CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Malaysia is heading towards becoming a developed country. Roads play an important role in
helping the growth of the economy and society from one place to another in Malaysia.
Presently, roads in Malaysia including Sabah and Sarawak are classified into three primary
classes, that has more than 17,830 (km) federal roads, state roads 61,100 (km) and toll
expressway 1,700 (km) [6]. In Malaysia, the Public Works Department of Malaysia (JKR) was
given responsibility for routine, periodic, and urgent maintenance. Road maintenance work
needs to be undertaken to ensure safety and comfort for users and to make traffic more effective
as well. Maintenance management requires an assessment of the condition of the pavement to
be carried out periodically to ensure the traffic is still smooth without disruption on the surface
of the pavement [8].

Road maintenance is one of most difficult challenges to perform because it is a very tedious
process and time-consuming for data acquisition. Previously, the local authority or JKR must
appoint a skilled worker to survey and monitor the road condition. It will involve a lot of time
and money to complete the data acquisition process. However, nowadays some developers are
use their creativity to create applications on smartphones. A road user can report or complain
about their road condition through applications. Nevertheless, road users can only report the
location and description of the road surface, but not the types of pavement distress. Lack of
pavement distress geometric assessment technology is one factor that causes a delay in road
maintenance. A new method is required for the assessment of road conditions in the reported
area. The method will be able to provide details of the rut and pothole geometry, including
shape, perimeter, area and depth, in order to be required for road maintenance at that specific
location.
Road maintenance includes two phases, known as maintenance and rehabilitation (M&R).
Before maintenance work is carried out, visual road inspection is the first work to be undertaken
to evaluate the structural condition of pavement distress. [8]. Road inspection is one of the
important steps of the pavement management system, the purpose of which is to analyze and
describe the condition of road infrastructure. When carried out thoroughly, it shall provide the
details necessary to implement an appropriate road infrastructure maintenance policy and to
plan maintenance or refurbishments.

Figure 1.0: Flow Chart of Pavement Management System (PMS) and Pavement
Management Condition System (PMMS)

Currently, one of the quickest technologies and popularly used in the mapping industry is
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). UAV is quite popular for mapping applications for the
Department of Survey and Mapping. UAV is a new technology that promises rapid data
acquisition for analysis, especially for small aerial mapping with high resolution imagery. High
resolution images captured by the UAV platform are capable of extracting metric information
from the Earth's surface. UAV basically is a type of vehicle that does not use a human pilot but
uses aerodynamic forces that act as a self-directed entity or either by the remote control of a
navigator [4]. UAV are technologies that can be used in various fields such as for agriculture,
surveillance, geographic mapping, road maintenance and disaster management [5].

For this research, UAVs are used to collect in-depth details on pavement distress. These
technologies can generally be divided into two sub-fields: (i) automated data collection devices,
and (ii) data processing systems [7]. For automated data collection devices, the data have been
collected using UAV digital photogrammetry and the data will be processed using
Pix4DMapper, meanwhile for analysis data, the software that will be used is the Global Mapper
Software [17].
1.2 Problem Statement

In Malaysia, there are three types of methods used by JKR, which is a manual walking survey,
a manual riding survey and a High-Speed Data Acquisition Vehicle [9]. The manual walking
survey method was carried out by walking to inspect the road pavement and the data is collected
using the data sheet, only a limited amount of data can be obtained caused by some of the
constraints that arise such as Malaysia's hot and humid temperatures and the data collection
process is too complicated. [9]. Meanwhile, for the manual riding survey, data collection is
carried out where a qualified JKR inspector driven in a car travelling at normal traffic speeds
through the entire road. Next, for the High-Speed Data Acquisition Vehicle method, data
collection using a video camera installed to capture riding quality, rutting, alignment, visual
condition and inventory [9]. However, each of these methods has its own advantages and
drawbacks.

For manual walking survey results in significant drawbacks such as slow progress on data
collection, labor costs are expensive, subjective approach generating discrepancies and
inaccuracies in the determination of pavement conditions, inflexibility and not providing actual
measurements [1]. For the drawback of the driving method is the data collected was less
accurate [9]. Meanwhile, the use of the High-Speed Data Acquisition Vehicle is costly, as other
pavement parameters will also be captured simultaneously, and post-processing will be
involved [9]. Alternatively, a UAV use study was conducted to identify the location and type
of road damage more easily and quickly.

1.3 Objective of the Study

This research aimed to obtain a clear image of geographical conditions for pavement defect
data by using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Therefore, the objectives for this study:

i. To obtain study location images using UAV technology.

ii. To produce a database for pavement distress using UAV photogrammetry method.

iii. To analysis level of pavement distress using the PCI method.

1.4 Scope of the Study

This research focuses on road inspection in order to identify pavement defects and to understand
the geographical conditions of the selected areas. The analysis of this method is based on a
digital photogrammetry method obtained from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAVs) type Phantom
4 Pro v2.0. The length of the study area taken was 1000mand this study was conducted in the
selected area in Sections 43.7 & 44, FT005 Pengkalan Raja, Pontian. The UAV will be flown at
an altitude of 30metre above ground level for this research. The Pavement Condition Index (PCI)
method will be used to evaluate the type of pavement distress that occur on the road.

1.5 Significant of Study

The findings of this study will expose the UAV technology in visual road inspection for road
maintenance phases. The efficacy of UAV usage may be doubted during the implementation
of visual road inspection, especially in the context of large mapping areas, but by providing
real-time data with the aid of initiative expertise and experience, it can be done. The latest
methods of using UAV technology is also a significant increase in quality and performance
compared to the manual walking survey, a manual riding survey and a High-Speed Data
Acquisition to detect damage in road infrastructure. In addition, the use of the UAV in road
inspections will also help planners in the planning process to estimate cost and time road
maintenance. It is also beneficial by using new technology to remove the competition from
using costly machinery such as High-Speed Data Acquisition for visual road inspection works.
In addition, if there are areas that might be difficult to access without special equipment, UAVs
technology can help to perform research while maintaining safety measurements. Hopefully,
this study will be the start of ongoing research into issues related to the collection of inaccurate
and inconsistent data in the visual road inspection.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses about road maintenance, visual road inspection, pavement health
conditions, the characteristic pavement distress classified by the Pavement Condition Index (PCI)
and how to operate a UAV technology for visual road inspection. The literature review included
in this chapter will include an overview of the work in these fields. This research begins with the
description of the road maintenance and visual road inspection, pavement health condition and
the characteristics of the pavement defect. The reader can understand the causes that make the
roads deteriorate and how the degradation appears. The review will explain how to classify
pavement defects using the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) method. Next, the study then goes
on to how UAV technology can help to do detection of road defects. This knowledge can explore
how far this technology has come to achieve its current state of road condition survey. In this
chapter, the reader will learn more about the use of UAV technology for visual road inspection.

2.2 Road Maintenance

Roads are one of the largest public assets in many countries. Road improvements deliver great
and sometimes dramatic benefits to road users through improving accessibility from one place to
another, improved comfort, speed and safety, and lower operating costs for vehicles [1]. In order
to sustain these benefits, a well-planned maintenance program must be followed by road
improvement. Without routine maintenance, roads can easily fall into disrepair and can give the
longer-term impact of road improvement on development [1]. Deterioration of roads during
heavy rainfall, very hot weather and other seasonal effects along with natural disasters and human
activities causes serious failures such as cracking, distortion, bleeding or flushing, potholes, and
many more which have an impact on the road transport system and increase the risk of accidents
[2].

Delaying road maintenance also can result in high direct and indirect costs. If the defect is
neglected, the entire road section may completely fail and require full reconstruction as much as
three times or maybe more. Before the maintenance work was done. Road inspections should be
carried out to identify the type of maintenance to be conducted [bab 1]

2.3 Road Inspection

Visual road inspections are important for the management of roads and are essential for the
maintenance and rehabilitation of roads. Visual road inspection collects and evaluates four types
of data, namely roughness, distress, bearing capacity and skid resistance [2]. The timely
identification and correction of road distress is an important part of road condition surveys
because conventional road inspections are time-consuming and needs a lot of workers [ijig].
paragraphs below explain more clearly related to the type of road damage.

2.3.1 Pavement Health Condition

Pavement health condition describes a pavement's capacity to carry traffic loadings without
requiring major road maintenance [20]. Pavement health may be differentiated from structural
condition by integrating several condition factors, equally as a person's overall health and
wellness could be based upon various facets of their physical condition as well as their impacts
on lifestyle. A few decades ago, the beginning of the modern-day period in pavement
administration came from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) road tests from 1958 to 1961 [19]. The AASHTO tests were groundbreaking
as they resulted in a common understanding of exactly how roadway organizations can gauge
pavement health. Pavement health can be classified into 4 major categories: roughness, structural
performance, friction and also distress [19]. While these principles are put on both concrete and
asphalt, this research study concentrates on asphalt pavement. The next paragraphs will explain
more details, four major categories of pavement health.

2.3.1.1 Pavement Roughness

 Roughness is a measure of a road user's convenience while traveling down a roadway [19]. The
roughness of the road surface can affect the trip top quality as well as vehicle operating
expense. Harsh surface areas considerably impact automobile speed, increased fuel costs, tire
wear, and even more. Besides that, it also raises maintenance costs of road surface area [21].
Pavement roughness can be measured using currently an established, international criterion,
transportation engineers utilize the International Roughness Index (IRI) in order to contrast
roughness dimensions from different locations and roadways [19]. A smoother ride is
categorized with a low IRI value, while a bumpy ride is classified with a high IRI worth. There
are 2 normal methods to measure IRI [19].

Table 2.0: IRI Condition Criteria [28]

2.3.1.2 Pavement Structural Performance

Pavement structures are divided into four layers which is surface course, base course, sub base
course and subgrade [1]. Pavement structural performance is identified by the various layers of
road material in addition to both "fundamental" layers of the base course layer and also
underlying soil type [19]. Surface course is the layer that comes in contact with traffic. It
provides qualities such as rubbing, smoothness, noise control, and drainage. Additionally, it
serves to stop the entrance of quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub base and
also subgrade [1]. One of the methods used to measure the strength of the structure is non-
destructive testing (NDT), it is good to decide the strength of a road in its natural environment.
NDT can establish steps such as elastic modulus of each layer, allowed load for a particular
number of lots applications, and also overlay density style for asphalt pavements [19]. NDT uses
pavement deflection measurements based on known weight, distance, and loading applications.

2.3.1.3 Pavement Surface Friction

Pavement surface friction is a procedure of safety and security for driving, when road pavements
have a terrific duty in reducing mishaps specifically in wet weather [23]. Friction on a dry paved
road is not a major factor in pavement health; however, friction becomes important in wet or icy
conditions as vehicle maneuverability significantly decreases [19]. A crucial part of the vehicle-
pavement interaction is friction force between the tire and the pavement surface. It provides the
vehicle the capability to have safe velocity, the ability of the vehicle to move, corner, as well as
quit operations. The friction force developed at the get in touch with the zone between tire and
also pavement is called skid resistance. The skid resistance is connected to many variables and
also it is recognized to be a feature of pavement construction materials, pavement roughness, as
well as surface problems.

2.3.1.4 Pavement Distress

This review paper only deals just with distresses detected on the flexible pavement which are
identified with the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) [19]. PCI determines various roadway
stresses, defines their seriousness degrees, recommends fixing methods of these distresses, and
identifies possible reasons. PCI is identified by the distress data [19]. For that reason, distress
data is very important to roadway service life projecting. Traffic loading, changing temperature
levels, or inadequate construction are instance causes of pavement distresses [19]. the distresses
kinds have been organized into five family members, as explained listed below:

a. Cracking,

b. Patching and Potholes,

c. Surface Deformation,
 d. Surface Defects,

e. Miscellaneous Distresses.

In the following paragraphs, the qualities of each group of distresses are discussed based on
Pavement Condition Index (PCI), in order to facilitate their identification as well as to identify
their own contribution to comfort and also safety level for roadway users.

2.3.2 Pavement Condition Index (PCI)

The Pavement Condition Index (PCI) is typically determined each year in order to examine
changes that take place in the road network system [24]. A visual inspection of the pavement
surface can supply beneficial details. Inspection data can be made use of to assess the existing
pavement problem, forecast future pavement performance, determine and prioritize pavement M-
and-R requires, estimate repair amounts as well as evaluate the performance of different M- and-
R materials [24]. The PCI procedure is the standard made use of by the road industry to assess
the pavement condition [24].

Throughout a PCI survey, visible signs of deterioration are examined and analyzed. The final
computed PCI worth is a number from no 0 to 100, with 100 representing a pavement in excellent
condition [24]. The PCI worth itself provides a basic suggestion of the pavement problem and the
work that will certainly be required to refurbish the pavement. Pavements at the upper end of the
scale are more likely to be candidates for maintenance and mild rehabilitation, whereas those in
the lower ranges are more likely to require structural repair or reconstruction [24].
 Figure 2.0: Illustration of a pavement condition life cycle

Table 2.1: Pavement Condition Index (PCI) Scale [24]

The assessment process begins by dividing roads into similar sections based on its structural,
construction background, traffic and also pavement condition. [19]. Once roads are broken into
sections, each section is additionally broken down into smaller sample units. After that the steps
for doing the problem study and figuring out the PCI rating are carried out [24]. The table below
briefly describes the four major categories of pavement distress.
Table 2.2: Distress Type
2.3.2.1 Cracking

Pavement cracking includes many forms of distress, such as fatigue cracking, block cracking,
edge cracking, longitudinal cracking, transverse cracking, and reflection cracking at joints [26].
Pavement cracking is a phenomenon of development of surface fractures regardless of their
location of development. Most of them relate to climatic causes, except for the form of alligator
cracking associated with loading and slippage cracking caused by traffic. Their location, size
and orientation make it possible to distinguish the particular type of cracking and the related
causes, because they have different effects on the overall safety and comfort level of the road
[25].

Fatigue cracking takes place in locations subjected to repeated traffic loadings (wheel paths).
It can be a series of interconnected cracks in the early stages of advancement and it is known
as alligator pattern [26]. Meanwhile, for a block crack pattern, it divides the pavement into
roughly rectangular parts. Rectangular blocks are approximately 0.1 to 10 m2 in size [26]. Next,
for edge cracking applies to pavements with unpaved shoulders only. Crescent cracks or fairly
continuous cracks which intersect the edge of the pavement and are located within 0.6 m of the
edge of the pavement adjacent to the shoulder. Includes longitudinal cracks beyond the
direction of the wheel and within 0.6 m of the edge of the pavement [26].

Figure 2.1: Sketch of Fatigue Cracking [24]

 Figure 2.2: Sketch of Block Cracking [24]

Figure 2.3: Sketch of Edge Cracking [24]

Longitudinal and also transverse cracks are respectively the cross-running along and across the
road. They initiate as wide spaced cracks yet turn into very closely spaced and open severe
cracks with the passage of time. Both longitudinal as well as transverse cracking may converge
one another to yield more or less rectangular block cracks. The last cracking is a reflection
cracking at joints, it is crack in asphalt concrete overlay surfaces that take place over joints in
concrete pavements.

Figure 2.4: Sketch of Longitudinal Cracking [24]

 Figure 2.5: Sketch of Transverse Cracking [24]

Figure 2.6: Sketch of Reflection Cracking at Joints [24]

2.3.2.2 Patching and Potholes

Patching occurs on a part of the pavement surface greater than or equal to 0.1 m2 which has been
removed and replaced or additional material which has been added to the pavement after the
initial construction. While, potholes occur by forming bowl shapes of different sizes on the
pavement surface. The minimum plan size is 150 mm. Circular potholes should be at least 150
mm in diameter. A circle of 150 mm should fit within irregular-shaped potholes [24].
 Figure 2.7: Sketch of Patching [24]

Figure 2.8: Sketch of Potholes [24]

2.3.2.3 Surface Deformation

The surface deformation consists of all deformations involving both the top and the bottom layers.
Showing, corrugating and falling lane/shoulder typically involve horizontal and vertical shifting
of the top layer of the pavement structure, while bumps and sags, rutting, depressing, swelling
and swelling may affect the entire structure. The first cause of surface distress is load, followed
by traffic and climatic impact. Their location, size and orientation make it possible to recognise
the particular type of distress such as rutting and shoving [24].
 Figure 2.9: Sketch of Rutting [24]

Figure 2.10: Sketch of Shoving [24]

2.3.2.4 Surface Defects

The surface defects are divided into bleeding, polishing, and ravelling. When bleeding occurs, an
excess of bituminous binder is present on the surface of the upper layer. Next in the case of
ravelling, it is because an insufficient asphalt binder and will cause aggregate dislodging. In the
case of a Polish aggregate, the surface of the top layer becomes smooth due to aggregate exposure
to traffic, resulting in reduction in adhesion. Among the causes of surface defects are related to
the characteristics of the bituminous materials and to the traffic effect. Their location, dimension
and orientation help to recognise a particular form of distress.
 Figure 2.11: Bleeding [24]

Figure 2.12: Polished Aggregate [24]

Figure 2.13: Ravelling [24]

2.3.2.5 Miscellaneous Distresses.

Miscellaneous distresses are patching and utility, cutting patches, railroad crossings, catch
 basins, and manholes cover. They are common in urban areas and are easily identifiable by
their unusual form.

Figure 2.14: Lane to Shoulder Drop-off [24]

Figure2.15: Water Bleeding and Pumping [24]

2.4 UAV Brief Overview

The UAV has undergone a variety of changes from the early 1900s to the present. UAV history
begins with the Montgolfier brothers in France when they first experimented with balloons in
1782 [4]. They made Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, and during the American Civil War of 1861-
1865, the North Union placed the flammable material on the unmanned balloons and released
them to the South to set fire to these areas [4]. Years before the very first manned aircraft flight
On December 17, 1903, primitive UAV technology was utilized for combat as well as
surveillance in at least 2 different wars [4].

Nowadays, UAV utilizes aerodynamic forces to offer vehicle lift while working either by the
remote control of a navigator (pilot) or autonomously, that is, as a self-directing entity [4]. UAVs
are remote control makers and there is no requirement of the pilot as in the common airplanes.
Before UAVs, aerial photogrammetry involved planes or helicopters and also metric cameras. It
encompassed complex various procedures such as the cost for the distance required by the aircraft
to fly and the cost price for a metric camera [27]. The advantage of the UAV is that it is capable
of being used to keep track of areas where human beings cannot go physically and it can send out
live video or images of those places, without going to those places physically [4].

UAV which is essentially a quad-copter, it is similar to a helicopter except it has 4 propellers.

These four propellers are for different movements which are for upward motion, downward
motion, ahead and backwards, as well as for taking turns. Gyros are made use of to give the quad-
copter wonderful security [4]. Gyro is a type of device that can feel a shift in the reaction of the
flying object, for example rotation. This means that gyros are used to make the system stable and
balanced in the event of any interference that could make the flying object unstable and
unbalanced [4]. The UAV is an exceptional instance of a Control System.

The advancement of UAVs in recent years, along with the enhancement of the Structure from
Motion (SFM) software and computer vision, has enhanced the production of photogrammetry.
This application saves the time and labour. Saving time means being able to reduce job costs, a
vital factor to consider in budget constrained government work [27]. UAVs are becoming
increasingly used because the ultra-light cameras and it provide great resolution images for low-
altitude photogrammetric work. Moreover, UAVs are becoming less complicated to make use of
with automated flight planners and also automatic obstacle detection [27]

2.4.1 UAV Photogrammetry

Photogrammetric methods were being used for 150 years, essentially since the discovery of
photography. Nowadays, photogrammetry underwent new achievements from analogue to
today's digital methods. Significant developments in the field of sensing devices have been seen
in recent years. UAVs have become an advantageous alternative compared to the conventional
platforms with the achievements that have been made in the processing of images [2]. Present
basic UAVs allow the enrollment and also monitoring of the position and orientation of the
applied sensors in a local or global coordinate system. UAV photogrammetry can therefore be
understood as a new photogrammetric measurement device [1]. Image processing is performed
through software tools. Digital images recorded from UAV are commonly processed using new
and efficient Motion Structure methods, and the 3D structure can be produced from a series of
overlapping images. The quality of the digital camera and lens used is very important for image
processing. Optical errors can be corrected by the calibration of the camera. Professional
photogrammetric camera surveys are usually calibrated from production. Additionally, camera
calibration elements can be performed using specialised software which is Pix4DMapper [2].

Pix4DMapper can perform the calibration automatically when the images are processed. Due to
the characteristics of unmanned vehicles, the UAV photogrammetry frequently utilizes non-
professional cameras. One of the most usual techniques to determine external orientation
elements is the use of ground control points with known coordinates determined by geodetic field
methods [2]. The currently produced low-cost UAVs are equipped with a GPS capable of
determining the position of the camera at the time of exposition. That data is then stored before
being transferred to the software Pix4DMapper. The results of aerial image processing in software
Pix4DMapper are typically orthomosaic images, point cloud or digital elevation models (DEM)
[2]. Existing UAVs can be used in large and small scale mapping [1]. The advantages of UAV
photogrammetry will be shown in this study
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will clarify a guideline to ensure that the research process is carried out as planned
and in a systematic manner. The method will be used to examine the efficacy of the Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in the visual road inspection. The research approach would concentrate
on the preparation of literature review, how to fly UAV, image processing, analysis pavement
distress and determine the level of pavement distress in order to accomplish objective research.

The aim of the literature review is to reveal and learn more about this study. Figure 3.1 provides
a description of the entire phase of the research methodology of this report.
 Figure 3.0: Research Methodology Chart

3.2 Flight Planning

This research will be conducted FT005 Pengkalan Raja, Pontian. The UAV that will be flown
to capture pavement images is Phantom 4 Pro type. It can fly up to 500m for 30min when fully
charged, at a maximum flight speed of 20 m/s. The Phantom 4 Pro is capable of tracking objects
without the need for other devices, avoid obstacles and flying with just one push, all in time.
The UAV can also shoot 4K resolution videos or 12 megapixel images. The UAV will be
controlled by the Pix4Dcapture application that needs to be installed on the smartphone, only
tap the smartphone screen to assist the drone to fly in the specified direction without using the
remote control. The flight pattern to be chosen is a polygon, because it is easier to calibrate
according to road conditions. For this study, flights were performed at an altitude of 30 m above
ground level using a photogrammetry method to capture images. The UAV will be flown at the
research location along 1000m. Flights were flown at speed 5 m/s, with side and forward
overlaps set at 70% and 80%. A clearer image will be produced in order to acquire orthomosaic
images. A very important thing during the flight mission is to make sure that the UAV Global
Positioning System (GPS) is paired to the smartphone through the PIX4D capture application.
(Coastal Mapping Using DJI Phantom 4 RTK in Post-Processing Kinematic Mode)

Figure 3.1: UAV Phantom 4 Pro with Controller

Figure 3.2: Pix4D Capture Application

3.3 Image Processing

In this study, Pix4Dmapper is the software used to produce Orthomosaic images and the Digital
Surface Model (DSM) from UAV images. Pix4dMapper has a feature that automatically
displays the image center on Google Map. The positioning of the Images Center by GPS offers
information on the work area. Useless images can be deleted. The selected images can be
processed. There are three major processing steps: initial processing, point descification and
Digital Surface Model (DSM) and Orthomosaic. [ijig)

Figure 3.3: Steps to Process Images Using Pix4DMapper Software

During initial processing (Step 1), Pix4Dsoftware will take the full information from Pix4D
capture application. This software is based on finding thousands of tie points between images
automatically. Pix4d Mapper software initiates self-calibration. All of these phases are operated
automatically without user intervention in Pix4d Mapper. All of the photogrammetric work
stages are performed automatically in the Pix4dMapper software. There is no need to know the
fundamentals of photogrammetry in order to make triangulation calculations. Triangulation is
a mechanism where key points are converted into a geodetic coordinate system.

The next step in image processing (2) is to define the cloud point densification, which means
filtering and smoothing point clouds. The last step is DSM and orthomosaic images generation.
The Pix4dmapper will delete moving objects by editing the seam line and selecting the most
suitable images. This method keeps the distance maintained and thus ortho-rectified images
may be used for measurement. After the image processing is complete, the files will be
transferred to Global Mapper Software for analysis.
 Figure 3.4: Pix4DMapper Software

3.5 Identify Pavement Distress

n this study, pavement distress will be analysis using Global Mapper Software based on
orthomosaic images. In order to make it easier and to know the exact position of each pavement
distress, the study area was divided into several sections at a distance of 100m for each section.
Determination of road damage requires several steps. Pavement distress information can be
recorded in this software such as types of pavement distress, area and location. If needed, the
information can be open in the Global Mapper software.

Figure 3.5: Global Mapper Software (GIS)

3.6 Determine The Level of Pavement Distress

Pavement Condition Index (PCI) will be used to evaluate the condition of the pavement based
on a simultaneous assessment of the type of distress, density and severity. Pavement distress is
divided into two categories. The first is considered to be a functional failure [12]. In this
situation, the pavement does not carry out its intended function, causing inconvenience to
passengers or high stress to vehicles. The second, known as structural failure (typically cracks
and rutting), involves the collapse of the pavement structure or the breakdown of one or more
of the pavement components to such an extent that the pavement becomes incapable to
withstand the loads placed on its surface [12]. PCI value varies from 0-100, 0 for a failed
pavement and 100 for a new pavement condition [13].

Figure 3.6: Standard PCI Rating Scale

Inspection of every sample unit in a road section may require considerable initiative, especially
if the section is large. In order to minimize the number of resources required for the inspection,
a measurement plan was established so that a rationally reliable PCI could be analyzed by
surveying only a small number of sample units in the pavement section. The sampling interval
should be calculated in order to establish a comprehensive approach to the random sampling
process. This is why this method of random sampling is referred to as systematic random
sampling.
 Figure 3.7: Selection of The Minimum Number of Sample Units

𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙,
𝐼 = N/n

where N = total number of sample units in section

n = minimum number of sample units to be inspected

3.6.1 Calculation of Pavement Condition Index (PCI)

In order to assess the pavement, each section of the pavement shall be divided into sample units
for the purpose of the pavement inspection. The measures to conduct the condition survey and
to assess the PCI rating are then carried out described as below:

1. Inspect the sample unit, assess the type of distress and the degree of severity and then
measure density,
2. Deduct values for each category of distress and severity are determined from the
deduct value curves,
3. The total deduct value (TDV) is determined by summing up all individual deduct
values,
4. The corrected deduct value (CDV) can be calculated from the correction curves once
the TDV is computed. When calculating the CDV, if any individual deduct value is
greater than the CDV, the CDV is set to be equal to the highest individual deduct value,
5. The PCI is calculated using the relationship PCI = 100 – Max.CDV for each sample
unit inspected
6. Calculated average of Pavement Condition Index (PCI) for the selected roads.

𝑃𝐶𝐼𝑠 = 𝑃𝐶𝐼𝑛 × 𝐴𝑛
∑𝐴𝑛
𝑃𝐶𝐼𝑠 = Total average PCI for whole span of pavement
𝑃𝐶𝐼𝑛 = PCI of the pavement section
𝐴𝑛 = Area of pavement section