ASNT Level II ‘The American Society for Nit eatara ly Gata) UtePublished by ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 Arlingate Lane PO Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518, Copyright © 1998 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authea: tiety oF accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, Level I Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The NDT Technician and www asnt.org are trademarks of ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP. ASNT, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are regiscre trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing. ISBN 1-57117.099.5 Printed in the United States of America fist printing 1998 second printing with revision 10/02Contents Introduction wrienenes Overview of the Study Guide Acknowledgments Recommended References. Resource Materials Overview of Radiographic Testing.. History of Radiographic Testing. Advantages and Disadvantages of Radio Principles of Radiographic Testing Types of Penetrating Radiation. Xray. Electson Source... Electron Target oon Electron Acceleration... Gamma Rays Radiation Energy. Source Activity. Spectlie Activity Radiation Intensity ee Mal Life Interactions of Radiation with Matter Rasiographie Film Exposures Film Density... Image Quality. oo Subject Contrast. nov nssnnnnnnnnnnnnn Effect of Radiation En Effect of Scatter Radation. Film Contras Radiographie SharpnessUnsharpness Geometrical Factors Affecting Unsharpness. phic Testing — Nongeomeial Factors feng Unshares. 15 Scatter Control . 15 Filters zs = 15 Collimators = 16 Masking... erence 16 Exposure Reduction and Imensifying Screens venom - eas 16 Principles of Shadow Formation 16 Image Size 16 Image Shape and Spats! Reon. a Exposure _ v Exposure Calculations 7 Exposure Factor. 18 Inverse Square Law... nin 18 Radiographic Equivalence Factor... 19 Exposure Charts... : 9 sity, Distance and Time. 21 Hons in Object Thickness. 2+ RSSRICR aoe ie ore Image Quality Indiestors sosmenu 7 2 Identification Markers... 2B Film and Film Handling B Film Graininess..o0csuuennnnnsenne " rons 23 Film Selection. . - “ 24 Available Forms of Film maT 2 2 24 Film Handling and Storage usossnsnnnsnsnnonsi . 24 Film Processingooensmnsnsonve arith Darkrooms.... oat ns Manital Proces$iN3 noo se so sn 25 Automatic Processing. 25 Exposure Techniques a si 2 oon 26 Discontinuity Depth Determinations... csr it Interpretation and Evaluation of Radiographs... an — 28 sul Acuity and Dark Adaptation. 28 Viewing Congitions 28 Film Density Measurement 28 [dentilying Indications 229 Sources of Discontinuite 29 Inherent Discontinuities 30 Processing Discontinuities 30 Service Discontinu smsnnen 30 Wentifying Discontinuities. 30 Radiographic Inspection Documents 31 Radiation Safety 31 Review Questions... 33 Answers - a 61 Standard Terminology for Gamma and X-radiographyRE Lo ees Introduction Overview of the Study Guide ‘This study guide contains basic information imtended to prepare a candidate for Level IT radiography examinations. This study guide does not present all of the knowledge necessary for certification; the candidate is expected to supplement this guide with the recommended references that follow. Following key sections of the text are “Recommended reading” boxes listing references where additional information on the subjects identified can be found Review questions at the end of this book are typical of those that could appear within a portion of the Level II General Examination. These questions also indicate references for further study and are intended to aid the candidate in determining his/her comprehension of the material. The following acronyms are used in the Recommended reading lists and Review Questions: Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation Testing = HB and Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book = CT. Acknowledgments ‘The authors acknowledge the support of the AlliedSignal Aerospace NDT Network and the ASNT Technical Services Department staff. Thanks also to the members of the RT Level Tl Subcommittee and the RT PQ Methods Committee for their help in the technical review of this study guide. Recommended References Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition, Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation Testing, Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., 1985, General Dynamics, Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book, CT-6-6, Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., 1983 Resource Materials ASM Handbook, 9th edition, Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, Materials Park, OH, ASM International, 1989. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (2001), Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., 2001 ANSUASNT CP-189-2001: Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel , Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc., 2001Ree =? Overview of Radiographic Testing History of Radiographic Testing Radiographic testing unofficially began in 1895 when Wilhelm Roentgen, a German scientist, discovered that an unknown form of radiation emitted from a gas-filled electron tube was capable of penetrating objects that were opaque to light. Roentgen called this, radiation “X-rays” but in some countries, X-rays are now called Roentgen rays. At about the same time, Antoine Becquere!, a French scientist, found that radiation from certain uranium compounds had similar properties This radiation was later determined to be two distinct types called alpha and beta radiation. In 1900, Villard, also a French scientist, found that a third type of radiation emitted from some radioactive materials was similar to X-rays. This radiation was called “gamma rays.” X-rays and gamma rays are essentially the same, differing only in their origin. X-rays are produced artificially by accelerating or decelerating high energy electrons using electronic equipment, while gamma rays are produced by the decay (disintegration of the nuclei) of radioactive isoto Significant use of X-rays and gamma rays for industrial purposes began in the 1920s. Since then, industrial radiographic testing has become one of the most commonly used methods of nondestructive testing. Radiography is most often used for process control during manufacturing, to detect subsurface discontinuities in end products (ie, castings, welds, ceramics, and composite composite materials and electronic components) and for quality control inspections of electronic components (determining internal fits, alignments, anW/or gaps in assemblies). Radiography is applied in building and bridge construction, aircraft aviation and acrospace, automotive, and space components ‘manufacturing, and aircraft overhaul, maintenance, and repair. It is also used for inspecting piping and pipelines, refinery vessels, steel pressure vessels, and storage tanks, Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiographic Testing Radiographic testing can be used to detect internal discontinuities in almost any material that is not too thick. X-ray machines capable of penetrating as much as 660 mim (26 in.) of steel, and greater thicknesses of other materials, are available. In addition to discontinuities, radiography can disclose internal structures, configurations, fluid levels, and fabrication or assembly errors. In most applications, radiography provides an image of the test object that can be kept as a permanent record. Isotopes are often used because of their bility and because they can access hard- to-reach places. They are also used in field testing because they have greater penetrating ability than most portable X-ray machines, ‘The major limitations of radiography are that the opposing sides of the test object must be accessible, precautions to prevent personnel exposure to radiation are required, and configuration of the object must allow for satisfactory formation of shadows of its internal structure. Principles of Radiographic Testing Radiographic testing is based on the detection of differences in the transmission/absorption of penetrating radiation by different parts of the object being radiographed. The differences in transmission may be caused by differences in the thickness or composition of the absorbing material Sensors that respond to the ionization produced when radiation is absorbed are used to detect the radiation that passes through the object. Special photographic film is the most commonly used detection medium, Just as in8 photography, the regions of the film where more radiation strikes the film will be blacker after the film is developed. In radiography, this produces an image of the part that includes its internal structure and discontinuities, Electroni sensors that react to ionization (i.c., geiger tubes and scintillation devices) also detect X-rays and gamma rays, and are being more often in radiographic testing applications Most discontinuities effectively reduce the thickness of the object, locally, so that more radiation is transmitted at that point. When film is the detector, the transmittal of more radiation results in greater darkening of the film (i.e, the discontinuity image is darker than the remainder of the object). However, some discontinuities, such as tungsten inclusions in welds, may absorb more radiation than the matrix material, which will appear as lighter images on a radiograph, Planar discontinuities (ie., cracks and lack of penetration) that do not have any appreciable thickness, are different. Because their small thickness causes little change in the amount of radiation that is absorbed, such discontinuities are difficult to detect unless the plane of the discontinuity is nearly parallel to the radiation bearn, ‘Types of Penetrating Radiation Gamma rays and X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation like light, but their energy is much higher and their wavelengths are only about 1/10 000 as large as light. The electromagnetic spectrum shown in Figure 1.1 compares the wavelengths and energies of various forms of radiant energy. The short ASNT Level Il Study Guide: Radiographic Testing wavelength and high energy of X-rays and gamma rays enable them to penetrate much more deeply into materials than light can. The principal characteristics of X-rays and gamma rays are that: 1. the higher their energy, the shorter their wavelength, (wavelength is inversely proportional to energy); they have no mass or electrical charge; they travel at the speed of light; when absorbed or deflected, they ionize matter, the higher their energy, the greater the depth to which they can penetzate in a given material; absorption is increased as the atomic number and density of the absorber increase; . they cannot be refracted (as by a lens) or reflected to any useful degree, but they can be diffracted by erystalline structures living tissue is damaged when it absorbs X-rays or gamma rays. X-rays X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons are accelerated ~ either stopped or changed in direction. Usually this is done in a vacuum (X-ray tube) by stopping the electrons with a barrier called a target. This process produces “characteristic X-rays” with energies/wavelengths that depend on the target material, and “Bremsstrahlung” X-rays with energies ranging from near 0 to the maximum energy of the electrons (the voltage at which the X-ray tube was operated), Bremsstrahlung Figure 1. The electromagnetic spectrum | Radiation Wavelength nanometers mo 1 wt t+ wt 10 wo? [tans fe-tneavnte 1 Visible Lah H+ Gamma Rays ~Cosmic Rays—> ror Ww? 0? Photon Energy megaclectronvolts wa Tt 0 t we wo Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second edition: Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing OverviewLey Th Lele cMacats ho Mal bleeds" f X-rays are also called “white radiation,” and make up most of the useful radiation in radiographic testing. X-ray machines commonly used in radiography range in energy from 50 000 electronvolts (50 KeV) to 30.000 000 electronvolts (30 MeV), and in X-ray output from less than 5 to as much as 25 000 rads per minute measured at 1 m 3.3 ft) from the source (roentgens/m-m). ‘Atypical X-ray tube consists of a source of electrons and a target in a vacuuin chamber, with the means to apply high voltage across the source-target gap, as shown in Figure 1.2. Eleciron Source When electric current is passed though the wire filament coil in an X-ray tube cathode, the heat generated causes a cloud of electrons to be liberated from the coil. An increase or decrease in the current passing through the filament increases or decreases the number of free electrons, which increases the X-ray output of the tube. The focussing cup helps'to keep the electrons bunched together to minimize the size of the focal spot, the area where they strike the target Electron Target The target material must have a high melting point because it becomes very hot when bombarded by electrons from the filament, For the greatest efficiency in producing X-rays, the target should be made of a material with a high [Figure 1.2: X-ray tube 9 atomic number. Tungsten is generally used for the target material because it provides one of the best available combinations of high melting point and high atomic number, although other metals (€.g., copper, iron, cobalt) are used in some X-ray tubes where special applications require particular characteristic radiation, Electron Acceleration By applying a negative charge to the cathode and a positive charge to the anode, the negatively charged electrons are repelled by the cathode and attracted to the anode. The higher the voltage difference between the anode and cathode, the higher the velocity of the clectrons will be when they strike the target, and the higher the energy of the X-rays that will be generated. Higher energy radiation has greater penetrating power than lower energy radiation. In addition, as the energy of the electrons is increased, the quantity of X-rays generated increases. Tn most X-ray machines, the X-ray output is measured indirectly by measuring the tube current (i.c., the flow of electrons from cathode to anode), The values are usually in milliamperes (mA) or microamperes (HA). In some machines, typically those with very high X-ray output (i.., linear accelerators), the radiation intensity is measured directly in roentgens per minute at 1 m from the target. Because the production of X-rays is very inefficient, most of the tube current is _ ]10 Ce AS fs converted into heat at the target, Consequently, the focal spot size and the cooling of the anode to prevent the target from melting, are major design limitations. In addition, the ability of insulating materials to withstand high voltages greatly influences tube design. As a result, some machines have a duty cycle rating based on the kilovoltage, tube current, and length of exposure, X-ray machines are usually rated by their maximum voltage capability in kilovelts or megaelectronvolts. Table 1.1 lists the applications of commonly available X-ray machines and the types of intensifying screens (to be discussed Jater) that are usually used for cach voltage range. Gamma Rays Gamma rays are similar to X-rays but they are produced by the decay of naturally occurring or artificially produced radioactive isotopes. 1-192 and Co-60 are the most commonly used isotopes for radiographic testing, and both are artificially produced by neutron bombardment in a nuclear reactor. Until these became available afier World War Il, naturally occurring radium was used extensively. The wavelength (energy) of the gamma rays depends on the isotope. Each isotope produces eck) one or more fixed wavelengths, but no Bremsstrahlung radiation, Radiation Energy Gamma ray sources are available in many energy ranges from about 10 keV to 12 MeV. ‘The most commonly used are Ir-192 with energies of 310 keV, 470 keV and 600 keV; and Co-60 with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. Source Activity The activity of a gamma ray source depends on the amount of radioactive material present and its rate of decay. The rate of decay is measured in becquerels (curies) and is a useful way of comparing the strength of various sources of the same isotope. Specific Activity Specific activity is the activity per unit quantity of the source, expressed as becquerels (curies) per gram. It is useful in radiographic testing because a source of a given strength with a high specific activity will be physically smaller than one with a lower specific activity. The smaller source permits a smaller source-to-film distance than a larger source, everything being equal. On the other hand, at the Same distance, the smaller source will Table 1.1; Standard X-ray machine applicable materials and screens Maximum Maximum Application Thickness Screens Voltage <150 kV _ | Thin metal sections, electronics, ceramics, plastics | None or lead oxide | 1SO0kV | 127 mm (5 in.) aluminum, 25 mm (1 in.) steel ‘None, lead foil, or | quivalent to 38 mm (1.5 in.) steel lead oxide | 250KV_— | Equivalent to 51 mm (2 in) steel Lead foil, Equivalent to 76 mm (3 in.) steel fluorometallic, or fluorescent 400KV | Equivalent to 76 mm (3 in.) steel Lead foil, Equivalent to 102 mm (4 in.) steel fluorometallic, o fluorescent TMeV | Equivalent to 127 mm (in) steel Lead foil Equivalent to 203 mm (8 in.) steel 2MeV__ | Equivalent to 203 mm (8 in) steel Lead foil or sheets 8:25 MeV_| Equivalent to 660 mm (26 in.) steel Lead foil or sheetsOverview of Radiographic Testing u produce sharper images. (See Radiographic Sharpness/Unsharpness on page 13.) Radiation Intensity ‘The intensity of radiation from an isotope source (or from a X-ray source) is measured in roentgens (R) per unit time at a standard distance from the source. For isotopes, the units are usually roentgens/hour at 1 m (R/h-m) as compared to X-rays that are usually measured in roentgens/minute at 1 m (R/m-m). The intensity from an X-ray source is also often expressed in terms of the tube current units such as milliamperes. Half Life Because radioactive isotopes decay, the number of active atoms in a source diminishes with time. ‘The time it takes the radioactive material to decay to one half of its initial activity in becquerels (curies) is called the half life of the isotope. The half life of Ir-192 is 75 days while Co-60 has a half life of 5.3 years. This means that 1.9 TBg (50 Ci) of 11-192 will decay to 1 TBg (25 Ci) in 75 days, ‘Recommended reading to 0.5 TBg (12.5 Ci) in the next 75 days, and soon. Interactions of Radiation with Matter X-rays and gamma rays have no mass or weight - they are bundles of energy called photons traveling at the speed of light. They can be absorbed or deflected by matter in a number of ways, usually by causing atoms of the matter to become ionized (electrically charged). Electrons and/or lower energy photons are emitted from the atom in a different direction from that of the incident photon. These electrons or photons may, in tum, cause the ionization of other atoms in the absorber. Some of the major processes that account for absorption/deflection are the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair production. The photoelectric effect is most important for photon energies up to about 0.3 MeV. From 0.3 to 1.3 MeV, Compton scattering prevails, and at higher energies, pair production is dominant. Subject Reference* history of radiographic testing HB advantages and disadvantages of radiographic testing __| HB; CT. “X-rays HB: CT ‘gamma rays HB; CT radiation’ interaction with matter HB; CT *See Introduction for explanation of references.2 PE ee eee Radiographic Film Exposures A radiograph is the shadow picture produced by X-ray or gamma radiation that has passed Uhrough an object and been partly absorbed by film. (Note: Most of the radiation reaching the film passes through the object and is absorbed by other objects.) The radiation that is absorbed in the film sensitizes the silver halides in the film emulsion in such a way that a chemical process called development can convert them to silver particles. In the film areas exposed to higher levels of radiation, more silver particles are produced by development, making the film darker, while film areas exposed to less radiation, due to a thicker or more absorptive object material, are lighter after processing, as shown schematically in Figure 1.3 Film Density ‘The degree of film darkening is called film density, which is measured by the amount of visible light that can penetrate the film, Density is defined as the logarithm of the amount of light incident on one side of the film divided by the amount of light transmitted through the film, Mathematically, density is presented as: D= log Usk) (Eq. 1) where: D = density 1, = light intensity incident on the film FF = light intensity transmitted igure 1.3: Film density v: Image Quality ‘The usefulness of any radiograph depends on the quality of the image (sensitivity), Sensitivity is defined as the smallest detail of the object that can be seen on the radiograph. It is a function of the contrast and the sharpness (definition) of the radiographic image. Radiographic contrast is the difference between the film densities of two areas of a radiograph. This overall contrast depends on the contrast provided by the object being radiographed and the contrast provided by the film, These are usually referred to as subject contrast and film contrast, respectively. ‘The sharpness is usually judged from the image of known features such as edges, steps, ‘or holes in the object. Sharpness is a function of geometric factors such as source size, source-to-film distance, object-to-film distance, and sereen-to-film contact, as well as type of film and screens, and the radiation energy used. Usually, unsharpness is called geometric unsharpness, because that is the component of sharpness that can be calculated. Subject Contrast Subject contrast is governed by the ratio of the intensity of transmitted radiation through various parts of the object and by the amount of scatter radiation reaching the film, The relative amounts of radiation transmitted through various regions of a specimen depend con the thicknesses of those regions and on the radiation energy being used. Large differences in thickness produce high subject contrast, and vice versa Effect of Radiation Energy Low energy radiation also produces high subject contrast, because it is more easily absorbed than high energy radiation. Therefore, only a small change in thickness radiographed when using low energy radiation is necessary to achieve reasonable contrast. On the other hand, a large thickness difference is necessary to achieve reasonable contrast when using high energy radiation. Effect of Scatter Radiation Scatter radiation (scatter) is the secondary radiation that results from radiation interactionswith matter, as previously described. Although the primary radiation emitted by the source travels in straight lines, when it interacts with matter, the resulting secondary radiation travels in all directions. The scatter has lower energy than the primary radiation, so each photon and/or electron of scatter is easier for the fila to absorb and has greater effect on the density of the radiographic image. Becanse scatter radiation travels in all directions, it does not produce a useful image of the object being radiographed — it merely fogs or darkens the film overall, reducing the contrast. The effect of scatter can be controlled by use of filters and masking, which will be discussed in more detail later, Film Contrast Each type of radiographic film has a characteristic relationship between the amount of exposure and the density that is produced by that exposure. ‘The relationship is usually expressed as a graph or characteristic curve in which the density is plotted against the haracteristic curves of three typical X-ray films, exposed | between lead foil screens | 40 + Density 10 1s 20 25 30 Log Relative Exposure Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second edition: Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview i a 3 edi ee logarithm of the relative exposure, as shown in Figure 1.4. Relative exposure is used because there are no other measurement units that apply to all possible exposure conditions, The log of the relative exposure is used to compress an otherwise long scale. A log scale has the added alue that the same distance will separate the logs of any two exposures having the same ratio on a log scale, regardless of the actual exposure values. This feature is useful in exposure calculations. ‘The slope of a film’s characteristic curve is a measure of its contrast, while the curve’s position left or right within the graph is a measure of film speed. The contrast is greatest where the greatest density difference is produced by a given difference in exposure, that is where the slope of the curve is greatest. Given the same degree of development, a film with a curve that lies to the left of another film is the faster film, because the left-most curve indicates that less exposure is required to produce a given density. The shape of the characteristic curve of a given film is not sensitive to radiation energy but it is affected by the degree of film development — time, temperature, and composition of the developer. Within limits, an increase in degree of development increases the contrast exhibited by the radiograph, Radiographic Sharpness/Unsharpness Source-to-film distance is a major factor in the production of quality, cost-effective radiographs. If the source-to-film distance is too small, critical discontinuities such as cracks may not be visible at all because of image unsharpness. If the source-to-film distance is larger than necessary for good image sharpness, exposure time will be needlessly Jong, increasing the costs of the process. Unsharpness can be caused by geometrical and nongeometrical factors. Geometrical Factors Affecting Unsharpness Because radiographs are shadow images, radiographers must understand the geometric factors that influence shadow formation, Shadows consist of an umbra and a penumbra, The umbra is the central, darkest part of the shadow; the penumbra, usually called the geometric unsharpness (U/,), is the lighter, fuzzy shadow surrounding’ the umbra, Under4 Peet hace eee most practical radiographic conditions, only the _ it is evident that the following steps are tumbra is visible so itis very important to necessary to minimize.the geometrical maximize its size. For objects smaller than the _unsharpness of a radiograph: radiation source, the umbra can only be maximized by minimizing the geometric unsharpness. Because many discontinuities are smaller than the source, particularly the width of cracks, this process frequently used. For practical reasons, many specifications permit more than the minimum attainable unsharpness. Generally acceptable values range from 0.1-0.8 mm (0.005-0.03 in.). Figure 1.5 illustrates two cases of geometric tunsharpness while Equations 2 and 3 provide two forms of the equation used to calculate unsharpness. From the figure or the equations, 1. the focal spot of the X-ray tube or the physical size of the isotope source (F) should be as small as possible within the limits imposed by the need for sufficient radiation output; the distance from the source to the source side of the test object (source-to-object distance) should be as large as possible within the limits imposed by the need for economical exposure time; 3. the distance from the source-side of the object to the film (object-to-tilm Figure 1.5: Geometric unsharpness and image formation Souree —__ | Object Film Plane A Umbra Film Plane B. Penumbra Film Plane C Limit of Umbra Film Plane D | where: U, = unsharpness F* = source size D, = source-to-object distance d” = object-to-film distance [NOTES Ifthe object is smaller than the source, umbra (image) will always be smaller than the objet, and if objectto-flm sistance exceeds a critical value, no image may appear on the film, This can occur with most eracks because cack thickness 1s usually smaller than any source size, Objects larger than the source are always magnified.Cedi enc! distance) should be as small as possible (ce., the film holder should be in direct contact with the object whenever possible.) (Bq. 2) (Eq. 3) where: U, = geometric unsharpness F’ = effective focal spot si D,, = source-to-object distance d” = object-to-filin distance Note: When the film is in contact with the object, the object-to-film distance is equal to the thickness of the object. If the film is not in contact with the object, it is mandatory to use the actual object-to-film distance, not the thickness of the object. All dimensions must be in the same units, usually millimeters (inches). ‘The effective source size to be used in the equations is the largest dimension of the focal spot of an X-ray tube or the radioactive portion of an isotope source, as seen from the film; it may be the diagonal of a rectangular or cylindrical source. The manufacturer of the source can provide the nominal source size and shape, but it is the responsibility of the radiographer to determine the projected source size (Le., the size as seen from the film). This is done by calculating the shape and dimensions of the source. “The sizes and shapes of focal spots are usually determined experimentally by the manufacturer for a given design of machine. For energies below 500 keV, the pinhole technique is usually used, while for higher energies, one of the laminated-collimator techniques is used. Commonly used X-ray machines have nominal focal spot sizes of 1 mm (0.04 in.) to as much as 8 mm (0.3 in.), in the shape of rectangles, ellipses, or circles. Gamma ray sources vary widely in size and shape, depending on the form of the radioactive material and the source strength, 45 Some special purpose X-ray machines have a focal spot size that is less than 0.1 mm (0.004 in.). ‘These machines can be used with relatively large object-to-film distances to provide considerable magnification of the image without significant loss of im: sharpness. Because the small focal s X-ray machines severely limits the radiation output, they are typically used only for the radiographic testing of objects with low radiation absorption. Nongeometrical Factors Affecting Unsharpness Unsharpness is also affected by the radiation energy, the type of film, or other detector used, the type and position of screens and filters used, and the contact of the screens with the film. Increasing the radiation energy or increasing the speed of the film being used increases the unsharpness. Fluorescent screens increase unsharpness, while metallic screens ry in their effects depending on their composition, thickness, and position relative to the film, Al'screens and filters that are within the film holder MUST be in intimate contact with the film or they will greatly increase unsharpness Scatter Control Because scatter radiation reduces contrast, it must be prevented from reaching the film, insofar as practical. The most common ways to reduce scatter are with filters, collimators, and masking. Filters ‘The most common technique used to reduce scatter is by absorbing the scatter with filters near the film. (Note: filters are often called “screens” because many common screens also reduce scatter.) Because scatter radiation is less penetrating than the primary radiation from the source, useful filtering can be accomplished with relatively thin sheets of an absorber ~ lead is the most common material. Many commercial film holders are provided with a 0.3 mm (0.01 in.) lead “back filter” to absorb scatter from material behind the holder, such as the floor or table on which the object and film are resting. For high energy radiographic testing, thicker back filters are usually necessary. For many applications, front filters16 Cem eats ee ea he th are often useful, but the details are usually specific to the application Collimators Reducing the generation of scatter is also an important control. This may be done by filtering or collimating the primary radiation beam or by masking the object. Filters reduce scatter in the entire radiation area by removing much of the less penetrating (softer) primary radiation while leaving greater amounts of the more penetrating (harder) radiation needed to produce the radiographic image. Collimators reduce scatter by reducing the width of the primary beam, thus limiting the amount of the primary beamn that would otherwise pass around the object and generate additional scatter. Masking Masking is performed by fitting absorptive material closely around the test object. Masking is similar to collimating in that it limits the primary beam to the object. The absorptive masking material is often made of lead sheets formed to the object, but lead, copper, or stee! shot, and even some liquids may be useful in specific cases. Exposure Reduction and Intensifying Screens ‘The radiographic exposure time required to produce a desired image density can be shortened in many cases by placing intensifying screens in close contact with the film. Intensifying screens are constructed of materials that, when struck by the primary radiation, produce secondary radiation that blackens the film more effectively than the primary radiation. Fluorescent screens produce light, while metallic intensifying screens produce electrons and secondary X-ray photons. Fluorescent screens are seldom used with film because they reduce the definition of the image. An exception is when very long exposure times are needed. For radiographic testing with 150 kV radiation or higher, lead is the most common material for metallic screens, although other metals may be useful in some cases. Lead screens 0,03-0.3 mm (0.001-0.01 in.) thick are used up to 1-2 MeV. For higher energies, lead sereens as much as 6 mm (0.25 in.) thick have been found to be useful, Metallic screens may be used on one or both sides of the film, and when two or more films are used in the same holder, thin screens are sometimes sed between the films. In all cases, the screen surface must be kept very clean and free from foreign materials (i¢., grease and dust) because they can cause artifacts in the radiograph. Below 150 kV, a thin layer of lead oxide on a supporting material is often useful for intensification. Lead and lead oxide screens can shorten exposure times by as much as 2-2.5 times. Using lead and lead oxide screens with other metallic screens, also provides useful filtration of scatter, Screens reduce exposure time and increase contrast, and should be used in most radiographic testing applications. Principles of Shadow Formation In order to provide useful images of the object to the interpreter so an accurate interpretation of radiographs can be made, the radiographer must consider the principles of shadow formation in making the radiograph, Because a radiograph is a shadow image of an object placed between the radiation source and the recording medium, the shape, size, and spatial relations of the parts on the image are influenced by the relative positions of the film (or other detector), the object, and the source. Image Size If the source of radiation is larger than the object, the image of the object will be smaller than the object except when the object is in contact with the film, While most objects being radiographed are not smaller than the source, the principal objective of much radiographic testing is to detect discontinuities. Since discontinuities may well be smaller than the source, and the thickness of cracks and lack of penetration is almost always smaller than the source, this rule of shadow formation is very important in searching for discontinuities. If the source is smaller than the object, the image of the object will be larger than the object except when the object is in contact with the film. This is the case with penetrameter pages, and because penetrameters have a known size and are placed on the source side of the object, the size of the penetrameter image provides a useful means for estimatingCite eee v the source-to-object distance when the source size is known. Of course, when the penetrameter is placed on the film, this technique is useless The degree of enlargement may be calculated mathematically using Equation 4 (Eq. 4) where: S, = object size Si mage size D, = source-to-object distance D; = source-to-film distance Image Shape and Spatial Relationships Image distortion occurs when the radiographic image is not the same shape as the object or discontinuity that produced it. Image distortion occurs when the plane of the object and the plane of the film are not parallel. Usually, the preferred practice is to keep the film plane as parallel as possible to the plane of the object that is of maximum interest, even though this may distort the image of other portions of the object. Note: this does not mean that suspected cracks or lack of penetration should be oriented parallel to the film; they should be parallel to the radiation beam for reasons discussed previously in the Radiographic Sharpness/Unsharpness section (page 13). Distortion of spatial relationships between parts of the object may also occur, as shown in Figure 1.6(a), For this reason, the preferred practice for most radiographic testing problems 1s to keep the center of the radiation beam perpendicular to film as shown in Figure 1.6(0) Exposure Radiographic exposure is defined as the intensity of the radiation multiplied by the time that the film is exposed to the radiation, For a given radiation energy and source-to-film distance, the exposure may be stated as E=MT (Eq. 5) Figure 1.6: Geometric principles — | spatial relations Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second edition: Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview where: E. = exposure M_— = radiation intensity [tube current or roentgens/m, or becquerels (curies)] T =time Because the amount of radiation that is reaching the fil through the object is unknown, the intensity used in the equation is the intensity of the X-ray or isotope source, as measured in becquerels (curies), rads/minute, or tube current units. For instance, an exposure at 5 mA for 10 min would be equal to an exposure of 10 mA for 5 min. The units of exposure are determined by the units used for radiation intensity and time, In this example, exposure would have the units of milliampere-minutes. Values such as milliampere-seconds, becquerel (curie)-minutes, and rads are also common. While the output of X-ray machines can be selected by the operator within the limits of the machine, the radiographer must consider the half life of isotope sources in determining their output at any given time. A satisfactory exposure of 3.2 TBg-min (100 Ci-min) that required 1 min when made 75 days ago with a 3.7 TBy (100 Ci) Ir-192 source, will now require 2 min at the same source-to-film distance because the source has decayed to 1.9 TBg (50 Ci). Exposure Calculations ‘The density of a radiograph depends on the amount of radiation absorbed by the film emulsion and how it was developed. The amount of radiation absorbed depends on the18 SRS CE CCl eu a amount and energy of the radiation source (primary radiation) that passes through the object, the amount of scatter reaching the film, and the action of any intensifying screens that were used. For any given radiation energy, the controllable variables that govern exposure are the source output in rads/minute, the time that the film is exposed, and the source-to-film distance. Because the output of X-ray machines is proportional to the tube current, milliamperes or microamperes may be used when output in radyminute is not available. For gamma ray sources, output is measured in becquerels (cures) Exposure Factor To make exposure values more general, the source-to-film distance may be factored into the exposure equation to provide what is called an “exposure factor.” As shown in Equation 6 (X-ray) and Equation 7 (gamma ray), the exposure factor is the E value divided by the square of the source-to-film distance. For example, an exposure of 400 mAm at S08 mm (20 in.) source-to-film distance has an exposure factor of | mAm/in.2, as does an exposure of 100 mAm at 254 mm (10 in.) source-to-film distance. er, -MO 4.6) 0, si) EF =~ ‘Eq. 7) “=p (Eq. where: EF = exposure factor D, = source-(o-film distance M = X-ray tube current t cee if amma ray source strength Inverse Square Law When no absorber is present (e.g., in air), the radiation intensity from any radiation source decreases as the square of the distance from the source increases. In other words, the intensity is inversely proportional to the square Figure 1.7: Schematic diagram lustrating the inverse square law A Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second edition: | Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview | of the distance from the source. This occurs because the radiation diverges as it travels away from the source, so that the same amount of radiation covers a larger area. Thus, the radiation is less intense Further from the source. Figure 1.7 illustrates this effect, which is known as the inverse square law. Mathematically, this law is expressed as PL oe na Ol, ny Noy where: 7 =intensity D_ = distance The inverse square law is very important in radiography because different source-to-film distances are often used for different radiographs. Source-to-film distance changes may be needed to satisfy image unsharpness requirements, allow for coverage of the objectWinnie ene in one exposure, adjust radiation intensity so as to adjust exposure time, and similar reasons. Radiographic Equivalence Factor While many radiographic testing operations are performed on one type of material, others are sometimes used to radiograph unusual materials. When unusual materials are encountered, it is useful to have some means of determining exposures for the new material based on exposure data for the well-known material. This can be done with a chart or table of radiographic equivalence factors that is similar to Table 1.2. To use the table, choose the radiation energy of interest and the corresponding material of interest. Multiply the resulting equivalence factor by the thickness of the material to be radiographed. This results in a thickness value of either aluminum or steel, depending on the radiation energy, that has approximately the same absorption as the thickness of new material, For example, at 220 kV, 13 mm (0.5 in.) of copper is equivalent in absorption ‘Approximate Radiographic equivalence factors® to 13 mm (0.5 in.) x 1.4 = 18 mm (0.7 in.) of steel. To radiograph 13 mm (0.5 in.) of copper at 220 KV, use the same exposure that was used for 18 mm (0.7 in.) of steel Exposure Chants Exposure charts are a means of simplifying the selection of the proper values of the variables needed to produce acceptable radiographs. A common type of exposure chart is shown in Figure 1.8". As in all such charts, certain variables of radiographic testing have been fixed or predetermined. In Figure 1.8, the fixed variables are film type, source-to-film distance, screen type and thickness, and desired film density, while kilovoltage, material thickness and exposure are controllable variables. ‘The chart simplifies the relationships between material thickness, kilovoltage, and exposure by fixing the other variables. This makes it easier for the operator to select exposure values. For example, in the radiographic testing of a 25 mm (1 in.) thick | Xorays | Seen Gamma Rays | Material = | 100 | 150 | 220 | 300 | 1000 | 2000] 4126 e137] Co60 [Redium | Mev Mageesiom 05 | 06 Doe Atuminen | ‘1.0 | 1.0 Low] 03s | 035 | 035 | 040 2024 aluminum) alley | 22 | 1.6 02 03s | 035 | 035 ‘isa os ai Sie! ino [ro [to [xo [a0 [iw [a0 [10 [to [10 18.8 (te alloy bo to [10 | 10 | 10 | 1 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 Copper wo [ie [1s [1a TET Zine 7 mM fe [as om | 0 [10 | 10 Bras m3 fos foe foe Pop Po Po Po cone) Xalloy-coated io fia fis fis fas [os |i] os fis fos [os Zirconium 23 | 20 10 _ _ Leal 120 | 20 30 300 | 40 | 32 | 23 | 20 Uranium ao} | 300 | 26 | se | ta Aluminum i the standard mictal at SO KV and 100 kV and steel atthe higher voltages and gamma rays. The thickness of another metal is multiplied by the eorresponding factor to obtain the approximate equivalent thickness of Ue standard metal The exposure applying ta this thickness of the standard metal is used. EXAMPLE: To radiograph 12.7 mm (05 in.) of copper st 220 kV, multiply 12.7 mm (05 in. by the factor 1.4, obcaining an equivalent thickness of 17.8 mim (0.7 in. of steel. > Tin or lead alloyed in brass will increase these factors Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second cdltion: Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview 1 Although not sate, this chart applies only to one specific X-ray machine and the film processing time, temperature, and chemicals are also fired20 Figure 1.8: Typical exposure chart | for steel. This chart may be applied | to film X (see Figure 1.3), with lead foil screens, at 1.5 film density and 11m (40 in.) source-to-film distance 5100) Log Exposure Exposure (coulomb) ’ 38 a) 025) @3) O79 GM AZ AS) sickness millimeters of stee! (inches of steel) Reprinted from ASNT’s NDT Handbook, second edition: ‘Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview steel part with this X-ray machine, 220 kV, 200 kV, 180 kV or 160 kV might be chosen. The chart shows that exposures would range from about 5.3 mAm at 220 kV to 70 mAm at 160 kV. If the X-ray machine were operated at 5 mA, the required exposure time at 160 kV would be 14 min, while at 220 kV, the time would be 1.3 min. Charts in which other variables are fixed are also useful. For example, if the source-to-film distance, film, screens, density, film processing, and exposure are fixed, a chart can be prepared that shows the relationship between kilovoltage and thickness for a given material. Exposure charts for isotopes typically plot the exposure factor (rather than the exposure) against material thickness for various resulting film densities as shown in Figure 1.9. This type of chart reflects the need to allow for source- to-film distance variance to accommodate different thicknesses, because the operator Oo Ae ae eee | Figure 1.9: Typical gamma ray exposure chart for Ir-192, based upon the use of film X (see Figure 1.3) Exposure Factor (gigabecquerel-minutes per square inch) Exposure Factor (curie-minutes per square inch) 31 7 8 @ Steel mm (in.) Reprinted from ASNT’s NDT Handbook, second edit ‘Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview cannot control the energy or the output of an isotope. Deviations from some fixed variables of an exposure chart can be compensated for mathematically as follows 1, source-to-film distance inverse square law; 2. film type ~ use the characteristic curves of the films; 3. desired film density — use the characteristic curve of the film 4, film processing ~ if characteristic curves for other temperatures chemicals or development times are available, use them; otherwise, see item 2, below. use the Changes to the following variables of the exposure chart cannot be accurately predicted: 1. X-ray machine ~ all X-ray machines are different; two X-ray machines operating at the same nominal kilovoltage andCet a tube current may produce significantly Thickness, Intensity, Distance and Time different energies and intensities of radiation; The relationships between object thickness, 2. film processing ~ a change in source intensity, source-to-film distance, and chemicals, temperature, or development exposure time are mathematical and require time will change the resulting film that calculations be made or that the density and contrast; radiographer interpret charts. The calculations 3. type or thickness of sereens or filters~ for changes in source-to-film distance, any change in the energy spectrum of intensity, or time are simple arithmeti the radiation reaching the film, such as functions as demonstrated in Figure 1.10. those produced by screens and filters, may change the density and/or contrast’ -Yarsations im Object Thi Sf De Soesiong tad legap. Variations in Object Thickness An acceptable exposure of an object with varying thicknesses requires intelligent use of the radiographic testing variables. The use of Figure 1.10: Sample calculations Sample 1 is based on the following: initial exposure is 2 min., 5 mA, 20 in, source-to-film distance. It is desired to change the source-to-film distance to 36 in. General Rule: The current, in milliamperes, (M) is directly proportional to the square of the source-to-film distance (D), De 5 (0 M, {DY 5,2 _,5_ 400 32 3GR) Se 62 ma M, (D,) 36° x 1296” 5x) 51296)” * 400 ‘Sample 2 is based on the following: initial exposure is 2 min., 5 mA, 20 in. source-to-film distance. It is desired to change the source-to-film distance to 36 in. General Rule: The exposure time (7) is directly proportional to the square of the source-to-film ldistance (D), i, (2) 1 4m) 25 =)=-( | x=. 6.48 min T 2x)” 21296 400 Sample 3 General Rule: The current, in milliamperes, (M) required is inversely proportional to time (7). Using the results from Sample | and Sample 2, calculate for 10 mA. M, 162 x x 162 6.48( x )_6.48(16.2 105 - = at — x77 = 105 min ay a —— M, iT, 10 648 6.48 10 1 1 V0 or M, XT, = M, xT, 16.2 6.48 = 10x 104.98 = 10x ‘Sample 4 is based on the following: initial exposure is 3.4 min., 75 Ci Ir-192 source, 18 in. source-to-film distance. Calculate the time required for 30 Ci. General Rule: Time (7) is inversely proportional to source strength (S). 262.5 5,*7, =S, xT, 75x35 = 30(8) — 2625 = 30(7,) > == 7 = 8.75 minn PO ne ole ee filters or higher radiation energy will reduce contrast, but sensitivity may become unsatisfactory, Reductions in energy or removal of filters will increase contrast. The use of slower films increases contrast and sharpness, while faster films reduce contrast and sharpness, For high subject contrast situations, two or more films of the same or different speeds may be exposed simultaneously in the same film holder. The parts of the image showing suitable density on any one film are interpreted using a single film while two or more films are superimposed in order to view the lower density regions of the image. Two films, usually of different speeds, that are loaded and exposed together in a single holder are sometimes viewed separately. The advantages of this technique are evident in Recommended reading situations where the material thickness or absorptivity cannot be precisely determined or where the object contains large differences in thickness. Double or triple loading refers to the number of radiographic films placed in a single film holder. Different film speeds are used to obtain acceptable film densities over a wide range of cross sectional thicknesses. Each film effectively images a separate area of interest that, when combined, provides total coverage of the object and enhances latitude. It is especially important in the radiographic testing of multithickness parts to understand thoroughly how to use the characteristic curves of films and the exposure charts for the available radiation sources. Proper use of these aids can greatly increase efficiency and reduce the costs and time for radiography. Subject Reference* radiographic film exposures radiographic film density subject contrast film contrast radiographic sharpness/unsharpness filters and masking shadow formation HB; ASTM E 1165 HB; CT intensifying screens inverse square law exposure charts characteristics curves/calculations "See Introduction for explanation of references. Image Quality Indicators Image quality indicators ensure that satisfactory radiographic image qu: been obtained, The most commonly used type of image quality indicator is the penetrameter. It is a small test piece of standard design, made of material that is radiographically similar to the object, that is radiographed together with the object. It is placed on the source-side of the object whenever possible, so that its image represents the largest object-to-film distance, and thus the largest unsharpness, displayed by that radiograph. It is a good practice to provide the image of at Ieast one penetrameter on each radiograph and more often than not, itis requiredeee nena B ‘There are many standard designs of penetrameters. The most commonly used designs are small shims (plaques) containing, holes and sets of smnall diameter wires. The dimensions of penetrameter features are some small percentage of the thickness of the object, and image quality is judged by the smallest visible penetrameter feature, such as hole size or wire diameter. Important: during typical usage, penetrameters do not provide positive measurement of image quality. The penetrameter image on a radiograph indicates only that the image quality is not poorer than some minimum requirement. There are two plaque-type penetrameters commonly used in the United States, ASTMJASME penetrameters conforming to ASTM E 1025 and MIL-STD-453 penctrameters. Wire penetrameters conforming to ASTM E 747 are gaining in popularity in the United States. These are similar (but not identical) to the DIN or ISO penetrameters widely used in Europe. The image quality or sensitivity values obtained from the various types of penetrameters are not identical, but they are mathematically related. The relationship for ASTM plaque and wire types is charted in ASTM E747. When specifications require particular types or sizes of penetrameters that are not readily available, it is useful to be able to determine the characteristics of equivalent penetrameters. For plague penetrameters, ASTM E 1025 provides an equation and a nomogram for determining equivalent penetrameter sensitivity. The penetrameter image is not intended to be used to judge the size or acceptability of discontinuities. Identification Markers Radiographs must be marked in such a way that each one can be identified with the object that it represents. For objects requiring more than one radiograph, each one must be identified with the part of the object that it represents, so the film can be matched to the corresponding region of the object. Lead letters and numbers placed on the object are usually used for this purpose because their high radiographic absorption allows them to be imaged on the radiograph. The exact locations of the lead markers may be permanently marked on the object or their locations may be keyed to a map of the object and retained as a permanent record. Identification and location markers are obviously essential in order to correlate the radiographic images of any discontinuities with their location in the object. Specific requirements for marking vary considerably from customer to customer. Typical requirements are available in standards such as ASTM E 94, ASTM E 1030, various ASME codes, and other specifications. Film and Film Handling Industrial radiographic film consists of a thin sheet of transparent plastic called the “base” that is coated, usually on both sides, with photosensitive material called the “emulsion.” The emulsion is a solid, gelatinous material approximately 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) thick containing microscopic particles of silver halide. When the silver halide absorbs electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, it is modified so that the chemicals present in photographic developer can change the silver halide to metallic silver. The developer does not change the silver halide that did not absorb radiation. After developing, the remaining halide is removed by photographic fixer, leaving just the metallic silver. Areas of the emulsion that contain little silver are relatively transparent to light, while those where there is much silver are less transparent, or denser, Film Graininess Microscopic grains of silver form the radiographic image. However, for various reasons, these particles tend to clump together in relatively large masses that are sometimes visible to the naked eye as “graininess.” All films exhibit graininess to some degree. Slow speed, fine grain films exhibit lower levels of graininess and higher definition. Graininess is reduced when the radiation energy that produced the image is low; increasing the radiation energy increases the graininess. Graininess is also be affected by the film development process.24 ASNT Level Il Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Film Selection Choosing the right film for a particular application is the radiographer’s responsibility. The composition, size, and thickness of the object, energy, and output of the radiation source, the criticality of the inspection, and the required level of sensitivity must be considered when selecting the type of film. The time and cost saving advantages of higher speed films must be weighed against their poorer contrast and sharpness as compared to slower films. The possibility of using relatively slow film but decreasing the exposure time by using intensifying screens must be considered. However, fluorescent intensifying screens should only be used when the highest possible photographic speed is required and the lower sensitivity can be tolerated. Available Forms of Film Industrial radiographic film is typically available in individual sheets with or without interleaves (separating paper) in a variety of sizes ranging from 127 x 178 to 356 x 432 mm (5%7 to 14 x 17 in,). When smaller pieces are needed for insertion into confined spaces, such film is easily cut in the darkroom; of course it must be inserted into a light-tight envelope, usually made of black plastic sheet, and sealed with black tape before leaving the darkroom. Prepackaged film is available in sealed, light-tight envelopes, with or without lead ‘oxide screens, and it is ready for exposure without removing it from the envelope. The advantages of prepackaged films are the climination of the time for loading film holders and the convenience of using it in situations where a darkroom is not readily available (ie, field radiographic testing). However, compared to standard sheet film, prepackaged film is expensive, so it should be used only where the advantages justify its cost. Film is also available in long rolls. Roll film is advantageous for inspecting large circumferential welds or other cylindrical objects, The film is wrapped around the outside of the eylinder while the radiation source is centered inside. Unless the object is extremely large, only one exposure is needed with this technique. The advantages of roll film for such work include reduction of the required setup time and reduction of the number of identification and location markers required. Film Handling and Storage Film most be handled carefully to avoid damaging the emulsion layers. Pressure marks, creases, finger prints, scratches, static marks, humidity, heat, mois¥/comtaminated hands, and splashes or spills of processing chemicals can produce artifacts that may render a radiograph unacceptable. “To avoid problems, always wear cotton gloves when handling dry film, handle it only by the cdges, slide it slowly (not rapidly) out of its box or film holder, keep processing chemicals away from the loading bench, and promptly wipe up any spills or splashes. Store films in'a cool, preferably air-conditioned location, away from penetrating radiation, and store only the amount of film that can be used by the film expiration date. Film Processing After exposure, film must be processed 10 develop the image and fix it so that the image will not deteriorate as it ages. Both developing and fixing are chemical processes that must take place in a darkroom or other location where there is little light or other radiation. Developer chemicals are alkaline organic ‘compounds that convert exposed silver halide into silver, while fixers are acidic inorganic compounds that convert the remaining silver halide into compounds that ean be dissolved in water so that they can be removed from the film, Both developers and fixers also have other functions such as hardening the emulsion so that is not easily damaged during processing and subsequent handling. Darkrooms Darkrooms vary in size and layout, but all must be lightproof, radiation free, equipped with safelights, and have a convenient, clean work area, White light and penetrating radiation must not be present in the darkroom because they can ruin any undeveloped film, including undeveloped radiographs that may be present. Darkrooms should be equipped with low-wattage lights with red filters (safelights). Safelights should be 0.9-1.2 m (3-4 ft) from any part of the darkroom where undeveloped film will be exposed. These lights will provide sufficient visibility for cutting film, loading and)at unloading film holders, and manual film processing, ‘Aworkbench for cutting film and loading cassettes and film holders should be located a considerable distance away from the processing machine or tanks. The bench must be kept clean and free from chemical spills and dirt that may scratch the film emulsion and it should be large enough to facilitate the workload. Sulficient storage areas for film, cassettes, screens, and film hangars must also be available and conducive to the workflow. Manual Processing For manual processing, the film is placed on a frame or film hanger where it is to remain until it has been dried after fixing. ‘The film is then immersed in the developer for a time that depends on the temperature of the developer. Typically, development for 5 min at 20°C (68 °F) is used for manual processing, with shorter times at higher temperatures and longer limes at lower temperatures. The film hanger should be tapped against the tank immediately after the film is completely submerged in developer to dislodge air bubbles adhering to the film. During development, the developer or the film must be agitated to allow fresh solution to contact the film emulsion frequently. If the film is developed without agitation, each area of the film will affect the development of the areas below it, causing uneven development and streaking. At the end of the proper development time, the film is removed from the developer, allowed to drain for a few seconds, and then immersed and agitated for 30-60 s in a “stop bath” to halt the development process. Stop bath is an acid solution that neutralizes the residual developer in and on the film, and helps to prevent the film from streaking during fixing, After the stop bath, film is placed in the fixer and agitated for 10-15 s. When the film is initially submerged in the fixer, it takes on a cloudy, milky-white appearance that should clear in about 1 min if the fixer is at 20 °C. (68 °F), After the film has cleared, it should remain in the fixer for an additional time equal to twice the time required for it to clear. If the film is not fixed thoroughly, it will discolor as. it ages. Keep in mind that overfixing reduces the image contrast and density. Ww of Radiographic Testing 25 When fixing is complete, the film is washed in running water with a sufficient flow to rapidly carry away the fixer. The emulsion should remain in contact with constantly changing water that covers the top of the hanger. The washing time should be at least twice the fixing time to prevent later staining and fading of the image. The film is then placed in a circulating warm-air drying cabinet, which should not exceed 49 °C (120 °F). Film should be removed from the dryer as soon as it is completely dry. A film is adequately dry when there is no moisture remaining underneath the hanger clips that could possibly drip down the film and cause streaking. It is very important to control the temperature of the developer, stop-bath, fixer, and wash water during processing, and to time the exposure of the film to these liquids. The various processes occur at different speeds depending on the temperature. Temperatures of 18-24 °C (65-75 °F) are preferable. If higher temperatures ure unavoidable, special precautions should be taken to avoid damaging the film, These may include use of special formulations of the chemicals or shorter processing times. Do NOT use ice in the chemical tanks because it will dilute the chemicals. It is also important to avoid having large temperature differences between the various liquids to avoid reticulation, frilling, or other damage to the film emulsion, Automatic Processing When a large number of films must be processed each day, a film processing machine or automatic film processor will provide economic advantages. Automated film processing reduces the manpower required in the darkroom, reduces the time required for processing, and aids in ensuring consistent, high quality processing. Exposed film is placed directly into the processor without the need for film hangers, A series of rollers moves the film at a controlled speed through each step of the process. The processor maintains the chemicals at the proper temperatures, agitates and replenishes the solutions automatically, and dries the film. By using special chemicals and high temperatures, overall processing time can be greatly reduced. A total time as little as 5 min from dry-to-dry is possible with some loss of radiographic quality