychological Well-being (PWB or

W
Eudaimonia): Mediating Role of Subjective Well-being
(SWB or Hedonia)

The conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll 1989) suggests

that people with resources are less likely to encounter stressful
­circumstances that negatively influence psychological well-being. Further,
the concept of gain spirals conceived by COR suggests that those possess-
ing resources are likely to gain more resources with time. Satisfaction
stemming from increased role performance in one’s family role may act as
a repository of excess resource resulting from a meaningful family life,
thereby increasing the tendency for positive attitude spillover into one’s
psychological well-being. Recent research has demonstrated that positive
work-family experiences may enhance one’s psychological well-being
(Carlson et al. 2006; van Steenbergen and Ellemers 2009).
The Broaden and Build Theory (Fredrickson 1998) argues that posi-
tive emotions (e.g., delight and enthusiasm) expand the way individuals
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  123

H3

H2 H1
Work-Family SWB (Affect Psychological
Enrichment + Fam Sat) Well-being

Fig. 8.1  Proposed model along with hypothesis (affect includes both positive
and negative components, Fam Sat = Family Satisfaction)

think about and act upon their environment, suggesting the notion of a
thought-action repertoire. These positive emotions embolden an external
orientation causing individuals to respond in a benign and enthusiastic
style. This increase in intensity of interactions develops more intellectual
and psychosocial capabilities, while fostering greater positivity, creativity,
adaptive benefits and personal development (Fredrickson et  al. 2008;
Rhoades et al. 2001) all in line with our operationalization of eudaimonia
as flourishing or PWB.  Hence, in line with the arguments made for
Hypothesis 1, earlier research indicating that WFE contributes to SWB
through positive emotion or affective states (Gareis et al. 2009) and the
Broaden and Build Theory suggesting that positive emotions contribute
towards better psychological states, we arrive at our third hypothesis
(Fig. 8.1).

Hypothesis 3:
Work-family enrichment is positively related to PWB (eudaimonia) and this
relationship is mediated by SWB (hedonia).

Method
Sample and Procedures

Our intent was to research adults who are married with children, primar-
ily because of our focus on WFE as a pathway to well-being. Respondents
in this study were drawn from organizations in the IT/ITES sector in two
large cities in southern India (Bengaluru and Hyderabad). These two cities
124  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

were selected as they are Tier 1 Tech cities (NASSCOM 2012) employing
a large proportion of India’s IT/ITES employees.
Employing about 3.7 million people, the IT/ITES sector in India is
worth USD 160 billion and contributes nearly 10% to India’s gross
domestic product (GDP), up from 1% two decades ago (IBEF Report
2017). This sector also witnesses greater time pressure and more stress
(Dhar and Dhar 2010; Vaid 2009), high attrition (Bhatnagar 2007), lack
of work-life balance (Singh 2010), work exhaustion (Ahuja et al. 2007;
Budhwar et  al. 2006), organizational deviance (Krishnan and Singh
2010) and gender disparity at higher levels (Upadhya and Vasavi 2006).
With increasing dual-earners (Ramu 1989) and nuclearization of fami-
lies, there is increasing pressure on the work-family interface and hence a
rise in work-family conflict (Sahadev et al. 2014). Therefore, this demo-
graphic cohort is ideal to explore pathways of employee well-being
through WFE. A total of 504 completely computer-aided survey-driven
interviews were conducted.
The mean age of the sample was 35.5 years, with a minimum age of 30
and a maximum of 44 years. In keeping with the broad representation of
females in the IT/ITES sector in India, 64% of the respondents were
male. There were 60% from dual-earner families and every respondent
had at least one child.

Measures

SWB was operationalized with Diener’s (1984) conceptualization com-

prising family satisfaction (FS), positive affect (PA) and negative affect
(NA). The Satisfaction with Life Scale was modified for FS (Diener et al.
1985, Cronbach’s Cronbach-alpha  =  0.84) and Positive and Negative
Affect Schedule for general positive and negative affect (Watson et  al.
1988, Cronbach-alpha = 0.94 and 0.90 respectively) was used. A com-
posite measure of SWB was computed by averaging standardized scores
for FS, PA and reverse-scored NA (Cronbach-alpha  =  0.72). Higher
scores indicated higher levels of SWB and this was used for the correla-
tional analysis.
For eudaimonic well-being we used the eight-item Flourishing
Scale (Diener et al. 2010; Cronbach’s Cronbach-alpha = 0.85). WFE
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  125

was measured using a nine-item scale by Carlson et  al. (2006,

Cronbach-alpha = 0.88).
All questions were answered on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree). Control variables were gender, dual-­
earner status and number of children, which were categorically measured
and one continuous variable (age in years) was employed as background
information in the analyses.

Analysis

First, descriptive and correlational data were calculated for each of the study
variables. We used structural equation modelling (SEM) with a maximum
likelihood estimation to test the hypothesized model. First, we tested our
measurement model and then the structural model. Due to the relatively
small sample size, we sought to reduce the number of indicators per con-
struct using item parcels. An item parcel is an aggregate-level indicator com-
posed of the average of two or more items (Little et al. 2002). The parcelling
procedure of this study is based on the item-to-construct balance method,
which combines higher-loading items with lower-­loading items to minimize
the loading differences among the manifest variables (Little et al. 2002). All
latent variables were measured using two-item parcels each. We used mul-
tiple fit indices to assess model fit: Chi-square, Chi-square/Degrees of
Freedom, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative
fit index (CFI) and incremental fit index (IFI) (Joreskog and Sorbom 1993).
Finally, mediation models were conducted in AMOS using the boot-
strapping procedure of Preacher and Hayes (2008). For this 95%
confidence intervals were used and 2000 bootstrapping resampling
­
­procedures were run.

Results
Measurement Model

The reliability of the measures for the constructs of interest was first tested
by examining the individual Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, which were all
126  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

greater than the recommended level of 0.7 as shown along the diagonals
in Table 8.1. Correlations, means and standard deviations for all variables
are presented in Table 8.1. None of the control variables had significant
correlations with the study variables. Therefore, we decided to delete the
control variables from further analyses.
To test for the factorial validity first, a principal axis factor analysis
revealed one strong factor with an eigenvalue of 4.7 that accounted for
59% of the variance of the items. Moreover, there was no other eigen-
value above 1.0. The standardized factor loadings were all statistically
significant with a p < 0.001 and the weights were between 0.66 and 0.84.
Therefore, only one factor characterizes the FS scale with an alpha coef-
ficient of 0.90. The results were consistent with the original study (Diener
et al. 2010) which indicated a unidimensional model for the FS scale.
As described earlier, we measured SWB comprising family satisfaction
and affect (both positive and negative) in line with earlier studies. The
CFA with reverse-scored negative affect items revealed two factors with
eigenvalues greater than 1, one for family satisfaction and the other for
affect, accounting for 21% and 57% of the variance respectively. The
standardized factor loadings were all statistically significant with
p < 0.001.
Three primary measures were used to evaluate the convergent validity
(Hair et al. 1998): (a) the factor loadings of the indicators, which must

Table 8.1  Descriptive statistics, correlations and reliabilities

Sl. No. Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4
1 Age 35.5 3.2
2 WFE 4.1 0.36 0.1 (0.88)
3 SWB 0 0.75 0.16* 0.55** (0.72)
4 PWB (FS) 4.1 0.38 0.07 0.71** 0.62** (0.90)
Means and SDs are not provided for gender, number of children and dual-earner
status as they were measured as categorical variables and did not show
significant relationships with the study variables. PWB(FS): psychological
well-being (flourishing); SWB: subjective well-being, comprising average of
standardized scores of family satisfaction, positive affect and reverse-scored
negative affect; WFE: work-family enrichment. Diagonals contain reliabilities
within parentheses
N = 504; **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is
significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  127

be statistically significant with values greater than 0.6; (b) composite reli-
ability (CR), with values greater than 0.7; and (c) average variance
extracted (AVE) estimates, with values greater than 0.5. All factor load-
ings ranging from 0.84 to 0.96 were statistically significant. In addition,
all CR values were higher than 0.7. The AVE values were greater than 0.5
(range 0.54–0.79). Overall, all the measures exhibited adequate conver-
gent validity.
Next, to further assess convergent validity, we correlated the Flourishing
Scale with the Subjective Well-being Scale. The test revealed substantial
correlation of 0.62 (p < 0.001) between the FS and SWB. This result is
consistent with the original study (Diener et  al. 2010) where the
Flourishing Scale showed a high correlation with the satisfaction with life
scale of 0.62. Additionally, convergent validity was also supported by
AVE values (0.54–0.79), which obviously exceeded 0.5 for each dimen-
sion (Fornell and Larcker 1981). Therefore, the measurement model
results provided evidence of convergent validity for the two well-being
constructs (Table 8.2).
For the discriminant validity of the Flourishing Scale we were guided
by Fornell and Larcker (1981), who suggested that when taking any pair
of constructs, the AVE for each construct should be higher than the
squared correlation coefficient between the two constructs. Analytical
results demonstrate that the AVE for each construct ranged from 0.54 to
0.79. All three constructs (FS, SWB and WFE) had AVE larger than the
squared correlation coefficient between the two constructs (0.30–0.50).
These analytical results supported the discriminant validity of all
constructs.

Table 8.2  Discriminant validity of the constructs of interest

Sl. no. Variables 1 2 3
1 WFE 0.79
2 SWB 0.30 0.61
3 PWB 0.50 0.38 0.54
PWB: psychological well-being; SWB: subjective well-being; WFE: work-family
enrichment. Diagonals represent the average variance extracted (AVE) and the
other matrix entries represent the squared factor correlations
128  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

The fit results for the measurement model (Chi-square (504)  =  49

(p = 0.007); CFI = 0.987; IFI = 0.987; NFI = 0.971; RMSEA = 0.06 and
SRMR = 0.043) provided an excellent fit. Hence the measurement model
with the composite constructs of SWB and PWB as separate constructs is
deemed a good fit, proving Hypothesis 1. We now proceed to the struc-
tural model with SWB and PWB as separate constructs.

Structural Model

The overall fit of the structural model showed Chi-square

(504)  =  30.4(p  =  0.347); CFI  =  0.998; IFI  =  0.998; NFI  =  0.981;
RMSEA = 0.02 and SRMR = 0.027 and indicated an excellent fit. The
Chi-square to DOF (28) ratio of the model = 1.3, which is less than 5.
The Chi-square being non-significant is an indicator of a good fit
(Joreskog and Sorbom 1993). This model had RMSEA of 0.02, which is
good (Hu and Bentler 1999; Browne and Cudeck 1989) especially in
tandem with other fit indices. Similarly, the SRMR for the study fell
within the level of acceptability (<0.8) suggested by Bollen (1989). IFI,
NFI and CFI values show that the model complies with the acceptable
values of >0.95. In summary, it can be assumed that the hypothesized
model fits the sample data.
The establishment of this path model then allows us to test the hypoth-
esized relationship of the constructs. The path from WFE to SWB is in
the hypothesized direction and it was statistically significant (β = 0.80;
p = 0.000). Hence, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Similarly, the effect of
SWB on PWB is in the hypothesized direction and it was statistically
significant (β = 0.49; p = 0.000). To test the mediating effect of WFE as
proposed in Hypothesis 3 we used bootstrapping with 2000 samples
based on the method developed by Hayes (2012) as described in the
analysis section. The result indicated a significant indirect effect of WFE
on PWB via SWB (β = 0.43, SE = 0.30; CI: 0.15–0.90; p < 0.01). For
direct effects of WFE on PWB the results showed (β = 0.45, SE = 0.39;
CI: −0.1 to 0.70; p not significant). Thus, Hypothesis 3 is fully supported.
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  129

Discussion
Our first hypothesis tested the discriminant validity of the two well-being
constructs eudaimonia and hedonia, represented by the Flourishing Scale
and SWB respectively. We first tested the psychometric property of the
Flourishing Scale in the Indian context. Data obtained from the sample
revealed a one-factor structure for the Flourishing Scale, which is consis-
tent with the original study (Diener et al. 2010). In line with what was
found in the original version of the Flourishing Scale (Diener et al. 2010),
we verified that the scale shows a very good internal consistency (Cronbach-
alpha  =  0.90), and supports studies reported in other countries (Tang
et al. 2014; Nunes et al. 2015; Hone et al. 2014; Silva and Caetano 2013;
Sumi 2014). We further explored the scale’s external validity (convergent
and discriminant) with specific focus on the correlations between FS and
SWB. Our hypotheses were supported: convergent validity was confirmed
by large positive correlations with SWB. To assess discriminant validity,
we relied on average variance extracted as well as model fit comparisons
looking at SWB and FS collapsed into a higher-­order variable and keep-
ing them separate. The AVE scores were greater than the square of respec-
tive intervariable correlations while the m ­ easurement model with SWB
and FS separate showed a better fit. Our findings afford an interesting
perspective on the discriminant validity of hedonia and eudaimonia.
Strong correlations between SWB and flourishing/PWB are in line with
theory as experiences of hedonia could lead to feelings of eudaimonia
(Waterman 1993, 2008). Flourishing encompasses the experience of
growth, fulfilment and actualization of one’s potentials to be accompa-
nied by positive affect and high satisfaction levels (Ryan and Deci 2001;
Ryff and Singer 1998; Waterman 1993). However, differences in correla-
tion with WFE (0.71 for PWB and 0.55 for SWB) provide evidence that
though strongly correlated, there is variation in the strength of relation-
ship that SWB and PWB demonstrate with another other variable.
Waterman (2008) says: “If two scales, however strongly correlated, can be
shown to account for significant independent portions of variability in a set of
outcome measures, it would be in error to conclude that they are measuring the
same construct, p. 237”. In summary, we believe that it is better to explore
a stratified subjective experience of well-being through questioning mean-
130  R. Premchandran and P. Priyadarshi

ing, purpose, social capital, optimism and efficacy than to assume that
satisfaction and pleasant effect are all that matter to individuals.
Positive correlations of WFE with both measures of well-being—hedo-
nia and eudaimonia—corroborate those of previous studies in Western
societies (McNall et al. 2010; Carlson et al. 2006; Allis and O’Driscoll
2008) showing the impact that WFE has on affect, satisfaction and psy-
chological well-being represented by flourishing. In addition, our results
support the cross-domain theory (e.g., Frone et al. 1992; Wadsworth and
Owens 2007), as we measured SWB through family satisfaction and affect
contrary to the results of previous studies (Shockley and Singla 2011).
The third aim of the study was to look at the Indian context, where the
family construct assumes great significance, and to explore the link
between WFE and the eudaimonic concept of flourishing. Studies con-
necting WFE to PWB are scarce (McNall et al. 2010) and there are no
studies that link WFE to the eudaimonic concept of flourishing. We
found a potential pathway from hedonia (SWB) to eudaimonia (flourish-
ing). This could be explained by the Broaden and Build Theory
(Fredrickson 2001), which highlights the importance of positive e­ motions
enabling people to broaden their perspectives and widen their thought/
action repertoires. Since the Flourishing Scale covers essential parts of
human functioning and human needs like competence, relatedness and
self-acceptance, the results are in accordance with the predictions of Ryan
and Deci (2001), who suggested strong links between a sense of mean-
ingfulness and fulfilment, psychological well-being and personal happi-
ness that transcends domain boundaries. The relatedness dimension in
the Flourishing Scale also covers the social facet of human mental pros-
perity. This is especially relevant in the Indian context where the family
role salience and strong collectivist orientation (Tripathi et  al. 2015)
would greatly influence overall well-being judgements.

Implications
With traditional HR policies and people surveys focused on job satisfac-
tion, affect, organizational commitment and turnover intent, the focus
on psychological well-being as an end will justify some of the means or
   Eudaimonia and Hedonia Through Enrichment: Pathways…  131

interventions designed to promote employee well-being. The Flourishing

Scale can be an instrument to evaluate the effectiveness of such interven-
tions through pre- and post-test design, which is the evidence-based prac-
tice needed in HR functions in India. Lastly, firms in India should use
WFE as an effective lever to influence well-being through organizational
policies and managerial training. This will help provide a suite of resources
that allow employees to integrate work and family, and in turn increase
both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being.

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 Part III
Predictors of Workplace Spirituality
 9
Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig
Economy
Arti Sharma and Himanshu Sharma

Introduction
The current business scenario is transitioning from old economy to the
new economy which is often called the ‘gig economy’ (Eurofound 2015).
A gig economy is a free market space characterized with predominance of
flexible and temporary jobs and the increasing trend of hiring freelancers
and independent workers in place of full-time employees (Friedman
2014). In a gig economy, employees are not per se in the same formal
relationship as they are in an ‘old economy’ organization. This has led to
the rising trend of temporary job positions, wherein the organizations
enter into a contract with independent workers for short term. In this
work set-up, the alignment of job role and related work activities between

A. Sharma (*)
Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indore, India
e-mail: [email protected]
H. Sharma
Dialog IT, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

© The Author(s) 2019 141

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_9
142  A. Sharma and H. Sharma

employer and employee are performed online through digital platforms

leading to the emergence of ‘just-in-time workforce’ (De Stefano 2016).
Interestingly, this new concept of on-demand short-term contractual
workers is being viewed advantageous on part of organizations with
respect to saving huge chunk of employee cost. On the other hand, this
kind of work arrangement also benefits the employees by providing them
job opportunities of their interest with greater flexibility related to work
schedules. This work culture seems quite lucrative but, in the hindsight,
we are ignoring the serious commodification of the work (Bergvall-­
Kåreborn and Howcroft 2014). The presence of a large fraction of virtual
employees may also reduce the morale and commitment of the on-role
permanent employees. Besides this, organizations have to match up with
the pace of automation with increasing implementation and dependence
on artificial intelligence at workplace. The jobs performed by humans
earlier are being replaced by automated robots is further changing the
face of the entire workforce and employment scenario at a global level.
In this kind of work arrangement, the employees don’t undergo a for-
mal organization induction, training and development practices that sen-
sitizes individual with the organization routines and overall work culture.
For instance, Amazon Mechanical Turk operates in crowd work, Uber
and Ola in transportation, care.com in health services to name a few.
This has led to the employee mental transition of viewing work as a ser-
vice for broader organization goal to work as a mere commodity.
Moreover, this also adds to the ‘casualness’ of workforce, poor work rec-
ognition and reduced organizational commitment level. There is a greater
possibility of shifting responsibilities instead of taking responsibility as
the employee is not bounded with a formal organizational contract.
Added to this, the presence of diverse backgrounds with respect to race,
culture and ethnicity has another profound influence in the workforce.
Hence, this poses a greater challenge in managing diverse workforce in
times of virtual employment, prevailing automation and gig economy
work arrangements.
Thus, working in gig economy requires workers to work for longer
hours with no fixed work schedule and routine leading to a higher risk of
‘being at ease’ towards work. The non-ownership and responsibility
shifts increase the casualness for organizational work. In order to keep
   Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig Economy  143

performing in this freelancing work space, the workers are required to be

self-­organized. Furthermore, in such scenario, workers intend to earn
maximum by securing multiple projects with different organizations
leading to poor alignment of work with the organization-specific goals.
Herein, we would like to put forth, spirituality has a ‘magic glue’ which
can bind people in common objectives and values of work to succeed in
the context of highly agile workforce in gig context. Spirituality is often
understood with the lens of religion or as a search for existence. But, in
this chapter, we would like to elaborate on the ‘Sanatana dharma’ per-
spective of spirituality and its implications at individual and organiza-
tional level. Also, borrowing considerable support from the teachings of
Bhagwat Gita, this chapter calls for spiritual intelligence among workers
and organizations to combat the challenges of rising gig economy. But,
before moving to spiritual intelligence, let’s understand spirituality.

Understanding Spirituality
Spirituality can be understood through dual perspectives. The first per-
spective is derived from the word ‘spirit’ referring to a sacred, divine or
transcendental being. The second perspective ascribes spirituality as an
endeavour to search for meaning in life in one’s own existence. This often
makes the concept misunderstood with religion. A religion is defined as

beliefs, actions and institutions which assumes the existence of supernatural

entities with power of action, or impersonal powers or processes possessed of
moral purpose. (Bruce 1996, 7)

On the other hand, spirituality is

the basic feeling of connectedness with one’s complete self, others and the entire
universe. (Mitroff and Denton 1999, 83)

Spirituality is quite distinct from religion as the latter means a systematic

body of belief of specific faith, while the former largely deals with the
ideology of the “inner consciousness” (Guillory 2000, 33) that acts as a
144  A. Sharma and H. Sharma

driving force beyond the survival instincts of the mind (Turner 1999, 41)
and body. Spirituality incorporates one’s awareness of own desires and
adopting a disciplined insight to attain mastery by detaching oneself
from the expectations of resultant outcomes. It is a process which attri-
butes a sense of sacredness among individuals for their actions thereby
guiding them to perform best with a shared sense of connectedness
with others.
So far, the research in spirituality has identified three lines of thought
for conceptualizing spirituality, namely, the religious perspective, the
intrinsic origin perspective and the existential perspective (Krishnakumar
and Neck 2002). The religious perspective refers to the ideology and
practices according to a particular faith. The intrinsic origin perspective
views spirituality as the inner consciousness which is in connection with
one’s own self, other self and the universal consciousness (Ashmos and
Duchon 2000). Lastly, the existentialist perspective of spirituality views it
as a search of meaning in work being performed at the workplace leading
to existential inquiry of work and organization related issues (Kahnweiler
and Otte 1997). This perspective aims to define spirituality with the pur-
pose of work. This helps employees to understand the assigned work to
perform it without boredom. In absence of such clarity of purpose, the
employee performs work only for the sake of doing it which can ulti-
mately lead to poor organizational productivity (Naylor et al. 1996). For
an elaborate understanding of spirituality, researchers have suggested the
inclusion of other aspects such as mindfulness and transcendence
(Petchsawang and Duchon 2009), compassion and organizational values
(Gupta et al. 2014). Addressing these suggestions, we would like to enrich
the literature with the Indian perspective of spirituality catering to tran-
scendental aspect of spirituality in the following section.

The Transcendental Nature of spirituality

The Hindu teachings of Sanatana dharma and Bhagwat Gita profoundly
advocate the transcendental nature of spirituality. This perspective puts
forth the ideology of eternal relation between the individual self and the
supreme self, transcending across all creations of nature. According to
   Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig Economy  145

this perspective, the root cause of all despondencies is the conflict due to
the identification of mind or the body with the self in the materialistic
world. In general, we always view world with a materialistic outlook
wherein everyone is working hard to achieve one thing or the other. This
insatiable sense of achievement often leads to intense competition, con-
flict, dissatisfaction, thereby lowering the overall individual productivity.
Taking reference from the Bhagwat Gita, the crows and swans are two
different birds of different mental attitude. The crow is known for seeking
sensory pleasure in places of garbage while swans are known to be calm
creatures living in transparent water bodies of scenic natural surround-
ings. Drawing upon this analogy, the Bhagwat Gita differentiates crows
as worldly pleasure-seeking workers and swans as the spiritually intelli-
gent individuals. Similarly, some individuals are inherently attracted to
be pleasure seeking for their sensual gratification, while others being
spiritually intelligent are inclined to get out of this materialistic bondage
of passion, self-ignorance and worldly pleasures. Spiritual intelligence is
the path which can help one to bond free from materialism.
The overemphasis on materialistic achievements with reference to
profits and capital gains in business world has often led to the discount-
ing of spirituality by limiting its scope to religious practices and glorifica-
tion of the divine. Bhagwat Gita highlights this issue and addresses the
existence of spiritual world as a requisite for the maintenance of the mate-
rialistic world. This perspective of spirituality asks individuals to have a
broader sense of thinking with a holistic vision directed towards self-­
realization instead of materialistic worldly attachments. The transcenden-
tal perspective suggests that individual consciousness is a part of universal
consciousness and an individual should strive to attain the state of imper-
sonal (Brahman) or oneness with divine, that is, self-realization. Swami
Prabhupada (2001) elaborates using an analogy of a tree which can be
referred as a complete unit while leaves and branches are derived from the
tree. Interestingly, the leaves and branches of the tree can also be tree, but
the complete tree can never be the leaves or the branches. This analogy
helps one to understand the human existence beyond body and mind
with an emphasis on manas (can be related to consciousness to under-
stand). Drawing on the same analogy, Swamiji extends that the souls are
captivated under the influence of maya (worldly pleasures) wherein, the
146  A. Sharma and H. Sharma

supreme personality of divine is like a detached hand or leg from the

body. Henceforth, an individual is advised to perform all his duties and
responsibilities but with a sense of detachment to open the unlimited
reservoir of transcendental energy. The prime ideology behind this per-
spective is to perform duties by being in ‘flow’ as a service to divine with-
out being attached to the performing process and resulting outcome. We
refer to this work attitude as being ‘spiritually intelligent’, which should
not be confused with religion or religious practices. Instead, it is a way of
living to attain the stage of Brahma Bhuta or the stage of self-realization.
According to Bhagwat Gita, after reaching to the level of self-­realization,
one feels a feeling of satisfaction which further leads to transcendental
bliss in service of your duties or work assignments (Prabhupada 2001).
Spirituality, by nature is pragmatic, human centred, deeply rooted and
inspiring. John Dewey refers to it as intelligent spirituality in his book, A
Common Faith (1934). He defined intelligent spirituality in context of
religion calling it as self-conscious beliefs about religion. Drawing upon
the previous discussion in practical aspect, intelligent spirituality can be
understood as a human-centred process that fosters amendment and
achievement of alignment between the varying intellectual and emotional
desires resulting in overall growth of an individual.

Understanding Spiritual Intelligence

Being spirituality intelligent makes a person aware to be in the present
moment to focus on the required changes to reach higher levels of work
quality. The nature of intelligent spirituality is largely social as it resides
in individual embedded in social environment.
Often understood with religious perspective, intelligent spirituality is
beyond religious faith and beliefs with an open and scientific approach in
making choices. The idea resonates parallel to the Hindu ideology of
atmagyan and nishkama karma. The concept of atmagyan ascertains that
an individual should look within and explore the divine connection
between the inner self (meaning, being self-conscious) and the supreme
self or power (can be understood as collective consciousness). This has
nothing to do with religious practices that are performed in different
   Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig Economy  147

religious faiths. Instead, spiritual intelligence makes oneself more aware

and conscious about their desires, strengths, weaknesses, potential, and
so on (self-awareness) to work consistently for individual and mankind
betterment (vision). The ideology of nishkama karma asserts that work is
a service to supreme power, wherein work is done not for the sake of
doing it, instead it is done because one loves to do that work and that too
without any botheration and expectation of final outcomes. This incul-
cates an inherent feeling of fulfilment (sense of contentedness) that intrinsi-
cally motivates a person to have well devised choice of actions to perform
better, irrespective of any extrinsic forces. Thus, based on the above dis-
cussion, we can understand, intelligent spirituality as a combined func-
tion of self-awareness, clarity of vision (goals), choice of action(s)
performed to reach the vision and self-contentment, given as

Intelligent Spirituality = f ( Self - awareness + Vision + Choice of Action ( s )

+ Sense of Contentedness ) .

Let’s understand this by taking a look at an incidence from the historical

account from the times of great Indian Emperor, Chandragupta Maurya.

Once, Chandragupta Maurya, the great ruler and the famous disciple of the
great economist sage Chanakya was having daily meetings with his ministerial
staff. He was discussing the town planning with one of the officers with an
eagerness to know about the minutest details. Seeing this, one of the officers
from the staff said, “O mighty King Chandragupta Maurya! Why to worry
about all these minor issues. You are the king and the kingdom has to follow
your word”.
Listening this, Chandragupta replied, “Oh dear minister!!! You are living in
different world. It is not the way a kingdom is ruled. I am the servant of my
people, my people tell me and I just listen and help them get what they want”.

It is just a short excerpt from the story, but with a big lesson. Herein, we
can see the pursuit of service in leading a kingdom. This reflects the spiri-
tual intelligence of the king in being self-aware of his capabilities with a
broader vision of public welfare by choosing the act through the path of
servant leadership. Being in this discourse kept the king detached from
the worldly associations attributing to a sense of contentment on serving
148  A. Sharma and H. Sharma

mankind, which further paved his way to become the great emperor of
his time. Thus, drawing upon this exemplary incident at societal level,
spiritual intelligence can help one to achieve greater success not only at
individual level but also at organizational level.

Spiritual Intelligence at the Workplace

Organizations exist in a globalized workspace with increasing technologi-
cal advancements, automation and intense competition. The distinctive
selves, desires and approaches of different stakeholders interact and com-
bine together to attain economic objective. This requires the organization
employees to have a cordial working relationship and a team spirit to
work cohesively towards greater organizational productivity. Further, the
overemphasis on profits and economic motives in the organization stag-
nates the social relationships and reduces the moral obligations of organi-
zation towards the social community in which the organization is
embedded. This further influences the social environment around the
organization (economic, social, cultural and natural) leading to adverse
effect on the organization from both internal and external environment.
This requires a consistent effort on the part of the organization to inte-
grate experiences in order to keep a balanced working environment in the
organization.
The challenge becomes more pressing with the rising trend of gig econ-
omy with the increasing trend of freelance and contractual workforce.
Organization can hire the workers on contract to get their work done,
but they can’t control the level of commitment towards organization in
such scenario. Herein, spirituality can serve as a binding and driving force
that can facilitate the alignment between the gig workforce and the
economic-­social motives of the organization.
Let’s root it deeply in an organizational context. Practically, an organiza-
tion works primarily for economic goals with employees being the main
performing entity embedded in a social community. The intense competi-
tion for profits and rigorous emphasis on new innovative solutions with
fading business boundaries and time zones has distanced the employees from
their social environment penalizing the overall organizational performance.
   Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig Economy  149

Being spiritually intelligent helps the organization to adopt a self-conscious

and human-centred approach by making best decision from the available
choices with appropriate actions to advance towards the pre-identified orga-
nizational vision. It can keep the organization deeply rooted with social envi-
ronment instilling the emotional roots in the rational business approach
making the organization more responsible towards the different stakeholder.
Intelligent spirituality plays all the more a crucial role as there are multi-
fold interactions in multiple dimensions in a classic social set-up. This set-
up is a perfect breeding ground for anomalies in an individual’s behaviour
due to social comparisons and intense competition for limited resources to
name a few. As the organization set-up is getting more and more virtual day
by day, it may further trigger discontent, sense of disillusionment and drift-
ing away of an individual’s attention from the common objective. In a gig
economy, the bigger the size of an organization, more are the chances of
shifting of focus from the organizational core objectives and submerging
itself in a toxic environment. To combat this, intelligent spirituality can
come to the rescue by uplifting the self-­potential. This can be done by mak-
ing it more humane centric and instillation of a sense of purpose which
empowers a person to his or her potential thereby realizing the full potential
and contentedness, even when the formal organization contracts are absent.
Let’s unfold the aspects of spiritual intelligence in an organizational con-
text. ‘Self-awareness’ in the context of an organization relates to an indi-
vidual’s understanding of his work and the impact that work has his
performance aligned with the overall organization success. This realization
is quite important as this aspect instils the feelings in an individual to relate
to the organization apart from the monetary relationships. Hence, this facet
gets more crucial with virtual workforce in absence of any formal organiza-
tional contract. Herein, the self-awareness of duties and service towards the
hiring organization can contribute to the success of both individual and
organization, respectively. It is the self-awareness about the work alloca-
tion and work expectations to perform the job role in an efficient manner
to collectively contribute to the overall organizational effectiveness.
Similarly, with a gig workforce, ‘vision’ can be understood as a long-­
term outlook of an individual. If the sole purpose is to earn money then
it is not counted as vision. Vision is something which drives the person
to reach at a defined destination. Organizations define their vision in
150  A. Sharma and H. Sharma

such a way that most of the times they can’t be related by an individual
working for it. Usually, we focus on vision of an organization, but in
context of virtual workforce, one has to focus on the individual vision
and its alignment with the overall organizational vision so that the indi-
vidual can be on track as per the organizational requirements to get
mutually benefited. Once, the individual is self-aware and has clear vision
about the set expectations and deliverables, the individual will adopt best
suitable ‘choice of action(s)’ to serve the organizational interest within a
virtual work set-up in the best possible manner. Thus, working with
greater work flexibility with reduced deadline culture with an emphasis
on skills makes an individual self-aware and ‘content’ in providing service
to the organization leading to a state wherein the individual is in a psy-
chological ‘flow of performing the duties to the best of abilities which
ultimately benefits the organization’.
To elaborate further, let’s take up the example of ‘Uber’, a highly suc-
cessful ‘gig economy’ company which is now almost synonymous with
ride-sharing industry. Freelance drivers or ‘gig workers’ had no idea about
the vision of the company and the potential difference it will make in
their life. In fact, in early days, people were not even certain of the life of
the company, but we kept on hearing stories of exceptional service by
‘Uber drivers’. This aspect was interesting as they were not formal employ-
ees and ‘Uber’ did not have a much formalized induction process back
then. This makes us think as to what factors were playing a role in increas-
ing the gig workers’ contentedness and why some of the early adopters
were not being satisfied with the work. To us it is the intelligent spiritual-
ity which plays an important role in one’s life. It is definitely affected with
lots of external variables but eventually boils down to the above four
factors of self-awareness, vision, choice of actions which results in sense
of contentedness which further leads to consistency in performance.
The early driver employees of Uber as ‘gig workers’ were self-aware of
their service towards the larger masses. This was further projected by
Uber as ‘share economy’ concept with a contribution in saving environ-
ment by limiting vehicle pollution. Thus, the vision of drivers for making
money through transportation got broadened with the sense of service to
Mother Nature which further  gave them a sense of contentment. This
contentment was a resultant of serving a larger goal, to serve the mankind
   Spiritual Intelligence in the Gig Economy  151

by saving environment. This ultimately led to the choices of action(s) the

Uber drivers are adopting to serve their passengers with the best comfort-
able ride with various added features in their cab such as, free internet,
mobile charging facility and more. This has led to the shining success of
Uber which has revolutionized the transportation industry with its large
and spiritually intelligent gig employee base.

Future Thoughts
The prevailing business practices are hinting at the lack of employee
motivation as an important concern being faced by the organizations.
It is tougher to visualize employee commitment in this gig concept of
employment. It is also difficult to keep a large group of people moti-
vated all the time as there are lots of internal and external factors which
affect the mental makeup of an individual. Accordingly, based on the
discussion above, we can perceive a strong correlation between spiri-
tual intelligence and an individual performance along with overall
organization success. This is evident overwhelmingly while looking at
factors ­contributing to success in organizations. Future research can
focus on to identify, within the ‘gig economy’, why some people are
quite successful and others remain at bay. It can explore the role of
spiritual intelligence in relation to motivations, values, driving forces
and how spiritual intelligence plays a role in the life of a successful
gig worker.

References
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De Stefano, V. 2016. The Rise of the “Just-In Time Workforce”: On-Demand

Work, Crowdwork, and Labor Protection in the “Gig Economy”. Comparative
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Innovations International.
Gupta, M., V.  Kumar, and M.  Singh. 2014. Creating Satisfied Employees
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Krishnakumar, S., and C.P.  Neck. 2002. The “What”, “Why” and “How” of
Spirituality in the Workplace. Journal of Managerial Psychology 17 (3):
153–164.
Mitroff, I.I., and E.A. Denton. 1999. A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America: A
Hard Look at Spirituality, Religion, and Values in the Workplace. Vol. 140,
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 10
Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor
of Employee Engagement
Rupa Rathee and Vandana Sharma

Introduction
In the twenty-first century there has been an escalating attention to the
concepts of employee engagement and workplace spirituality (Case and
Gosling 2010; Milliman et al. 2003; Saks 2011) among the academicians
and business practitioners. Though both the concepts have evolved inde-
pendently they are still in the emerging stages of development of the
constructs and definitions (Roof 2015). The research is ongoing and
there is little evidence of any relationship between both the constructs.
According to a report by Deloitte (2016), 85 per cent of the top officials
affirmed that employee engagement is the highest priority of many
organisations and millions of dollars are spent to enhance the engage-
ment levels. The antecedents of employee engagement are co-worker
and supervisor relationship, job design characteristics (meaningful and
challenging work), safety and availability of resources, job enrichment,

R. Rathee • V. Sharma (*)

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology,
Murthal, Sonipat, India

© The Author(s) 2019 153

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_10
154  R. Rathee and V. Sharma

psychological climate which predict employee engagement (Fairlie 2011;

Kahn 1990; May et al. 2004; Shuck et al. 2011). “Spirituality” is one of
the significant determinants of employee engagement, but has not yet
received the due attention in organisational setting (Devendhiran and
Wesley 2017).
It is argued that to enhance engagement, goal achievement and inter-
personal relationships are significant ways (Collini et  al. 2015; Pirkola
et al. 2016), which are also strongly associated to workplace spirituality
(WPS) (Fry 2003). According to Milliman et al. (2003) the commitment
of the employee is greatly influenced by the extent to which they unearth
purpose and meaning in their life. “The more the employees find purpose
and meaning in their life, more they are committed to the organisation”
(Milliman et al. 2003). This quest for meaningful work is significant to
appreciate association between workplace spirituality and employee
engagement. Hence, the chapter is oriented to understand workplace
spirituality as a predictor of employee engagement. It focuses on the fol-
lowing question: Is workplace spirituality a predictor of employee engage-
ment? If yes, what is the connecting link between them? With the help of
review of literature an endeavour has been made to fill the gap by generat-
ing a theoretical frame of workplace spirituality as a predictor of employee
engagement. The chapter seeks to contribute to the discipline of HRM
by connecting WPS and employee engagement research and theoretically
developing the relationship between the two.

Workplace Spirituality
According to religious standards “Spirituality” is a process of personal
transformation. Maintaining the progress of spirit is as significant as
progress of mind because spirituality in the workplace means people
have both mind and a spirit (Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Robbins
2003). In WPS, Work acts as a spiritual path for employees to nurture
themselves and to add to humanity in a meaningful way. WPS is a
means for individuals and organisations to live their morals copiously
in the work they do. “It is care, compassion and support of others;
   Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor of Employee Engagement  155

about integrity and people being true to them and others” (Roof
2015). Spiritual organisations lead to the development of meaning
and purpose in work and thereby employees feel dedicated and associ-
ated to their organisations (Devendhiran and Wesley 2017). The ratio-
nale behind is that employees are rendering their services not only to
earn a hefty pay package but also to realise their “inner potential,
inner peace, meaningful work and collaborative atmosphere with one’s
peers and colleagues” (Pradhan and Jena 2016). Research indicates
that employees high on spirituality distinguish their work differently
from their other counterparts in the organisation. In spiritual terms
employees work behaviour is “caring, service and transcendence”
(Curlin et  al. 2007). The work performed by employees receives a
stronger feeling of meaning and purpose when they identify work in a
spiritual way.
Though there are various definitions of workplace spirituality, there is
no accord to explain the concept exclusively (Pardasani et al. 2014). The
problem of defining the concept exists because of the subjectivity of the
concept (Gull and Doh 2004), early stage of the concept (Roof 2015),
lack of practical research (McCormick 1994), and common characteris-
tics with religion (Zinnbauer et al. 1999).
Neck and Milliman (1994, 9) stated that “spirituality is expressing our
desires to find meaning and purpose in lives and is a process of living out
one’s set of deeply held personal values”. It includes “meaning and pur-
pose in lives and the personal values” held by the individuals as the key
elements. According to Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003, 13) WPS is a
“framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that pro-
motes employee’s experience of transcendence through the work process,
facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that provides
feelings of completeness and joy”. Table 10.1 depicts definition of work-
place spirituality from different dimensions.
From the above review of literature, it can be concluded that work-
place spirituality is “too idiosyncratic and multifaceted construct” (Do
2018, 3) to be conceptualised as a universal construct (Klenke 2003;
Markow and Klenke 2005). It is being studied from diverse dimensions
including transcendence of self, meaningful work, sense of community,
inner life, self-work immersion, personal growth, and development.
Table 10.1  Definition of workplace spirituality from varied dimensions
Author(s) Year Definition Dimensions of WPS
Ashmos and 2000 WPS is defined “as the recognition that employees have an inner life “Conditions for community,
Duchon that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place meaningful work, inner life,
in the context of community”. personal responsibility & positive
connections with others”.
Milliman et al. 2003 WPS is “employee experiences as they note that workplace spirituality “Meaningfulness in work, sense of
involves an employee’s experiencing sense of meaning in work, sense community & value alignment”.
of connectedness with others at work and an experience of
alignment with the organization’s mission and purpose”.
Kinjerski and 2004 “Spirit at work is defined as a term that describes the experience of “Meaningful work, sense of
Skrypnek employees who are passionate about and energized by their work, community and self-work
find meaning and purpose in their work, feel that they can express immersion”.
their complete selves at work and feel connected to those with
whom they work”.
Marques 2006 WPS is “the awareness that interconnectedness, respect and “Interconnectedness & sense of
recognition are not limited to ourselves and our private community”.
environment, but are also very applicable to all those with whom we
work on a regular or incidental basis”.
Marschke 2007 WPS “is theology not directly related to God and it refers to morality “Meaningful work & ethics”.
and ethics, meaningful work and business ethics”.
Petchsawang 2009 Workplace spirituality as “having compassion toward others, “Compassion, mindfulness,
and Duchon experiencing mindful inner consciousness in the pursuit of meaningful work,
meaningful work that enables transcendence”. transcendence”.
Srirangarajan 2011 “WPS is about employees who are passionate and energised by their Meaning and purpose in work.
and Bhaskar work, who find meaning and purpose and pursue excellence in their
work, and who feel that they can express their complete selves at work.
It is about individuals and organisations that see work as an opportunity
to grow and to contribute to society in a meaningful way”.
Roof 2015 “Spirituality is the personal relationship or experience with God or the Transcendence.
divine that informs an individual’s existence and shapes their
meaning, purpose and mission in daily life. It does not need to
encompass religion nor does it by nature exclude religion”.
   Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor of Employee Engagement  157

The spiritually driven employees are encouraged, recognised and val-

ued. “Integrating spirituality into workplace means creating a place where
people can bring their whole selves, with all their talents and complex
emotions … such organisations have an elevated sense of integrity”
(Rigolioso 1999, 175). Robbins et al. (2011) viewed that spiritual organ-
isations focus on purpose and objectives and has a cultural environment
which can be relied upon and employees are free to express their views.
“Creativity inculcates and in comfortable working environment employ-
ees are promoted to be themselves at work” (Devendhiran and Wesley
2017, 9). According to Krishnakumar and Neck (2002), workplace spiri-
tuality improves employee loyalty and retention, and hence leads to
higher profits and development. A study by Quatro (2002) reveals that
organisations that exhibit moderate to strong organisational “spiritual
normativity” have better income growth rates in long term.

Employee Engagement
The theory of employee engagement has received a significant interest
among HR managers and consultants, communication practitioners, and
business conferences (Rurkkhum and Bartlett 2012; Saks and Gruman
2014; Shuck and Wollard 2010). Employee engagement emanates in
scholastic literature from two basic groups. The first group resulted from
Kahn’s (1990) “Personal engagement” and the construct emphasised
“the individual’s perception of the work environment as a place to mani-
fest one’s preferred self”. Employee engagement is defined as “the harness-
ing of organisation member’s selves to their work roles; in engagement,
people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively and emo-
tionally during role performances” (Kahn 1990, 694). “Burn out” family
is the second most often used in terms of grouping engagement evolu-
tion. Burnout family conceptualises work engagement “as the opposite of
psychological burn out” (Maslach and Leiter 1997, 24). It defines engage-
ment as “a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is character-
ised by vigor, dedication and absorption” (Schaufeli and Bakker 2003, 5).
Table 10.2 depicts definitions proposed by various researchers.
158  R. Rathee and V. Sharma

Table 10.2  Definitions of employee engagement

Author(s) Year Definition
Kahn 1990 “As the harnessing of organisation members’ selves to
their work roles; in engagement, people employ and
express themselves physically, cognitively and
emotionally during role performances”.
Maslach 2001 “As the opposite or positive antithesis of burnout. It is
et al. characterised by energy, involvement, and efficacy, the
direct opposite of the three burnout dimensions of
exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy”.
Rothbard 2001 “It is the psychological presence but state that it involves
two critical components: attention and absorption”.
Attention refers to “cognitive availability and the
amount of time one spends thinking about a role” while
absorption “means being engrossed in a role and refers
to the intensity of one’s focus on a role”.
Schaufeli 2002 “Engagement is a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of
et al. mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and
absorption”.
Rich et al. 2010 “Job engagement is a multidimensional motivational
concept reflecting the simultaneous investment of an
individual’s physical, cognitive and emotional energy in
active, full work performance”.
Shuck and 2010 “As an individual employee’s cognitive, emotional, and
Wollard behavioural state directed toward desired organizational
outcomes”.
Eldor and 2016 “Employee engagement is an active, fulfilling concept
Vigoda-­ that reflects the simultaneous expression of
Gadot multidimensional energies—physical, affective and
cognitive—that benefit organisation and employees”.

Meaningful Work
Mirvis (1997, 193) emphasises that “Work itself is being re-discovered as
a source of spiritual growth and connection to others”. Kinjerski and
Skrypnek (2004) states that “work is a pathway which gives a sense of
connection to something larger than self and a sense of perfection and
transcendence”. Companies should concentrate and realise the in-depth
desires of employees so as to motivate and retain them as “talented people
demand meaningful work … deny it, they leave” (Havener 1999).
Meaningful work is concerned with meaningful tasks which utilises the
   Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor of Employee Engagement  159

motor skills (cognitive skills), work that generates a feeling of happiness,

links employees to a greater good and to things that are reckoned by oth-
ers as significant in life (Wrzesniewski 2003). “Meaningful work signifies
the degree to which people experience a deep sense of meaning and pur-
pose at work” (Milliman et al. 2003). Man’s quest for meaningful work is
nothing new but it has always been left unaddressed. They work as they
enjoy performing which is worth it, gives confidence and sense of perfec-
tion in their life. Work that leads to things believed by others as central
in life and they can contribute to society at large instils attachment and
happiness. A meaningful work leads to workplace spirituality and engages
the people at workplace.

Dimensions of Meaningful Work

Definitions of WPS give clarity as to the presence and relevance of mean-
ingful work as a key input enabler. To understand the concept of mean-
ingful work, Table 10.3 depicts the review of literature portraying the key
aspects of meaningful work.

Table 10.3  Dimensions of meaningful work

Author(s) Title of the paper Dimensions of meaningful work
Hackman and “Motivation through “Task identity, task significance and
Oldham design of work: Test of skill variety”.
(1976) a theory”
Bowie (1998) “A Kantian Theory of “Work autonomy and
meaningful work” independence to develop rational
capacities, wage sufficient wage,
support moral development, work
is not paternalistic”.
Rosso et al. “On the meaning of “Self-efficacy, self-esteem, purpose,
(2010) work: A theoretical belongingness, transcendence,
integration and review” cultural and interpersonal sense
making, authenticity”.
Steger et al. “Measuring meaningful “Greater good motivations,
(2012) work: The work as Positive meaning, meaning
meaning inventory making through work”.
(WAMI)”
160  R. Rathee and V. Sharma

Hackman and Oldham (1976) in his pioneering research on

“Motivation through design of work” identified five characteristics of job
which advanced the inception of psychological states which contributed
to the experience of meaningful work. According to them, “skill variety,
task identity and task significance” determined the psychological
­meaningfulness of job. The above review outlined how scholars have
studied the different dimensions of meaningful work to understand.

Spirituality and Employee Engagement

A report by Gallup (2016) presented that 71 per cent of the employees
were actively disengaged at work. The workplace spirituality and revival
of employee engagement can address this problem of disengagement at
work in the organisations. Saks (2011), in his introductory research paper
linking workplace spirituality and employee engagement represented cer-
tain similarities between them and proposed that they might co-exist in
organisations. In his model of workplace spirituality and employee
engagement, he showed a direct link between WPS and employee engage-
ment and an indirect link between WPS and employee engagement with
the help of Kahn’s psychological conditions. Thus, workplace spirituality
might be a strong predictor of employee engagement. Based on his future
line of research one variable from Kahn’s psychological conditions, that
is, meaningful work was used to comprehend the link between the both.
Figure 10.1 depicts the relationship between workplace spirituality and
employee engagement.

Workplace Meaningful Employee

Spirituality Work Engagement

Fig. 10.1  Workplace spirituality and employee engagement

   Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor of Employee Engagement  161

Below is the review of literature to understand how meaningful work

acts as a bridge to connect workplace spirituality with employee engage-
ment. A number of scholars have studied the concept of WPS and illus-
trated that definition of WPS has evolved around major aspects: “inner
life, meaningful and purposeful work and a sense of community and
connectedness” (Houghton et al. 2016). The three aspects of WPS were
initially conceptualised by Ashmos and Duchon (2000). Krishnakumar
and Neck (2002) described WPS from the “intrinsic-origin view and
existentialist view”. The intrinsic-origin view conceptualises spirituality
“as a concept which originates from the inside of an individual” and it
entails a sense of being associated with one’s work and with others
(Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Neck and Milliman 1994). The existential-
ist view focuses on the “search for meaning” at workplace and in work. “A
sense of community and meaningful work depicts group and organisa-
tional levels of workplace spirituality, which has confirmed to be the most
significant dimensions of WPS” (Pirkola et al. 2016).
Pfeffer (2014) described four fundamental dimensions of workplace
which people search for to build the spirit: “interesting work that permits
the individuals to learn, develop and have a sense of competence and
mastery, meaningful work, sense of connection and positive social rela-
tions with co-workers and the ability to live an integrated life, so that
work roles and other roles are not inherently in conflict” (as cited in Saks
2011). Meaningful work is concerned more with working together for a
greater good purpose that you are serving for something good, which is
something beyond compensation—the work itself is valuable (Pirkola
et al. 2016; Steger et al. 2012). A study to examine the elements of WPS
(Pawar 2009) found that WPS is positively associated with the attitudes
of employees in a manner that the more an employee finds meaning in
work and community, the more he/she was committed to the organisa-
tion. Kinjerski and Skrypnek (2004) emphasised that individuals who
find passion and energy by their work, as well as meaning and purpose,
are more connected to others in the workplace. The existentialist per-
spective (Krishnakumar and Neck 2002; Houghton et al. 2016) includes
meaningful and purposeful work, which means that people seek mean-
ing in their work (Ashmos and Duchon 2000) and they place higher
162  R. Rathee and V. Sharma

value to their work and higher purpose in their lives. Meaningful and
purposeful work involves a feeling of happiness by completely engaging
the employees’ potential and becoming connected to things that are of
value in life (Ashmos and Duchon 2000; Duchon and Plowman 2005;
Fry 2003).
WPS involves the feeling of connectedness with one’s work and also
with others (Mitroff and Denton 1999). It also elucidates that every indi-
vidual has an inner life which is supported by meaningful work.
Consequently, spirit at work makes one feel that one’s work makes a
benefaction and have a feeling of association with others and common
purpose. WPS is a personal feeling of an individual and it differs from
one another. Individuals seek meaning in their life with the help of work.
This exploration for meaningful work provides the man the reason for his
existence. Hence, from the above review it is evident that workplace spiri-
tuality is theoretically related to psychologically meaningful work.
Kahn (1990) identified “psychological meaningfulness, psychological
safety and psychological availability” as important psychological
­conditions that influenced individual’s engagement/disengagement at
work. The aspects of psychological meaningfulness can be understood as
one’s sense of being “worthwhile, useful and valuable”. According to
Kahn (1990), the task characteristics of a person’s work highly influence
the psychological meaningfulness which includes “challenging work,
clearly identified, creative and autonomous role”. May et al. (2004) sug-
gested that meaningfulness of work displayed a significant positive rela-
tionship with engagement. Saks (2006) established that “job characteristics
are predictors of job engagement”. Fairlie (2011) studied numerous
meaningful work characteristics and elucidated that meaningful work has
the strongest correlation with employee engagement. Crawford et  al.
(2010) identified “job challenge, autonomy, task variety, feedback,
rewards and recognition and development opportunities as key anteced-
ents to motivating engagement”. Eldor and Vigoda-Gadot (2016) rever-
berated the thoughts of researchers that employee has more value for
work in their life, that is, “they have an incremental value for work cen-
trality over and above psychological empowerment and psychological
contract”. Thus, meaningful work characteristics are strong predictors of
employee engagement (Fairlie 2011; May et al. 2004; Saks 2006).
   Workplace Spirituality as a Predictor of Employee Engagement  163

Building Spirit at Work in the Organisations

Organisations are nurturing spirituality at work. For example, Maruti
Suzuki India, an automobile company conducted spirituality and mind
enlightenment programmes for its 18,000 employees. Tata Motors focuses
on overall well-being of its employees by providing free medical aid, voca-
tional training programmes, safety measures, and fair compensation poli-
cies, as well as crèches/schooling facilities for their children. In addition,
Tata Sustainability Group (TSG) monitors the impact of its activities on
the environment and community (Venkateswaran and Roy 2018). TSG,
through its newly launched “Tata Engage Program”, encourages employ-
ees to work for the community. Wipro, Dabur, and Oriental Insurance
offer Buddhist meditation technique “Vipassana” for their employees.
Hero Honda Motors and Satyam Computers took up Transcendental
Meditation (TM) sessions to enhance employee’s effectiveness, peer rela-
tionships and self-knowledge (Nandram and Bindlish 2017). These ini-
tiatives help in building a positive work environment by connecting their
employees as a family and creating meaningfulness in their work.

Conclusion
Through this integrative approach authors conceptualise and understand
workplace spirituality as a predictor of employee engagement, with spe-
cial reference to meaningful work. This chapter with the help of review of
literature theoretically develops the relationship between workplace spiri-
tuality and employee engagement and concludes that workplace spiritu-
ality is an important predictor of employee engagement and can be
empirically tested. This chapter also highlights the measures adopted by
Indian firms to spiritually engage their employees at workplace.

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 11
Rethinking Management Education:
Integrating Spiritual Values into
Education as Envisaged by Swami
Vivekananda
Moitreyee Paul

Introduction
In earlier times reputed educational institutions were attributed as tem-
ples of learning where knowledge was given prime importance. In the
present era of globalization, educational institutions are mushrooming all
over the country. However, mere distribution and diffusion of knowledge
are not adequate for the country. Academic institutions have to manage
several things apart from scholastic growth. The growth and success of
any educational institution depend upon its vision and mission, ability to
adapt to the continually changing academic work environment and cre-
ation of both academic and human resources. The capability to create an
innovative course curriculum with a strong focus on subject knowledge
paves the way towards sustainable development and growth of any learn-
ing organization. In this manner, this persistent evolution sets standards

M. Paul (*)
Xavier School of Human Resources Management, Xavier University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 169

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_11
170  M. Paul

for both the students and the teaching professionals about what is
expected from them. In order to build up world-class academic institu-
tions, much-needed attention is given to the practices in accreditation
and assessment and in improving the professional aptitude of students
and faculties. The educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda that
stressed upon spiritual development of an individual has the potential to
contribute to the contemporary education system.
Indian education needs to realign itself with global trends, striving for
academic excellence and fulfilment of spiritual vision of life. Faculties and
students must be imparted training in developing employability skills
comprising of not only technical and managerial skills but also life, holis-
tic and employability skills. Swami Vivekananda proposed that spiritual-
ity must be embedded in the innermost core of our education system as
it is the way by which lack of knowledge is replaced by intelligence and
spiritual wisdom.
The objective of this chapter is to discuss education as visualized by
Swami Vivekananda and also to recommend measures to imbibe the spir-
itual values among teaching professionals and students.

 wami Vivekananda and His Vision

S
of Education
Swami Vivekananda was an epitome of strength and crusader of human
values. He is a golden milestone in the history of India. Within the
brief span of thirty-nine years, he has made a remarkable contribution
not only to India but to the entire world as an exemplary social reformer,
philosopher, spiritual leader and educator par excellence. He was a
youth icon and showed us the path towards character building. He
believed that our life is a roller coaster ride and we must have the inner
strength and courage to withstand those challenges of life and not just
get rattled by the ups and downs of life. His dynamic ideas and educa-
tional philosophy formed the basis of the Vedanta idealism which was a
torchbearer for human development and fulfilment. The nucleus of
Swami Vivekananda’s ideas does not merely lie in sacred and theoretical
   Rethinking Management Education: Integrating Spiritual…  171

doctrine and dogmas but in the real nature of man, which he described
as inherently divine. Swami Vivekananda understood the plight of
mankind. He devoted his mind and soul to identifying the root cause
of the problems encountered by the common man and solving them
diligently. He said, “The men and the women are the two wheels of the
society. If one of the two falls defective, the society cannot make progress.
Hence we need education for the females as we need for the males” (Kanoria
2017). He stated emphatically that education is the root cause of the
progress of a nation and everyone irrespective of their gender, caste and
creed must be educated as they are the constituents of the society. He
believed that women are the torchbearers of the society and hence they
must be provided education. In his words, “There is no chance of the
welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not
possible for a bird to fly on one wing” (Kanoria 2017). In the spiritual
sense, education is the course of realizing the ability, proclivity and
aptitude of a human being to realize one’s own soul’s impeccable nature.
Swami Vivekananda tirelessly worked towards women seeking educa-
tion in universities. His focus was on vocational skills and training, the
dynamics of which changes with time and technology and impacts the
way of living.
Education is an incessant pursuit for ascent and excellence. It
becomes more unequivocal and emotive when it is translated into
perfection inherent in every human being. It is interesting that Swami
Vivekananda has foreseen the vision of spirituality for excellence and
development in and through education of the right mind and of the
right kind. According to him, “Education is the manifestation of perfec-
tion already in man” (Vivekananda 1966a, 358). Perfection takes
shape in an individual from a rather early age, as it moulds him into
a fine person and as a citizen of tomorrow: one who gives back to the
society! Education is simply the way our expressions are controlled
(Vivekananda 1966b, 490) and the spirit of learning is entirely
focused on improving the concentration of mind (Vivekananda 1963,
38–39). Swami Vivekananda has embarked upon different avenues of
spirituality, and education is the means by which ignorance and bore-
dom are substituted by the genius and the spiritual force of vision.
172  M. Paul

Swami Vivekananda’s philosophy is embedded in Vedanta idealism.

He offered a very rational and practical system of education. He sug-
gested divergence of curriculum, education of masses, education of
the mind, education for employment and education for the eradica-
tion of poverty. He understood the significance of the pragmatic value
of education. Education is a lifelong process that takes one towards
self-discovery, self-perfection, self-awareness and self-manifestation.
He believed that “real education is that which enables one to stand on
one’s own legs” (Vivekananda  1964b, 147–148). Education acts as a
shield or armour that supports the individuals to face challenges of
life, become an embodiment of strength, arouse the spirit of philan-
thropy and be brave like a lion to overcome obstacles. He voiced
against the imperfect academic education and mundane learning that
was accentuated in institutions then and conveyed the need for exper-
imental based education and the fusion of religion and science in edu-
cation. Self-learning through practice was the sole path to learning.
According to Swami Vivekananda, education must be based upon the
Vedanta principles, as it aimed at growth, advancement and multifac-
eted accomplishment: physical, mental, spiritual and upheld the unity
of brotherhood all over the world. Education should evolve our true
nature and eliminate ego, ignorance, malice and create fruitful human
relationships. Knowledge emanates from within the core of our heart.
He said, “All knowledge that the world has ever received, comes from the
mind; the infinite library of the universe is your own mind” (Vivekananda
1965, 28). His scheme of education promoted constructive, practical
and comprehensive approach. Another thing he rightly said was that
students must learn to obey. Everyone wants to command but seldom
obey. Therefore, “we must first learn to be a servant, and then only one
can be fit to become a master” (Vivekananda  1964a, 134–135). His
dream for quality education was highly acclaimed globally by educa-
tionists worldwide. John Dewey’s educational philosophy was also
positioned on inner strengthening and self-development, which
Swami Vivekananda summed up as man-making education.
   Rethinking Management Education: Integrating Spiritual…  173

 pirituality and Management Education

S
in India
Indian management education has undergone a perpetual change and is
gradually realigning itself with the global trends and needs. With man-
agement curriculum all over the world getting a makeover by being more
innovative, laying emphasis on practical skills, Indian management insti-
tutes, too, are on the path of upgrading their syllabus, keeping pace with
top-notch B-Schools. Indian B-schools are actually innovating and
experimenting at a faster pace. They are innovating their programmes
that are worthy of consideration. B-schools are breaking the barriers in
training methods, internship experiences and skill building. New courses
on sustainability, rural and urban management are evolving to help the
students to enlarge their avenues of exploring new fields of management.
Graduate engineers are opting for various management specializations to
enrich their career opportunities. New courses on sustainability and sus-
tainable development are being offered by various educational institutes
in India. However, top management officials argue that the management
institutes are now plagued and unable to decide between the quality and
ever-increasing quantity of students. Students and faculties are suffering
from poor physical and mental health conditions which are affecting
their performance at the workplace. Spirituality is the connection between
the mind and soul of the body. Scientific studies have proved the fact that
spirituality programmes like yoga and meditation improve the physical
health, mental health and well-being of individuals. Spirituality embraces
divine attributes such as affection, empathy, endurance, compassion, sac-
rifice, happiness, accountability and sense of coherence, assisting people
in distress, values, principles, personality, mindfulness and vigour. Thus it
has become evident to introduce that holistic education in management.
Time has come to invoke spirituality in Indian management education
and foster spiritual values in the minds of both students and educators.
Education is the pathway to undergo innermost spiritual renovation. It is
the cluster of learning resources and the sole means to show an individual
the galaxy of knowledge, graduating further to discover spiritual wisdom,
174  M. Paul

to see life in its totality. Spirituality is an unfathomable wisdom. It is

chiefly concerned with interconnectedness among people and the invisi-
ble zeal to boost up human motivation. Spirituality assists in the inculca-
tion of moral beliefs, being responsible citizens and deriving happiness
from work so as to sustain challenges of the business environment.
Management education needs to inculcate the self-confidence, vanity
and desire, dream, emotion and the self-esteem to achieve the goal.
Learning about spiritual values in management courses encourages the
students to rethink the way they are dwelling with other human beings in
and outside the workplace and discovering an inborn zeal to search for
work environments where they will be more able to acclimate their cre-
ativity, talents, and longing to interconnect with other fellow colleagues
and teachers. Spirituality also provides lessons so that the students are
capable of protecting themselves from any fraudulent practices occurring
in various companies and uphold the code of business ethics. In fact, it is
the moral duty of academic institutes to provide an ambience to students
that will help them to grow from within and serve the society with a self-
less attitude. Therefore, the main aim of education is not just to learn but
to enhance eminence of life, not solely relied upon awareness, but remain-
ing focused on moral principles, spiritual intelligence, clarity and
perseverance.

 ethinking Management Education: Future

R
Managerial Implications
Spirituality is the science of holistic living and therefore inculcating spiri-
tuality in management education in India will propel it towards academic
excellence. One facet of research concentrates on how different kinds of
organizations (educational, health and non-governmental) can undergo a
spiritual transformation by involving in extensive, holistic and concilia-
tory activities aiding the humanity and future compeers. Another aspect
of the study is to focus on incorporating spiritual practices into the man-
agement profession. Spirituality is the essence of quality for individual,
society and organizations. This is becoming pertinent as our society is
   Rethinking Management Education: Integrating Spiritual…  175

enduring a perpetual transformation and business organizations are

evolving into “knowledge organizations” or “learning organizations”.
Since human resources are the key asset of organizations, they must strive
towards enhancing their capability for the smooth functioning of day-to-­
day activities. The motto of future academic organizations should be
“Learning for Life” where students are taught not just management skills
but are also imbibed the aptitude for knowledge, which then emerges as
lifelong learning. Simultaneously, it is equally important to ensure that
students are engaging themselves in the learning process and not just
receiving it. At the same time, institutions must impart holistic educa-
tion to the youth so as to make them self-sufficient and confident.
Teaching life skills in business education through the implementation of
ground-­breaking, scientific research methods and approaches, excep-
tional teaching resources and also imparting practical training to support
the pupils to achieve success in this continuously changing biosphere is
what it strives to achieve. They must set up brain research centres for
advancing research on mindfulness and spiritual consciousness and even
spiritual centres for imparting training in different forms of yoga and
meditation. Education starts with the creation of a value system that
helps their pupils to seek true calling. For the physical and mental well-
being of students, sports complex and open playground providing an
array of opportunities for playing all types of indoor and outdoor games
must be provided to the students. Moreover, conducting workshops and
seminars on spiritualism must be arranged for teachers for honing their
skills further. Hence, future implications are to establish premier educa-
tional institutions imparting holistic management education where stu-
dents will be exposed to various opportunities to explore interests of an
individual as well equip them with such strong spiritual bent of mind
that enables them to inculcate positive emotions and deal with stress and
depression. Therefore, the main aim of management institutes is to create
an inspired workforce displaying positivity at the academic workplace.
The vision of creating a spiritually conscious education system in India is
what we aim for. Finally, we need a good number of young and moti-
vated faculties, who will be able to create passionate students with ana-
lytic minds. With the right planning, adequate faculty and infrastructure,
176  M. Paul

I am quite optimistic that India will find a coveted place amongst the
best in the world.

Conclusion
Spirituality in Management education brings much happiness, satisfac-
tion and makes the journey more relevant and exciting. Spirituality is a
way of discovering the underlying reality in oneself and connects the
knowledge in a meaningful way to one’s own life. So it is a necessity to set
up a wonderful, nurturing and supporting community that inculcates
deeper connections and creates more meaningful relationships with oth-
ers on the campus. There is a need for educators who share commitment
to personal growth, give personal attention to each student and lay
emphasis on the value of student engagement and active learning.

References
Kanoria, H.P. 2017. Enlightenment: A Journey within Through Service. 6th ed,
255. Kolkata: Business Economics Publication Private Limited.
Vivekananda, Swami. 1963. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. VI.
7th ed, 38–39. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.
———. 1964a. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. III. 9th ed,
134–135. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.
———. 1964b. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. VII. 6th ed,
147–148. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.
———. 1965. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. I. 12th ed, 28.
Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.
———. 1966a. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. IV. 9th ed,
358. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.
———. 1966b. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. Vol. IV. 9th ed,
490. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama.
 Part IV
Critical Perspectives
 12
Critical Perspectives on Corporate
Mindfulness and Workplace Spirituality
Vivek Khanna and Prabhjot Dutta Khanna

Introduction
Corporate mindfulness and workplace spirituality have become particu-
larly fashionable in the business lexicon since some time. They are pro-
jected as representing the softer and more humane aspects of the corporate
world which is often characterized by ‘cut-throat competition’ and simi-
lar metaphors. Mindfulness, as understood and advocated by the modern
organizations, is principally utilized as a tool for stress reduction (Kabat-­
Zinn 1982). Reducing the stress of employees is definitely a good thing
and mindfulness definitely needs to be applauded if it is able to achieve
this end. However, mindfulness is often projected as a personal resource
(Hobfoll 1989) which needs to be harnessed by the employees to cope
with the stress induced by the workplace. Thus, the projection of mind-
fulness as a personal resource helps the organizations to absolve them-
selves from making efforts to minimize the stress-inducing conditions in
the workplace (Guthey and Jackson 2005).

V. Khanna (*) • P. D. Khanna

Vellore Institute of Technology Business School, VIT University, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 179

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_12
180  V. Khanna and P. D. Khanna

It may be remarked that the collapse of capitalism, as Marx predicted

it, never happened because Marx did not foresee the ways in which capi-
talism would reinvent itself. The capitalist system made tremendous
progress by way of appearances since the days of industrial revolution
(and the days of Marx). Marx had no idea of how innovative capitalism
could be to ensure its survival. The capitalism of industrial revolution
days transformed itself into a system which allowed the workers to vent
their anger and frustration before their repressed feelings had the chance
of exploding with a revolution. It can be said that capitalism pre-empted
its demise by providing a perception of support and appreciation to the
workers and giving space to the workers to express their grievances within
the system.
In ancient Rome, gladiator fights were held in the Colosseum in front
of the public. A covert purpose of this was to keep the minds of the pub-
lic engrossed in the fights so that they would not scrutinize the actions of
the authorities. The fact that such elaborate schemes were designed to
distract the public from the matters which concerned them speaks a lot
about the ingenuity of the ‘powers that be’ in preventing people from
getting to know that they are being exploited. The critical perspective on
corporate mindfulness and workplace spirituality contends that these are
the 21st century analogues of the distractions like gladiator fights. They
appear to empower the employees while in essence they prevent the
employees from realizing the extent of their exploitation.
Pointing towards a similar direction, Žižek (2001) argued

‘Western Buddhism’ … is establishing itself as the hegemonic ideology of global

capitalism … although Western Buddhism presents itself as the remedy against
the stressful tension of capitalism’s dynamics, allowing us to uncouple and retain
some inner peace … it actually functions as its perfect ideological supplement.
(From Western Marxism to Western Buddhism section, para. 1)

Moving on to the concept of workplace spirituality, it has been defined as

“the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is
nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of com-
munity” (Ashmos and Duchon 2000, 137). Workplace spirituality pur-
ports to make the organizations more inclusive in the sense that they (i.e.
the organizations) are willing to make space for the spirit of the employee
   Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and Workplace…  181

along with his/her body. There has been a steady progress in the direction
of incorporating spirituality into the workplace. While this is a benign
move in that it enables the employees to bring their holistic selves into
the workplace, thus, giving a chance for them to express their spiritual
selves which may help them to find renewed purpose and meaning in
their work, we need to be aware if there are any covert motives of the
organizations behind such a move, such as using workplace spirituality as
just one another tool for enhancing productivity.
It was keeping in mind such motives, that Eagleton (2011) argued:

executives of the metropolitan nations … fretted about their employees’ spiritual

well-being … this [did not happen] because the capitalist system was in blithe,
buoyant mood. On the contrary, [this] … sprang from deep anxiety … What
drove this reorganization above all was the sudden fade-out of the postwar
boom. Intensified international competition was forcing down rates of profits,
drying of sources of investment and slowing the rate of growth. (pp. 4–5)

Similar concerns have been raised by researchers over the years. It was
remarked “that part of the workplace spirituality movement views spiri-
tuality in the workplace as a technique to be used for instrumental,
financial-­centred ends rather than seeing spirituality as the central orga-
nizing principle in the workplace” (Driscoll and Wiebe 2007, 333–334).
Corporate mindfulness and workplace spirituality appear to be just two
new fancy ways for satiating the workers so that they do not get a chance
to ponder over the ills of the capitalist system. Thus, we note that the
progression towards corporate mindfulness and workplace spirituality are
not all that nice as they are made out to be. We need to keep a critical eye
on these phenomena. Keeping in line with the above arguments, in this
chapter we offer some critical perspectives on corporate mindfulness and
workplace spirituality.

Mindfulness
Einstein had allegedly remarked that “Things should be made as simple as
possible but not simpler.” This seems to the case with the modern mind-
fulness movement. The making of the phenomenon of mindfulness,
182  V. Khanna and P. D. Khanna

which is originally a Buddhist concept, comprehensible to the western

world, is a welcome thing in that it is a diffusion of cultural knowledge,
but presenting it as an ethically and religiously neutral phenomenon
would be committing the very mistake against which Einstein had
advised. The modern conception (or it may be said the conception of the
capitalist worldview) of mindfulness is ethically neutral. A question
regarding the intentionality of such a distortion may be raised. Is the
undermining of the ethical context of mindfulness a deliberate attempt?
Is capitalist system opposed to the creation of an ethical climate?
The modern operationalization of mindfulness uproots it from the
ethical and religious context of Buddhism. This modern rendering of the
concept of mindfulness to make it more readily accessible to the corpo-
rate world is being referred to as McMindfulness (Purser and Loy 2013).
Purser and Loy (2013) commented on the current state of affairs by not-
ing that “rather than applying mindfulness as a means to awaken indi-
viduals and organizations from the unwholesome roots of greed, ill will
and delusion, it is usually being refashioned into a banal, therapeutic,
self-help technique that can actually reinforce those roots” (Beyond
McMindfulness section, para. 6).
Purser and Loy (2013) argued that while training in mindfulness is
being projected as a magic bullet that “[will] improve work efficiency,
reduce absenteeism, and enhance the ‘soft skills’ that are crucial to career
success … [and will reform] even the most dysfunctional companies into
kinder, more compassionate and sustainable organizations” (Beyond
McMindfulness section, para. 3), these claims have not been backed by
any empirical study.
According to Hyland (2016), McMindfulness is “the commodified,
marketised and reductionist version of mindfulness practice which con-
sists in the construction of courses, ‘apps’, books, and other items for sale
to the public”. He goes on to say that McMindfulness techniques fully
satisfy Ritzer’s original model of McDonaldization—the commodifica-
tion of all aspects of life through standardization, calculability and con-
trol in the relentless capitalist pursuit of profits—and are distinguished
by their denaturing and reductionism of basic practices and the divorcing
of these from their ethical groundings in contemplative Buddhist tradi-
tions (Hyland 2016).
   Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and Workplace…  183

Hyland (2016) further noted that McMindfulness feeds the very

desires which are considered the cause of suffering in Buddhism. Hyland
(2016) echoed the analysis of Žižek (2001) by noting that “the marketisa-
tion of mindfulness can—in this sense—be compared directly with the
expropriation of the Protestant Ethic by capitalist interests during the
Industrial Revolution”. A frequently used operational definition of mind-
fulness is the one associated with the mindfulness-based stress reduction
(MBSR) (Kabat-Zinn 1994). It defines mindfulness as “paying attention
in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudg-
mentally” (Kabat-Zinn 1994, 4). MBSR and mindfulness based cogni-
tive therapy (MBCT) are based on the practice of mindfulness within the
Buddhist tradition. However, it has been argued that the conceptualiza-
tion of mindfulness on which these therapies are based is not in line with
the canonical descriptions of Buddhism (Gethin 2011).
Researchers who have tried to work with the conceptualizations of
mindfulness as espoused within the Buddhist tradition have based their
work on the popular western texts dealing with Buddhism. As a conse-
quence, their conceptualizations are at variance with the canonical con-
ceptualization of mindfulness (Bodhi 2011; Gethin 2001). Bodhi (2011)
raised a pertinent point when he remarked that phenomenon of mindful-
ness has turned into something “so vague and elastic that it serves almost
as a cipher into which one can read virtually anything we want” (Bodhi
2011, 22).
Further, Bodhi (2011) questioned

whether mindfulness can legitimately be extracted from its traditional context

and employed for secular purposes. He maintains that … non-traditional
applications of mindfulness are acceptable and even admirable on the grounds
that they help alleviate human suffering, but he also cautions against a
­reductionist understanding of mindfulness and urges that investigators respect
the religious tradition in which it is rooted. (p. 19)

Purser and Milillo (2015) emphasized the respecting and preserving of

the traditional context of mindfulness, reiterating the advice of Bodhi
(2011). They further noted as to “how the increasingly popular trend of
allegedly ‘Buddhist-inspired’ mindfulness training and interventions in
184  V. Khanna and P. D. Khanna

corporations runs the risk of being co-opted and exploited for maintain-
ing the status quo rather than effecting transformative change” (Purser
and Milillo 2015, 4).
Mindfulness is often projected as the process of being attentive to
the present moment as opposed to being rooted in memory (which is
the traditional conception) (Ţhānissaro 2012). Thus, we see there is a
huge difference in the conceptions of mindfulness in the Buddhist
and the western/modern perspectives. Bodhi (2011) noted that the
word used for mindfulness in the Buddhist tradition was sati. “The
purpose and function of sati within the context of the Buddhist path
is to put an end to suffering” (Purser and Milillo 2015, 5) and sam-
masati or right mindfulness is a component of the eightfold path
of Buddhism.
According to Purser and Milillo (2015)

Right mindfulness signifies a faculty of mind that is able to remember both

skillful and unskillful actions, expanding the temporal field of vision … [It] is
not merely a passive and nonjudgmental attentiveness to the present moment
exclusively but an actively engaged and discerning awareness that is capable of
recollecting words and actions from the past as well. (p. 5)

Right mindfulness is one of the components of the eightfold path of

Buddhism which comprises right view, right intention, right speech,
right action, right livelihood, right effort and right concentration besides
right mindfulness. It is imperative for modern researchers to understand
that right mindfulness can only be developed in the ethical context of
these components. A certain amount of mental restraint and ethical
behaviour is a precondition for the establishment of right mindfulness
(Ţhānissaro 2012). This emphasis of restraint is most conspicuously
missing from the modern conceptualizations of mindfulness and this
may be a strong point why researchers like Žižek (2001) argue that the
concept of mindfulness has been expropriated by capitalism to ensure
its hegemony.
On the inclusion of mindfulness in the eightfold path, Ţhānissaro
(2012) noted that
   Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and Workplace…  185

The Buddha … instead of telling you to abandon past memories so as to

approach the present with totally fresh eyes and bare awareness, he’s saying to be
selective in calling on the appropriate memories that will keep you on the path
to the end of suffering. And instead of telling you to watch passively as things
arise and pass away on their own, he’s saying to keep remembering the need to
complete any uncompleted tasks required by the path, and to protect any attain-
ments that have already been attained. (p. 21)

This is in stark contrast to the modern conceptualizations of mindfulness,

according to which mindfulness is devoid of discrimination and judge-
ment. As per the Buddhist canon, right mindfulness can discriminate
between wholesome and unwholesome outcomes (Bodhi 2011). Stanley
(2013) argued that there was no convergence in the way that mindfulness
was defined and measured by researchers. The measures used to opera-
tionalize mindfulness suffer from validity and reliability concerns
(Grossman and Van Dam 2011).
Purser and Milillo (2015) questioned the conceptualization and opera-
tionalization of mindfulness as an inherent psychological characteristic
independent of the need to nurture it by practice as such a formulation
went against the canonical conceptualization of mindfulness as a prac-
tice. Another characteristic of mindfulness as conceptualized in the west-
ern world that is divergent from the canonical conceptualizations is that
it is seen as a non-judgemental awareness. It has been argued that in
addition to being at variance with the classical Buddhist formulations in
which mindfulness involves remembering and recollection in order to
discern wholesome thoughts from unwholesome ones, such a conceptu-
alization undermines the ethical context of such a practice (Hickey 2010).
Purser and Milillo (2015) remarked beautifully that “the rhetoric of
nonjudgment, appreciation, and acceptance is a Western Romanticist re-­
articulation that is orthogonal to Buddhist mindfulness training, at least
as understood from within the early canonical literature” (p. 14). Purser
and Milillo (2015) argued that mindfulness was neither equivalent to bare
attention nor equivalent to non-judgemental awareness. However, it may
be noted that Hanh (1999), a well-known Vietnamese Buddhist teacher,
contends that mindfulness entails “attention to the present moment” and
“which accepts everything without judging or reacting” (p. 64).
186  V. Khanna and P. D. Khanna

Bodhi (1984) noted

Mindfulness is presence of mind, attentiveness or awareness. Yet the kind of

awareness involved in mindfulness differs profoundly from the kind of aware-
ness at work in our usual mode of consciousness. All consciousness involves
awareness in the sense of a knowing or experiencing of an object. But with the
practice of mindfulness awareness is applied at a special pitch. The mind is
deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached observation of what
is happening within us and around us in the present moment. (p. 70)

He further noted

To practice mindfulness is thus a matter not so much of doing but of undoing:

not thinking, not judging, not associating, not planning, not imagining, not
wishing. All these “doings” of ours are modes of interference, ways the mind
manipulates experience and tries to establish its dominance. Mindfulness
undoes the knots and tangles of these “doings” by simply noting. It does nothing
but note, watching each occasion of experience as it arises, stands, and passes
away. In the watching there is no room for clinging, no compulsion to saddle
things with our desires. There is only a sustained contemplation of experience in
its bare immediacy, carefully and precisely and persistently. (Bodhi 1984, 72)

Bodhi (1984) equates mindfulness with bare attention as well as

non-judgement.
I have deliberately quoted these long passages from the book so as to
avoid any confusion or misunderstanding which may arise as a result of
using a few lines in support of an argument. So we see that even experts,
who agree on the misuse of mindfulness by the corporate interests, differ
on what constitutes mindfulness. Grossman (2011), while contemplating
the state of research into the concept of mindfulness, advised

Our apparent rush to measure and reify mindfulness—before attaining a cer-

tain depth of understanding—may prevent us from transcending worn and
familiar views and concepts that only trivialize and limit what we think mind-
fulness is. The scientific method, with its iterative process of re-evaluation and
improvement, cannot correct such fundamental conceptual misunderstandings
but may actually serve to fortify them. (p. 1038)
   Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and Workplace…  187

Workplace Spirituality
Workplace spirituality is being projected as a panacea for the ills of mod-
ern management. Biberman and Whitty (1997) noted that “rekindling
the spirit in work is not only good business, but also subconsciously
sought after by workers and managers alike” (p. 135).
However, the intentionality of workplace spirituality programmes
needs to be analysed thoroughly. On the one hand they seem beneficial
in that they seek to “promote wholeness and integration, include ethics
and aesthetics in the workplace, assist in the development of emotional
and spiritual competence, encourage holistic ways of working, develop
community at work” and “empower the workforce” (Brown 2003). On
the other hand, the workplace spirituality programmes may be used to
“control the workforce, ‘push’ acceptance of organizational goals and
practices, manipulate meaning, avoid conflict” and “achieve compliance,
if not cooperation” (Brown 2003). It was further noted by Brown (2003)
that there was a paucity of empirical evidence to determine which out-
comes were more likely. Brown (2003) raised an important issue when
she argued that while workplace spirituality was being projected as a pan-
acea, “where are the guarantees that the trust that is central to spiritual
expression is not abused?” (p. 397). Such abuses of trust were noted by
Bell and Taylor (2004) in reference to the role of workplace spirituality.
They argued that

[Workplace spirituality as it is projected today] does not encourage the deepen-

ing of inner resources to challenge the external world. Instead it encourages the
individual use of inner resources to cope with organizational demands more
effectively … [such] privatization of spirituality, [has] the potential to become
repressive rather than enlightening. (Bell and Taylor 2004, 462)

Driscoll and Wiebe (2007) used the theoretical lens of ‘technique’, devel-
oped by Jacques Ellul, to analyse the workplace spirituality movement.
Ellul (1954/1964) had defined technique as “the totality of methods
rationally arrived at and having absolute efficiency (for a given stage of
development) in every field of human activity” (p. xxv). He had further
188  V. Khanna and P. D. Khanna

warned that “technique never observes the distinction between moral and
immoral use” (Ellul 1954/1964, 97) and that an overemphasis on tech-
nique would lead to the degradation of human values.
Driscoll and Wiebe (2007) elaborated on their theoretical lens.
According to them, “technique refers to the dominating technical
processes that are created to serve a limited form of economic ratio-
nality” (Driscoll and Wiebe 2007, 334). Whereas once technique was
thought of as a means towards some end, nowadays, technique is
being sought as an end in itself. It was noted that “the workplace …
[is] increasingly dominated by technique and an accompanying [focus
on] production and consumption” and that the workplace spirituality
movement gives topmost priority to the economic aspects of life
whereby “people are led to believe that they will find happiness and
meaning in life in producing and consuming” (Driscoll and Wiebe
2007, 335).
On the evolution of techniques, Ellul (1954/1964) remarked “To
the degree that material techniques became more precise, intellectual
and psychic techniques became more necessary. By these means man
acquired the conviction and strength needed to make possible the max-
imum utilization of the others. So the edifice was completed”
(pp. 115–116). The economic rationale of using workplace spirituality
as a technique was expressed eloquently by Aburdene (2005) who noted
that “why wouldn’t business, which is ever the patron saint of the prac-
tical, embrace any technique—mundane, spiritual or Martian—that
generates results?” (p.  117) and “spirit will drive performance and
shareholder value” (p. 139). This technical imperative with respect to
workplace spirituality is also forwarded by the field of academics.
Research on the topic of workplace spirituality has focused on its ben-
eficial impact on organizational performance (Ashmos and Duchon
2000; Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003; Krishnakumar and Neck 2002).
Benefiel (2003) suggested that the positive impact of workplace spiritu-
ality on organizationally relevant outcomes was the main driving force
behind the momentum garnered by the research in the field of work-
place spirituality. Driscoll and Wiebe (2007) argued that the beneficial
effects of workplace spirituality on the employees were sought only so
   Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and Workplace…  189

they could contribute more towards the productivity rather than for
their own benefit.
Bell and Taylor (2003) suggested that

Rather than enabling liberation from the constraints of work and modernity,
workplace spirituality ensures that the search for meaning is harnessed to spe-
cific organizational purposes. Existential questions about the purpose of life and
suffering are translated into technical questions of self and organizational man-
agement. (p. 331)

Fenwick and Lange (1998) described workplace spirituality as “hand-

maid of corporate power” (p. 63). They asserted that in the guise of work-
place spirituality, companies were “targeting the worker’s spirit as a final
frontier to be colonized and developed for the company’s benefit” (p. 82).
The dangers implicit in workplace spirituality with respect to corporate
control over the employees were highlighted by Zhuravleva and Jones
(2006). They pointed out:

We … dread the thought of giving out mind technologies used by meditators

and monks in spiritual traditions for centuries to those power figures who will
see them as a brilliant and the most sophisticated instrument in moulding the
minds and behaviors of employees into the ones desired by the organization.
(Zhuravleva and Jones 2006, 6)

According to researchers, “the very notion of attempting to formally

include spirituality in modern firms will always include the potential for
misuse and misappropriation through control” (Lips-Wiersma et  al.
2009, 292). A potential misuse of notion of workplace spirituality is that
“those in positions of power construct meaning and impose their ideol-
ogy to encourage ownership of current organizational conditions and
prevent systematic critiques” (Lips-Wiersma et  al. 2009, 290). Such
­narratives, while implicitly implying that employees should harness their
spiritual resources to counter the stressful conditions at work, absolve the
managers from the responsibility for ensuring the well-being of their
employees (Guthey and Jackson 2005).
190  V. Khanna and P. D. Khanna

Conclusion and Implications
We have endeavoured to present some critical perspectives on the phe-
nomena of mindfulness and spirituality in the workplace in this chapter.
Under a critical eye, corporate mindfulness and workplace spirituality
fulfil the criteria for potentially being used as just another ‘technique’
(Ellul 1954/1964) used by the organizations in maintaining the status
quo (Guthey and Jackson 2005; Žižek 2001). The use of religious values
for ulterior motives (Žižek 2001) gives support to the views held by many
atheists that religion has never been a force for good. However, this very
thing gives a chance to those vouching for religion as a positive and heal-
ing force to raise their voice against such misuse and stop this misappro-
priation by corporate interests.
The critical perspectives offered raise fundamentally important issues
regarding the place of ethics in our lives. We must introspect as to what,
if any, significance do ethical values hold for the way in which we live our
lives. We should also ponder over the impact which the corporations may
be having over these ethical values under the guise of practices like corpo-
rate mindfulness and workplace spirituality. In these times of neoliberal
power systems across the world, these concerns become more urgent.
Another concern that this modern transformation of the concepts of
mindfulness and spirituality raises is that the very things which could
have made us more aware (‘humans’ being sentient creatures) are used by
the corporations to keep us in chains and (in a Huxleian way) to love
our chains.
These critical perspectives on corporate mindfulness and workplace
spirituality have significant implications. If mindfulness is reduced to just
a tool for stress reduction, humans will lose the essential wisdom from an
ancient tradition which focuses on right living and the end of suffering.
Forbes (2012) remarked on this issue “Even after we’re de-stressed and
feeling great, we still need to ask: how do we live now? We’re in control and
are more efficient, but toward what end?” (Occupy Mindfulness section,
para. 5). A quote by Albert Einstein seems apt in this context—“A perfec-
tion of means, and confusion of aims, seems to be our main problem.”
Introduction of spirituality in the workplace is a welcome move but
organizations must be wary about introducing it just to increase the
   Critical Perspectives on Corporate Mindfulness and Workplace…  191

­ roductivity of the workforce without letting it transform the workplace

p
for the better of the employees; for such a move, although may lead to
increase in productivity in the short run, will reduce the commitment of
the employees towards the organization in the long run and increase
their cynicism towards the introduction of any new interventions.

Limitations and Future Directions

This chapter is theoretical and is based on the previous research offering

critical perspectives on corporate mindfulness and workplace spirituality.
Hence the scope of the analysis of this chapter was constrained by the
operational boundaries set by the previous studies. Although scholars
have started to move beyond the contemporary definitions of mindful-
ness and to discover the meaning of mindfulness as enunciated in the
Buddhist scriptures, these endeavours need to be pursued much more
aggressively. Similarly, steps should be taken to ensure that workplace
spirituality is not reduced to just a ‘technique’. We believe that research
should continue to unravel the covert motives of the organizations
behind such moves as towards corporate mindfulness and workplace
spirituality.

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 13
Workplace Spirituality: An Agenda
for Future Research
Arup Varma and Sushanta Kumar Mishra

Introduction
In this volume, we set out to examine the notion of spirituality in the
workplace. As we have noted in the introductory chapter, the notion of
spirituality conjures different images for different people. As such, it is
difficult to reach consensus on the meaning and message of spirituality.
In the Indian context, which is what we have emphasized, this issue takes
on a much more complex character due to the multi-ethnic, multi-reli-
gious nature of Indian society. Further, given the history of numerous
invasions into India from the different parts of the world, the Indian
ethos is, by design, complex, and defies easy characterization. Of course,
what makes the issue of spirituality even more complex is its close con-

A. Varma (*)
Quinlan School of Business, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
S. K. Mishra
Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indore, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2019 195

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1_13
196  A. Varma and S. K. Mishra

nection with religion. As is well known, most of the conflicts in human

history have their roots in religious ideology, and the desire by some to
impose their beliefs on others. Even in this day and age, proselytization
continues around the world. At the same time, the number of people
who claim to be atheists is also increasing. Of course, the beauty of
human existence is that ultimately we control our own thoughts and feel-
ings. In the workplace, we have a common, shared, purpose—to meet the
organization’s strategic goals and objectives. Yet, we bring with us our
values, attitudes and beliefs and draw upon them in our work. As such,
when people from different backgrounds work in a team or in the larger
organization, their various attitudes, values and beliefs could be a strength
when combined correctly or a weakness if these personality traits clash
with each other.
Not surprisingly, there is a constant struggle for organizations to
answer the fundamental question—“which aspect of the individual is
beneficial to them?”—because the individual self is a multi-faceted con-
cept (Miller and Rice 1967). In the early twentieth century, scientific
management theory suggested the importance of human body for orga-
nizational requirements with a clear message: “Bring your body, but not
your mind” (Taylor 1911). Elements of Taylorism include division of
labour, standardization of the tools, procedures and repetition of work,
predetermined methods of doing work, time optimization and the mon-
etary nature of the incentive. Indeed, Taylorism contributed to the
belief  that there is one best way to do the work, and if employees are
provided the chance to apply their mind they might disturb the scientifi-
cally designed workplace.
Of course, this view of the employee and his/her relationship with work
and the organization is rather simplistic. Both individuals and organiza-
tions evolve in response to environmental stimuli. Increased competition
leads individuals to become creative and innovate, and through increased
creativity and innovation, organizations can successfully achieve sustain-
able competitive advantage. This development brought the role of cogni-
tion front and centre. In other words, the idea of building ‘intellectual
capital’ and ‘knowledge work’ became prevalent in management thought
and action. Organizations focused their attention on the cognitive ability
of the worker’s knowledge rather than their physical body. However, the
   Workplace Spirituality: An Agenda for Future Research  197

struggle between the individual and the organization led to cognitive dis-
sonance and related outcomes. In this connection, the uncomfortable
feeling that emerges when an individual experiences two contrasting
behaviours/reactions/actions at the same time is called cognitive disso-
nance (Festinger 1957). Here, it should be noted that every individual
possesses different cognitive abilities, and scholars have further high-
lighted the challenges in the division of ‘cognitive labour’. The manage-
ment of cognitive differences in the workplace and its impact on
individual employees are the challenges often faced by the organizations
(Kitcher 1990).
Relatedly, increased customer focus along with gradual shifts in the
organization have led to a shift in focus from tangible aspects of business
(associated with the product and service) to more intangible aspects of
customer interaction, suh as the expression of appropriate emotions dur-
ing customer interactions. This is termed as emotional labour, as an
employee is expected to express the desired emotions as part of his/her
work, irrespective of emotions they might experience, as part of their
job. Hochschild (2003) has termed this as commercialization of feeling–
the “management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and
bodily display” for a wage is termed as emotional labour (Hochschild
2003, 7). The discrepancy between what an employee feels and what
they express during customer interaction (emotional dissonance) was
found to have negative consequences such as emotional exhaustion
(Mishra and Bhatnagar 2010). In this connection, studies have explored
the predictors that can minimize the negative consequences of emotional
labour (Mishra 2014; Mishra et al. 2012). Scholars also highlighted the
importance of emotional intelligence as a critical leadership competency.
Furthermore, issues of affective diversity in groups have started attract-
ing the attention of organization scholars.
With increasing complexities at the workplace, there is an expansion in
the conceptualization of labour, that is, physical, cognitive and emotional
labour. However, irrespective of the labour, the world of work has been
criticized for dehumanizing individuals. For example, scientific manage-
ment has been  criticized for deskilling,  while  service management has
been criticized for the depersonalization of employees. As a result, there
is an increased attempt to rehumanize the work and the workplace. In
198  A. Varma and S. K. Mishra

this connection, scholars argue that individuals must be “able to engage

the cognitive, emotional and physical dimensions of themselves in their
work” (May et al. 2004, 12). Indeed, this approach is supported by other
streams of research. For example, ‘life’ is argued to be more than just
biological existence. As spirituality is concerned with a holistic, that is, a
fully integrated approach to life, it accepts that human life involves more
than biology. It can, thus, be argued that as individuals bring their ‘whole’
self to the workplace, their personal beliefs and spirituality will also be a
part of their workplace persona(s) and inform their work and workplace
behaviours.
Of course, there are competing perspectives on workplace spirituality.
Some scholars argue that spirituality pertains to intangibles and hence it
is an end in itself. This argument is based on the assumption that employ-
ees prefer to do work that is meaningful and organizations provide a
context for spiritual fulfilment of their employees (Ashmos and Duchon
2000). In fact, Rosner (2001) argued that the purpose of work is to serve
spirituality and not the other way around. Of course, the typical organi-
zation focuses on tangibles, such as financial and operational perfor-
mance (see, e.g., Varma et al. 1999). As one can well imagine, there is a
seeming contradiction between human value and the commodification
of human activities. As a consequence, the idea of spirituality co-existing
with profit-driven organizations seems somewhat paradoxical (Brown
2003). Given the difference in the focus of the individual (intangibles)
and the organization (tangibles), questions are sometimes raised about
the appropriateness of integrating spirituality into organizational life.
There is an apprehension that organizations will codify, ­commodify and
manufacture spirituality for their material gain (McGuire 2010),
rather than letting it exist as it would. In addition, spirituality being
deeply embedded in a social context, it is termed “chameleon-like”,
that is, depending on the work context, it takes on different shapes
and priorities (Sheldrake 2012, 1). In such a scenario, organizations
might be tempted to exploit the concept of workplace spirituality to
their advantage. Consequently, spiritual labour will swing towards
meeting the organizational goals leading to dissonance and the experi-
ence of hypocrisy by the employees (McGuire 2010). In the drive to
   Workplace Spirituality: An Agenda for Future Research  199

improve their bottom lines, organizations thus run the risk of trivializ-
ing or minimalizing spirituality, or worse, forcing it to evolve into a con-
voluted form. Clearly, spirituality and organizations are different in their
discourses, hence, there is reasonable apprehension about that organiza-
tional pursuit of the bottom-­ line  may find it difficult to co-exist
with spirituality in workplace. The challenge for future research is inves-
tigating the mechanisms that organizations can employ to align spiritu-
ality and material gain.
The above discussion highlights the challenges and the opportunity
in bringing spirituality to the workplace. Clearly, spirituality is a very
broad concept because of its breadth and diffuse nature and it is embed-
ded in the relevant context. In order to better understand how spiritual-
ity can impact the organization, both positively and negatively, it is
important that future studies explore this construct from numerous
perspectives. Indeed, the chapters included in this volume make it clear
that this subject is rich with possibilities and offers tremendous scope
for scholars to investigate further. As an example, scholars may begin by
looking at how individuals operationalize the construct of spirituality. Is
it simply another word for religion, is it something higher than religion,
is it used to avoid the term religion? Next, another interesting line of
investigation would be to examine the degree to which individu-
als believe that spirituality helps them in their day-to-day lives and in
their work. In the same way, it would be interesting to investigate the
degree to which people call on their spirituality in difficult times. To
take this a step further, since spirituality is undeniably linked with reli-
gion, it would be interesting to investigate the meaning of spirituality to
people who practice different religions. Finally, scholars could also
investigate the type of spirituality experienced by those who claim to
follow no religion.
In this volume, we included 11 chapters presenting different perspec-
tives on spirituality in the workplace. Each of these chapters was specifi-
cally commissioned for this volume, and presents a unique and provocative
perspective on spirituality in the workplace. We are confident that the
readers would have found the chapters in this volume interesting and
thought-provoking.
200  A. Varma and S. K. Mishra

References
Ashmos, D.P., and D. Duchon. 2000. Spirituality at Work: A Conceptualization
and Measure. Journal of Management Inquiry 9 (2): 134–145.
Brown, R.B. 2003. Organizational Spirituality: The Sceptic’s Version.
Organization 10 (2): 393–400.
Festinger, L. 1957. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford
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Hochschild, A.R. 2003. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human
Feeling (Twentieth Anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of
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Kitcher, P. 1990. The Division of Cognitive Labor. Journal of Philosophy 87
(1): 5–22.
May, D.R., R.L. Gilson, and L.M. Harter. 2004. The Psychological Conditions
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Human Spirit at Work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology
77: 11–37.
McGuire, T. 2010. From Emotions to Spirituality: “Spiritual Labor” as the
Commodification, Codification, and Regulation of Organizational Members’
Spirituality. Management Communication Quarterly 24 (1): 74–103.
Miller, E.J., and A.K. Rice. 1967. Systems of Organization: The Control of Task
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Labor. Personnel Review 43 (6): 845–860.
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Organizational Identification to Turnover Intention and Emotional
­Well-­being: A Study of Medical Representatives in India. Human Resource
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Mishra, S.K., D.  Bhatnagar, P.  D’Cruz, and E.  Noronha. 2012. The Linkage
between Perceived External Prestige and Emotional Labor: Mediation Effect
of Organizational Identification among Pharmaceutical Representatives in
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Rosner, B. 2001. Is there room for the soul at work? Workforce 80 (2): 82–83.
Sheldrake, P. 2012. Spirituality: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford
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Taylor, F.W. 1911. The Principles of Scientific Management. New  York,
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work systems – Exciting discovery or passing fad? Human Resource Planning
22 (1): 26–37.
 Index1

A Compassion, 46, 48, 49, 59, 60

AdhyAtma, 19–38 Conflict, 68, 70, 72, 74–78
AhiMsA, 50, 65–68, 71 Consciousness, 9–17
Core values, 106–108
Critical perspectives, 179–191
B
Behaviour, 47–51, 59
Behavioural anchors, 31–34 D
BhagavadgItA, 20, 21, 23–31, 34, Desire, 21, 27n10, 27n11, 28, 30,
35, 37, 37n20 30n18, 35
Bhagwat Gita, 144–146 Discipline, 53
Body, 11, 15
Bramha, 22–28, 23n2, 24n4, 26n9
E
Education, 169–176
C Emotional labour, 197
Cognitive labour, 197 Employee, 85–95
Community, 97, 99, 102, 103, 106, Employee engagement, 153–163
108–110 Enriching work, 87–88

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

© The Author(s) 2019 201

S. K. Mishra, A. Varma (eds.), Spirituality in Management, Palgrave Studies in Indian
Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13984-1
202 Index

Entrepreneurship, 97, 101, 102, 108 Love, 21, 22, 33, 34, 37
Eudaimonia, 75–76, 117–131

M
F Management, 9–17
Faking News, 97–111 Management education, 169–176
Family, 118, 122, 124, 130, 131 Meaningfulness, 92
Forgive, 49 Meaningful work, 97, 100, 101, 105,
108, 110, 111, 153–155,
158–163
G Meditation, 19, 37, 38
God, 13, 14, 26–28, 32–35 Mind, 11, 12, 15
Mindfulness, 3–5, 179–191

H
Heart, 15, 16 N
Hedonia, 117–131 Niyama, 29–31, 34
Hindu, 12 Nonviolence, 2, 65–79
Human, 25–28, 36, 37 Nonviolent, 49–50

I O
India, 66, 67, 71, 118, 119, 123, Online venture, 97, 99, 102–103
124, 131
Indian management, 10
P
Peace, 70, 72–74
K Performance, 1
Karma, 20, 23–26, 23n2, 24n4, Phenomenology, 43
26n9, 28, 36 Philosophy, 67, 68, 74
Physical labour, 197
Profession, 104
L Professionals, 41–61, 170
Leadership, 10, 16–17, 99–103, 105, Psychology, 21, 38
108–111
Liberation, 25, 28, 36
Life, 20, 21, 24–27, 24n5, R
30–37 Religion, 12–14, 47, 54, 60–61
  Index  203

Religious, 46, 47, 51, 54, 55, 59, 60, U

66–68 UpaniSads, 20, 24
Rituals, 54–55

V
S Values, 46, 53, 60
Science, 9, 13–14, 17 Vedant, 11
Soul, 11, 12 Virtual workforce, 149, 150
Spirit, 11, 12, 16, 154, 161–163 Voluntary, 88, 91–93
Spiritual, 66, 68, 70, 77–79 Volunteerism, 3, 85–95
Spiritual intelligence, 141–151
Spirituality, 1–5, 9–17, 19–38, 71,
75, 76, 78, 79, 85–95, W
97–111, 143–150, 153–163, Well-being, 3, 5, 53, 55–57, 59, 60,
170, 171, 173–174, 176, 117–121, 123, 124, 127,
179–191 129–131
Subjective well-being (SWB), Work-family enrichment (WFE), 3,
119–123, 127 119–124, 127–131
Surrender, 54 Workplace, 1–5, 65–79, 85, 86, 88,
Swami Vivekananda, 169–176 89, 91–93, 97–100, 103, 105,
106, 110, 111, 142, 144,
148–151, 153–163, 179–191
T Workplace spirituality, 153–163
Teaching, 170, 175
Transcendence, 97, 99–101, 103,
105, 108, 111 Y
Transcendental, 143–146 Yama, 29–31, 34