Innovative Professional

Development Methods
and Strategies for STEM
Education

Kenan Dikilitaş
Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey

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Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv

Chapter 1
The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects........... 1
Peter Smith, University of Sunderland, UK
John Fulton, University of Sunderland, UK
Alastair Irons, University of Sunderland, UK
Gail Sanders, University of Sunderland, UK

Chapter 2
Mentoring Girls in Science: Eight Case Studies of a Science Camp Experience.................................. 17
Donna Farland-Smith, The Ohio State University, USA

Chapter 3
Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional
Development.......................................................................................................................................... 32
Christie S. Martin, University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA
Drew Polly, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Chuang Wang, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Richard G. Lambert, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
David Pugalee, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Chapter 4
A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey: Moving from
Instruction to Learning.......................................................................................................................... 52
Murat Günel, TED University, Turkey
Melike Özer-Keskin, Gazi University, Turkey
Nilay Keskin-Samancı, Gazi University, Turkey

Chapter 5
Systematic Support for STEM Pre-Service Teachers: An Authentic and Sustainable Four-Pillar
Professional Development Model.......................................................................................................... 73
Reenay R.H. Rogers, University of West Alabama, USA
Jodie Winship, University of West Alabama, USA
Yan Sun, University of West Alabama, USA


 

Chapter 6
The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices.......................... 91
Patricia Dickenson, National University, USA
Judith L. Montgomery, University of California Santa Cruz, USA

Chapter 7
Teachers’ Professional Development in the Digitized World: A Sample Blended Learning
Environment for Educational Technology Training............................................................................. 115
Emsal Ates Ozdemir, Istanbul Sehir University, Turkey
Kenan Dikilitaş, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey

Chapter 8
Introducing Educational Technology into the Higher Education Environment: A Professional
Development Framework..................................................................................................................... 126
Linda Van Ryneveld, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Chapter 9
Supporting the Enactment of Standards-based Mathematics Pedagogies: The Cases of the CoDE-I
and APLUS Projects............................................................................................................................ 137
Drew Polly, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Christie Martin, University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA
Chuang Wang, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Richard Lambert, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
David Pugalee, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Chapter 10
Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers Related to the Use of English in
Their Professional Settings: A Case from Northern Iraq..................................................................... 149
Ece Zehir Topkaya, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
İbrahim Nişancı, Ishik University, Iraq

Chapter 11
Impact of a Professional Development Programme on Trainee Teachers’ Beliefs and Teaching
Practices............................................................................................................................................... 176
Yasemin Kırkgöz, Cukurova University, Turkey

Chapter 12
Prospective EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of Using CALL in the Classroom........................................ 195
Anıl Rakicioglu-Soylemez, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Sedat Akayoglu, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey

Chapter 13
The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection on their Instructional Practices................................ 209
Yesim Kesli Dollar, Bahcesehir University, Turkey
Enisa Mede, Bahcesehir University, Turkey


Chapter 14
Exploring Prospective EFL Teachers’ Beliefs about Teachers and Teaching through Metaphor
Analysis................................................................................................................................................ 220
Anil Rakicioglu-Soylemez, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Ayse Selmin Soylemez, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Amanda Yesilbursa, Uludag University, Turkey

Related References............................................................................................................................. 238

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 279

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 305

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 310
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv

Chapter 1
The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects........... 1
Peter Smith, University of Sunderland, UK
John Fulton, University of Sunderland, UK
Alastair Irons, University of Sunderland, UK
Gail Sanders, University of Sunderland, UK

This chapter presents a study into the impact of the professional doctorate as a learning opportunity for
STEM professionals including engineers, pharmacists, nurses, STEM teachers, healthcare professionals,
and computing professionals. The professional doctorate is a relatively new approach to doctoral study,
which has much to offer to STEM. This form of doctoral study encourages the candidate to undertake
project work which is based in, and contributes to, their professional practice. The candidates are
experienced practitioners, who wish to raise their practice to doctoral level. This chapter presents a mixed
methods study, which has collected and analyzed quantitative data obtained from a survey, qualitative
data obtained from focus group sessions, and in-depth narrative accounts. Analysis of these data revealed
a number of themes including the importance of trans-professional working, reflection, and development
of “authentic” professional voice.

Chapter 2
Mentoring Girls in Science: Eight Case Studies of a Science Camp Experience.................................. 17
Donna Farland-Smith, The Ohio State University, USA

Content area specialists (scientists) are often recruited as mentors of students to address issues in science
education. These scientists are frequently recruited to help with the teaching of science, however, quite
often do not have the pedagogy skills needed to be role models for young children. Guidance in the
selection appropriate mentors would help maximize the potential influence on students understanding
of who does science, where science is done and what scientists do. This study illustrates six case studies
of scientists as they worked with middle school girls and identifies five characteristics educators should
look for in selecting science mentors successful in broadening students’ perceptions of scientists. The





data was collected during ‘Side-by-Side’ interaction with scientists/mentors during a summer camp
experience and has implications for classroom practice as the use of mentors can be structured to support
the infusion of Science as a Human Endeavor. As the students’ experiences with mentor scientists helped
to shape their perception of those who pursue careers in science and what it is that scientists do, careful
consideration and preparation of mentors were critical to the success of the program, and so this paper
also provides suggestions to help highly trained and highly educated scientists in these mentorship roles.

Chapter 3
Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional
Development.......................................................................................................................................... 32
Christie S. Martin, University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA
Drew Polly, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Chuang Wang, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Richard G. Lambert, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
David Pugalee, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

This chapter shares the findings from a study that examined primary grades teachers’ fidelity of
implementation during a year-long professional development program on formative assessment in
mathematics. The project provided over 80 hours of professional development to elementary school teachers
regarding their use of an internet-based formative assessment system for their students’ mathematics
achievement. This study examined teachers’ online reflections and data in the internet-based assessment
system to identify themes that lead to either a high fidelity or low fidelity of implementation. High fidelity
teachers expressed beliefs that formative assessment supported their mathematics teaching, improved their
students’ learning, and was feasible to carry out in their classrooms. Low fidelity teachers’ reflections
were associated with numerous barriers to implementation as well as a lack of buy-in that the formative
assessment system could benefit their teaching.

Chapter 4
A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey: Moving from
Instruction to Learning.......................................................................................................................... 52
Murat Günel, TED University, Turkey
Melike Özer-Keskin, Gazi University, Turkey
Nilay Keskin-Samancı, Gazi University, Turkey

This chapter concerns the importance of in-service training programmes for the professional development
of science teachers. A description will be given of the general structure of in-service training activities
in Turkey and the results will be presented of an in-service training project, which was conducted as
part of a three-year longitudinal study. Within the scope of the project, an in-service training programme
for science teachers was conducted based on the argument-based inquiry approach and the theoretical
premises upon which it is built. The project aimed to direct science teachers towards student-centred
teaching. The training activities focused on the scientific thinking underpinning the teachers’ professional
knowledge and practices, their perceptions on learning, and their pedagogical practices and epistemological
beliefs. The extent to which these activities affected classroom applications and learning processes was
investigated and the findings suggest that they had a statistically significant impact on the teachers’
pedagogical development and on the students’ academic performance and thinking skills.
 

Chapter 5
Systematic Support for STEM Pre-Service Teachers: An Authentic and Sustainable Four-Pillar
Professional Development Model.......................................................................................................... 73
Reenay R.H. Rogers, University of West Alabama, USA
Jodie Winship, University of West Alabama, USA
Yan Sun, University of West Alabama, USA

Developing a strong STEM teacher workforce is essential to improve K-12 (kindergarten to 12th grade)
STEM education and to strengthen the STEM talent pipeline in the United States. Based on the successful
experience in Project Engage, a grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education, this chapter proposes
an authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development model. Grounded on social
constructivist and interactive approaches, this professional development model is intended to cultivate
STEM pre-service teachers’ ability to provide K-12 students with authentic STEM learning experience as
defined in the four types of authenticity (i.e., context authenticity, task authenticity, impact authenticity,
and personal/value authenticity) identified by Strobel and his colleagues (Strobel, Wang, Weber, &
Dyehouse, 2013).

Chapter 6
The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices.......................... 91
Patricia Dickenson, National University, USA
Judith L. Montgomery, University of California Santa Cruz, USA

This chapter examines the status of teacher professional development in mathematics and explores the
role of teacher leadership to promote innovative professional development strategies that sustain the
growth and development of an organization. Survey data was collected from teacher leader participants
of one mathematics professional development organization to understand how participants’ growth
and development as a teacher leader not only shaped their mathematics instructional practices, but
influenced their choices in leadership roles. Further the authors share how the learning environment
and pedagogical choices of the project director supported a teacher-driven professional development
approach. Recommendations as well as a model for developing a teacher-driven professional development
organization are provided for replication.

Chapter 7
Teachers’ Professional Development in the Digitized World: A Sample Blended Learning
Environment for Educational Technology Training............................................................................. 115
Emsal Ates Ozdemir, Istanbul Sehir University, Turkey
Kenan Dikilitaş, Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey

Professional development for in-service English language teachers has increasingly become a need in
higher education not only in Turkey but across the world. Due to the limited time teachers have and the
distance between the source of service and the potential participants, using digitized activities and materials
have naturally become a necessity. The purpose of this research is to report the potential impact of the
course described below and discuss the role of blended learning experience of professional development
on the participating teachers. The theoretical background of the study is experiential learning initiated
by Kolb and socio-constructivist learning theory by Vygotsky in that both theories highlight the role of
experiencing the change and focus on personal meanings and learning with and from others in real and
online environments.


Chapter 8
Introducing Educational Technology into the Higher Education Environment: A Professional
Development Framework..................................................................................................................... 126
Linda Van Ryneveld, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Over the past decade or two advancements in educational technology have taken place so swiftly that
it threatens to revolutionise the education system. This phenomena seem to drive higher education
institutions to respond with costly roll out plans that bring state of the art computing hard- and software,
together with other highly specialized educational technologies, to their campuses. The dilemma is
that these investments in educational technology are often made in isolation, without consideration for
imperative aspects such as professional development. To progress, educators need to acquire the skills,
knowledge and attitudes necessary to make optimal use of the technology. This can be achieved, among
other, by means of well-structured professional development programmes. In this chapter the author
explores the role of educational technology in higher education and establishes the need for capacity
building by means of carefully designed professional development programmes. It furthermore suggests
an alternative professional development framework.

Chapter 9
Supporting the Enactment of Standards-based Mathematics Pedagogies: The Cases of the CoDE-I
and APLUS Projects............................................................................................................................ 137
Drew Polly, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Christie Martin, University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA
Chuang Wang, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
Richard Lambert, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
David Pugalee, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

In order for professional development in the STEM fields to be effective, teachers need worthwhile
experiences to simultaneously develop their knowledge of content, pedagogy, and understanding of how
students’ learn the content. In this chapter we provide an overarching framework of learner-centered
professional development and describe the implementation of two mathematics professional development
projects designed to support elementary school teachers’ mathematics teaching. We follow our description
by highlighting some of the findings from our line of professional development research and provide
implications for the design of learner-centered professional development programs in mathematics.

Chapter 10
Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers Related to the Use of English in
Their Professional Settings: A Case from Northern Iraq..................................................................... 149
Ece Zehir Topkaya, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
İbrahim Nişancı, Ishik University, Iraq

This study primarily explores the target needs of subject teachers from various disciplines who are all
non-native speakers of English and enrolled in a training program preparing them to teach their subjects
in English. Secondarily, it looks into the key stakeholders’ evaluation of the program to understand its
effectiveness to meet the needs of the teachers. For the first question, key stakeholders were interviewed to
identify the needs, wants, and lacks of the teachers based on Hutchinson and Water’s (1987) needs analysis
 

framework. Then, the pooled items were converted into a questionnaire which was administered to the
teachers in the program. To investigate the second question, open-ended questions and semi-structured
interviews were used. Findings revealed that participants were in need of developing productive language
skills while they reported satisfaction over the program. It is concluded that a more specifically tailored
course both in terms of content and practice is needed.

Chapter 11
Impact of a Professional Development Programme on Trainee Teachers’ Beliefs and Teaching
Practices............................................................................................................................................... 176
Yasemin Kırkgöz, Cukurova University, Turkey

This study emerged from the concerns experienced by the last-year English language trainee teachers
during their school practicum. An increasing number of trainees complained that their existing beliefs
conflicted, in many ways, with the school-based mentor’s teaching practice. A collaborative action
research (CAR) professional development programme (PDP) was established to help prospective
teachers resolve many of the dilemmas and improve their classroom practices in a 10-week practicum
course. It was found that CAR has a powerful impact upon teacher candidates as it solves many of the
dilemmas and concerns. Belief changes of one trainee teacher are presented as an exemplary case. While
such findings can improve our understandings of pre-service teachers’ cognitive learning and problem
solving skills at the practicum site, they also generate useful insights into designing a PDP to promote
trainee teachers’ school-based professional development in STEM (science, technology, engineering,
and mathematic) education.

Chapter 12
Prospective EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of Using CALL in the Classroom........................................ 195
Anıl Rakicioglu-Soylemez, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Sedat Akayoglu, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey

The study focuses on prospective English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ perspectives on the use
of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) resources in teaching English as a foreign language
context. In addition to examining prospective teachers’ perceptions, the similarities and differences in
their perceptions and factors affecting their beliefs about using CALL resources will be addressed. The
study aimed to identify the prospective EFL teachers’ perceptions of their existing skills to integrate
CALL into their future professional practices. The perceived factors that will facilitate and inhibit their
future teaching practices by using CALL resources and their expectations from the teacher education
program in terms of providing the necessary training to use CALL resources in their teaching practices
were examined. The perceived benefits and challenges of using CALL in EFL teaching contexts will
be addressed from the participants’ perspectives. Finally, the study provides implications for further
research in addition to recommendations for EFL teacher education programs.


Chapter 13
The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection on their Instructional Practices................................ 209
Yesim Kesli Dollar, Bahcesehir University, Turkey
Enisa Mede, Bahcesehir University, Turkey

This chapter aims to investigate the impact of reflection on freshmen pre-service English teachers’
classroom practices. Specifically, it explores how the participating student teachers’ perceptions influenced
their instructional practices as a result of participation in reflection activities. The participants of the
study were ten freshmen student teachers enrolled in the English Language Teaching undergraduate
program at a foundation (non-profit private) university in Turkey. Data came from the reflections of the
participating student teachers about their recently-completed 15-hour field-based experience at the pre-
school level. As a part of this class reflection activity, the participants were prompted to keep a diary
in one of their undergraduate courses and respond to a series of statements or questions related to their
classroom observation tasks. They were also engaged in class discussions and were required to write
their overall feedback based on their field-based experience. The findings of the study revealed that
reflective activities helped the prospective student teachers identify their strengths and weaknesses related
to classroom activities, use of materials (use of technology and visuals) and classroom management,
leading to self-awareness about their understanding and application of teaching skills and strategies.

Chapter 14
Exploring Prospective EFL Teachers’ Beliefs about Teachers and Teaching through Metaphor
Analysis................................................................................................................................................ 220
Anil Rakicioglu-Soylemez, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Ayse Selmin Soylemez, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Amanda Yesilbursa, Uludag University, Turkey

This study aimed to explore prospective EFL teachers’ metaphors of “teachers, teaching” and “being a
prospective EFL teacher” at the beginning and end of a ten-week practicum course. A total of 110 Turkish
prospective EFL teachers voluntarily participated in the study. Data were collected by means of semi-
structured interviews and metaphor-elicitation forms. Results lead to three major conclusions. First, the
participants’ prior beliefs about the role of an EFL teacher and teaching were affected by their previous
experiences as language learners. Second, although the content analysis of the metaphors revealed a
limited change throughout the practicum experience, the analysis of the interviews showed the dynamic
nature of beliefs held by the prospective teachers. Finally, data analysis of the interviews showed that
the variation in beliefs and practices mainly derived from individual experiences with the mentoring
practices of the cooperating teachers and the socio-professional context of the practicum school.

Related References............................................................................................................................. 238

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 279

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 305

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 310
xiv

Preface

Professional development (PD) is a growing area within the field of STEM. There is increasing need for
STEM teachers’ professional development activities in higher education across the world. Effective PD
that serves for effective teacher learning in the long term requires cognitive, knowledge and practical
development simultaneously. To this end, constructive, socio-constructive, and interactive approaches
to PD are documented in this book in a way to show how teachers develop and are likely to change for
better instruction and student learning. In this sense, the professional development strategies that teachers
are involved in should reflect cognitive, constructive, interactive, thought-provoking and argumentative
aspects of development. The major mission of this book is to bring together implementations of effective
professional development strategies including those that are trainee-based and process-oriented, which
extends the amounts of cognitive engagement and lead to concurrent cognitive and behavioral changes in
teachers from the field of STEM education. However, the impact of various types of PD activities across
the world needs more extensively documentation. The chapters in this book focus on the description,
implementation and impact of PD strategies on the participating teachers and highlight several charac-
teristics of trainees who are intrinsically motivated to develop and change personally and professionally.

Teachers’ Professional Development and Learners

PD has been one of the critical areas in education sector in relation to teacher learning and develop-
ment particularly at higher education level. The importance attached to PD increases as students profile
is changing towards one that encompasses more in-depth capabilities enabled through multifaceted
educational tools particularly thanks to the developing digital facilities connected through information
exchange and sharing technology. This incremental and exponential change in student profiles necessitates
developmental pedagogical growth in teachers who can address these shifted and increased students’
learning potential. This book showcases these efforts for teachers’ professional development across the
world from a wide range of specific contexts.
In line with these development on the part of student profiles, the nature of PD is also changing from
top down approach, which is externally governed to bottom up approach, which is internally initiated or
individually managed over a course of period. The latter is introduced as a more contemporary approach
in that it leads to more self-control over PD and more relevance to personal needs for own learning and
development. These two basic approaches serve for different purposes. The former addresses short term



Preface

needs for discrete skill learning based on preset learning outcomes, while the latter addresses long term
needs based on development personally identified which required cognitive processing of what is learnt.
Knowledge generated in this way might lead to more permanent learning and developing ownership of
self-constructed knowledge. Learners are the primary beneficiaries as opposed to actors and learning is
the ultimate process that needs promoting through the impact of PD participation.

Professional Development Methods and Strategies

Several different methods and strategies are employed to promote teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and
skills which could play a key role in enhancing students’ learning and promoting school development,
which in turn contribute to socio-intellectual progress. In general there are two general paradigms to
the concept of professional development. One is the top-down models which are planned, designed and
delivered by those parties who are not going to benefit directly from the intervention namely decision
makers such as administrators or coordinators. The other is bottom up models which prioritize those
who will benefit from the interventions, namely the teachers. In the latter teachers are given the control
of their own professional development with little or minimized interference from others such as trainers,
supervisors or mentors. Teachers’ own needs and ideas are centralized in these models, thus helping
them sustain their professional development with an intrinsic motivation which includes a purpose to
fulfil or a benefit to make at the end. On the other hand, the former may not be addressing and cover-
ing teachers own needs and understanding, thus leading to little or no positive impact at the end of the
engagement in the activities.
Most PD models require principles of bottom-up paradigm, which is supported by top-down re-
sources. This clarifies the role of each party. Teachers’ role has shifted from the recipient of knowledge
to constructor of it, which has also changed PD providers’ role from source of knowledge to supporters
of personal and social knowledge construction. However, it should be noted that top down models are
not completely ignored but are changing in nature. When top down decisions are taken in relation to
the needs of the teachers, and the guidance and control of the training process is shared democratically,
where teachers also play key roles in learning new knowledge and skills, then top down models are not
to be harshly criticized. Similarly, bottom up models may also bring about failure in creating efficient
impact and results if the participants are totally given the control of the training process. First, it could
be because trainees or teachers may not possess the skills and knowledge to decide properly on exact
PD procedures to be followed. Second, general organization of PD can be evaluated and developed on
the basis of the expert input and perspective without any relevance to the actually needs of the trainees.
It is then clear that two models should go hand in hand to ensure quality of PD and clear and observable
influence of the participants.

Scope of Professional Development

In the light of the discussion hitherto, it is necessary to consider a set of nine standards that all professional
development should follow which were highlighted by The National Staff Development Council (2007):
content knowledge and quality teaching, research-basis, collaboration, diverse learning needs, student
learning environments, family involvement, evaluation, data-driven design, and teacher learning. This

xv
 Preface

set of standards shows that professional development is a social activity that involves full participation
and consideration of a wide range of parties from researchers to families of students. It is this integrity
that could lead to greater learning on the part of the person who is doing professional development.
PD is no more an exception but a necessity. However, it should be well-resourced and supported in
terms of money, time, incentive, and support. It is the institution that could provide all these conditions
by offering finance and guidance. Therefore, the context where PD is carried out plays a major role in the
continuation of professional learning opportunities. PD could empower and influence teachers, learners,
and the schools positively when teachers’ efforts are appreciated and considered in future decisions of
curriculum, syllabus and appointment, which could lead to more motivation to do professional learning
on the part of teachers.

Overview of Chapters

The future of PD seems brighter than it is today particularly because so many research studies are being
carried out and disseminated which richly delineate and critically evaluate and insightfully synthesize
the professional development activities in a wide range of disciplines. The chapters in this book are
also adding to that increasing number of publication. This book is a collection of studies carried out in
diverse contexts and contents including science, math, education, engineering, technology. It also en-
compasses theoretical research studies from pre-service and in-service levels, which helps see the status
of professional development from different layers of education for professional community. Professional
development of STEM teachers are also discussed and presented with special emphasis on theoretical
perspectives underlying these PD initiatives.
In the first chapter, Smith, Fulton, Irons, and Sanders elaborate on the major role that practice-base
doctorates, a new approach to promoting practice through project work, play in developing experienced
practitioners’ professional practice in STEM subjects. In the second chapter, Farland-Smith details how
to mentor girls in science drawing on eight case studies which involve content specialists and middle
school girls in order to provide implications for diverse roles of teachers and scientists in learning and
teaching science. In the third chapter, Martin, Polly, Wang, Lambert, and Pugalee describe and discuss a
mathematics professional development in order to report the potential impact of primary grades teachers’
online reflections over the internet-based formative assessment system on their fidelity of implemen-
tation. In the next chapter, Günel, Özer-Keskin and Keskin-Samancı delineate a paradigm shift in the
structure of in-service science and technology teachers’ professional development in Turkey by explicitly
focusing on how PD has been moving from instruction to learning through process-based approaches
with a view to affecting teacher learning. In the fifth chapter, Rogers, Winship, and Sun draw on social
constructivist and interactive approaches and describe an authentic and sustainable four-pillar professional
development model which provides systematic support for STEM pre-service teachers to promote K-12
students’ authentic STEM learning experience. In the following chapter, Dickenson and Montgomery
describes the critical role of teacher professional development in mathematics in developing relevant
instructional practices and teachers’ leadership skills. In chapter 7, Ateş Özdemir and Dikilitaş describe
a pedagogical technology-oriented professional development programme conducted with a group of in-
service teachers from different subjects and report short and long term impact that the programme had
on the participating teachers’ integration of technology into their classrooms and institutions.

xvi
Preface

In the next chapter, Van Ryneveld describes a professional development programme that involves
training educators to develop skills by which to use educational technologies especially for suggesting
how technology can be integrated effectively in higher education. Chapter 9 by Polly, Martin, Wang,
Lambert and Pugalee describes two learner-centered PD projects which aim to facilitate mathematics
teaching practices of elementary school teachers with an emphasis on the implications for PD program
designing, which is based on learner-centered PD in mathematics. Chapter 10 by Topkaya and Nişancı
involves an ESP context and identifies the target needs of non-native science and mathematics teachers
for the use of English in their professional /school settings. The data triangulated through interviews with
stakeholders in the programme revealed a critical need for developing training aiming for productive
skills. In the next chapter, Kırkgöz describes and discusses potential impact of a collaborative action
research professional development programme on the change in the pre-service teachers’ beliefs and
teaching practices with special emphasis on implications for school-based professional development. In
chapter 12, Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez and Akay investigate prospective EFL teachers’ perceptions of using
CALL in the classroom to identify perceived benefits and challenges which facilitate and inhibit future
teaching practices with reference to the implications for professional development and EFL teacher edu-
cation programs. Chapter 13 written by Mede-Saban and Keşli-Dollar describes the possible effects of
reflection-based teacher development activities such as diary keeping on pre-service teachers’ perceived
instructional practices, self-awareness and strategy implementation. In chapter 14 Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez,
Söylemez, and Yeşilbursa analyze pre-service EFL teachers’ metaphors to explore their beliefs about
teachers and teaching and the potential sources of impact in the prospective teachers’ beliefs and prac-
tices in order to draw implications for identifying areas of improvement for professional development.
Overall, this edited volume brings together detailed descriptions and experiences of constructive,
socio-constructive and interactive approaches to PD and offers a diverse collection of chapters from
different STEM subjects including education and provides potential impact areas on trainees and im-
plications drawn for trainees and trainers. It is my hope that academicians, researchers, advanced-level
students (MA and Ph.D), and technology developers will find this book beneficial and contributing to
their PD engagement in relevant topics in STEM subjects and education.

Kenan Dikilitaş
Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey

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xviii
 1

Chapter 1
The Role of the Professional
Doctorate in Developing
Professional Practice
in STEM Subjects
Peter Smith Alastair Irons
University of Sunderland, UK University of Sunderland, UK

John Fulton Gail Sanders

University of Sunderland, UK University of Sunderland, UK

ABSTRACT
This chapter presents a study into the impact of the professional doctorate as a learning opportunity for
STEM professionals including engineers, pharmacists, nurses, STEM teachers, healthcare profession-
als, and computing professionals. The professional doctorate is a relatively new approach to doctoral
study, which has much to offer to STEM. This form of doctoral study encourages the candidate to un-
dertake project work which is based in, and contributes to, their professional practice. The candidates
are experienced practitioners, who wish to raise their practice to doctoral level. This chapter presents
a mixed methods study, which has collected and analyzed quantitative data obtained from a survey,
qualitative data obtained from focus group sessions, and in-depth narrative accounts. Analysis of these
data revealed a number of themes including the importance of trans-professional working, reflection,
and development of “authentic” professional voice.

INTRODUCTION

Recent years have seen the emergence of professional doctorate programmes in many subjects, including
STEM subjects (UKCGE, 2010). A professional doctorate offers experienced candidates an alternative
to the traditional PhD, which has been designed to meet the requirements of practitioners (Lester, 2004).
Such doctorates offer the opportunity to study part-time on a work-based project, which applies research
methodology and rigor to the solution of a problem which is of relevance to the candidate, their organisa-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch001

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

tion and their community of practice. The programme will also often aim to develop within the candidate
the skills of self-reflection, reflexivity and criticality. This form of doctorate satisfies the demand for
programmes which equip graduates with high-level transferable skills which meet employer requirements
and market demand (Guthrie, 2009). Those studying on professional doctorate programmes are senior
professionals, and exposure to these individuals provides academics with welcome links to industry,
creating important new opportunities for knowledge transfer and providing opportunities for students
and their supervisors to engage in research projects which have demonstrable impact on professional
practice as studied by Hadacek & Carpenter (1998), who examined the impact of nursing doctorates.
Previous studies by Lester (2004), Taylor (2007) and Costley & Stephenson (2005) explored the
balance between the workplace and academia, the concept of the “researching professional” and the
concept of the doctoral level practitioner. This chapter reports on the authors’ experiences of running
a professional doctorate and extends a previous study of student motivations for, and expectations of a
professional doctorate programme (Smith, Curtis, Sanders, Kuit, & Fulton, 2011). The chapter presents
a mixed research methods approach, including a questionnaire, focus groups and narrative accounts,
which involved more than 50 students at different stages of doctoral study. This chapter outlines the key
themes which have emerged from the authors’ reflections on the study, and presents some lessons learned
which the authors believe will be of use to those who are running, or considering running, professional
doctorate programmes within STEM subjects.

BACKGROUND

This chapter presents a case study of one Professional Doctorate programme. The Professional Doctor-
ate (DProf) scheme under study has been running since 2007, and currently has over 70 students drawn
from a range of professional backgrounds (Smith et al., 2011). The scheme was designed to meet the
growing demand for a doctoral level qualification which enables candidates from business, industry and
the professions to build an individual research programme based upon work which they are undertaking
within the workplace (Smith, Walker-Gleaves, Fulton, & Candlish, 2009a; Smith et al., 2011).
The scheme enables a student to build up a doctoral submission based on a study situated within
their own workplace. The candidate is required to undertake formal assessed coursework in the areas of
reflective practice, research methodology and contextualization and planning, and to ultimately produce
a doctoral thesis which demonstrates the contribution made to knowledge and the impact which they
have made on their profession.
Each student is supported by two internal supervisors. The students follow similar enrolment, reg-
istration and annual monitoring processes as are followed by MPhil and PhD students. The students
on the programme came from a variety of professional backgrounds, covering several STEM subjects.
They include:

• Senior pharmacists, working on a variety of projects relating to professional pharmacy practice,

• Senior engineering and computing staff working on projects involving the acceptance and applica-
tion of technology, and,
• Senior managers from business and finance; working on projects which involve the management
of significant change within their professional context.

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

The concept of a cohort has been integral to the operation and success of the programme (Smith
et al., 2009a; Smith, Walker-Gleaves, Fulton, & Candlish, 2009b; Smith et al., 2011) and each cohort
has come together with core staff from the programme every two months for formal learning sessions.
These sessions have delivered key material on reflective practice, and research methodology. They have
also given the candidates the opportunity to discuss their project work with their peers and to offer each
other support.
Most of the current students are based in the UK, with some students coming from Ireland. All
students meet current admissions requirements; at least an upper second class honours degree, Masters
degree, or equivalent. All students are required to be working within their profession and, through their
job; they must have the opportunity to make a contribution to their profession and to practice.
The programme aims are (Smith et al., 2011):

• Develop students as reflective practitioners to enhance their professional practice and enable them
to innovate, and make informed judgements.
• Develop within students the ability to synthesize ideas, concepts and approaches from their pro-
fession with relevant theoretical frameworks to create solutions, drive change, innovate and make
a difference within their workplace
• Develop within students the ability to select appropriate research approaches from a range of
research methods and to apply these to issues and dilemmas which they encounter in their own
professional practice, and hence by doing so making a contribution to the practice within their
profession
• Provide opportunities for personal fulfilment, professional development and career enhancement.

METHODOLOGY

The authors have undertaken a series of studies of the students of the programme and have reflected
upon their own experiences to date in running the programme (Smith et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2011; Sand-
ers, Kuit, Smith, Fulton, & Curtis, 2011; Sanders, Kuit, Smith, & Fulton, 2012; Fulton, Kuit, Sanders, &
Smith, 2012a; 2012b; Thompson, Smith, & Cooper, 2012). This chapter presents a mixed methods study
incorporating a survey, student focus groups and narrative accounts from tutors and students. The aim
of the study was to explore student and tutor perceptions of the doctoral programme, in order to better
understand student motivation, the impact which the programme has on students, to identify common
themes and to use these themes as a basis for future development. The evaluation framework was based
on the use of mixed methods for expansion; to “increase the scope of inquiry by selecting the methods
most appropriate for multiple inquiry components” (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham, 1989).
For the survey, an online questionnaire was set up and all students on the DProf programme were
asked to complete it. The questions were designed to explore the perceptions and expectations that the
students had of the doctoral programme. In this study, 54% of students choose to complete the survey.
In addition to the questionnaire, four focus group sessions were held with 6-10 students in each group.
These were used to further explore some of the themes which emerged from the questionnaire. Finally,
students and tutors were asked to write narrative accounts of these experiences. The authors analyzed
the data from the survey, the focus groups and the narrative accounts, identifying a number of themes,
using the thematic analysis approach of Fereday & Muir-Cochrane (2008) which recommends a hybrid

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development, taking themes both from the data
and from the literature. The data were coded by two of the authors working individually; the results were
then compared and discussed and the final themes agreed by all authors.

THE IMPACT OF PROFESSIONAL DOCTORATE STUDY ON STEM STUDENTS

Themes

The authors have identified the following themes through their analysis:

• Cohort experience.
• Structure and academic support.
• Personal impact.
• Mixed employer perceptions.
• Reflective practice.
• Personal and professional values
• Professional identity, authenticity and personal voice.
• Trans-professional working.

The Survey

In the quantitative survey students were asked as series of questions about why they chose to study on the
doctoral programme. The students were given the following choices (and could choose as many as they
wished): (a) for personal achievement, (b) to achieve the qualification, (c) for career development and (d)
for professional / subject interest. The highest response to this question was (a) for personal achievement
(80% of respondents), with the next most popular choice being (d) professional / subject interest (67%).
The other options scored thus: (b) to achieve the qualification (37%) and (c) career development (40%).
The students were also asked about the impact that the programme had upon themselves, and were
given the following choices: (a) do you think more critically? (b) Do you understand theory more deeply?;
(c) do you understand professional issues more deeply?; (d) do you approach your practice differently?;
and (e) do you use reflective practice in your work? 68% of students felt that they thought more criti-
cally as a direct result of studying on the programme, 71% felt that they understood relevant theory more
deeply, and 50% felt that they understood professional issues more deeply. All of the students recognised
that studying on the programme had made a difference in the way that they approached their professional
practice. 93% stated that they had begun to use reflective practice within their work context. Full details
of the survey, the questions asked and the results can be found in Smith et al. (2011).

Focus Groups

Qualitative responses were obtained from focus group discussion. What came of them was that students
greatly valued the cohort experience, and the way in which they were able to interact in a safe environment
with professionals from other backgrounds. They also welcomed the structured nature of the programme,
and found the days away from work a welcome escape from their busy professional environments, in

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

which they could think and discuss their professional issues with tutors and peers. The deadlines for
coursework were also seen to be a positive aspect, and something which they were all used to working to
within their own work context. The personal impact of the programme and the way in which it enabled
them to explore, and hence better understand their own professional issues, also came out strongly from
the responses. Finally the students clearly greatly valued their interaction within academic tutors, and
the different lenses through which they could view their work issues.
Some quotations taken from the focus groups and from the survey are given below:

A Professional Doctorate best fits with my learning journey, and allows me to explore professional issues.

The Programme provides me with flexibility, and yet a structured programme.

It provides the opportunity to site my project within the workplace, the freedom to work at my own pace;
experiencing alternative ways of studying.

I greatly appreciate the support provided by the academic staff, and meeting up with the other students
in the cohort, as we spur each other on.

I enjoy the interaction with a cohort of people from different disciplines and seeing how common themes
emerge even from quite disparate areas.

The programme recognizes that applied industrial based research is a valid as pure academic traditional
PhD research.

This process has helped me to make sense of my working life. It gives me a sense of achievement and
maintains my interest in the sector I work in.

It has improved my ability to think critically and raised my self-confidence to a very high degree. And I am
still very excited about what I am doing. I am developing the ability to think more critically and deeply.

There is a consistent focus on the need for your thoughts and emerging work to make a contribution to
your profession. This is really important as I feel strongly that what I am doing should and must have a
real impact on my profession and this doctorate facilitates this. I am thoroughly enjoying the programme
and really gaining a significant body of knowledge and personal professional development.

The Programme has made me review my career in a structured way; and has allowed me to see my
career contribution in a new light.

Narrative Accounts

Tutors and students were asked to write narrative accounts, reflecting on the impact which the Profes-
sional Doctorate has had upon them. Three accounts are reproduced here, as they were provided by the
respondents. These are:

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

• A Programme Leader,
• A health scientist reflecting on Professional Doctorates in health within the UK, and
• An engineering academic reflecting on undertaking a Professional Doctorate.

In addition a series of extracts from student narrative accounts are included at the end of this section.

Programme Leader’s Reflections

One of the aims of the Professional Doctorate is to encourage candidates to adopt fresh approaches to
work issues and consider the workplace through what we describe as a ‘fresh lens’. We introduce them
to the idea that often solutions to problems within a profession can be found outside the boundaries of
that profession, and we encourage them to explore different disciplines and working environments. We
are assisted in this by the fact that our candidates are from a wide range of backgrounds, and all have
considerable experience within their particular profession, many having already made a significant
contribution to their field. As such, they bring with them a wealth of knowledge and experience that
we seek to utilize and share within each cohort. However, this fact also brings with it problems for the
type of transformational learning that we are trying to achieve with our programme. Profession-specific
training and education helps to prepare individuals for their chosen field by equipping them with the
requisite knowledge and skills that make them competent to practice. Throughout our post compulsory
educational system the focus is on discipline-specific knowledge, with little if any time devoted to in-
terdisciplinary or trans-disciplinary working. The disadvantage of this level of expertise is the potential
for what Baumard has termed ‘territorialisation’ (Baumard, 1999). That is, an individual’s knowledge
and therefore their strategic approach to their professional practice is bounded by the cognitive map
that they have created within that context, which can be a barrier to the creation of new knowledge in
different situations. In effect the learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) is orbited so many times that the patterns
and processes of thought become fixed and can cause problems with the systematic acquisition of new
knowledge which is required of a professional student.
This issue of territorialisation is perhaps a greater problem in the modern world than ever before;
few professionals will escape the impact of change over the course of their career. This could happen
gradually over time, for example in the case of engineering, which typically is associated with techni-
cal problem-solving and construction based on specialized knowledge, but is changing in nature due
to the advancements in technology (Olesen, 2001); or radically through political intervention. A par-
ticular driver for change is the trend for interprofessional working, seen most powerfully in the public
service professions. For example, since 2000 the National Health Service in the UK has been adopting
a modernization agenda, which is demanding more interdisciplinary working and the development of
new roles and initiatives demanding that staff cross traditional professional boundaries (Department of
Health, 2000, 2001, 2004).
This has informed our approach to the Professional Doctorate. We have developed a model to facilitate
the development of our candidates as reflective practitioners, who can work across territorial boundaries
of knowledge and seek solutions to problems from outside their established professional field (Sanders,
2010; Sanders et al., 2011) using techniques such as storytelling, metaphor and critical incident technique

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

to help them break free of the ‘mental grooves’ (Thera, 1997, cited in Weick & Sutcliffe, 2006) that can
often constrain their development as professional learners. The programme is underpinned by a module
of Reflective Practice through which we start the process of development of enhanced reflexivity through
activities that engage candidates in interprofessional dialogues and critical enquiry.
One of the key problems that we have found since the programme started more than seven years
ago is that many of our professionals have great difficulty in being properly reflective because lack an
ability to see alternative perspectives; it seems that their strength is also their weakness; the depth of
their knowledge about their own profession seems to form a barrier to understanding and empathizing
with others, and creates a resistance to new learning. Atherton (1999) has found that such resistance to
learning in professional learners is symptomatic of a situation where the learning is ‘supplantive’ rather
than ‘additive’, i.e. where we are trying to change existing knowledge systems. The greater the emotional
investment in beliefs or practices, the greater the disturbance caused by efforts to change them; it is not
unreasonable to assume that our professional learners, because of their expertise and success, have a
strong investment in the practices that have been successful for them, and our efforts to challenge these
create a significant destabilization for them. The management of de-stabilization is the most difficult
and most strongly-resisted stage of the whole process.
The extent of expert knowledge possessed by the candidates can also create tensions with supervi-
sors. This reflects the work of Malfoy (2005) who has argued that tensions can in part be attributed to
the retention of traditional supervisory practices that are largely unsuitable for professional doctorate
students, suggesting that some of these tensions can be dissipated by ‘opening up’ supervisory practices
into a more collaborative learning environment, creating a strong sense of community of researchers.
As with a traditional PhD student, one of the key areas where academic staff can most influence the
candidate is in term of providing academic rigor and research design and there is an expectation from
the professional candidates that is what the academic supervisor is supposed to be doing. Unlike a tra-
ditional PhD student, the advantage that the professional doctorate candidate has over the supervisor is
that the subject expertise has already been acquired by the candidate and they are, in this respect, more
knowledgeable than their supervisor (Taylor, 2007). The main role of the supervisor therefore becomes
to advise on how to locate the practitioner knowledge in the academic literature and on how to develop
it so that it becomes more ‘transdisciplinary and transprofessional’ (p21, Fell, Flint and Haines, 2011).
The success of the supervisory relationship depends a great deal on managing what Atherton (1999)
calls ‘representation’, i.e. what the supervisor represents to the student. This is focused on personal
credibility - professional students may frequently question if supervisors have direct experience of what
they are talking about, and whether they understand the real-life difficulties a practitioner faces on a
day to day basis. Atherton argues that what the academic represents is more important than his or her
technical competence as a tutor.
We have found that developing new ways of thinking and supporting candidates to view their profes-
sional world through a fresh lens can be a difficult and daunting process for many of our students, and for
some academics the shift from a purely discipline-based model of delivery is equally daunting. Despite
these issues the programme has been extremely successful – commended in an independent review of
the university’s postgraduate research degree programmes in 2012, with a recommendation that our
more traditional PhDs adopt some of the principles upon which our Professional Doctorate is based.

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

A Health Scientist Reflects on Professional Doctorates in Health Subjects

Many people from health backgrounds are attracted to the concept of professional doctorates. The strong
NHS (UK National Health Service) focus on the development of practice makes the professional doctor-
ate very attractive to healthcare staff. The professional doctorate provides the opportunity to provide a
rigorous structured approach to the development of practice and allows a contextualization against the
academic literature. It also necessitates a methodological framework which ensures rigor and consistency
in the development of practice. While interdisciplinary working is well established in the NHS, many
health care professional still retain a strong professional identity. Interestingly, when they reflect on
their work and its development they often see that the community of practice is actually a very different
group. For example, one senior nurse with a high professional profile, on examination and reflection
actually found her community of practice was an interdisciplinary group of quality assurance managers.
The professional doctorate attracts arrange of healthcare professions from all professions and from
people at all stages in the career. However, in our experience there are three broad groups. This is similar
to that as described by Costley and Lester (2010) in that there are three broad groups of candidates, and
these groupings transcend any professional group.
The commonest and are therefore the largest group are and are developing a particular area of practice
mid-career professionals who have undertaken a series of usually small scale projects, usually developing
a specific area of practice and see the professional doctorate as a way of further developing their work.
The particular challenges lies in identifying the particular theme which runs through what is often a
series of disparate projects, and also to identify their community of practice.
An example of this is one candidate who is a senior nurse and had in the course of her career, un-
dertaken a series of practice development projects. As her career progressed these projects became
increasing sophisticated, the professional doctorate allowed the opportunity to reflect and examine this
work and establish the clear themes which ran throughout. One clear issue which emerged was the need
for a structured framework against which the practice developments could be assessed. This led her to
establish further initiatives and thereby develop a model of practice development.
A less common scenario is the early career professional who comes with a project they wish to develop
and in many ways this is not dissimilar to the PhD, although as it is a professional doctorate there must
be strong practice focus present in the research. An example of one of our candidates who worked on
such an approach was (again) a nurse working at strategic level, building on previous work, she explored
models of work force planning and demonstrated the ways in which a rigorous and systematic approach
could lead to better outcomes, in terms of the overall patient experience.
The last group are people who have retired or are at the end of their career, they have an impressive
body of work which they put together in a portfolio accompanied by a commentary which indicates
their contribution to practice. An example of this is one candidate who is a health professional, who
although not at the end of her career had a well-established position at a national strategic level. She had
both influenced and been involved in the formulation of national policies, and also in their evolution.
Her work involved the compilation of a portfolio illustrating the variety of initiatives and demonstrating
how her work had affected policy.
One thing which all of the approaches undertaken in the professional doctorate have in common was
that they all had an effect on patient care and were about improving the patient experience. No matter
how seemingly removed from patient care, without exemption there was a demonstrable impact on patient

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

care. Again, many of the initiatives are context specific but through the dissemination to the health com-
munity it allows people to examine the initiatives and reflect on the applicability to their practice. Many
of our candidates have had acknowledgement of their work around the ways in which it has stimulated
development across arrange of settings.
No account of the health service would be complete without acknowledgement of re-organisation
which takes place with increasing frequency. In practice this means many people changing their jobs and
while this neither may nor may not be positive experiences, it does have implications for the professional
doctorate. It means many projects coming to an end and an interesting and well developed project com-
ing to sudden and abrupt halt. Most respond well to the challenge and refocus, one lesson many learn
is it is not the actual project which is the focus and centrality of the doctorate but the underlying theme
which can be continued albeit in another form.

An Engineering Academic Reflects on Undertaking a Professional Doctorate

This section is a brief reflection on the impact on my career and on my professional practice as a result
of completing my professional doctorate. In my doctorate I examined the ways in which formative
feedback could be used to enhance student learning in the STEM subjects – particularly in computing.
The professional doctorate has had a significant impact on my career, my academic practice in teaching
STEM subjects, my academic practice in the way that I provide feedback and the ways that I assess, my
standing in the academic community (both STEM community and Educational Development commu-
nity) and directly in the ways that I undertake supervision of my own professional doctorate students.
The main contribution to the body of knowledge that I presented from my professional doctorate was
a critical analysis of the Assessment for Learning (AfL) “movement” which had a strong momentum at
the time and to present different priorities in assessment and feedback to those presented by AfL. The
research undertaken in professional doctorate thesis showed that whilst students are concerned about
the feedback that they get as part of their learning there are also a number of problematic issues with the
provision of formative feedback in STEM learning environments. The evidence from my thesis suggested
that the link between formative feedback and student achievement is not as conclusive as suggested in
the AfL literature and is difficult to measure effectively.
Many of the issues associated with assessment and feedback have been raised in the wide body of
literature on assessment and feedback, but the research in my professional doctorate provided evidence
to suggest that the relationship between feedback and improved student learning was not straightforward.
The results from my case studies were unique in that the case studies were set in the Computing subject
area and very little of the AfL work up to that point had been done in Computing. The case studies
provided evidence which was different from the majority of mainstream views on the impact of feed-
back. As a result my findings were of interest to practitioners in Higher Education, STEM practitioners,
educational policy makers and students.
Output from my case studies suggested that students wanted generic skills feedback rather than
subject specific feedback or feedback that corrected mistakes (a practice found to be common in STEM
subjects). This finding contradicted one of the pillars from the AfL literature where it was suggested
that feedback should be subject specific. The rationale for students wanting academic skills development
feedback rather than subject specific feedback that came out of my professional doctorate was that this
was learning that they could carry forward and apply to their future learning and future assessments. In

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

adopting this model into my practice I have ensured that academic skills being developed through for-
mative feedback were linked to the next formative and / or summative assessment so as to give students
the opportunity to practice and develop their skills.
A number of dissemination opportunities have been undertaken in order to share the findings from
my professional doctorate including; a staff development book, 2 academic journal papers, 6 conference
presentations (including STEM conferences), a number of staff development workshops and 2 invitations
to visit overseas institutions and give workshops at the University of Southern Denmark, Odense, and
the University of Cape Town in South Africa. This has contributed to my academic standing and formed
the backbone to my submission in the recent Research Evaluation Framework (REF) activity where I
was submitted as part of the Education team in Unit 25. In addition the findings from my professional
doctorate have been included as paper of the curriculum on assessment on the Post Graduate Certificate
in Education (PG Cert) in my University and used as a series of case studies in the sessions that I deliver
on the PG Cert on assessment and feedback.
I am now in the fortunate position to be supervising a group (currently 4) professional doctorate
students and I am able to draw on my experience as a professional doctorate student to understand the
issues from a participant point of view. My experiences as a professional doctorate student have helped
shape the way that I supervise my students and the way that we (the “we” is used on purpose rather than
“I”) run their supervision sessions. I believe that I am more sympathetic, empathetic and understanding
than I would have been had I not undertaken a professional doctorate and been on the other side of the
supervisory relationship
I had a fairly “hairy” experience during my professional doctorate viva and I felt that the examiners
were not “playing fair”. The experience of my viva and subsequent discussion with the chair of the panel
and my supervisor ensured that my outlook on the examination process of the professional doctorate
focusses on being supportive. I always do everything I can in helping to prepare students for vivas, par-
ticipating as examiner in mock vivas (normally for professional doctorate students other than my own),
participating as internal examiner and when I am chairing professional doctorate viva examinations.
The professional doctorate has without doubt had a positive and significant impact on my career.
Undertaking my professional doctorate has led to a number of changes in my professional practice.
Academic aspects of my practice such as exam interventions, academic skills development and helping
students to understand feedback have been incorporated into my teaching. The doctorate has also been
good to have on my CV!
A further impact on my practice has been the opportunity to utilize the educational research principles
developed on the doctorate and apply them in a number of different educational settings. The processes
of evaluating activities and attempting to measure the impact of interventions have been adopted as part
of my continuing and ongoing reflection on my teaching practice.
Undertaking and completing the professional doctorate has made a difference to my professional ex-
pectations of what I should be doing in the workplace and how I should be approaching and undertaking
those tasks. In addition this has had a beneficial impact on my colleagues that I have been working with
and as a result my department, faculty and university. As I have been clearer in my expectations and have
been pushing myself to achieve my goals it has rubbed off on those around me and their performance,
effectiveness, professionalism, and I think their job satisfaction, has improved.
Perhaps the most significant impact from a personal point of view is that the work undertaken for my
professional doctorate contributed to me being awarded the recognition of a National Teaching Fellow-
ship form the Higher Education Academy. This has enhanced my standing in the academic community,

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

broadened my professional network (now a member of the Association of National Teaching Fellows)
and given me the funds to undertake innovative activities with my students that I wouldn’t normally
have the finance to do.

Individual Student Reflections

Below are some student reflections on their doctoral journey, taken from individual narrative accounts.

This has been a difficult journey; juxtaposing a full-time senior management career and personal family
commitments; whilst at the same time trying to mesh in a demanding academic and doctoral research
project. My knowledge and understanding of the subject, however, would not have been anywhere as near
developed had I not embarked on this programme of study. I feel a real sense of achievement in being
able to juggle so many demands and at the same time still managing to deliver the required outcomes
to timescale.

When I embarked on my part time PhD, I had no clear expectations other than I wanted to see if I could
achieve at this level of academic work. I had already undertaken several taught postgraduate courses.
However, reflecting on my journey in undertaking this research and the reading and theory that I have
covered.....I now realise that to get high quality work that I can be proud of is really (really) hard work
and that it isn’t enough to skim the literature.

I can honestly say that if my work resulted in a fail that, whilst I would naturally be disappointed, I could
walk away knowing that I have personally developed in a way that I never anticipated.

In practice, I feel it is important for you to know who you are and what drives you, and yet, it has only
been over the past three years that I have seen such clarity.

I am a great believer in learning by doing. The action learning nature of my doctorate enabled me to
gain a deep understanding of my subject.

I found the action research nature of my project to be particularly appropriate. I was exploring a topic
which was of interest to me, and of use to my work colleagues. Indeed they became part of my project,
which helped enormously in developing my skills of critical thinking, as they were always there ready
to question what I was doing.

Researching and writing up my research has provided an additional dimension to my work as I have
become more knowledgeable about past and current policy and I am able to relate it to theory and
academic literature.

The opportunity to study for a doctorate presented itself when I had just returned to work full time
after six months maternity leave and a year working part-time. On reflection, perhaps full time work,
a demanding toddler and a part-time doctorate were not an ideal combination but my employer was
willing to part-fund my doctoral studies and this was too good an opportunity to miss. On a personal
level, becoming a researcher has illuminated and given an added degree of purpose to my professional

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

role. It has provided me with the opportunity to reflect on my work with almost indecent introspection.
At times it has felt like an indulgence but the additional critical reflection and knowledge has impacted
crucially and I believe significantly on the continuing success of my work projects. Undertaking the
doctorate, the processes of reflection, the need for rigor, the collection of evidence critically and the
application of theory have all impacted directly upon my practice and delivered real benefits for my
work and my employer.

Discussion of the Themes

Each of these themes is discussed below.

Cohort experience. In general the students were very positive about working with a cohort of stu-
dents from different backgrounds, and felt that there was much to be gained from this experience. The
STEM students gained much from working alongside others who were not from a STEM background
and welcomed the different methodological and practitioner perspectives which this gave. They enjoyed
discussing work-based issues within a safe, supportive environment and often gained new insights from
fellow students who brought different theoretical models, and practices to bear on the issues which the
students were exploring for their doctoral studies. An element of competition developed within the cohort,
and the students motivated, supported and encouraged each other. When a student graduated there was
feeling of success for all, and group celebration of individual success became a very important aspect
of the programme.
Structure and academic support. A number of issues regarding the structure of the programme and
of the final doctoral submission were raised by the students. Although as busy professionals the students
required flexible delivery, they also welcomed some structure, looking forward to teaching sessions
and managing to reserve space for them within their work schedules. They also welcomed programme
deadlines, which encouraged them to develop sections of their doctoral submissions within specific time-
frames, a discipline and rigor which is often missing within a traditional PhD programme. The students
welcomed the regular, consistent and independent support from academic staff which they enjoyed; this
being provided by a much wider group of tutors than the more traditional student-supervisor model on
which a PhD is often based.
Personal impact. The students seemed to indicate that studying on the programme had made a big
impact upon their professional practice. This was evident from a range of students, including those who
were relatively new to the programme. The students reported that they saw quite significant changes
within their practice at work. They also reported much wider benefits as they increasingly introduced
new practices, models and theoretical perspectives to the workplace, having studied these within their
doctoral programme, or having learnt of them from other student practitioners.
Mixed employer perceptions. The students indicated a mix of employer reactions to, and perceptions
of, the programme. Some employers were very supportive, and provided tangible resources to the student,
including paying the fees for their doctoral programme. Others were much less supportive; some students
reported having to keep their studies almost secret, as their employers seem jealous and resentful of the
academic work which they were doing.
Reflective practice. One of the important elements of many professional doctorate programmes,
including the programme within this case study, is reflective practice. Students are required to reflect
upon their own practice in a formal manner, writing reflective essays discussing their own work based

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

issues. Students from some STEM disciplines such as nursing or teaching are used to applying the
principles of reflective practice within their work context. Others, including engineers and computer
scientists, find the subject very difficult and take some time to come to terms with thinking and writing
about themselves and their own practice. Reflective practice is almost alien to their training. In all cases,
however, the students ultimately see the benefits of reflective practice, and begin to apply it at work. One
manufacturing engineering student, after studying reflective practice for some time, said “I now realise
that reflective practice is just like engineering. As an engineer, I have been taught to reflect on what
went well, and what went wrong, and to learn from that. That is what reflective practice is all about.”
Personal and professional values. The programme and its focus and emphasis on reflection encour-
age the students to explore their own personal and professional values, and those of the organisations by
whom they are employed. This gives the student a much deeper understanding of that which they hold
important, what their profession expects of them, and what their employer expects of them. In many
cases, there is clear congruence within this. In other cases, however, the students identify a mismatch or
clash of values. In several instances this has led to the student questioning whether they can reconcile
the difference between their own values and those of their employer, and in some cases students have,
as a consequence, changed job.
Professional identity, authenticity and personal voice. The students strive to find their own “voice”
and to be more authentic in the way in which they practice. For some this is very natural. For others,
this can take some time to develop or emerge. By the end of the doctorate, the student will have a much
deeper understanding of what drives them personally and professionally, and is able to write, present
and discuss their work with their own “voice”.
Transprofessional working. Many of the students in the study had quite complex career histories and
had migrated away from their first disciplines to a greater or lesser extent. In their doctorates they made
use of this, reflecting back on their learning journey and building their experience into their doctoral
work. Their work was very practical and not simply confined to one discrete discipline as you would
normally find with a more traditional STEM PhD. They crossed professional boundaries and made a
contribution that was applicable to multi-professional working environments. It was this that gave many
of the candidates their motivation to do the professional doctorate. Some had previously considered do-
ing, or even tried to do, a PhD in a STEM discipline at some time in the past, but it was the opportunity
to utilize their professional knowledge and develop it further to make a real practical contribution that
made the professional doctorate a more appealing and ultimately successful option for them.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

This chapter has presented a case study of one professional doctorate programme which includes STEM
students. There is a need for further study of programmes and of the impact which those programmes
have upon graduates and their practice. In particular, little evidence exists, in qualitative or quantitative
terms, of the impact that professional doctorate graduates have upon their organisations and their wider
communities of practice. Intuitively, one would expect graduates to drive change within the workplace,
and to apply the methodological and theoretical perspectives which they have learnt within the doctorate.
This should, in turn, provide useful results for their organisations. However, the evidence of this does not

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The Role of the Professional Doctorate in Developing Professional Practice in STEM Subjects

yet exist; or rather, data to allow the assemblage of such evidence have not yet been collected. This is to
be expected, as professional doctorate programmes are a relatively new development. It is important that
such evidence, and case studies of impact, are collected, particularly as governments across the world
are now looking to fund research which provides real impact. Future research studies should focus on
this aspect of the professional doctorate.

CONCLUSION

This chapter has presented the results of a mixed methods case study of a professional doctorate pro-
gramme. Professional doctorate programmes are especially relevant to today’s STEM practitioners, in
that they equip graduates with methodological skills to use action research approaches to drive change
within their own organisation and their wider community of practice. Our study has identified a number
of themes which resonate with other similar studies (Costley & Stephenson, 2005; Lester, 2004), and
hold lessons for the further development of professional doctorate programmes. These themes are: cohort
experience, structure and academic support, personal transformation, employer perceptions, reflective
practice, personal and professional values, professional identity, authenticity and personal voice, and
transprofessional working.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Action Research: A research approach which involves iterations of practical action, followed by
reflection.
Doctorate: A higher degree obtained by research.
Professional Doctorate: A practice-based research degree.
Reflection: The action of thinking and analysing one’s actions in order to learn for the future.

16
 17

Chapter 2
Mentoring Girls in Science:
Eight Case Studies of a Science
Camp Experience

Donna Farland-Smith
The Ohio State University, USA

ABSTRACT:
Content area specialists (scientists) are often recruited as mentors of students to address issues in sci-
ence education. These scientists are frequently recruited to help with the teaching of science, however,
quite often do not have the pedagogy skills needed to be role models for young children. Guidance in the
selection appropriate mentors would help maximize the potential influence on students understanding of
who does science, where science is done and what scientists do. This study illustrates six case studies of
scientists as they worked with middle school girls and identifies five characteristics educators should look
for in selecting science mentors successful in broadening students’ perceptions of scientists. The data
was collected during ‘Side-by-Side’ interaction with scientists/mentors during a summer camp experi-
ence and has implications for classroom practice as the use of mentors can be structured to support the
infusion of Science as a Human Endeavor. As the students’ experiences with mentor scientists helped to
shape their perception of those who pursue careers in science and what it is that scientists do, careful
consideration and preparation of mentors were critical to the success of the program, and so this paper
also provides suggestions to help highly trained and highly educated scientists in these mentorship roles.

INTRODUCTION

Without clear boundaries or definitions of the characteristics of science content specialists who will likely
be successful in the classroom, all scientists may be welcomed. Recently, President Barack Obama, in
the National Math and Science Initiative, requested that scientists do their part in helping young students
achieve better grades in science by occasionally visiting school classrooms. However, the indiscriminate
use of visiting scientists should be cautioned, because all scientists don’t necessarily make teachers.
Classroom teachers are limited by time and responsibility. They must attend to day-to-day issues
while worrying about meeting instructional standards and the requirements of end-of-course tests. As a
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch002

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Mentoring Girls in Science

result, classroom teachers need guidance in working with appropriate science content specialists for their
students. As this will maximize the potential influence mentor scientists have on students’ understanding
of who does science, where science is done, and what scientists do. This paper explores the approaches
of content specialists when working with middle school girls and suggests as to how scientists should
be prepared to serve in these mentorship roles.

Literature Review

Reform in science education has always been a top priority for science educators and an interest of the
Obama presidential administration. Recruitment and retention of students are the two main areas targeted
for reform, because many students who initially display an interest in science do not remain in science
fields. As more students choose to pursue interests unrelated to science, there is growing concern about
attracting future scientists, especially females, in the United States. The lack of female scientists has been
a concern in the science and science-education fields for some time, as women are under-represented in
the profession (Buck et al., 2007). Professional scientists interacting with students in a formal, classroom
setting is often suggested as a possible solution. Yet this approach remains under-researched from the
perspective of the classroom teacher and the benefit students derive from interacting with a scientist.
The research on visiting-scientist programs is built on the assumption that a scientist in the classroom
will benefit children’s perceptions of who scientists are and the work they do. Bozdin and Gerhinger
(2001) and Flick (1990) reported that visits from scientists in classrooms resulted in a decrease in many
stereotypical beliefs about scientists, indicating that children’s images of scientists can indeed be influ-
enced by a visit from a scientist. However, it cannot be assumed that these relationships are successful
in every classroom.
While much is known about mentoring new teachers in science, the research concerning scientist
mentoring individual students remains unexamined. A science camp was selected as the context for
this study, as it has been established that it is successful in establishing a transformative experience for
young female students, broadening their perceptions about scientists (Author, 2009). The data collected
over the last four years appears to be enough to start guiding educators towards selecting, preparing, and
maintaining successful interactions between middle-school girls and working scientists.
The National Science Education Standards, used as a framework for this summer camp/“Side-by-
Side” experience, advocate that Science as a Human Endeavor should be taught as early as the elemen-
tary grades, “in order to provide a foundation for the development of sophisticated ideas related to the
history and nature of science that will be developed in later years” (NRC, 1996, p. 141). The narrow
and erroneous impression of science held by many students has, in part, inspired science reformers to
create The National Science Education Standards (NSES) (National Research Council [NRC], 1996).
The standards recommend the teaching of specific science content and science processes, as well as
emphasizing the human element of scientific enterprise. The new version of standards, Next Generation
of Science Standards continues support this idea about learning about science and the human beings who
have made significant contributions by identifying the goal for K-12 science education is to develop a
scientifically literate person who can understand and the nature of the scientific knowledge. Accord-
ing to NGSS Science and Engineering Practices in the school setting have three interrelated aspects; a)
asking questions and defining problems, b) developing and using models, and, c) planning and carrying
out investigations.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

Many students view scientists as being quite different from people working in other jobs. Additionally,
they often hold highly stereotypical and inaccurate views of scientists and the work they do. In studies
spanning five decades, it has been noted that students typically portray scientists as males confined to a
laboratory, surrounded by dangerous chemicals, and conducting laborious experiments (Barman, 1997;
Chambers, 1983; Finson, 2002; Fort &Varney, 1989; Mead & Metraux, 1957; Schibeci &Sorenson, 1983).
These inaccurate views of scientists are widely held by students from elementary through secondary
school (Barman, 1996; Chambers, 1983).
The Standards (1996) focus on the following four human dimensions of science:

1. Science and technology have been practiced by people for a long time.
2. Men and women have made a variety of contributions throughout the history of science and
technology.
3. Science will never be finished. Although men and women using scientific inquiry have learned
much about the objects, events and phenomena in nature, much more remains to be understood.
4. Many people choose science as a career and devote their entire lives to studying it. Many people
derive great pleasure from doing science. (NRC, 1996, p.141).

These four aspects of “Science as a Human Endeavor” should be explicitly taught to children. The
NSES recommend that students understand that science and technology have been practiced for a long
time (NRC, 1996). Students also need to understand not only the key concepts and principles of science
and how scientific knowledge is applied, but also the cultural and social contexts within which science
is advanced (Kafai & Gilliland-Swetland, 2000).
Secondly, the NSES recommend that students become aware of the variety of contributions made by
men and women scientists. Often, children’s books and their pictures portray scientists as secretive and in
pursuit of the “one answer to everything” (Chambers, 1983). For example, when children draw pictures
of scientists, they often include captions such as, “I am going to blow up the world,” or “Eureka, I’ve
found the cure!” indicating the child’s limited knowledge of scientists. Further, these captions suggest
that scientists are always inventing or working on immense or dangerous projects, which is certainly
not the case with most scientists.
Third, the NSES recommend that students grasp the idea that science will never be finished. Kuhn
(1972) suggested that science textbooks may actually impede progress toward this aspect of scientific
literacy. Science texts are beneficial in that they allow students to categorize an immense amount of
factual information, but one of the negative effects of textbooks is that they give students the impression
that everything they need to know is contained within the pages of the book. Knowledge contained in a
book may suggest that science has been completed and the students’ role is merely to study the contents
of the book and regurgitate facts without considering additional possibilities (NRC, 2012).
Commonly held stereotypic images about scientists are often in direct opposition to what students
are supposed to be able to understand about scientists. This is outlined by the fourth component of NSES
(1996), which states “that many people derive great pleasure in doing science” (p.141). However, unless
students have multiple interactions with scientists, they may never come to accept these four aspects of
the human side of science. Thus, the summer-camp experience was designed around these four NSES
tenets. The “Side-by-Side” experiences described in this paper provided a means for middle-school girls
to experience first-hand these four dimensions of science. However, providing these four dimensions
required careful thought and preparation by the mentors for them to be successful with the students.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

In this paper, one key question was addressed in the examination of the eight scientists and their role
with middle school girls: 1) How did the science content specialists approach their opportunity to teach
middle-school girls? This question was asked in hopes of determining quality and effective future camp
experiences. In addition, it was even more important in forming guidelines for classroom teachers that
could be used in preparing, and maintaining successful personal and social interactions between middle-
school girls and content specialists.

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH CONTEXT

Eight professional scientists (six females and two males) were involved with 100 middle-school girls in
a multi-year collaboration known as the “Side-by-Side” experience. The camp was held on the campus
of a large Midwest regional university to take advantage of the university’s resources, yet offer a more
rural setting with a stream and wetlands for fieldwork.

Middle-School Girls

The girls attending the camp were drawn randomly from several public, private, and home-school popu-
lations. Unfortunately, the area where the girls live is now part of an economically depressed region
whose economy was once based on one of three largest U. S. automakers. With the closing of a major
auto plant, the area is now severely economically depressed. The unemployment rate is above the 10.5
percent national average, and the median family income is $37,541. “Side-by-Side with Scientists” camp
was held each year for the past three years during the last two weeks of July. The girls were taught by
five different scientists over the period of one week. During each week of camp up to 25 different girls
participated for a total of 100 different campers over the three-year span. Some of the same girls returned
to camp from year to year.

Selecting Science Content Specialists

Each scientist was a university professor and brought his/her own style of teaching and personality to
the classroom. The professors wore name tags identifying them as a doctor (Ph.D), with their first name
printed large and bold, followed by their last name in smaller print. The order in which the scientists
presented their lessons was different each week to accommodate the scientists’ individual work sched-
ules. Table 1 is an example from year one. All scientists presented prepared, interactive laboratory or
field work activities with the students.

Table 1. Sample schedule of year one

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Week 1 Physics Plant Ecology Wetlands Ecology Physical Chemistry
Anthropology
Week 2 Physical Anthropology Chemistry Wetlands Ecology Plant Ecology Physics

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Mentoring Girls in Science

It is important to mention that all scientists were extremely interested in being involved with the sum-
mer camp, and were enthusiastic, willing participants. A description follows regarding the scientists’
-content background, rank at their university, time associated with the camp, and how they presented
and/or prepared their activities with the girls.

Mentor Scientist #1, Dr. Darlene

Darlene (participated two years) is an assistant professor of anthropology. She is a Caucasian female
who grew up in the U.S., earning a doctorate in Ecology, Evolution, and Animal Behavior. She studies
baboons in Botswana, and has performed surveys of primates in South Africa and Zanzibar. Dr. Darlene
shared her work with the girls as a physical anthropologist. Both years, she began her lesson by show-
ing many pictures and telling stories about her work in Africa studying the calls of various types of
baboons. After her introduction the first year, students studied the behavior of three dogs by designing
an investigation to see which type of treat the dogs liked best. In the second year, she led the girls to
investigate sound using an inquiry-based method. The girls learned about sound in the forest and in the
lab by utilizing Dr. Darlene’s audio equipment.

Mentor Scientist #2, Dr. Juan

Juan (participated two years) is an assistant professor of earth science from Brazil. He holds a Ph.D in
Coral Reef Ecology and Nutrient Biogeochemistry, and currently studies the hydrology and geochemistry
of the Clear Fork River in Ohio. The first year, he introduced the girls to the age of the earth using his
soil samples, and the girls learned about dinosaur fossils through a cookie paleontology activity. The
second year, he did many different activities, each designed to broaden the girls’ understanding of earth
science. Some of these activities included examining the relative size and distance of the planets in the
solar system, as well as studying the earth’s atmosphere and clouds.

Mentor Scientist #3, Dr. James

James (participated four years) is a full professor with a Ph.D in Aquatic Zoology who studies invasive
species of wetland grasses. He began his sessions with the girls by sharing his research. He always de-
signs an investigation incorporating problem-based learning strategies. For example, to create a mock
mystery, he asked the head of security at the university to come to class and tell the girls there had been
a fish kill on campus. He said that he needed their help to solve the mystery of what had happened to
the fish. A short time later, the officer returned to class with a suspect in hand cuffs. The officer asked
the girls to figure out what the suspect had done to kill the fish. The girls were not initially told this was
a mock fish kill, but they soon figured it out after finding paper fish scattered along a stream. The girls
were very curious and determined to solve the mystery. While they were in the stream, they ran several
tests and gathered evidence for their case against the suspect.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

Mentor Scientist #4, Dr. Debbie

Debbie (participated two years) is an assistant professor with a Ph.D in Environmental Sciences, studying
soils in local wetlands. In an effort to get the girls outside and investigating, she identified five different
soil types within range of the camp, and led the girls to gather and analyze soil samples from each site.

Mentor Scientist #5, Dr. Francine

Dr. Francine (participated four years) is an Associate Professor of Chemistry. She is a Caucasian female
who grew up in the U.S., and who studies the benefits of black raspberries to cancer patients. Due to
the extensive activities she led in the class, Francine did not share much information about her work,
nor did her fellow chemists who assisted with the lesson. On this day of camp, the girls were introduced
to a mock crime-scene investigation in the chemistry lab. A “Dr. James” had been kidnapped, and the
girls gathered evidence they then analyzed by performing six to nine chemical tests. Using the scenario
provided by the instructors, the girls actively worked to solve the crime.

Mentor Scientist #6, Dr. Geraldine

Geraldine (participated three years) is an Assistant Professor of Physics who grew up in Romania. Her
Ph.D is in physics, and she studies Nuclear Structure Theory. The activities Geraldine led were based
on college labs, and included topics such as pinhole cameras, circuits, and electricity. With the help of
the camp director, she designed age-appropriate activities for the girls using a scale and elevator for
measuring weight and weightlessness. In addition, she led an inquiry-based session on the physics of a
working carwash.

Mentor Scientist #7, Scientist Jane

Jane (participated two years) also introduced the girls to physics. The girls used motion detectors and
computers to make graphs of the time and distance objects traveled. These activities were based on a
college lab. Jane also shared her story of how she became interested in science and ultimately rose to
the rank of a university teacher.

Mentor Scientist #8, Dr. Christy

Christy (participated one year) is a plant reproductive ecologist who began her lesson with pictures and
stories about her travels to tropical places. To help the girls learn about plants, she guided the students
through several plant dissections. Later in the day, the students conducted their own pollination field
studies in the university’s wetlands.
In addition to the eight scientists, two licensed teachers and the camp director/researcher were present
each day of the camp. The teachers facilitated activities and transitions between activities. The researcher
has an Ed.D in mathematics and science education, and was a science methods professor for the university.
She took field notes and assisted with activities when needed. She also greeted the girls each morning as

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Mentoring Girls in Science

they were dropped off at camp, collected data, and oversaw all aspects of camp. In seasons two through
four, two additional helpers (high-school students too old to attend the camp) participated as assistants.

Method

This investigation of the eight scientists into their role with the middle school girls was conducted over
a four- year period. Data collection began several months before the first science camp with an initial
meeting between the camp director and each scientist. All scientists worked with the camp director/
researcher to develop lessons before each camp (year) experience. This usually involved the scientist
suggesting a lesson idea to the camp director, then working with the director to ensure science content
relevant to the standards, and age-appropriateness of the activity or activities. The director/researcher
took notes on each visit with each scientist in an effort to build a repository of data. The proposed ap-
proach of each scientist was then examined.

Preparation: Initial Meetings with Scientists

The focus of the initial meetings was to answer the scientists’ questions and assist them in lesson con-
struction. The length of these meetings, the general discussion, and the individual scientist’s overall
enthusiasm were recorded. The director/researcher listened to each scientist’s lesson idea and discussed
the time he or she was planning to spend with the girls during a one-day, six-hour time span. The direc-
tor/researcher, using models for classroom inquiry and instruction, attempted to guide the scientists to
enhance their lessons by using the five “Es” of the Learning Cycle: engage, explore, explain, expand,
and evaluate, (Karplus, 1970). The only requirement was that the scientists engage the girls in real-world
science, similar to the work the scientists conducted in their particular field of study.
The scientists were specifically instructed to engage or set up motivations to initiate or sustain the
girls’ interest in inquiry. One way in which they could do this was to set up central questions for the girls
to investigate and answer. Next, mentors were guided to explore with the girls, and how that concept
might look in a middle-school classroom setting. These would be opportunities for students to investi-
gate the central question through student-centered experiences. Scientists were then asked to use guided
questioning in a way that would help students explain or uncover the standards-based concept or skill
which the lesson was designed to teach. Fourthly, the scientists were guided to help students expand or
conceptualize their ideas in an effort to deepen their understanding of the prescribed concepts and/or
skills around which the lesson was constructed. Lastly, the scientists were asked to evaluate or assess
the learning as the students conducted their inquiry experience.
Following this initial contact with the researcher/camp director, each scientist had different levels
of follow-up contact. For example, before the first year’s camp experience, Dr. Darlene required four
meetings to conceptualize her idea of what she wanted to present to the students. Many emails and phone
calls were made in preparing for the camp. Dr. Francine, on the other hand, did not initiate any additional
contact other than to ask for materials. Dr. James, because he didn’t want to offer the same experience
to the girls more than once, required three meetings and discussions to form his ideas. Contact with Dr.
Juan and Dr. Debbie only involved the initial meetings. Scientist Jane and Dr. Christy each required one
initial meeting to conceptualize their ideas.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

METHODS USED DURING THE CAMP

During the “Side-by-Side” experience with the girls (two consecutive weeks in July), the researcher
recorded field notes/observations of the interactions between the mentor scientists and the students, add-
ing it to the repository of data for each mentor scientist. The researcher observed classroom interactions
between the girls and the scientists, focusing on interactions both personal (one-on-one) and in the social
context of the entire camp (whole class), as a means of identifying the characteristics of the most suc-
cessful content specialists. Things that the scientists did and did not do with the girls were also recorded.
Since the camp was designed to take place during two consecutive weeks, the researcher/director had
a chance to follow-up with scientists after week one to see if what support might be needed for week
two. This was also a time to reflect on week one’s lesson and modify, if necessary, the lesson for week
two. In the four years of summer camp, only two mentors took advantage of this reflection time with
the director to completely change their lesson for the second week.
Following each camp experience, each scientist was interviewed while reflecting on and discussing
his/her own experience. These interviews were recorded, coded, and analyzed for themes of qualities
or traits. Each teacher or camp staff who worked at the science camp with individual scientists was
interviewed following his/her experiences and notes were taken on particular scientists. That informa-
tion was added to the repository of data for each mentor scientist. These methods were repeated for four
consecutive summers. Data collection was triangulated through the different methods used in collection
(e.g., field notes, interviews with camp staff and scientists, and notes from meetings with the director).

Defining Successful Recruits

The purpose of the camp was to allow young females to explore a variety of areas of science, with a dif-
ferent scientist, on each of the five days of the camp. The hope was that this interaction with scientists
would encourage middle-school girls to sustain an interest in science. Successful mentorship was defined
not only by the parameters of the four tenets of the Human Endeavor, as specified earlier in the NSES,
but also by the general enjoyment of the class by the girls. This was demonstrated by their participation
in class, journal records, conversations, and illustrations. While the camp previously demonstrated the
improvement of the girls’ appreciation of science (Author, 2009), the mentors who were deemed suc-
cessful also helped the girls appreciate science as a discipline. The scientists were deemed unsuccessful
if the girls were frustrated by the scientist’s teaching, or if the girls wrote or commented on the difficulty
of understanding a particular scientist.

Results: How Mentor Scientists Approached

their Roles with Middle-School Girls

There seemed to be some consistencies in the ways the eight scientists approached the mentorship ex-
perience. For example, all the scientists were university professors, and all had a variety of experiences
teaching undergraduate or graduate students. However, the scientists each had his/her own distinct style
of approach to mentoring/teaching the girl’s science. These approaches were different than those of
classroom teachers, mainly because of the scientists’ previous experiences in academia. Each scientist
verbalized his/her strong desire to help the girls “like” science and see science as a real career choice,
yet they all had very different approaches. Table 2 includes (or illustrates) this continuum.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

Table 2. Mentor-approach-to-teaching continuum

Disseminator of Knowledge Demonstrator of Procedures Disseminator of Activities Side-By-Side Expert

• Lecture based on Power Point • Lecture with demonstration • Lecture with activities for • Mentor poses question and
• Video, or computer assisted by the scientist only students students develop procedures to
instruction • Small groups or large groups • Many activities with no central answer the question.
• Passive Learners • Looks like hands-on connection • Hands-on inquiry with
• Unable to modify to meet the investigation, but in reality • Looks like hands-on critical thinking and problem
needs of students students are collecting data investigation, but lacks probing solving.
from the demonstration inquiry experience in an attempt
to answer a specific question

A Disseminator of Knowledge is defined as a scientist who approached the camp like a college class-
room, the premise being that they (the scientist) have all the knowledge and the students are passive
learners. Content Specialists who are Disseminators of Knowledge are unable to change their teaching
style from the college level to the middle-school level, even with one-on-one help and guidance from
the camp director for multiple years. Dr. Geraldine, for instance, the physicist, is an example of a Dis-
seminator of Knowledge (see Table 1).
By contrast, an innate teacher is described as one who interprets reactions from students, modifies
her lessons based on those reactions, and, in turn, helps students achieve new learning.
But being a successful scientist/mentor involves more than the ability to be an innate teacher. Dr.
Geraldine did not have the capacity to change, despite her attempts for three years to work one-on-one
with the camp director. Of the eight scientists involved with the camp, no one wanted to participate more
than Dr. Geraldine. This project was so important to her, that she agreed to meet and work with the
camp director frequently. However, after year two, she finally admitted she was unable to be anything
but a Disseminator of Knowledge. However, with the director assisting her through team-teaching, Dr.
Geraldine agreed to participate in year three, but only during a half-day session.
A Disseminator of Knowledge presents information and gives directions as the students remain passive.
The types of presentations that the Disseminator of Knowledge typically does well are often organized
according to his/her ideas of logical order, not the student’s. Disseminators of Knowledge rely on verbal
presentations, but what is communicated by them is not always what is perceived in the same way by
the students. These types of presentations are open to interpretation by the student, and limited by the
student’s attention span.
A Demonstrator of Procedures is defined as a scientist who approaches teaching as a watch-and-
learn experience. In this case, the scientist is usually in front of the class doing a science demonstration,
and the students are positioned at a distance, usually recording data. Dr. Debbie, the soil scientist, is an
example of the Demonstrator of Procedures (see Table 1). The difference between the Disseminator
of Knowledge and the Demonstrator of Procedures is the shift in thinking that the students will learn
more by visual than by auditory means. However, the students are still passive learners when using this
approach, and the focus is still on content.
Demonstrations do have their benefits in teaching science. For instance, they can protect students
from dangerous conditions. Also, demonstrations can illustrate an important concept when there is not
enough lab equipment for every learner to engage personally. Remember, this was not the explicit in-
structions given to the science content specialists prior to their participation at camp. In fact, the camp
was called “Side-by-Side with Scientists” for the very purpose of these individuals was working with the

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Mentoring Girls in Science

girls. Demonstrations were supposed to be kept to a minimum. A discovery demonstration in which the
scientist silently conducts an experiment and allows the students to determine why the demonstration
worked the way it did would have been appropriate in this setting.
In her initial meeting with the director/researcher, Dr. Debbie discussed wanting to get the girls
outside, collecting soil samples and analyzing data. When she sat down and discussed further details
with the camp director, her lesson proposal seemed like a perfect way for the students to investigate and
experience a variety of soils. As a result, the camp director purchased the needed equipment for the class,
confident that the anticipated lesson would go well. Unfortunately, the lesson proved less than envisioned.
Dr. Debbie did not allow the girls to collect their own soil samples. Rather, they watched as she did
all the work. Her need for control eliminated any discovery for the girls in the experience, and while the
design of the lesson demonstrated that she was listening to the director, the outcome demonstrated her
perceptions were quite different. Dr. Debbie was a Demonstrator of Procedures who began with the right
intentions, yet failed to broaden the girls’ experiences in science because of one important detail—she
neglected to let them have the experience.
A Disseminator of Activities is defined as a sceitnist who also approaches mentorship like a col-
lege classroom. Knowledge is given first, then laboratory work follows, and there is little connection
between the two. Dr. Juan, the earth-science professor, approached the camp in this manner (see Table
1). He seemed more focused on having the girls do “hands-on” activities, than engaging them in deep,
meaningful investigation answering a particular question. When the camp director approached Dr. Juan
to discuss this issue, he became frustrated, yet was willing to re-structure his lesson with the researcher’s
help. Even with this assistance, however, Dr. Juan had trouble comprehending children’s misconceptions
about science and revising his teaching methods to meet their needs.
For example, his daughter was one of the “Side-by-Side” campers, and he knew his daughter didn’t get
that opportunity in her school science class and so intent on having the girls engage in hands-on science
activities. He provided many hands-on activities in several different content areas. One experiment was
about clouds, the next about rocks, then paleontology, and the last about the atmosphere of the earth. All
of this unconnected activity seemed to leave the girls puzzled, because they were not able to anticipate
what was next and why. There was no logical progression to the lesson. Rather, it was a smorgasbord of
Mr. Wizard–type activities, and for that reason Dr. Juan was termed a Disseminator of Activities.
The director spent much time discussing research with the scientists about students’ misconceptions
concerning science and the importance of prior-knowledge questions. In each meeting, the researcher
reiterated the original goals of the camp to Dr. Juan. He was unwilling to accept that his lack of question-
ing had any relevance to what the students were learning. When the director asked him, “What do you
think the girls learned from their experience with you?”, his response indicated he thought the girls did
learn a lot about content. The researcher/director asked him how he could be sure, since he didn’t ask the
girls any prior-knowledge questions before his activities. She informed him of several methods used for
teaching conceptual change. Yet, he was unwilling to listen. The result was that during the next week of
camp his involvement was the same lesson he had previously presented. His unwillingness to discuss the
“big ideas” and inability to adjust to the girls’ developmental levels kept him from becoming a “Side-by-
Side” expert. His lack of appreciation for the knowledge the director had about children’s misconceptions
and science education as a discipline of research study made for difficult working conditions.
A Side-by-Side Expert approaches camp from the perspective of, “How can I get these girls involved
in what I do?” These mentors begin with the kind of Backward Design, described by Wiggins and Mc-
Tighe, (2005). They focus on what they want the girls to understand about what they do as scientists.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

They also guide students and set up experiences for them to gain this new appreciation and understanding.
In four years of the camp, three “Side-by-Side” mentors were observed: Dr. James, wetlands ecologist;
Dr. Francine, chemist; and Dr. Christy, plant ecologist (see Table 1).
With the three scientists that fell into this category, students were given freedom to solve the prob-
lems presented to them in their own way. This enabled the students to use process skills in a genuine
problem-solving situation, and actively be involved in first-hand learning. It was no coincidence that
the girls reported their days with these three scientists as the most enjoyable for four consecutive years.
These three scientists had achieved what the director/researcher had intended, reinforcing the idea that
it was possible for middle-school girls to have an authentic “Side-by-Side” experience.

PERSPECTIVES FROM THE CAMP DIRECTOR AND IMPLICATIONS FOR

CLASSROOM TEACHERS WORKING WITH SCIENCE MENTORS

The four years of research and practice in this domain demonstrated that it is more difficult to teach
highly-trained, highly-skilled scientists to engage girls in science activities than it is to teach pre-service
teachers or practicing teachers the same concepts. It is accepted that in order to be a “good science
teacher” one must have pedagogical knowledge, science-content knowledge, and science-pedagogical
knowledge. Yet, scientists who do not have pedagogy skills or science-pedagogical knowledge are fre-
quently recruited to help with the teaching of science in the classroom. As this study shows, it cannot
be assumed that all scientists will make good teachers or good science mentors. These “Side-by-Side”
experiences of the camp director/researcher working with scientists reveal that unless the scientists
value the field of education as a research field, they are not open to learning science-content pedagogy.
Scientists may perceive their roles inaccurately, and be unwilling or unable to change them. This can
be a nightmare for a long-term commitment between a classroom teacher and a scientist. So how do
science educators get professional scientists to best understand their role in the classroom? It was soon
obvious in this unique camp setting that the scientists’ perception of “teaching” and the camp director’s
perception of “teaching” were very different.
The scientists often assumed the girls had multiple, in-depth experiences in science prior to attending
the camp. Also, an absence of prior-knowledge questions by the scientists during investigations did not
allow the girls to make predictions before the experiments were conducted. This questioning had been a
central topic in each of the scientist/director meetings prior to camp, but during actual class sessions an
overall lack of questioning by the scientists led the researcher to ask, “What exactly are the girls learning?”
Several scientists spent too much class time discussing the specifics of their research instead of focusing
on the overall “big idea” and where their research or content fit into the body of science knowledge as a
whole. Scientists possess a wealth of knowledge about science content, but most lack an understanding
of children’s misconceptions concerning science, scientists, and the age-appropriateness of what they are
attempting to teach. Three of the eight content specialists grasped the understanding of what it meant to
work “Side-by-Side” with scientists, (e.g., giving girls responsibility for collecting data that is meaning-
ful), but five did not. These realities led the researcher/director to create the chart of expectations below
(Table 2) to share with future mentors as a means of addressing these inadequacies.
Dr. James, who the girls reported in their journals as being extremely successful in encouraging the
girls to like science, needed debriefing about his experience with young girls each time he completed a
session. And this went on for six consecutive interactions. While he enjoyed the “Side-by-Side” experi-

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Mentoring Girls in Science

ence tremendously, his first comment following the experience was how exhausted he was after working
with young girls. He was used to teaching college students, and noted the different needs of these young
learners. He needed time to remind himself that middle-school girls weren’t like college students, and
that his approach to teaching “Side-by-Side” required so much more energy than the traditional lecture.
Knowing this, it was helpful in constructing a visual image of the director’s expectations and what
the scientists could expect. Many scientists found this useful in working with the girls. For example, Dr.
James was not used to the girls chatting and discussing the lesson topic while he was teaching. More
comfortable with the traditional teaching methods used in his college classes, he expected the girls to sit
quietly while he talked. Because of the different approach with “Side-by-Side” teaching, it took James
some time to get acclimated to this new environment. He worked hard to improve his lessons and offer
the girls a unique experience from year to year. Although a favorite scientist among the students, another
reason James may have had to make some adjustments in being a role model to girls is because he is
the father of three boys.
On the other hand, it cannot assume that because the scientists had female children of their own they
will be able to relate to female students in a meaningful way. Recall Dr. Geraldine, who the girls reported
had the most difficulty relating to the middle school females was actually the mother of two girls.
This study examined eight scientists: five Caucasian females from the United States, one Caucasian
male from the United States, and two scientists from foreign countries, one male and one female. It is
worth noting that the speaking accents of the two foreign scientists were mentioned in a negative way by
the girls in their general discussions. One thing teachers may want to consider if working with a foreign
scientist is if their accent interferes with students’ learning. Also, could the accent potentially influence
student’s perception of the scientist in a negative way?
Other questions teachers might ask scientists when considering them for their classroom might in-
clude, “Do you have children of your own? And if so, how do you communicate your science experiences
with your children? Can you speak in a child-friendly, age-appropriate way concerning your particular
science discipline?”
In addition, there may be cultural barriers to address. And how does the scientist plan to take his/her
information or content and make it meaningful to students? And, finally, is the material age-appropriate
for middle-school students?

Implications for Using Mentors

Scientists who are the ultimate content area specialists are often used as mentors for both teachers and
students. However, when working with children, one of the reasons these relationships are not as suc-
cessful as they could be is because not everyone can relate to children in an age-appropriate way. Some
scientists, for example, may not be able to present their field of study in a positive light without reinforc-
ing the common stereotypes about scientists.
In selecting a scientist for the classroom, asking the questions mentioned in this paper will help
discern who would make a good science mentor for students. Teachers need some guidance in selecting
appropriate mentors in order to maximize the mentors’ potential influence he/she will have on students’
understanding of who does science, where science is done, and what scientists do. A scientist’s will-
ingness to participate in a mentorship program or classroom situation is not sufficient in and of itself.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

Second, teachers should make clear to the science mentor the goals and expectations of the proposed
partnership. To do this, teacher could use Table 2 Mentorship Expectations Guidelines in this paper or
make their own set of goals and expectations based on the needs of their classroom. And nothing should
be taken for granted concerning scientists. Those scientists not in the field of education may need many
discussions and reflections with the teacher to understand their role before entering the classroom.
Third, even when a scientist’s roles have been clearly outlined, expect there will be a difference
in what the scientist perceives and what the teacher perceives. Classroom teachers should use Table
2.Mentor-Approach-to-Teaching Continuum as a springboard for discussion with mentor scientists. As
a result, it is hoped the scientists will then begin to ask themselves, “Am I a disseminator of knowledge
or disseminator of activities?” It is important that the teacher help them understand the differences.
Lastly, a good scientist role model should help students see the connection between science in the
classroom and the career of a professional scientist. While in this particular study six of the eight scien-
tists were female, it is important for students to have a role model they can relate to in science, regard-
less of gender. Because the researcher/director hypothesized before the investigation how important it
was to expose participants to gender-matched (female) science role models, the majority of scientists
participating in the “Side-by-Side” camp experience were female. The results of another study by this
Author (2010) demonstrate that while the gender of mentors does play a role, it was more important for
girls to have a role model who possessed the five identified characteristics of a quality mentor. These
five characteristics are: a connection to why mentors became a scientist in the first place, passion for
their science-content area, the ability to be an innate teacher, the ability to discuss controversial issues
sensitively with young students and not bias them, and The WOW Factor.
This author stresses that it is more important for a scientist to possess all five of these qualities than
have the same gender as students, and recommends that when teachers look for effective mentors, they
use these five characteristics as a starting point for selecting the best possible choice for a mentor or
role model in science. It should be noted that none of the girls in the study mentioned the gender of the
content specialist.

CONCLUSION

Perhaps what is most important is the flexibility of the scientists in adapting to a classroom teacher’s
needs. As demonstrated in this study, some scientists were unable to adapt in spite of their willingness to
participate in the camp experience. Students’ experiences with quality science mentors can be powerful.
As teachers bring visiting scientists into the classroom, students’ beliefs about science, scientists, and
themselves lead to positive attitudes and less stereotypic views concerning the nature of science and
the physical attributes of a scientist. The results of this research indicate that scientists can successfully
provide dimensions of the Human Endeavor in classroom settings, if they are aware of the four teaching
approaches as outlined, and are willing to value science educators’ opinions about education, research,
and their students.
Commonly held stereotypic images about scientists are in direct opposition to what students should
understand about science. As identified by the National Science Education Standards (1996), learning
about “Science as a Human Endeavor” begins as early as grades K-4, and is repeated in grades 5-8 and
9-12. This paper offers cautions, considerations, and guidance for educators seeking to bring science-
content specialists into their classroom.

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Mentoring Girls in Science

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APPENDIX

Table 3. Results of Question One: How did the science mentors approach their opportunity to mentor
middle-school girls?

Disseminator of Knowledge Demonstrator of Disseminator of Side-By-Side Expert

Procedures Activities
Dr. James X
Dr. Geraldine X
Dr. Darlene X
Dr. Francine X
Scientist Joan X
Dr. Christy X
Dr. Juan X
Dr. Debbie X

Table 4. Mentorship expectations guidelines

What We Expect What You Can Expect

Question of the day? (Focus) Girls will talk throughout the day
Girls will be asked to make predictions Variety of academic abilities
and follow a procedure or a variety of
procedures and draw their own conclusions
Girls will be involved in collecting data as they spend the day Girls will have misconceptions
Side-by-Side
with you!
You will ask the girls many questions and different levels of We will have teachers to help
questions about you, they will most likely do this through questioning
what they know before giving content information and/or hands-on
materials

31
32

Chapter 3
Primary Grades Teachers’
Fidelity of Teaching Practices
during Mathematics
Professional Development
Christie S. Martin Chuang Wang
University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Drew Polly Richard G. Lambert

University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

David Pugalee
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

ABSTRACT
This chapter shares the findings from a study that examined primary grades teachers’ fidelity of imple-
mentation during a year-long professional development program on formative assessment in mathematics.
The project provided over 80 hours of professional development to elementary school teachers regarding
their use of an internet-based formative assessment system for their students’ mathematics achievement.
This study examined teachers’ online reflections and data in the internet-based assessment system to
identify themes that lead to either a high fidelity or low fidelity of implementation. High fidelity teach-
ers expressed beliefs that formative assessment supported their mathematics teaching, improved their
students’ learning, and was feasible to carry out in their classrooms. Low fidelity teachers’ reflections
were associated with numerous barriers to implementation as well as a lack of buy-in that the formative
assessment system could benefit their teaching.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch003

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

EXPLORING PRIMARY GRADES TEACHERS’ FIDELITY

OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES DURING
MATHEMATICS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Research continues to document the struggles that United States elementary school teachers face related
to teaching mathematics effectively (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Barriers to effec-
tive mathematics teaching include teachers’ beliefs in more traditional approaches (Clark et al., 2014;
Stipek, Givvin, Salmon, & MacGyvers, 2001), a lack of knowledge related to the mathematics that they
teach (Thames & Ball, 2010), insufficient curricula materials or a lack of knowledge on how to use
them (Sherin & Drake, 2009), and pressure to teach a certain way in an effort to increase test scores
(McGee, Wang, & Polly, 2013). In light of the research on mathematics teaching, it can clearly be stated
as a complex process that requires specific skills and knowledge related to both pedagogy and content
(Thames & Ball, 2010).
In an effort to support teachers’ mathematics instruction, professional development programs are
commonly viewed as a mechanism to positively support teachers and also improve student achievement.
Mathematics professional development projects are most effective when they simultaneously can support
teachers’ development of knowledge related to content and pedagogy as well as how students develop an
understanding of fundamental mathematics concepts. One, of the pedagogy-related processes, that has
gained attention in the literature is formative assessment, specifically examining students’ mathemati-
cal thinking, analyzing data, and then making sound instructional decisions based on that information
(Wiliam, 2007a; Wiliam, 2007b). Teachers who are able to effectively carry out a formative assessment
process have been empirically linked to gains in their students’ mathematics achievement (Polly et al..,
2014; Wiliam & Thompson, 2007).
This chapter presents a study in which we analyzed participants who completed a professional de-
velopment project designed to support primary school teachers’ use of an internet-based mathematics
formative assessment system to support their mathematics teaching. Teachers participated in an 80-hour
learning experience and data was collected on their use of the assessment system, their responses to
reflection prompts, and their students’ scores in the formative assessment system.

BACKGROUND

Formative Assessment in Mathematics

The purpose of formative assessment is to elicit and collect data that directly impacts instruction for
individual learners (Koellner, Colsman, & Risley, 2009). Further, when working on activities related
to formative assessment, teachers must connect evidence with instruction, which in turn requires them
to understand and apply their expertise of learning progressions and how students best learn (Wiliam,
2007a, 2010). To that end, research on formative assessment has noted that the process is only valuable to
the teaching and learning when the data is closely examined to modify instructional goals, instructional
activities, and instructional pedagogies (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, & Wiliam, 2004; Heritage, 2007).

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Formative assessment processes can positively impact student learning. Formative assessment has been
empirically associated with gains in student learning, teachers’ increased knowledge of their students’
understanding, and an increase in the alignment of instructional activities to students’ abilities (Polly et
al., 2014; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Wiliam, 2007b). With students who are at-risk and performing below
grade level expectations, formative assessment and data-based instructional decisions can improve stu-
dents’ learning in struggling areas (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986).
While there is potential for formative assessment processes to transform teaching and learning, teach-
ers report difficulty consistently and frequently using formative assessment in their classrooms (Polly
et al., 2014, Wiliam, 2010). In Abrams’ (2007) study, several teachers admitted that the time demands
of simply teaching the standards prevented them from doing any types of formative assessment with
their students. Cizek (2010) noted that while teachers may espouse the value of formative assessment,
summative assessments at the end of units is the only types of assessments that teachers use. There is
a need to examine ways to best support teachers’ efforts to formatively assess their students’ learning,
analyze data, and use the data to make appropriate instructional decisions.

Learner-Centered Professional Development

Professional development continues to be highly regarded as a mechanism to provide teachers with support
in terms of their adoption of new pedagogies and advance teachers’ knowledge about the content related
to what they teach (Borko, 2004; Loucks-Horsley et al., 2010). While teacher learning is important, many
stakeholders posit that the primary reason for teacher professional development is to increase teaching
effectiveness, therefore increasing student achievement (Polly & Hannafin, 2010; Borko, 2004). This
study was grounded in the construct of learner-centered professional development ([LCPD]; National
Partnership for Educational Accountability in Teaching, 2000; Polly & Hannafin, 2010), which aligns
to the American Psychological Association’s Learner-centered Principles (APA Work Group, 1997), as
well as constructivist and socio-cultural views of teaching and learning (Alexander & Murphy, 1998).
LCPD addresses student learning deficiencies, actively engages teachers in experiences that develop
their knowledge of both content and pedagogy, gives teachers ownership and choice of some professional
learning activities, provides collaborative opportunities, includes job-embedded activities, and promotes
teachers’ reflection of their experiences (Polly & Hannafin, 2010).
In specific relation to mathematics professional development, teachers need experiences to simul-
taneously deepen their understanding of mathematics content and pedagogies by exploring complex
mathematical tasks (Polly, McGee, & Martin, 2010), analyzing concepts that are difficult for students to
learn (Hawley & Valli, 1999), learning ways to address student learning deficiencies (Loucks-Horsley et
al., 2010), as well as analyzing, modifying, and creating curricular resources to meet the needs of their
students (Martin & Polly, 2015; Polly, 2010). Professional development should be ongoing and closely
connected to classroom activities (Heck, Banilower, Weiss, & Rosenberg, 2008).

Purpose and Research Questions

The goal of the APLUS professional development program that was examined in this study was to support
primary teachers (Grades Kindergarten through Grade 2) and their use a web-based formative assess-
ment system focused on number sense. Based on prior research, teachers who effectively use formative
assessment data to gather information about their students and make instructional data-based decisions

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

have greatly improved their students’ mathematical achievement (Polly, Martin, Wang, Lambert, &
Pugalee, under review; Wiliam, 2007). Professional development focused on formative assessment can
greatly influence teaching and learning (Polly et al., 2014; Wiliam & Black, 2007). This study intended
to identify and examine the differences between teachers that were considered high fidelity and low
fidelity. Fidelity was measured by the amount of participation in the professional development and how
much the teachers used the internet-based formative assessment in their classroom.
To that end, this study was framed by the following research question:

1. What were the differences between high and low fidelity teachers in their use of the internet-based
formative assessment system?
2. What were the differences between high and low fidelity teachers on a professional development
survey?
3. What were the differences between high and low fidelity teachers in their professional development
reflections?

METHOD

This inductive study included purposeful sampling in order to explicitly compare data for high fidelity
and low fidelity teacher-participants in the professional development project. Moodle was the online
platform used to deliver professional development. This site produces activity reports for each of the
participants. AMC Anywhere allows those with administrator status to access reports of activities for
each participant. Activity reports from Moodle and AMC Anywhere for all participants were analyzed
simultaneously to identify a purposeful sample. The purposeful sample was selected based on high
engagement and fidelity. Once the purposeful sample was generated the researchers analyzed the data
to extract themes to further explain the experience of each participant.

Context and Setting

The professional development project, Assessment Practices to Support Mathematics Learning and Un-
derstanding for Students (APLUS), was funded by the North Carolina Mathematics Science Partnership
program in the United States. This grant program supports intensive professional development projects
focused on developing teachers’ knowledge of content and pedagogy. The APLUS project provided
teachers with professional learning experiences focused on the use of the internet-based assessment
system Assessing Mathematics Concepts (AMC Anywhere hereafter) (Richardson, 2012), and the related
instructional materials Development Number Concepts (Richardson, 1998). Richardson developed AMC
Anywhere and the instructional materials abased on her experience teaching mathematics to children.
The APLUS grant was written in conjunction with faculty at two universities and five school districts
around North Carolina. The grant provided funding for three cohorts of teachers who participated in the
project for 11 months and each cohort included between 200-250 teachers. At the time of writing this
manuscript, the third cohort is in progress. This study focuses on the second cohort of teachers since the
professional development activities had been refined after year one, and teachers in the second cohort
provide the most current data from the project.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

Each cohort began the project with an intensive 5 day, 40-hour summer experience. During this time,
teachers learned about the formative assessment system, the underlying mathematics concepts, and re-
lated mathematics activities that align to the concepts that are assessed. Teachers also are given time to
practice using the assessments and analyzing data from actual students, in order to provide an authentic
experience that mirrors actual classroom praxis as much as possible. The intensive summer professional
development began on the first day with a teacher practices survey and on the last day ended with the
same survey. Teaching practices were measured with 25 items on a 5-point Likert scale with higher
scores on teaching practices suggesting more teacher-centered approach. Thirteen items (Items 1, 2, 3,
4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 18, 19, 22, and 23) were indicators of teacher-centered practices whereas 12 (Items
5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24, and 25) were indicators of student-centered practices.
During the school year, teachers completed a series of classroom-embedded professional development
activities that were facilitated through an online learning management system. These activities were
organized into three large modules, which are described in Table 1. Each module required that teachers
use the formative assessment system, analyze data, and then answer a series of reflection questions based
on their experiences teaching mathematics and using the assessment system.
Module 1 focused on reminding teachers about the AMC Anywhere assessment system from the
summer by watching a video and having them assess their students. Teachers also had to share about
how they have organized their classroom to allow for differentiated, small group instruction. Module 2
allowed teachers to work more with the AMC Anywhere system with a focus on analyzing the data and
making an instructional plan for their students. Module 3 focused on Number Talks as an instructional
activity to promote discourse and conversations about number sense. Module 3 also allowed teachers to
assess their students and analyze the data with a focus on struggling students in their class.

Participants

Teacher-participants in this study all taught in a large urban school district. In order to contrast the char-
acteristics between high fidelity and low fidelity teachers, we purposefully selected (Patton, 2015) five
teachers who had demonstrated a high fidelity of implementation of formative assessment pedagogies

Table 1. Overview of online professional development modules

Time of Year Activities

Module 1 First two months of Teachers assess their students using the AMC Anywhere system.
the school year Teachers design and share their plan for organizing their mathematics instruction to differentiate
activities based on data.
Teachers collaborate via online discussion boards sharing ideas about instructional activities to use.
Module 2 Middle of the Teachers assess their students using the AMC Anywhere system.
school year Teachers design and share their plan for intensive targeted support for a group of their students who
require specific differentiation.
Teachers collaborate via online discussion boards their successes, barriers to implementation,
questions, and progress of their students.
Module 3 Last two months of Teachers assess their students using the AMC Anywhere system.
the school year Teachers provide results and updates about their students’ growth, the use of the AMC Anywhere
system and associated instructional materials.
Teachers learn about Number Talks, a process for facilitating conversation about number sense, and
implement at least one Number Talk in their classroom.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

and five teachers who had demonstrated a low fidelity of implementation. All teachers were classroom
teachers and licensed by the state to teach Grades Kindergarten through Grade 6. Lastly, each participant
attended and completed all of the summer professional development workshops.

Data Collection

The data used for this study was collected from the academic year 2013-2014 which was year two of the
MSP grant. The AMC Anywhere site provides spreadsheets for each of the nine assessments available
that show students’ performance on those tasks. A student will have several lines in the spreadsheet
that show each instance that their teacher assessed them in that particular assessment. Reports for the
four most used assessments (Counting, Hiding, Number Arrangements and Combination Trains) were
generated, combined, and sorted to show how many assessments were administered for each student.
These reports clearly showed the usage pattern for the teacher participants. From these reports a list of
teachers that were using the assessments several times with each student was created along with a list
of teachers that were assessing their students less than twice.
The online professional development (PD) was set up in three Modules that included activities, dis-
cussion boards, videos, and a requirement to respond to other teachers. These modules were examined
to connect the teachers that were using AMC assessments regularly and had high participation in the
online PD and those teachers that were using AMC assessments minimally and were either not engaged
in the required PD or did not complete all modules.
The participants participation in both pre and post survey is also included. The online participation
was scaled as 0 –did not participate, 1- participated less than the required amount, 2- exceeded require-
ments. Fidelity was measured by the use of the formative assessment technology. Again, a scale of as
0 –did not participate, 1- participated less than the required amount, 2- exceeded requirements. This
project included 6 districts of teacher participants; the largest district was used for purposeful sampling.
The rationale behind using the largest district for purposeful sampling was to have teachers experiencing
similar demands and schedules for the mathematics instruction.

Data Analysis

The module data were analyzed using inductive, thematic analysis (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996) and
researchers organized the data into categories by themes (Ezzy, 2002). The themes found in each of
the modules focused on depth of response, intentionality of teaching practices, evidence of data driven
instructional practices, level of interaction with their professional community. The data from the internet-
based assessment system was examined to determine the amount of assessments that were administered
per student and per teacher. The survey on teacher practices was administered at the beginning of the
summer week long professional development and again at the end of the PD that week. The survey in-
cluded open ended responses that were analyzed along with the pre/post paired sample t-test. The mean
scores and significance are reported.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

FINDINGS

The teachers were selected based on their participation in the online modules and their activity within
the AMC system. The high fidelity group consists of teachers that were active in all three modules of
the online professional development and used AMC anywhere assessments with their students regularly.
Regularly was defined as students being assessed from 2 to 4 times throughout the year. The low fidel-
ity group of teachers was identified as those that had minimal to no participation in the online modules
and had minimally assessed their students with the AMC Anywhere system. The high and low group
consisted of 5 teachers. There were several themes that were identified in the comparison of their par-
ticipation in the online modules.

Learning Environments

Professional development focused on using AMC Anywhere web-based formative assessments and
creating a learning environment that promotes hands-on learning and mathematical talk. Module one of
the online professional development centered on teachers’ classroom learning environment and routines
for mathematics instruction.
High fidelity teachers: The teachers identified as high fidelity showed a level of thought and reflec-
tion in the module responses that was noticeably than other participants. The responses below are rep-
resentative of the high fidelity group. The response is taken from Module one where teachers are asked
to describe their classroom environment and mathematics routines.

My classroom environment facilitates a safe environment by providing students the opportunity to take
ownership of their learning and growth. I have students grouped according to their abilities but each
group has students with varying strengths and weaknesses. This is to have helps and support when I can’t
get to them right away. Each group has a student who is strong in all areas and then the other members
of the learning team have different degrees of strength in mathematical ability. My space is set up so
that manipulatives are readily available and students can access them on their own. Independence is
the word for the year!!

The teacher’s response to the question on environment and mathematics instruction reveals a level of
intentionality in the construction of her classroom that is more focused on the learners. She purposefully
creates groups that have ability differences, but seems to move beyond high and low ability and looks to
have students working together that have different strengths to offer. She has an overall goal of creating
independent learners and thinkers.
Another participant wrote:

Our math routine changes depending on the need of the students…We also do an estimate of magnetic
chips as well as number talks that include “how did you see it?” Students are shown a dot card and then
they have to tell me the amount, then I call on several students to tell me how they saw it. The students
love this!!!!

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

This teacher’s response conveys a sense of enthusiasm for facilitating an environment that her stu-
dents can thrive. That same sense of enthusiasm along with flexibility and responsiveness appears in
the response about classroom routines. The learners are at the center of the planning and therefore there
is constant change in the routine based on those needs.
Low fidelity teachers: The teachers identified as low fidelity responded to the questions on environ-
ment and routines in a way that provides the details prompted by the question; however, the responses
are limited in the planning and reasoning behind these decisions. One teacher wrote:

We have math from 1:30-3:00 Monday-Wednesday, and 2:15-3:00 on Thursday and Friday. Each math
session begins with a math word problem. Then, students share their strategies for solving the problem.
Then, we move into a math talk, often using tens frames or place value rods. On some days, the class then
divides into groups and I am able teach small group lessons to target specific skills. The independent
groups will play a Kathy Richardson or Investigations game, complete independent work, or practice a
math skill on the computer. On other days I introduce or review a Kathy Richardson or Investigations
game. The math time ends by coming back together to share strategies that we used that day during math.

The same teacher briefly summarized her mathematics instructional time by writing:

We have math from 1:30-3:00 Monday-Wednesday, and 2:15-3:00 on Thursday and Friday. Each math
session begins with a math word problem. Then, students share their strategies for solving the problem.
Then, we move into a math talk, often using tens frames or place value rods.

The second response provides the answer to the module question in a list-like fashion. The details
of why mathematics instruction is structured in that way are not provided and there is little elaboration
of the overall objectives and goals. The response fails to show the level of enthusiasm offered in the
first response. She includes math problems, math talk, grouping, games, and sharing in the response;
however, the intentionality and purpose of using these strategies are not shared. The routine question is
met with what appears to be copy and paste from the previous response. This question may have been
a place to elaborate on the reasoning behind the environment and agenda choices, but it is merely a
reiteration of the first response.

Use of Student Data

The next topic in module one asked about the ways in which the teachers collected and used data. This
particular district, as in many school districts, employs many different types of both formative and
summative assessments. The example response from high fidelity teachers exhibits more reflection on
those assessments.
High fidelity teachers: Participants’ use of data was not a completely new idea to teachers. Many
teachers, regardless of their fidelity of implementation, commented about the use of data from curriculum-
based assessments, quarterly assessments, and end of unit tests. One high fidelity teacher discussed her
transition from only using curriculum-based assessments to also using the data from AMC Anywhere.

Last year data came from Math Investigation Pre and Post-testing. We also gave students timed tests to
determine as well as build fluency with addition and subtraction within a certain number (I did 5, 10,

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

15, 20, 30). Data in the form of Pre and Post-testing allowed me to know what they could do and what
they need to work on. However, it wasn’t giving me the skills that my students had difficulty in acquiring.
I knew they couldn’t subtract, but I didn’t know why? If that makes sense. So, if my students did well
on the Pre-test for addition, subtraction, word problems, measuring, etc. then we worked on the next
“lesson skill” coming up…Data is used to not only plan the next steps for students, but it is also used
to have an understanding of where they are and then provide activities that students can do (workshop)
that will build upon what they already know. Now, differentiation in workshop and even homework has
changed this year in order to meet students where they are mathematically. Data is used for groupings
and for informing parents as it has been in the past. The difference now is that we know where they need
to go because of what they need to work on in hopes of getting them where they need to be by the years
end. Growth is now more evident from the things we have been doing with AMC. High Fidelity Teacher

This response describes the data that the teacher was and still is using, the strengths of that data,
the ways in which that data was not providing the full picture, and details on how that data was used in
instruction, with parents, and for grouping. She evaluates AMC Anywhere data and notes that while the
data provides evidence on students’ learning like the curriculum-based assessments did, the AMC Any-
where reports are offering more insight into the specific ways students are struggling and their growth.
Low fidelity teachers: Low fidelity teachers focused their comments primarily on district-mandated
and end-of-use data. Further, low-fidelity teachers provided scant information about how the data is
used to inform future instruction. The teacher response below provides a list of assessments that have
been used in the past and present.

In previous years, our team used common assessments (10 questions every 10 days). We also created
assessments based on standards for mid and end of quarter assessments. The data was used at confer-
ences to share student progress. It was also used in intervention team meetings to determine what steps
to take with struggling students. Now, we share Kathy Richardson data at grade level meetings. We also
look at MAP scores across the grade level. These assessments help us to create small groups for specific
skills in math.

The ideas of small groups, intervention, and determining struggling students are listed in the use of
certain assessments. The MAP scores are examined by grade level, but it is unclear how they are used
for student learning. Similarly, AMC assessments are only mentioned as something discussed at grade
level meetings and not directly connected to planning.

Implementation of AMC Anywhere

The professional development workshops in the summer provided video-based examples and allowed
teachers to use AMC Anywhere with students in a summer camp. These engaging experiences were
strategically part of the professional development to help teacher participants begin the school year ready
to implement AMC Anywhere in their classrooms. The online professional development also included
videos of teachers administering AMC Anywhere formative assessments and our participants needed to
evaluate the student performance and share what level and what type of instruction they may need based

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

on the video. This allowed participants to share their evaluation with other participants and get ideas
for instruction. Both the open-ended questions on the survey that was administered in the summer and
the online participation showed a variance perception from the high fidelity and low fidelity teachers
regarding ease of implementation.
High Fidelity Teachers: Participating teachers completed a pre/post survey during the summer
professional development. The post survey included the question below that asked teachers about their
plan for collecting data. The high fidelity teachers’ responses to this question suggested they feel AMC
Anywhere will be an effective and easy to use formative assessment.
How did the PD influence how you plan on collecting and using data this year?

I feel a lot more comfortable going in as a 1st year teacher. I think this data will give me exactly what I
need for each student. It will be easier to adapt instruction based on data

This has given me such a better understanding of math concept progression. I feel like I will have as-
sessments that I can use to direct my instruction. So awesome. I am really looking forward to using.
Thanks very much

The responses to the survey show a level of enthusiasm and excitement for implementing this program
in their classroom. Both responses suggest the teachers will be using the data to direct their instruction.
The next responses were included in the online modules from high fidelity teachers and suggest they
were using AMC without difficulty and were using the data for instruction.

I think the AMC data is giving us so much more [data]! I found out where my kids were in math quickly.
I like how it is easy to work with.

I love how the AMC Anywhere testing results help us determine groups for math.

The responses from the high fidelity teachers continue to exude a positive and enthusiastic outlook
for using the AMC Anywhere program. The first response shows the data provided by AMC Anywhere
was more comprehensive than other assessments, pinpointed students’ understanding, and was easy to
use. The second response focuses on the data report created by AMC Anywhere and the ease in using
those reports for grouping students. Both responses reveal the teachers are not having difficulty imple-
menting AMC Anywhere. The high fidelity teachers expressed their challenges in a way that suggested
they were engaging with the professional development to work toward creating an environment that
supported their learners.
Low fidelity teachers: The teachers that were identified as low fidelity teachers in this study have
responses that demonstrate a level of struggle that may be limiting their successful implementation of
the ideas and AMC assessment program that were part of this grant. The responses of the low fidelity
teachers are limited to Module One; they did not participate in Module Two and Three. The lack of
participation in these last two modules also displays a lack of implementation fidelity, reflection, and
collaboration with regards to this particular project. Their responses to the post survey at the end of the
summer professional development also reveal barriers to implementation.
How did the PD influence how you plan on collecting and using data this year?

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We may need magnetic 2 color sided counters at our school (WSE). Suggestions: I would like to see a
video/s of model classrooms set up/designed for Kathy Richardson. A video library would be helpful.

I will be able to get much more detailed information about my students learning. I will be able to tell how
students got their answers rather than just the answer. I have specific activities to address student needs.
I would love to go to a model class that uses Kathy Richardson to get an idea of how it will actually look
in a classroom. It would be great of we could get magnetic red and yellow chips to use in number talks.

The first response presents ideas for more materials and support that would be helpful to get started,
there are no details about how the summer professional development will impact their data collection
for the coming school year. It appears that without more materials and video support the collection of
data is hindered for this particular participant. The second response exhibits a more positive view to-
ward using AMC Anywhere; however, the plans for the year are non-specific and the request for more
materials and modeling indicates the actual implementation of AMC Anywhere may be impeded. The
next responses were posted in the online modules.

Being new to this material, I am feeling a bit overwhelmed with trying to familiarize myself with the
materials and prepare the materials. I often feel like there just isn’t enough time.

This is where I would like to be more familiar with the Kathy Richardson activities so that I could easily
access the necessary prerequisite activities for these children. Being new to this material, I am feeling
a bit overwhelmed with trying to familiarize myself with the materials and prepare the materials. I am
eager to hear how others have designed their math instruction because I am definitely in the market for
suggestions. Low Fidelity Teachers

The responses illustrate the teachers’ struggle with dedicating time to participating in this project
and becoming familiar with the program, strategies, and professional development. These responses, as
noted, are coming from Module One and show feelings of being overwhelmed from the beginning of
the project. Even though the second response appears to be seeking collaboration with other participants
the teachers does not continue with the modules and therefore limits the chance to exchange ideas. The
low fidelity teachers shared a sense of being overwhelmed that prevented them from engaging or from
continuing to engage in the professional development

Collaboration

The online professional development required participants to thoughtfully respond to the posts of their
peers. The requirement was designed to encourage teachers to collaborate with one another and share
ideas. The high fidelity teachers actively sought out collaboration and appeared to genuinely want feed-
back from their peers.
High fidelity teachers: High fidelity teachers participated in the online professional development in
a way that supported collaboration among their peers through the discussion board posts. Their posts
revealed they valued and wanted the input of the other participating teachers.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

I agree with you on what works for one may not work for all. I find that very difficult to work around.
Again, differentiation I find that there are times when I need to work with just one student and I can’t
devote the time that I need as I have about six students who have different needs. I am working to find
a solution. Any ideas?

My “to do” list going forward is to keep math talks, number of the day, and the dot cards for “how did
you see it?” My students have grown just from seeing how others process the dot cards and what number
combinations they are seeing to get a particular number. Any suggestions for a better way to do place
value will be greatly appreciated!!

(Responding to a teacher’s concern about balancing time constraints and small group instruction) I
totally agree with the challenge you are facing. That is where I struggle as well. Any thoughts on how to
combat this from the group would be greatly appreciated!! High Fidelity Teachers

The responses above show the teachers have read the responses of other colleagues, they affirm those
concerns, share their own challenges, and open the conversation for ideas from their peers. There is also
a sense of diligence conveyed in these concerns that suggests the teachers are challenged, but persistent
in working through those challenges.
Low fidelity teachers: The low fidelity teachers included limited posts about collaborative experi-
ences that they had with their colleagues during the school year. All teacher-participants are required
to collaborate weekly with their grade level teams during mathematics planning. During this planning
time, teachers are supported by an administrator or instructional facilitator/coach to guide this process.
Despite the fact that collaboration was not mentioned by the low fidelity teachers, they did collaborate
weekly with their teachers regarding mathematics instruction.

Reflection about Implementation and Experiences

The questions included in the professional development modules were designed to encourage teachers
to reflect on their practice, share their challenges and successes, and to provide new ideas from peers.
High fidelity teachers: High fidelity teachers posted reflective responses that evaluated their practices,
highlighted challenges, and shared ideas with others on the discussion board for helping their students.

That is an area I need to work on too. I tend to like things a little too quiet sometimes! I have definitely
seen the kids learning a lot for each other this year. For this to really be successful they need to be able
to talk to each other.

I agree with this reflection. One of the challenges of having the students work in small groups is that when
I look over and see that the work is not going as I had planned, my initial reaction is to run over to the
students and “help” them fix it. I need to learn to give them time to work through issues on their own.

When reading this post it really helped me realize that if I conducted number talks on a regular basis, I
would reinforce and practice these key skills constantly.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

All three responses begin with the acknowledgement of having read another teachers’ post, thought-
fully considered the ideas presented, followed by describing their challenges and a plan to adjust instruc-
tion. The plans include allowing more discussion between students even if the volume tests the teachers
comfort level, allowing more time for students to think through problems, and implementing math talk
more consistently. These ideas are reinforced in the professional development and seem to be becoming
part of the mathematics routines of high fidelity teachers.
Low fidelity teachers: The low fidelity teachers did not include any posts that included reflective
thoughts or ideas regarding the professional development or the use of the AMC Anywhere system. While
these teachers may have had successes or struggles they did not include them. Discussion posts were
simply just a presentation of factual information.

Focus on Student Learning

Teachers varied in their comments about their focus on student learning. The goal of the APLUS project
was to improve student learning by supporting teachers’ use of formative assessment processes. High
fidelity teachers wrote in-depth responses about student learning, while low fidelity teachers did not
mention student learning in detail.
High fidelity teachers: High fidelity teachers continued to complete all three online professional
development modules and included many posts that emphasize the benefit of using the assessments and
noticeable student growth. The observation of student growth may be one of the factors that contributed
to the teachers’ fidelity to the program.

I completely agree. My students are much more fluent within 10 and 20. AMC really proves to work!

Kathy has changed math workshop for my students as well. I feel more informed and am challenged to
meet the needs of my students who still aren’t performing at grade level. The tools from Kathy Richardson
that I have implemented have strengthened math work time for my students and I can see a difference
from the growth they are making. Last year it was hard to see growth. Classroom observations are now
spent seeing how students are growing and using the terminology and thinking about math more.

I have seen so much growth already, and I am excited to watch them learn and experience math through
differentiated workshop.

My students have achieved so much more! They are fluent within 10. Most of my students are even fluent
within 12. They have grown so much since the beginning.

I have found that some of my higher level thinkers sometimes try to out think each other! They hear
somebody else’s strategy that was the same one they actually used too. Then they try to come up with
another strategy that becomes more complicated than the original strategy.

I am seeing improvement all around. My struggling students have been able to master fluency within
five and are almost there within ten.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

As noted earlier the responses of the high fidelity teachers show a level of enthusiasm for the proj-
ect and especially the growth they are experiencing with their students. They are reflecting on the way
students are developing and how they are interacting with one other. The responses include growth in
the area of fluency, using mathematical terminology, and problem solving strategies. The first response
indicates this particular teacher found identifying growth and progress with students’ number sense to be
a challenge the year before and AMC Anywhere has made a positive difference. The teacher continues
to note that the data on student growth has allowed her classroom observations to take on a new focus.
Their responses indicate they are invested in the professional development and following implementa-
tion with reflection
Low fidelity teachers: The low fidelity teachers’ mentioned some information about their use of data
and students’ growth. However, their responses lacked the specificity and enthusiasm presented in high
fidelity responses.

The Kathy Richardson assessments allow me to ability group my students based on specific skills and with
specific numbers to review. I’ve always had flexible grouping, but for many skills, the groups would stay
the same. Now that I have more data to support my grouping decisions, I truly have had more movement
between groups depending on the skill we are working on and those that a child needs more practice or
has mastered and is ready for a higher number or greater challenge.

Kathy Richardson has allowed me to change the way that I use data in my classroom as it really organizes
student performance based on specific skills.

The focus of both responses is primarily on grouping students. The first response alludes to groups
having greater flexibility than prior years due to the data offering more insight into the student learning.
It is assumed that movement of students to different groups is a movement of growth due to an increase
in their understanding. The response lacks details to better understand how the groups are created, how
the data influences the grouping, and how impactful the program has been on student growth. The second
response also focuses on organization of students by their performance on specific skills, but does not
include a description of student growth.

Examining Teachers’ Responses to the Summer Survey

The paired t-test analysis of the pre and post survey indicated both the high and low fidelity teachers
had mean scores that moved more towards student centered practices in the classroom; however, the
difference in mean scores from pre (M = 3.26, SD =.11) (M = 3.05, SD =.31) to post (M= 2.96, SD
= .36) (M = 2.73, SD =.74) for each group were not statistically significant (t(4)= 2.10, p> .05)(t(4)=
.79, p > .05). The survey included a small section on assessment goals, both the high and low fidelity
groups mean scores went up from pre (M = 3.26, SD =.11) (M = 3.16, SD =.55) to post (M = 3.76,
SD =.79) (M = 3.84, SD =.74)indicating they gained self-efficacy in their ability to use assessment
with their students. The increase was not statistically significant for either group (t(4)= -1.77, p> .05)
(t(4)= -1.43, p> .05). Hence, there was no empirical connection between teachers’ implementation of
the professional development with fidelity and their responses on the survey at the end of the 40-hour
summer experience.

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

Summary of Differences between High Fidelity and Low Fidelity Teachers

The data analysis of discussion board posts indicated that teachers who used the AMC Anywhere system
and related instructional activities with a high degree of fidelity resembled specific characteristics. High
fidelity teachers organized their classroom in a flexible manner in which the learning environment had
structure but could be modified to best meet the academic needs of their students. Further, high fidelity
teachers espoused a belief that the data from the AMC Anywhere system was beneficial to them, and
could be used with other data sources to help them make effective instructional decisions. High fidel-
ity teachers also discussed the growth they were seeing in their students and the benefits of making
data-based decisions in their classroom. Lastly, high fidelity teachers wrote more reflective comments
about their experiences, and posted comments in which the reaffirmed and supported their peers on the
discussion board posts.

DISCUSSION

The findings from this study highlight the differences that exist between a high fidelity teacher and a
low fidelity teacher. Ideally, professional development is planned with the goal of creating high fidelity
teachers that are effectively implementing the learning tool to address student learning in a meaningful
way. The factors pertaining to in the classroom practices, out of the classroom practices, and student
progress were where we found differences between high and low fidelity teachers. These findings war-
rant further discussion.

In Classroom Factors

Several objectives included in the professional development were centered on implementation of the
AMC Anywhere web-based formative assessment and creating a learning environment that would allow
the data to be used effectively.
Learning environment: The professional development provided participating teachers with instruc-
tion for using the AMC Anywhere program and materials were provided to help teachers connect the
formative assessment data directly to the learning environment they would create for their students. Link-
ing formative assessment data with instructional practices has been shown to produce gains in student
learning (Polly et al., 2014; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Wiliam, 2007b).The first module of the professional
development revealed high fidelity teachers had structure and routines that were fluid and adapted based
on data. Their responses indicated they implemented the strategies discussed in professional development
and were directed by student data.
Implementation: The AMC Anywhere program is designed for students to be regularly assessed.
Formative assessment collected and analyzed at the individual level consistency produces significant
gains in student learning (Fuchs &Fuchs, 1986). The APLUS teacher participants were required to as-
sess students at least three times during the school year. The high fidelity participants adhered to and
exceeded this requirement. Their discussion responses throughout the on-line modules showed they
valued the data and it became instrumental in designing their classroom and instructional strategies.
Low fidelity teachers struggled to meet the requirement and in most cases assessed their students only
once. Formative assessment research affirms that consistent assessment that produces data that directly
impacts practice is essential for increasing student growth (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Wiliam, 2007b).

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

Student growth: The professional development supported the implementation of AMC Anywhere
formative assessment, provided teachers with additional learning materials, and illustrated ways to
facilitate a learning environment that is flexible to student needs. These objectives were intended to
increase students’ growth in their mathematical thinking. The high fidelity teachers used the assessment
consistently and used the data in their instruction. This was evident in the AMC Anywhere data and their
online posts. Their posts indicated they were seeing their students grow in their number sense and with
specific skills. Low fidelity teachers responded in less specific terms and in some cases failed to mention
student growth. Formative assessment research suggests regular assessment produces growth (Black &
Wiliam, 1998); therefore the inconsistency of low fidelity teachers may have impeded their ability to
see growth with their students. Future research studies need to examine how professional development
can further assist teachers in connecting data to a learning environment that promotes student growth.
This may occur through mentorship between high fidelity teachers and low fidelity teachers to create a
more specific network of support.

Out of Classroom Practices and Factors

Several out of classroom practices and factors were identified during the data analysis process. They
include teachers’ use of data, collaboration with colleagues and their reflective practices.
Use of data: The goal of the APLUS project was to support teachers’ use of the AMC Anywhere for-
mative assessment system to collect data on their students’ mathematics understanding and then use the
data to make sound instructional decisions. High fidelity teachers used the AMC Anywhere consistently
and reported specific details in their discussion board posts about how they were using their data to
make instructional decisions. Low fidelity teachers did not talk specifically talk about the use of AMC
Anywhere data. However, in some cases these teachers did mention other data sources, such as district-
wide assessments or curriculum-based assessments.
Research indicates that teachers’ use of data collected for formative assessment processes directly
indicates student learning (Wiliam, 2007b; Black & Wiliam, 1998). Further, teachers who do not ef-
fectively use formative data to make instructional decisions are missing a potentially rich opportunity
to modify and differentiate instruction based on students’ academic performance (Wiliam, 2007b). It
is imperative that future studies examine how exactly teachers are using their data sources to make in-
structional decisions, as well as what factors teachers possess in order to effectively conduct formative
assessment processes (Martin & Polly, 2015; Polly et al., under review).
Collaboration: High fidelity teachers used the online discussion forum as a tool to collaborate and
interact with their colleagues. The comments made by high fidelity teachers spoke consistently about
their thoughts and experiences, and also affirmed or offered suggestions to their peers on the discussion
forum. All teacher-participants in this project collaborated on mathematics instruction weekly with their
grade level teams, but the high fidelity teachers extended their collaboration using the discussion posts.
The low fidelity teachers, however, did not post in depth responses to each other and did not seek out
collaboration.
One possibility for the low fidelity teachers’ lack of evidence of collaboration was that they may
be working in a school that lacks collaborative efforts around the use of the AMC Anywhere system.
Research studies on programs that embody LCPD found that teachers are more likely to implement new
knowledge and skills from professional development if they have school-based support and collaboration
from their peers (Polly, 2006; Polly & Hannafin, 2011; Heck et al., 2008; Loucks-Horsley et al., 2010).

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Primary Grades Teachers’ Fidelity of Teaching Practices during Mathematics Professional Development

Individuals who design online asynchronous professional development programs need to intentionally
think about ways to increase teachers’ collaboration with others. Further, subsequent research studies
should examine the design and influence of online professional development projects that seek to improve
the amount of collaboration between teacher-participants.
Reflective practices: Low fidelity teachers simply stated facts and did not post reflective comments
about their instruction, their use of the AMC Anywhere system, or students’ learning. High fidelity
teachers, on the other hand, shared reflections about their students’ growth, their experiences using the
formative assessment system, and their experiences making data-based instructional decisions. Addition-
ally, high fidelity teachers demonstrated reflective practices as they shared how they reflected on their
student data to differentiate instruction.
LCPD research supports professional learning activities in which teachers complete classroom-based
work and then reflect on their experiences as well as the impact on student learning (Loucks-Horsley et
al., 2010). Formative assessment processes require teachers to be reflective about their students’ perfor-
mance, their data sources, and how student learning has been impacted by previous instruction (Wiliam,
2007a, 2007b). Future online LCPD projects should continue to look for ways to support and scaffold
teachers’ use of reflective practices. This could occur through more structured activities that require
teachers to collect data followed by a series of tasks that promote analysis and reflection about the data.

CONCLUSION

This chapter closely examined the teacher participants in a professional development project, Assess-
ment Practices to Support Mathematics Learning and Understanding for Students (APLUS). The teachers
participated in the summer professional development and completed a survey related to their teaching
practices and goals for assessment. At that point in the project the differences between participants were
difficult to discern and there were not statistically significant changes in the pre post means; however, as
the project progressed the on-line modules and assessment data revealed teacher participants that were
considered high fidelity and those that were low fidelity. The high fidelity teachers exhibited several
characteristics that seemed to show they were fully engaged and actively using the AMC Anywhere pro-
gram and instructional supports to the benefit of their students. Low fidelity teachers exhibited a sense
of being overwhelmed and discontinued their engagement in the on-line professional development and
limited their use of the AMC Anywhere formative assessment. Some implications of this study are to
include more structured activities with tasks that increase analysis and reflection, identify high fidelity
teachers and find ways to give them leadership and mentorship roles, and increase support for teachers
that begin to show low fidelity characteristics. Future research that examines how teachers use data in
their instructional decisions, the factors of teachers that are effectively using formative assessment, and
how online professional development should be designed to foster collaboration and teacher support is
essential.
This particular study used data produced from an internet based PD and formative assessment us-
age reports. This provided insight into the effect of PD on participant practices; however, it is difficult
to discern between what teachers reported in reflections and their actual behavior. This limitation has
been noted by the researchers and the third year of the grant includes observations that will be used as
our research continues.

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Chapter 4
A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’
Professional Development
Structure in Turkey:
Moving from Instruction to Learning

Murat Günel
TED University, Turkey

Melike Özer-Keskin
Gazi University, Turkey

Nilay Keskin-Samancı
Gazi University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
This chapter concerns the importance of in-service training programmes for the professional development
of science teachers. A description will be given of the general structure of in-service training activities in
Turkey and the results will be presented of an in-service training project, which was conducted as part
of a three-year longitudinal study. Within the scope of the project, an in-service training programme
for science teachers was conducted based on the argument-based inquiry approach and the theoretical
premises upon which it is built. The project aimed to direct science teachers towards student-centred
teaching. The training activities focused on the scientific thinking underpinning the teachers’ profes-
sional knowledge and practices, their perceptions on learning, and their pedagogical practices and
epistemological beliefs. The extent to which these activities affected classroom applications and learning
processes was investigated and the findings suggest that they had a statistically significant impact on
the teachers’ pedagogical development and on the students’ academic performance and thinking skills.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch004

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey

INTRODUCTION

The Importance of Professional Development

Programmes for Science Teachers

Considering today’s competition-based systems and developments on the international stage, one can
appreciate the importance of raising individuals possessing the skills that respond to the requirements of
our age (Miaoulis, 2009). For this reason, investment in science, technology, engineering, and mathemat-
ics (STEM) literacy are very much on the increase. In STEM education, as in all educational systems,
this investment and support focus on the students, teachers, and training programmes and the efficiency
and effectiveness of educational systems depend on these three elements moving in harmony towards a
specific target. A breakdown, weakness, ineffectiveness, or malfunctioning in any of these elements is
bound to lower the efficiency of the whole system. Today, academic performance and a positive change
in students in terms of various skills are considered to be the barometers of efficiency and success in
education.
The most important factor in ensuring these positive changes in students in terms of various skills
and academic performance is, undoubtedly, the teacher (Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005), because,
as pointed out by researchers who have studied the link between the exercise of the profession and the
learning outcomes, a crucial relationship exists between teachers’ adequacy and students’ performance
(Hoy & Miskel, 2008; Junor-Clarke & Fourniller, 2012; Guskey, 2014). Training well-qualified teachers
is only possible through an effective implementation of the pre-service and in-service educational activi-
ties (Darling-Hammond, 1999; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). In order for teachers to keep up
with the contemporary requirements of the educational sector in their professional lives and to educate
individuals possessing the skills demanded of them, they need to constantly refresh their capabilities
and take part in the in-service training activities organized for this purpose. The link between in-service
training programmes and teachers’ professional development directly affects school development and
students’ learning quality (Kennedy, 1998). When this interaction is taken into account, the need for a
proper assessment of the targets and structuring of these in-service training programmes cannot be missed.

Structure and Implementation of Professional Development Programmes

All over the world, traditional in-service training programmes are implemented in the form of seminars
and presentations to raise the teacher’s teaching abilities and knowledge however, improving teachers’
performance in the classroom requires developing their practical skills (McCann, Alan, & Gail, 2012).
In-service training programmes should not only present teachers with the opportunity to learn new things
but also provide them with a setting where they can put their theoretical knowledge into practice (Avalos,
2011). Only in this way can in-service training programmes achieve their main goal of bringing about
a difference in teachers’ attitudes and beliefs, their ways of teaching, and their students’ performance
(Guskey, 2002). From this perspective, traditional in-service training concepts appear to have become a
learning environment for all. This transition has had an impact on the administrators, teachers, and the
schools which are continuous research settings for students (Fullan, 2001; Knight, 2007; Loucks-Horsley,
1995; Loucks-Horsley, Stiles, & Hewson, 1996).
In addition to being a process that needs prioritized planning and implementation that will allow
educational reforms to be applied and new approaches to be put into practice, in-service training for

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A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey

teachers has an important role in determining the quality of education and making improvements along
the way (Supovitz & Turner, 2000). Educational reforms in many countries seem to fail because teach-
ers’ beliefs, values, and practical levels/skills are not taken into account (Al-Daami & Wallace, 2007;
McDonald, 2003). This is despite the widely known effects of in-service training on improving the field
knowledge and teaching skills of teachers who are in the foreground in the structuring and implementa-
tion of teaching programmes (Bybee & Loucks-Horsley, 2000; Garet et al,. 1999).
According to the literature, teachers’ beliefs concerning the theory of knowledge and their classroom
practices are indispensable components that need to be tackled together within in-service training pro-
grammes if significant changes are to be brought about in learning and teaching settings (Kennedy, 1998;
Luft, 2001). Research shows that grasping learning theories (and in particular the structural learning
theory) and reflecting them in educational settings do not suffice on their own and must be comple-
mented by considerations of teachers’ willingness, motivations, and beliefs on learning and teaching
(Simon, 1995; Simon & Schifter, 1987; Hand & Treagust, 1995; Luft, 2001; Wellington & Osborne,
2001; Windschitd, 2002). Therefore, it follows that in-service training programmes must be structured
to take such components of knowledge theory into account.
Teachers’ theoretical ideas on how effective learning takes place directly influence their ways of
teaching and the pedagogical decisions that they make (Simon, 1995). In this context, many research-
ers hold that professional development programmes must include teachers’ beliefs about their students’
ways of learning and thinking and interact with teachers’ actual practices (Millar, Osborne, &Nott, 1998;
Millar & Osborne, 1998; Richardson & Placier, 2001). The design of in-service training programmes
must also include teachers’ beliefs on learning and teaching, elements of classroom management, and
components of student assessment (Fishman et al,. 2003).
The success of the in-service training programmes also depends on the content, structure, and format
as well as how thoroughly they were initially planned. Besides, when planning in-service training, it is
important to ensure that activities are student-centred, have substantial content, consider learner needs,
and conform to the legal regulations (Guskey, 2000). There are several international studies that recom-
mend comprehensive theoretical and practical structures to improve teachers’ professional adequacies in
this context. Determining and improving the perceptions, structures, and practices of in-service training
in Turkey are the main areas to be prioritised.

The Current State of Professional Development Programmes in Turkey

In the international arena, the importance of teachers’ professional development has been underlined
by many studies, and acknowledged with large funds from national budgets. In Turkey, as in all other
countries, the importance of in-service training for teachers was recognized in the early years of the
Republic, and a number of studies were undertaken by individual researchers or commissioned by vari-
ous institutions concluding that well-qualified and experienced teachers are an indispensable element of
education and multi-faceted training is required for teachers to meet the needs of their classrooms (The
Holmes Group, 1996; Thair & Treagust, 2003; Seferoğlu, 2004). The European Commission Report on
Improving the Quality of Teacher Education (2007) stated, “teachers should be able to improve their
teaching skills with in-service training programmes” and highlighted the importance of these skills being
open to development in light of suggestions and feedback (Auhl & Daniel, 2014).
In line with the principles of lifelong learning, in-service training programmes provide a great op-
portunity for teachers to keep pace with the advances in the field of education and apply them in their

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A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey

classrooms. In Turkey, in-service training programmes for teachers are mostly organized by the Ministry
of National Education (MoNE), Directorate-General for Teacher Training, Department of Professional
Development and Monitoring. MoNE has organized in-service training activities since 1960 to raise
teachers’ efficiency in their teaching practices and prepare them for future assignments. The first example
of these activities was the two seminars held in 1960 with 85 participants. Since then, a total of 11,081
activities have been organised with the participation of 391,829 staff (Directorate-General for Teacher
Training and Development, 2014). The in-service training programmes organized by the MoNE can be
grouped, according to their objectives, as orientation training for newly appointed teachers, candidacy
training, preparatory training for higher appointments, training for expert educators, training for per-
sonal and professional development, and adaptation training for field-switching teachers. The stages
of organization and implementation of these in-service training programmes are summarized in the
following section.

Determining Educational Needs

Studies on teacher efficacy in Turkey have risen due to the constant changes in the responsibilities of teach-
ers, and the competencies that are required. In this context, MoNE has, to a certain extent, collaborated
with universities and specified ‘Teacher Competencies’ (MoNE, 2008). Although MoNE aims to take
into account these teacher adequacies when planning educational activities in order to respond to teach-
ers’ constantly evolving and changing needs, the national report cards and research studies show that the
proclaimed alignments are barely reflected in the professional development plans and implementations.
In addition, MoNE plans educational activities in the light of teachers’ demands, challenges in the
regulations, advances in science and technology, inspection reports by the administration, and similar
action plans. In recent years, the MoNE has determined teachers’ in-service training needs through
surveys on the teaching profession, information technologies, and personal development. For instance,
planning for central and provincial in-service training programmes in 2014 was undertaken according
to the results of a survey of 37,450 teachers; however, the participants were a fraction of the 800,000
plus teachers and administrators in Turkey.
Since teachers inevitably have different in-service training needs, it is important that programmes are
designed and implemented to meet these various needs (Gokdere & Cepni, 2004; Onen et al., 2009; Fok
et al,. 2005; Rubba, 1985; Klein, 2001). Studies suggest that teachers’ needs have not been taken fully
into account by MoNE in the planning process of the in-service training activities, and, consequently,
the activities fail to meet the needs of the teacher participants (Gultekin, Cubukcu, & Dal, 2010; Budak
& Demirel, 2003).

Planning Educational Activities

Every year, the in-service training programmes for teachers are planned and implemented by the Ministry
in the capital and by local education authorities in the remainder of the country. Unfortunately, studies
have drawn attention to the failure to assign qualified staff to plan and design needs-based content, and
also to the lack of implementing a sufficient number of these training events (Gultekin, Cubukcu & Dal,
2010; Onen et al., 2009; Gokdere & Cepni, 2004; Gokdere & Kucuk, 2003).

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Implementation of In-service Training Activities

To attend the in-service training activities teachers need to apply on-line through the MoNE portal then
the participants are chosen following an evaluation of the applicants. These evaluations are often con-
sidered subjective since they are based on the criteria laid down by the region/state the teacher works
in and previous trainings they attended. The central training activities are conducted by the Ministry at
the seven In-service Training Institutes. Training by Local Education Authorities is offered using the
facilities of schools and other educational institutions. Face-to-face as well as distance training activi-
ties are offered. The orientation training for newly appointed teachers and the professional development
training for pre-school, elementary, middle and high school teachers are centrally planned and carried
out as distance training through video-conferencing.
According to various studies there are a number of problems in the implementation process of these
in-service training activities such as; short periods allocated to the activities, certificates of participation
being issued without any kind of assessment, very few or no long-term activities, unsuitable settings for
the content of the activities, abundance of theory-based activities, and very little or no practical train-
ing (Onen et al. 2009; Kanli & Yagbasan, 2001; Gokdere & Cepni, 2004; Gonen & Kocakaya, 2006).

Monitoring and Assessment

The monitoring and assessment of MoNE’s in-service training programmes are carried out through
surveys. The assessment of training is based on the participants’ response to questions concerning pre-
training, planning and programming, training staff, training centre, organization and management, what
teachers acquired from the training, and an overall evaluation.
The in-service training programmes designed and implemented by the MoNE are based on short-,
mid-, and long-term planning according to teachers’ needs, but the majority is of short duration (30
hours on average, between one and 10 days). The monitoring and assessment of these programmes are
limited to the evaluation performed only at the end the programmes. There is no long-term post-training
monitoring or assessment to determine how the teachers put the results of the training into practice in
their classrooms. In other words, how much the teacher acquired from the training is not followed up. It is
of paramount importance that the outcomes of the professional development programmes are monitored
in the long term in terms of both changes in teachers and their impact on students. In this context, long-
term in-service training programmes for science teachers incorporating classroom-monitoring processes
are needed, particularly in Turkey.
In order to meet this need, within the last 5 years, in-service training programmes have been organized
for science teachers as part of a three-year longitudinal research project supported by TUBITAK in co-
operation with four universities. The training activities were designed taking into account the problems
reported in the relevant literature. This project aimed to reveal, through teacher training, both the changes
in teachers and the reflection of these changes upon their students. This aspect makes the project a first
in science education in Turkey and a contributor to the limited literature worldwide on the impact of in-
service training on learning. It is also considered that the in-service training programme designed as part
of the project is an exemplary model in terms of planning, implementation, monitoring, and assessment.

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The Theoretical Framework, Aim, and Structure of the

Longitudinal Professional Development Programme

The Science Writing Heuristic (SWH) developed by Hand and Keys (1999) is a theoretical framework
stressing the importance of language use in learning and forming the basis of scientific debate in the
conceptual sense. This approach was later modified with an emphasis on ‘argumentation’ and named
the Argument-Based Inquiry (ABI) (Hand, 2008; Hand, 2009; Norton-Meier et al. 2009). Today, the
objective of ABI is to make a difference in teachers’ perspectives on learning and teaching to support
students’ science-learning through the arguments they build on the ideas derived from their research.
Many studies in the literature worldwide have attempted to prove the effectiveness of the ABI approach
(Hand & Keys, 1999; Keys, Hand, Prain & Collins, 1999; Wallance, Yang, Hand & Hohenshell, 2001;
Hohenshell & Hand, 2006; Rudd, Greenbowe, Hand & Legg, 2001; Grimberg, Mohammed & Hand,
2004; Akkus, Gunel & Hand, 2007).
The project aimed to improve teachers’ professional knowledge and bring about change in their
practices within the scope of the theoretical framework of the ABI approach through the organised in-
service training programmes. Since teachers undergo pedagogical changes over a long term, five-day
in-service training programmes were organized every six months over the course of three years as part
of the project. These programmes aimed to equip the participating teachers with the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes in line with the ABI approach. In order to determine whether the expected change occurred
in the teaching pedagogy, the changes in the students’ field knowledge, critical thinking, and scientific
processing skills as well as their attitude to science were also investigated.
The project aimed to detect the pedagogical change in science and technology teachers through
in-service training in line with the ABI approach, and the impact of this change in the classroom. A
detailed information about the participating teachers, in-service training programmes, and implementa-
tion processes are summarized in the following section.

Participating Teachers

The teachers’ participation in the project was completely voluntary. At the project proposal stage, ap-
proximately 500 science and technology teachers were contacted by e-mail for the selection of the
participants. These teachers had previously taken part in the in-service training programmes organized
by MoNE and conducted by the project leader. The e-mail contained information about the content and
main objectives of the project, and an invitation to participate in the training programmes.
Data obtained from the State Planning Organization (SPO, 2003) was used for the selection of the
voluntary teachers. The SPO (2003) divided provinces in Turkey into groups by level of development
with reference to their socio-economic parameters. This parameter was considered for the selection of
the participants so that provinces with different levels of development could be represented. In this way,
30 voluntary teachers working in 21 different provinces were selected as participants.

In-Service Training Programmes

Through in-service training, the project aimed to direct science teachers towards student-centred teach-
ing. The training activities focused on the scientific thinking underpinning the teachers’ professional
knowledge and practices. In line with the project goals, longitudinal in-service training programmes were

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conducted over a period of three years in order for the teachers to efficiently apply the ABI approach
to their classroom practices. The participating teachers took part in a total of five in-service training
programmes twice every year.
All the in-service training activities were designed considering the teachers’ needs and the project
goals, and geared to the acquisition of the ABI approach by the participants. Each programme focused
on an educational theme that was considered important in the ABI approach. The teachers were helped
acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the light of the ABI approach using themes; such as learning,
conceptual underpinnings of ABI, importance of questioning, sharing changing experiences in teaching
pedagogy and planning.
Research suggests that the success of in-service training programmes rises when they are designed as
more than just an ordinary professional development programme with well-defined and clearly laid-out
objectives, and when supported by seminars, team work, workshops, conferences, visits, and consulta-
tion services as well as on-line and face-to-face educational activities (Guskey, 2014; National Research
Council, 1996; Evans, 1986). From this point of view, planning was considered to be one of the most
important factors for an effective in-service training programme (Klein, 2001), and all the project activi-
ties were planned with due diligence over the course of three years.
All in-service training activities were structured around an assessment of the teachers’ practices in
the previous programme and a debate on what needed to be done to improve teachers’ ABI practices.
The teachers were asked to share their experiences relating to their ABI practices in the classroom
with the other participants and the project team. Proposals were formulated to overcome the challenges
experienced in these practices, which were then taken into consideration in the planning of subsequent
in-service training programmes.
One of the primary goals of these in-service training programmes was to allow participating teach-
ers to experience the process as ‘learners’. For this purpose, learning environments were set up where
the participants would be aware of, and reflect upon, their own learning. Current studies on the basics
of professional development highlight the significant role of the knowledge contributed by teachers to
in-service training programmes, and underline their existing beliefs on learning and teaching as a highly
effective factor in the success of the process (Loucks-Horsley, 1995). In this context, many published
studies and reports (Posner, Strike, Hewson & Gertzog, 1982; Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer & Scott,
1994; National Research Council (NRC), 1996, 2000) stress that teachers, just like students, need to
“acquire an experience of questioning as learners”, and underline the important role of professional
development programmes in improving the ways, in which science is taught. For this reason, learner-
focused ABI activities on the field knowledge of physics, chemistry, and biology were designed as part
of the in-service training activities for the science teachers. In the course of these activities, data on the
basic patterns of the ABI approach was obtained, which led to the formulation of claims with corrobo-
rating evidence. In this way, the question-claim-evidence triangle, which is an important component of
the ABI approach, was established. Furthermore, writing to learn activities were included as one of the
language practices in the ABI approach. Sample writing activities that can be used in different levels of
education were presented, and the participants took part in these activities.
Throughout the training, in addition to directly experiencing the learning process, the teachers were
presented with further opportunities to work in collaboration with their colleagues and the researchers.
During the planning and the ABI practices in their own classrooms, the participating teachers took direct
responsibility and structured the process in collaboration with their colleagues and the researchers. Many

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A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey

studies on the effectiveness of in-service training programmes underline the importance of participants
taking direct responsibility in the planning, application, and assessment processes, and structuring the
training in collaboration (Evans, 1986; Hutson, 1981; Klein, 2001).
Over the course of the project, all in-service training programmes were evaluated on a daily basis in
addition to an overall evaluation at the end of the project. These assessments sought to elicit the partici-
pating teachers’ views on the training process, which shed light on the needs, problems, and aspects for
improvement. The results helped review the already flexible structure of the process and provided new
suggestions for solutions when needed.
As stated above, in the planning and application of all in-service training programmes, the focus was
primarily on clear and lucid educational goals. It was also ensured that the programmes were flexible
enough to respond to the needs that might arise and included room for manoeuvre, assessment processes,
and contingency plans. Amendments were made to the programmes as and when needed in the light of
the participants’ needs, and all information available on the processes were shared with the teachers.
In order to increase the teachers’ self-efficacy and support them in their practices, the researchers
shared the results of video analyses and assessments with the participants, and visited the teachers in their
schools to provide feedback on their classroom ABI practices (follow-up assistance). The data obtained
from the video assessment of the teachers’ ABI practices in the classroom were shared with the teachers
on an individual basis to demonstrate the periodic changes due to the longitudinal nature of the project.
This provided an opportunity for the teachers to be aware of their own progress and to reflect upon the
changes in their pedagogical knowledge. In addition, sessions on critical consideration and assessment
were organized, where the teachers were presented with opportunities to evaluate their own practices.
In all in-service training activities, a great deal of importance was attached to integrating the exist-
ing teaching programmes with the ABI approach. It was frequently stressed that the ABI approach was
an instrument in learning the basic concepts laid out in the curriculum, and that the students needed to
improve their higher-level thinking skills.
Another primary goal of the project was to explore the changes in students’ academic performance
following the change in their teachers’ pedagogy. To this end, after each in-service training programme,
the teachers were asked to engage in ABI practices in their classrooms. In addition, in the final days of
the programme, after selecting units for practice the teachers prepared for teaching the units under the
supervision of the researchers and in collaboration with their colleagues. Those who selected the same
units for practice worked in groups. Each group agreed upon a main idea from their practice units. Later,
ABI activities and progress tests were drafted for assessment purposes.
As part of the project, the data analysis results obtained from the teachers’ classrooms were also
shared with the teachers. The performance evaluations of the participating teachers in terms of their
ABI practices were put into reports and shared with them, including recommendations to handle the
shortcomings.

Data Collection

Within the scope of the in-service training programmes, the participating teachers engaged in ABI
practices in their primary education sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-year science and technology classes.
Classes where the teachers practiced the ABI approach were used as the experiment groups. In the control
groups, the teachers carried on using the traditional teaching methods.

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A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey

The researchers visited the teachers in their schools to observe their ABI practices in the classroom
settings. With these on-site visits, proper assessments were made and guidance was offered to the teach-
ers. Figure 1 presents a summary of this process.
The data presented in Figure 1 was collected from the participating teachers and their classes form-
ing the experiment / control groups. For data collection, the Scientific Process Skills Test (Smith &
Welliver, 2006), Cornell Critical Thinking Skills Test (Ennis, Millman & Thomko, 2005), Science and
Technology Attitude Scale (Nuhoglu, 2008), and Unit-Based Achievement Tests designed collectively
by the researchers and teachers were used.
Video recordings of the teachers’ ABI practices were also used for data collection to help determine
their ABI practice levels. These recordings were analysed by the project team using the Revised Teacher
Observation Protocol (RTOP). The RTOP observation form to be used for the assessments was designed
in light of the recommendations and standards set forth by the US National Council of Teachers of Math-
ematics (NCTM) and the National Science Education Standards. The observation form contained 17
items this allowed the ABI practices in the classroom to be evaluated according to the student, teacher,
reasoning and scientific process skills, and questioning sub-dimensions.
The application stages of the project outlined above were; in-service training activities, ABI practices
in the classroom, and data collection and analysis. Unlike the traditional concept of in-service training,
the basic dynamics of this project required a longitudinal programme over a period of three years. This
was based on the idea that it takes time for teachers to change their teaching practices. Feedback from
the participating teachers and the results of the data analysis suggest that long-term in-service training
programmes are more satisfactory for teachers.
Furthermore, the participating teachers’ pedagogical knowledge as well as their field knowledge was
developed and improved as a result of the ABI practices directly experienced by the teachers who wore
learner’s hats. In this way the learners’ (aka the students), needs were taken into consideration in the
design of the training programmes. The participating teachers were given feedback based on the analysis
of the video recordings of their ABI practices in the classroom and the field notes collected during the
visits of the research team. Furthermore, the teachers shared and reflected upon their experiences with
their colleagues, and opportunities were created for critical thinking in the training programmes devised
by the project team and the forums with the teachers.

Figure 1. Project application and data collection process

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A Paradigm Shift for Teachers’ Professional Development Structure in Turkey

Studies in the literature demonstrate the need for considering five crucial criteria in the assessment
of in-service training programmes; the participants’ views on the activities, their acquisition of new
knowledge and skills, organizational change and support, the participants’ ability to use their newly
acquired knowledge and skills, and the students’ learning outputs (Guskey, 2000; 2002). In this context,
it can be suggested that the training programmes within the scope of the project have a strong structure
in terms of meeting these criteria.

The Effects of the In-Service Training Programme on the

Knowledge, Beliefs and Practices of the Teachers

The concluding section of this chapter is two-folded. The first part of the section presents the impact of the
professional development activities and classroom implementations on the teachers’ beliefs, pedagogical
practices of the argument-based inquiry approach, and in-service trainings. The second part incorporates
the findings on students’ conceptual understandings of various science topics, critical thinking skills,
argumentation competencies, writing proficiencies, and attitudes toward science and science learning.

The Process of Change in Teachers over the Course of the Project

The structure of modern in-service teacher training in Turkey was first established in the 1960s and has
been subject to change due to political shifts over the decades. In their comprehensive and comparative
review of in-service teacher training literature, Gunel and Tanriverdi (2014) suggested that the current state
of in-service teacher training in Turkey is far from the international norms or a state-of-the-art structure.
The most significant deviations of the current setting from international tendencies are concerning the
purpose and structuring of the trainings. In other words, the in-service trainings in Turkey have shifted,
over time, from a learner (teacher) centred to a centralized and content-oriented framework. Thus, the
main purpose is now to deliver certain content and curriculum materials to more teachers regardless of
the current developments in the literature regarding teacher learning and research findings.
The MoNE, which is the main actor and stakeholder in the Turkish education system, has shifted
the majority of in-service teacher trainings to distance learning to meet the short-term legislation needs
and cover subjects that are popular among the education community (Directorate-General for Teacher
Training and Development, 2014). There are only a limited number of studies or small-scale projects
that have adapted the Turkish education setting to international in-service training norms (Gunel & Tan-
riverdi, 2014). These studies point out the need for and underline the significance of effective learning
environments, where teachers’ pedagogical and epistemological readiness, as well as their pedagogical
competencies, are taken into account and improved through longitudinal and colleague interactions
(Loucks-Horsley, 1995; Klein, 2001).
In our study, the implemented professional development programme was based on the blueprints
of international norms since it is longitudinal, teacher epistemology and competency based, learning
outcome oriented (for both teacher and student), and geared to colleague interaction.
In our study, the implemented professional development programme was based on the blueprints
of international norms since it is longitudinal, teacher epistemology and competency based, learning
outcome oriented (for both teacher and student), and geared to colleague interaction. Within the scope
of the project, Tanriverdi, Gunel, Asci & Ocak (2013) conducted semi-structured interviews with the
participating teachers to investigate the impact of professional development programmes and on-site

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support activities within the project on bringing about change in teachers’ pedagogical practices and
epistemological beliefs and on students’ learning outcomes. The findings point out that the structure of
in-service activities was highly effective in terms of promoting pedagogical development and a strong
understanding about learning, teaching, and argument-based inquiry approach (Mutlu-Pehlivan, Yesildag-
Hasancebi, Tanriverdi & Gunel, 2013). Furthermore, the participating teachers emphasized the value
and importance of the on-site support mechanism as well as co-teaching, and reflection-in-action and
reflection-on-action framework.
In Tanriverdi et al. (2013), one of the significant findings was how the teachers’ interacted with their
peers. In their study, teachers expressed their appreciation, awareness, and willingness to continue the
professional interaction created among the teachers who participated in the training. While the teacher
community in the Turkish school settings is generally only framed around the social interaction base,
the project provided the teachers with an opportunity to create new dimensions for interaction that led
to the formation of a ‘community of practitioners’. This type of community provided a safe learning
environment for teachers to learn from each other and the project staff based on an ongoing discussion
concerning their beliefs, practices, and observations during PD activities and in-class implementations
(Gunel, 2013). On the other hand, other research studies conducted within the project framework high-
lighted the importance of students’ learning outcomes and teachers’ own learning, which is a salient
feature of in-service training programmes (Gunel, Yesildag-Hasancebi, Keskin-Samanci, Demir, Ozgur,
Gundogan & Akbay, 2012; Gunel & Tanriverdi, 2012).
The above-mentioned studies are based on teachers’ view and perceptions on the structure and impact
of the project from their own learning experience and epistemology. The qualitative findings of these
case studies emphasize the significance of PD practices in the project that bridge teachers’ beliefs, per-
ceptions, and day-to-day routines about teaching and learning, and the basics of student-centred learn-
ing and the argument-based inquiry approach. Similarly, in other studies where pedagogical changes in
teachers were evaluated through teaching observation protocols over the course of a project, changes
were observed over time.
Teachers’ pedagogical implementation levels were assessed using the RTOP as outlined in the
methodology section. The project staff and independent reviewers evaluated all the video recordings
from each school term. A brief explanation of the components in the competency scale is given below:

• Exploring: A low level implementation where the learning environment is highly teacher-centred
and can mostly be classified as a direct instruction.
• Developing: A moderate level implementation where the teacher questions his/her practices as
well as beliefs to move toward an inquiry-based and student-centred approach.
• Transitioning: A high level implementation where the majority of the basic characteristics of an
argument-based inquiry approach is evident.
• Implementing: An exemplary level of implementation where the teacher can successfully re-
vise and implement new curriculum topics and materials in line with the argument-based inquiry
approach.

Earlier studies that reported on the end of first-year implementation levels of the teachers showed
that around 90 percent of the teachers were in the exploring level, and while a third of the participating
teachers remained there, approximately two thirds moved onto the developing level (Gunel, Akkus &
Ozer-Keskin, 2011; Gunel, Akkus, Ozer-Keskin & Keskin-Samanci, 2012). This means that at the begin-

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ning of the project almost all the teachers were fairly low in their pedagogical implementation; however,
they moved up to higher levels of implementation over the course of the project. Such pedagogical shifts
also continued in the second and third years of the project.
At the end of the second year of the project, around 60 percent of the teachers were in the develop-
ing level, 20 percent in the transitioning level and another 20 percent in the implementing level (Gunel,
Akkus, Ozer-Keskin &Keskin-Samanci, 2013). Finally, in the final year of the project, the teachers’
implementation levels were found to be 20 percent developing, 60 percent transitioning, and 20 percent
implementing (Gunel, Akkus, Ozer-Keskin &Keskin-Samanci, 2014). The above-mentioned pedagogical
shift originated in very low levels and carried on to the highly anticipated level, and took time, practice,
reflection as well as cooperative effort. Contrary to the current PD frameworks, content and beliefs in
the Turkish educational settings (short-term and content-oriented), the results of this project show that
pedagogical changes in teachers require at least two years of continuous effort. These findings are in line
with the international studies as well as the standards and norms regarding in-service teacher training.
To reveal how and why such a significant pedagogical shift occurred, the researchers focused on the
teachers’ evaluation of their own change over the course of the project.
The participating teachers stressed the importance of observing their own change and students’ learning
outcomes as the project progressed. Since the project staff shared the implementation reports with the
teachers every six months, the teachers were able to see and reflect on their own practices, strengths, and
areas to improve in the long term (Tanriverdi & Gunel, 2012). Furthermore, Gunel (2013a) and Gunel
(2013b) reported that being able to see and align teachers’ own progress with their students’ academic
achievements and improvement in thinking skills was a crucial motivation for the participants to pursue
the change and development.
As in the case of in-service training programmes in any sector, generating and scaffolding internal
motivation towards a sustainable change is an essential element in professional development activities
for teachers. While the current in-service practices in the Turkish educational settings have shifted to-
wards content delivery through distance education, the structure of the programmes also suffers from
the lack of assessment, absence of motivation, and inconsistency of the content due to daily practices
(Gunel &Tanriverdi, 2014). On the other hand, the current project activities in relation to the profes-
sional development of teachers provide an opportunity to adopt effective, data-driven, sustainable, and
value-added in-service practices in the Turkish educational settings. Despite being the rudiments of
professional development programmes in an international setting, these components are still far from
being embedded in the Turkish teacher-training policies and practices.

The Process of Change in Students over the Course of Project

Reaching out to the students is the ultimate goal of any in-service teacher training programme across
the globe. Therefore, aligning the purposes, structure, and implementation of PD with expected learning
outcomes in students is a key element during the planning and enactment phases of in-service trainings.
However, as argued by Gunel and Tanriverdi (2014), up-to-date PD legislation, programmes and prac-
tices in the Turkish educational settings do not consider students’ learning outcomes. The implemented
programmes do not assess the effects of PD on teachers’ pedagogy or students’ learning enhancements.
While one would argue that such shortcomings are a blueprint of most Turkish legislative and operative
actions, the inclination for the PD accountability calls for a robust relationship between what is done
within the PD and how it is reflected in students’ learning.

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The project was framed around relevant measurement areas of students’ learning outcomes including
academic achievement, critical thinking skills, argument competencies and writing comprehensions. While
some studies reported on the practice of a single teacher to explore the impact of the implementation of the
ABI approach (experiment) as opposed to traditional practices (control) on students’ learning outcomes,
other studies investigated the differences in students’ learning outcomes depending on the group (ABI-
experiment or control) as well as the teachers’ implementation level (such as exploring and developing,
etc.). Furthermore, there are also studies focusing on teachers’ ABI group competency developing over
a term or a school year. In this section, the above-mentioned assessment areas are discussed in light of
the findings of the previously published research.
Researchers have conducted small-scale studies to investigate the impact of PD programmes on students’
learning of various science subjects in different learning environments. Arli and Gunel (2012) investi-
gated the impact of the ABI implementation on the academic achievements and argument competencies
of students who were also seasonal agricultural workers. They studied a single teacher and her students.
The participant teacher worked in the south-eastern part of Turkey and the students attended school only
three months in a year due to their seasonal agricultural work, and their academic performance was quite
low compared to the national average. The findings suggest that the ABI implementation group, aligning
with the PD project, significantly outperformed the control group on academic achievement tests and
argument generation scores of students’ writing samples (Arli & Gunel, 2012; 2014). Furthermore, in
the ABI group, the students’ skills for generating questions, claim, evidence, and reflections increased
over the school year (Arli, 2014).
Similarly, Yesildag-Hasancebi and Gunel (2013) investigated the impact of the ABI approach on sci-
ence achievements and writing comprehensions of students from lower socio-economic classes in com-
parison to the control group students. They also reported that when compared to traditional approaches,
the ABI implementation significantly increases students’ understanding of scientific concepts as well
as their writing skills (Yesildag-Hasancebi, 2014). Furthermore, small-scale investigations focusing on
different science concepts; such as electricity, and force and motion all indicate that the content of the
PD programmes and the ABI approach create significant learning enhancements, which add to the teach-
ers’ existing teaching methods. These findings in an individual teacher’s case provide evidence on the
measurable effects of the in-service training programme on students’ science learning outcomes as well
as their argumentation and written comprehension. Thus, it is crucial to investigate the comprehensive
impact of the programme on students’ learning outcomes when all teachers participating in training
programme are considered.
In their annual project impact evaluation studies, Gunel et al. (2012), Gunel et al. (2013), and Gunel
et al. (2014) reported that when all participating teachers were considered, ABI instruction groups out-
performed the control group on unit-based science achievement regardless of the topic. Moreover, the
participating teachers’ implementation level of the ABI approach was found to have considerable effects
on students’ academic achievement. That is, while ABI group students collectively outperformed the
control students, the achievement gap was greater when the teacher’s implementation level got higher.
On the other hand, Cikmaz (2014) analysed the writing samples of the students of three teachers over
the course of the project to explore the relationship between the teachers’ implementation levels and the
development of their students’ writing skills. Cikmaz found that as the teachers’ implementation level
improved, their students’ writing skills enhanced. Considering the teachers’ pedagogical competency

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change as argued in the first part of the findings, and its impact on students’ academic performance and
skill proficiencies considered, one could argue that the PD program demonstrated measurable value-
added impact on both teachers’ professional growth and students’ science learning and competencies.
In their research on the development of thinking skills including project implementation, Gunel
(2013) and Gunel et al. (2014) reported that students’ performance in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test
(CCTT) depended on their group (ABI or control), their teachers’ implementation level, and the length
of their participation in the project. That is, students in the ABI group significantly outperformed those
in the control group. This was also due to teachers’ implementation level and the time the data was col-
lected. If a teacher’s ABI implementation level was higher, their students performed better in the CCTT.
Furthermore, since the teachers’ implementation levels improved over the course of the project, their
students’ performance increased; and the results obtained from the second and third years of the project
were higher than those obtained from the first year. However, the CCTT performance mainly depended
on the group and implementation level.
The findings of Gunel (2013) and Gunel et al. (2014) are particularly important since their assessment
tool was independent of science content and the skill development was dependent on the PD content (ABI
approach) and teacher development. The authors reported that the effectiveness of the PD programme
was reflected in the content (independent variable) and time. The effect of the PD programme was
observed in not only the understanding of conceptual science but also the development in the thinking
skills of the students, which can be considered to be the ultimate goal of any content teaching, even the
whole education system. In addition, the arbitrated impact of the approach, implementation level and
time give clear indication as to how effective the structure of the in-service training programme was in
terms of influencing the students. Findings also demonstrate the necessity of the PD programmes to be
comprehensive and longitudinal, two characteristics that lack in the current Turkish educational settings.
When the general structure of the on-going PD programmes are considered, it appears that MoNE
heavily concentrates on content delivery with only some emphasis on teachers’ needs. Furthermore,
those implemented programmes are evaluated not only to bring about a change in teachers’ pedagogy
but also to improve students’ learning. Despite the small sample size in this study, the structure of the
PD, implementation procedure, teacher change process and enhancement of student learning outcomes
make a contribution to the future direction for in-service training in the Turkish educational setting. By
far the most important implication for the future is the need to adopt the international norms of PD and
implement state of the art in-service training as discussed by Gunel and Tanriverdi (2014). That is, the
PD programmes needs to adopt the perspective of the teacher as learner by doing and interacting, being
longitudinal and structured around teacher change trajectory over the time, being related to and evaluated
in connection with students learning outcomes and demonstrating the collaborative learning partnership
between PD trainers, teachers and students. However, creating such a paradigm and initiating a practical
shift in a large system with inveterate perception is a challenge to be faced.
From our perspective evidence-based practices are the first and most important elements that can
trigger systematic change in the education world. While a small scale implementations or local success
stories framed around data driven frameworks always play important role in this process, there is a
strong need for comprehensive scale-up setups. We argue that PD studies such as that described in this
chapter can be implemented across larger populations of teachers. The most significant shortcoming for
the development of training programmes is the lack of qualified trainers. To improve the situation, it is
suggested that teachers who have attended training programmes can receive trainer training and assist
in the future scale-up PD programmes. Furthermore, following the PD programme, these teachers can

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support other teachers in their school or local area, thus continue to reinforce the fundamental tenets of
these programmes. Although, there are further efforts needed to determine the dimensions and require-
ments of the scaled-up PD programmes, first we, as researchers, policy makers, and teachers need to
have the commitment and determination to move the idea forward.

CONCLUSION

The multifaceted findings of the PD project show that there is a fine line between the structure of an
in-service teacher programme and students’ learning outcomes. It appears that in our educational setting
that those who should be the ultimate beneficiaries, that is, the students, are ignored or forgotten as we
think, talk, and act upon teachers’ professional development. It could be argued that reverse engineering
processes should be employed in policy making, PD planning and implementation, and the measurement
of outcomes if we aim to fulfil the needs of our students. In conclusion, answering the question of why
teachers need in-service training can be an excellent starting point for discussion among all stakeholders
of education if we dare to place the teachers as learners. Consequently, by accepting that in the first layer
of the PD programme the teachers are learners and we, the in-service providers, treat them as learners
providing them with proper tools and structures, then these teachers will become more competent in
helping their learners – the students.

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Chapter 5
Systematic Support for STEM
Pre-Service Teachers:
An Authentic and Sustainable Four-
Pillar Professional Development Model

Reenay R.H. Rogers

University of West Alabama, USA

Jodie Winship
University of West Alabama, USA

Yan Sun
University of West Alabama, USA

ABSTRACT
Developing a strong STEM teacher workforce is essential to improve K-12 (kindergarten to 12th grade)
STEM education and to strengthen the STEM talent pipeline in the United States. Based on the suc-
cessful experience in Project Engage, a grant funded by the U.S. Department of Education, this chapter
proposes an authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development model. Grounded
on social constructivist and interactive approaches, this professional development model is intended
to cultivate STEM pre-service teachers’ ability to provide K-12 students with authentic STEM learning
experience as defined in the four types of authenticity (i.e., context authenticity, task authenticity, impact
authenticity, and personal/value authenticity) identified by Strobel and his colleagues (Strobel, Wang,
Weber, & Dyehouse, 2013).

INTRODUCTION

While no one would deny that the U.S. economic growth and innovative capacity are ever increasingly
relying on discoveries and advances made possible by STEM (science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics) disciplines, there is no secret that U.S. students are scared of STEM and have been lagging
behind their international peers in STEM. The attrition rates for U.S. undergraduate students who major
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch005

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Systematic Support for STEM Pre-Service Teachers

in STEM disciplines are high (Hayes, Whalen, & Cannon 2009; Moakler & Kim, 2014; Tinto, 1993).
Data from the 2004/2009 Beginning Postsecondary Education Longitudinal Study indicates that many
students who begin college in STEM majors will either change to a non-STEM major or leave college
completely. In the U.S. about 28% of students seeking a bachelor’s degree or associate degree between
2003 and 2009 entered a program of study in a STEM field. An attrition rate of 48% for bachelor’s degree
candidates and an attrition rate of 69% for associate degree candidates were obtained for the assessed
period (Chen, 2013). As a result, the number of science and engineering graduates produced in the U.S.
is among the lowest in the world (National Science Board, 2004).
To boost economy and to maintain its innovative capacity, the United States must deal with the urgent
need of improving K-12 STEM education and cultivate its domestic STEM talent pool. The question
is, how? Teachers do make a difference in student learning experience and learning outcomes, and this
is particularly true in STEM disciplines (CADRE, 2011). Cultivating among K-12 students an interest
in STEM and encouraging them to study STEM in college and later pursue STEM as a career requires
developing a strong STEM teacher workforce who not only has solid STEM content knowledge but pos-
sesses in-depth understanding of STEM careers and how STEM disciplines are used in the workplace.
The development of such a STEM teacher workforce should start with STEM pre-service teachers.
While most U.S. students do not get a series of good teachers, STEM teachers are particularly poorly
prepared (CADRE, 2011). Teacher related issues, such as a dearth of well-prepared teachers, teach-
ers’ lack of STEM content knowledge, and lack of effective STEM teacher professional development
(Abel & Lederman, 2007; Fulp, 2002; National Academy of Engineering, 2009; Sun & Strobel, 2013,
2014; van Driel, Beijaard, Verloop, 2001; van Driel, Verloop, de Vos, 1998), render it a daunting task
to develop a strong STEM teacher workforce. The present chapter seeks to contribute to the effort of
developing a strong STEM teacher workforce in the U. S. by proposing an authentic and sustainable
four-pillar professional development model for preparing pre-service STEM teachers. This pre-service
STEM teacher professional development model was developed based on Project Engage—a three-year
grant (2011-2014) funded by the U.S. Department of Education at the University of West Alabama.
Grounded in authentic learning theories and applying social constructivist and interactive approaches,
the authentic and sustainable four-pillar professional development model is intended to provide system-
atic support to STEM pre-service teachers allowing them to enrich their STEM content knowledge and
STEM pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), gain insights into STEM careers and real-world STEM
applications, and to broaden their horizons of the STEM disciplines..

BACKGROUND

Status Quo of K-12 STEM Education

The importance of strengthening and improving K-12 STEM education to the U.S. economy and com-
petitiveness on global markets has long been acknowledged (NAE, 2004; NAS/NAE, 2007; NSB, 2007;
NSB, 2008). Despite the importance and the estimation that STEM related jobs will grow 70 percent
faster than other jobs in the next six years (Vann, 2013), low numbers of students pursing STEM disci-
plines and degree programs have been a big national concern (National Science Board, 2010). Troubling
statistics persist: while 25% of high school kids drop out of high school and 57% out of those who do

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Systematic Support for STEM Pre-Service Teachers

graduate lack comprehension of even remedial mathematics (ACT, 2011), it is reported that 44% of
middle school students would rather take out the trash than do math homework (Research Now, 2012).
According to the 2012 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), only 40% of fourth graders
nationwide were proficient in math, and students across grade levels were especially weak in inquiry-
based science (Rosen, 2012).
The situation of STEM learning for minority students is even worse. The achievement gap between
white and minority students in mathematics and science is well documented in numerous research and
statistical reports (e.g., Condition of Education, The Nation’s Report Card, Science and Engineering Indi-
cators). According to statistics from the National Center for Educational Statistics and the NSF Division
Resources Statistics (National Research Council, 2011), white, Hispanic, and black students respectively
have a gain of 116 points, 113 points, and 101 points in average mathematic scores from kindergarten to
8th grade. By 5th grade, the gap between white and black students in average mathematics scores was 24
points, and the average score of black 5th grade students was equivalent to the average 3rd grade score
of white students. Similar mathematics achievement gaps persist through high school (Ingels, Pratt, Rog-
ers, Siegel, & Stutts, 2004; Riegle-Crumb & Grodsky, 2010). The educational shortfall is not limited to
a specific region, race, or socioeconomic group; it is a national problem (Gottfried & Williams, 2013).
The above alarming trends of low STEM learning outcomes and achievement gap go side by side
with K-12 students’ disinterest in STEM disciplines. As indicated by previous research, students begin
to lose interest in STEM near the middle school years (Finson & Enochs, 1987; Barmby, Kind, & Jones,
2008; Bennett & Hogarth, 2009). K-12 STEM education in the U.S. has to deal with three big chal-
lenges: improving student overall STEM learning outcomes, narrowing the STEM achievement gap,
and promoting student interest in STEM. Dealing with these three challenges, as the key to strengthen-
ing the U.S. STEM workforce pipeline, relies heavily on preparing qualified STEM teachers. Although
improving K-12 STEM education is indispensable of organizational elements, such as school leadership
and staff collaboration (CADRE, 2011), STEM teacher quality is essential because, working directly
with students on a daily basis, STEM teachers are the most active agents who can bring changes to the
K-12 STEM education landscape.
Professional development, as a widely accepted conventional and promising intervention to improve
teacher quality (Buczynski & Hansen, 2010; Goldschmidt & Phelps, 2009), has assumed an important
role in preparing teachers for STEM education in the past decade. Teacher professional development is
a key mechanism not only for improving classroom instruction but also for improving student learning
outcomes (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Cohen & Hill, 2000; Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007).
A report on 1,300 studies addressing the effect of teacher professional development (Yoon, Duncan,
Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007) finds that teachers who receive substantial professional development
can boost their students’ achievement by 21 percentile points. However, although previous research
(e.g., Cunningham, Lachapelle, & Keenan, 2010; Diaconu, Radigan, Suskavcevic, & Nichol, 2012;
Hsu, Cardella, & Purzer, 2010; McDermott & DeWater, 2000; Supovitz, Mayers, & Kahle, 2000) has
yielded findings regarding the positive effects of STEM professional development, STEM professional
development was criticized to be “often short, fragmented, ineffective, and not designed to address the
specific need of individual teachers” (Wilson, 2011). The overall mixed record of STEM professional
development (CADRE, 2011) heightens the need to review the current practice of K-12 STEM profes-
sional development and to rethink about its future directions.

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Current K-12 STEM Professional Development: What Is Missing?

Focusing on STEM content knowledge and STEM pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has been the
norm of STEM professional development. Research has pointed that it is necessary for STEM profes-
sional development to cultivate both content knowledge and PCK in STEM. Leaving suggestions from
research aside, there are practical reasons for STEM professional development to focus on STEM content
knowledge and STEM PCK: (1) the fast changing nature of STEM disciplines and (2) the fact that K-12
teachers are not well prepared for STEM teaching. An estimated 10–20% of science and math teachers in
U.S. middle and high schools are not certified in their subjects—nor did they major in a related field in
college (CADRE, 2011). While low course-taking in science and mathematics by elementary and middle
school pre-service teachers has been identified by many states as a major factor in poor teacher quality
and poor learning outcomes, engineering is not a discipline traditionally taught in K-12 classrooms and
K-12 teachers, elementary teachers in particular, are not familiar with Design, Engineering, and Technol-
ogy (DET) (Hsu, Cardella, Purzer & Diaz 2010; Yasar et al, 2006). Avery and Reed (2013) postulated
that professional development was a means to prepare STEM educators to “effectively integrate various
instructional approaches” (p. 55).
K-12 STEM teachers are not well prepared in their STEM content knowledge, let alone well pre-
pared pedagogically to teach STEM to their students. Professional development, consequently, becomes
a useful means to provide STEM teachers with training to enrich their STEM content knowledge and
their PCK in STEM. PCK, first proposed by Shulman (1986), refers to knowledge of how to make the
subject comprehensible to learners based on understandings of the learners’ characteristics, interests,
abilities, as well as their conceptions and content-related difficulties. With growing appreciation of the
importance of STEM PCK in improving STEM teaching in the K-12 community, STEM professional
programs typically cover specific STEM content integrated with pedagogy seeking to promote a deep
understanding of the subject matter along with appropriate pedagogical practices.
Although focusing on STEM content and pedagogy has long become the common practice in STEM
professional development, the question remains: Are STEM content knowledge and STEM PCK enough
to enable STEM teachers to help their students develop an interest in STEM and motivate them to learn
STEM in college and even pursue it as a career? It is true that enhanced STEM content knowledge and
PCK in STEM would improve teachers’ ability to make STEM content comprehensible to their stu-
dents. But far more than this needs to be done to reach the ultimate goal of K-12 STEM education of
cultivating a STEM-proficient workforce and a STEM-literate citizenry to increase the United States’
competitiveness in the global economy. The problem with the current STEM professional development
practice of focusing mainly on STEM content and STEM PCK is centering on STEM teachers’ teaching
and knowledge needs, dismissing students as passive knowledge receptors and inactive agents in the
STEM learning process.
The authors of the present chapter call for a new K-12 STEM professional development paradigm
that treats students as an active agent that can wield influence on the learning process and affect the
learning results. This new paradigm sets on an understanding about the reciprocal relationship between
teachers and students in the learning process. Teaching as a practice of human improvement indicates
that teaching “practitioners depend on their clients to achieve any results” (Cohen, 1988, p. 57). Labaree
(2000) elaborated this idea when discussing the nature of teaching by comparing teachers with surgeons
and lawyers: “A surgeon can fix the ailment of a patient who sleeps through the operation, and a lawyer
can successfully defend a client who remains mute during the trial, but success for a teacher depends

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heavily on the active cooperation of the student” (p.228). Labaree quoted Dewey (1933) that “There is
the same exact equation between teaching and learning that there is between selling and buying” (as
quoted in Labaree, 2000, p. 228), and pointed out that there is a reciprocal relationship between teach-
ers and students: “you can’t be a good salesperson unless someone is buying, and you can’t be a good
teacher unless someone is learning” (Labaree, 2000, p.228).
This reciprocal relationship reveals the importance of STEM teachers’ ability to enable their students
to feel motivated and willing to learn STEM in order to make real STEM learning happen. This ability
should be directly related to teachers’ ability to create authentic STEM learning experiences for their
students given the well-documented motivational benefits of authentic learning for students (e.g., Her-
rington & Oliver, 2000; Huang, 2002; Lombardi, 2007; Newmann & Wehlage, 1993). Adopting the four
types of authenticity (i.e., context authenticity, task authenticity, impact authenticity, and personal/value
authenticity) identified by Strobel and his colleagues (Strobel et al, 2013) as a theoretical framework,
this chapter proposes the authentic and sustainable four-pillar professional development model guiding
future STEM professional development efforts to cultivate STEM pre-service teachers’ ability to create
authentic STEM learning experience for students and to concurrently improve STEM pre-service teach-
ers’ STEM content knowledge and PCK in STEM.

New Paradigm of K-12 STEM Professional Development

and Authentic K-12 STEM Learning Experience

As proposed by the authors of this chapter, the new paradigm of STEM professional development em-
phasizes authentic learning experiences for K-12 students and treats cultivating teachers’ ability to create
authentic STEM learning experience as equally important as enhancing their STEM content knowledge
and PCK in STEM. Snape and Fox-Turnbull argued (2011) the necessity of “devising practical, adaptable
education programmes” (p. 67) which inspire students to develop understanding of their world through
authentic learning. Integrating the above three aspects (i.e., the ability to create authentic STEM learn-
ing experiences for K-12 students, STEM content knowledge, and PCK in STEM) into STEM training
is the new promising direction for future K-12 STEM professional development.
Although, as pointed out by Petragli (1998), authenticity has become the “desideratum of the Ameri-
can educational system” (p.10), the need still exists to define authenticity in the context of K-12 STEM
education. The authors of this chapter defined the meaning of authentic K-12 STEM learning based the
four types of authenticity (i.e., context authenticity, task authenticity, impact authenticity, and personal/
value authenticity) identified by Strobel and his colleagues (Strobel et al, 2013) (See Table 1).
Approaching K-12 STEM education from the lenses of the four types of authenticity, the K-12 STEM
education community would realize that, to allow K-12 students to develop an interest in STEM and
to prepare them for studying STEM in college and pursuing STEM as a career, authentic K-12 STEM
learning experience should: (1) help K-12 students develop an understanding of real world STEM careers;
(2) allow K-12 students to experience real world STEM applications to gain a personal understanding
of STEM impact; (3) scaffold K-12 students’ development of STEM knowledge and skills; and (4)
provide hands-on experience with real world STEM problems. These four aspects define the meaning
of authentic K-12 STEM learning.
In addition to applying the Vygotskian concept of the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky,
1978) in scaffolding K-12 students’ STEM knowledge and skill development, the authentic K-12 STEM
learning experience defined above emphasizes cultivating K-12 students’ motivation and interest in

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Table 1. Authenticity model (Strobel et al., 2013)

Categories Description/Key Definition Curricula Features

1. Contains a real-world professional environment 1. Provide input from diverse stakeholders
2. Provides everyday experience 2. Be a complex problems solving context and
Contextual
3. Resemble social challenges or social interactions interdisciplinary context
Authenticity
4. Align school and professional outcomes 3. Provide situations of collaboration, access to tools and
resources, and ownership
1. Students are engaged in tasks similar to professionals 1. Contain ill-structured problems, no pre-specifications
Task 2. Reflect or develop professional skills for students 2. Contain open-ended creative activities.
Authenticity 3. Challenge students in decision-making in practical 3. Promote disciplined inquiry
contexts 4. Ask students to interpret ambiguous data
1. Actions in cultural practices 1. Professional community standards in relative area
Impact 2. Social events, issues or impact 2. Project results influence people outside of school
Authenticity 3. Students’ role as effective citizens 3. Minorities’ experiences in the role of engineers or
4. Students as collaborators of industry scientists
1. Produce knowledge with values in students’ lives and 1. Problematizing the subject matter
studies beyond simply proving their competence 2. Perceive relations between the practices and the use of
Personal/Value 2. Integrate everyday life experience, personal interests, value in them
Authenticity professional target and cultural values 3. Pursue personal goals and have personal choice
3. Develop a sense of identity and sense of confidence 4. Be engaged in personal construction of new knowledge
in learning task-environments

STEM by promoting their self-efficacy beliefs about STEM and by allowing them to see the relevance
of STEM through personal experience. Underpinning this emphasis are learning theories regarding
self-efficacy beliefs and motivational effects of relevance. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy beliefs
as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given
attainments” (p. 3).
The terms mastery experience (also known as enactive experience) and vicarious experience (also
known as modeling) were identified by Bandura (1986, 1988) as two important sources of perceived
self-efficacy. While mastery experiences are real and direct experiences that increase one’s self-efficacy
by allowing the individual to experience performance successes, vicarious experiences are indirect expe-
riences that are able to increase one’s self-efficacy beliefs by allowing the individual to observe similar
others experiencing performance successes (Bandura, 1988). The authentic STEM learning experience
defined in this chapter will give K-12 students both mastery experience and vicarious experience with
STEM respectively through hands-on projects solving real world problems and through personal experi-
ence of exploring STEM facilities and interacting with STEM professionals, and consequently increase
K-12 students’ self-efficacy beliefs about STEM. Informal learning through enriched STEM experiences
can create authentic learning experiences for pre-service teachers. Huang, Lee & Lim’s research (2012)
proposed “when a pedagogy of experimentation exists in schools, learning becomes more authentic be-
cause students can anchor learning within rich contexts” (p.1087). In addition, as suggested by Keller’s
ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) motivational theory and ARCS model of
motivational design (Keller, 1988, 2004; Keller & Suzuki, 1988), relevance is a key component to intrin-
sically motivate student learning. The authentic K-12 STEM learning experience allows students to see
the relevance of learning STEM through personal experience of real world STEM applications and their
impact and the perceived relevance will serve as a trigger to arouse students’ motivation to learn STEM.
Centering on the above four aspects of the authentic K-12 STEM learning experience, the authors of
this chapter proposed the authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development model.
As illustrated in Figure 1, the four-pillars of the model are targeting the four aspects of the authentic

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Figure 1. The authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development model
Systematic Support for STEM Pre-Service Teachers

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K-12 STEM learning experience. The rationale of building the professional development model upon
the four pillars is to allow pre-service teachers to experience and gain knowledge about authentic STEM
learning before providing it to their future students.

THE AUTHENTIC AND SUSTAINABLE FOUR-PILLAR STEM PD MODEL

The four-pillar STEM professional development model proposed in this chapter is authentic and sustain-
able in the sense that this model intends to provide STEM pre-service teachers with resources, knowledge,
and authentic experiences that would enable them, after entering the teaching profession, to give their
students authentic STEM learning experience and to make sustainable contributions to K-12 STEM
education. This professional development model was developed based on the authors’ experience in
Project Engage funded by the U.S. Department of Education. This section, after giving a brief overview
of Project Engage, focuses on the authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development
model introducing the theoretical underpinnings of the model and illustrating the professional develop-
ment learning activities in the model using those learning activities from Project Engage.

Project Engage

Project Engage is a three-year grant (2011-2014) funded by the U.S. Department of Education at the
University of West Alabama (UWA). UWA enrolls 21% of its student body in STEM degree programs,
of which half are minority students. Primarily, Project Engage was designed and implemented for the
purpose of increasing the retention rates of minority STEM undergraduates between their freshman and
sophomore years through intensive academic and personal mentoring, and exposure to opportunities
inherent in STEM fields. A second purpose of Project Engage is to increase graduation rates of minor-
ity STEM undergraduates through their continued participation in project activities during the second
year and beyond.
Project Engage participants were all freshmen students pursuing STEM majors including pre-service
teachers in STEM education. These STEM pre-service teachers were similar to other participants of
Project Engage: lacking educational preparation and experiences in STEM, lacking motivation in STEM,
and having limited access to STEM professional role-models. In Project Engage, the STEM pre-service
teachers participated in STEM-enhanced curricula, received strategically-designed mentoring, partici-
pated in guided STEM career exploration, engaged in early, ongoing STEM inquiry, interacted with
fellow cohort members, STEM faculty, and STEM experts currently employed in various STEM-related
disciplines while receiving on-going encouragement and support resulting in graduation from UWA.
Based on experience working with the STEM pre-service teachers in Project Engage, the authors of this
chapter developed the four-pillar STEM professional development model.

Theoretical Underpinnings of the Four-Pillar STEM

Professional Development Model

The four-pillars in the STEM professional development model proposed in this chapter reflect the new
STEM professional development paradigm of cultivating STEM teachers’ ability to create authentic
STEM learning experiences along with enhancing their STEM content knowledge and their PCK in

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STEM. Learning activities falling under the four pillars were designed and developed using social con-
structivist and interactive approaches that emphasize knowledge construction through social interaction
and through shared rather than individual experience (Vygotsky, 1978). Specifically, these activities are
based on the assumptions that learning is a social activity, knowledge is a product of human interaction,
and knowledge is socially and culturally constructed that is influenced by the group and its environ-
ment. Embracing these assumptions, the model applies two guiding principles in developing the learning
activities: (1) individuals create meaning through interaction with others and the environment they live
in, and (2) meaningful learning occurs only when individuals are engaged in social activities. Adopting
these principles, the learning activities under each of the four-pillars allow pre-service teachers:

• To gain insights into STEM careers by interacting, in STEM career events, with guest speakers or
role models from STEM professions or with career counselors;
• To experience real world STEM applications by exploring STEM facilities and workplaces and by
interacting with STEM professionals in field trips;
• To build STEM knowledge and skills by interacting with STEM mentors or STEM faculty in in-
tensive mentoring programs;
• To gain hands-on experience both about STEM learning and STEM teaching by interacting with
STEM professionals and K-12 students in competitive STEM events.

Running through the learning activities in the four-pillar STEM professional development model
are the principles of promoting learning through scaffolding and facilitating learning though hands-on
and personal experience. These principles reflect the intention to maximize STEM pre-service teachers’
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978) with the help of more capable or knowledge-
able others (e.g., STEM professionals and STEM faculty) and to improve STEM pre-service teachers’
self-efficacy beliefs about teaching STEM through enriched mastery experience (Bandura 1986, 1988).

Learning Activities from Project Engage

Each of the four pillars in the STEM professional development model proposed in this chapter has its
corresponding learning activities. To illustrate the possible forms and content of these learning activities,
this section introduces and describes some learning activities from Project Engage.

Career Counseling

Career development professionals play a key role in aiding the nation in developing a diverse STEM
development workforce (Byars-Winston, 2014). Byars-Winston proposed a framework for career inter-
vention with areas focusing on multicultural STEM careers awareness, communication about STEM, and
counselor skills and practice. As a result, Career Counseling is a learning activity embedded in Project
Engage that can be used to serve the purpose of helping pre-service teachers to gain insights into STEM
careers. In Project Engage, Career Counseling affords opportunities for Project Engage participants to
foster relationships with professionals working in STEM industries. The career counselor is responsible
for individual career counseling sessions with project participants and development of a comprehensive
professional exploration program. The project participants meet with the career counselor twice dur-
ing the first academic semester for comprehensive needs assessment and general guidance. The Career

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Counseling activity requires project participants to enroll in a UWA 102 career exploration class during
the second academic term where they receive aptitude testing, an interest inventory, interview skills
training, and other related career guidance activities. The career counselor is required to meet with
project participants once per academic term through graduation to collaborate on the development of an
individual career exploration portfolio. The guided career exploration and intensive career counseling
provided in the Career Counseling activity are intended to cultivate undergraduate STEM students to
ensure preparation for careers in STEM fields including STEM education.

Professional Enrichment Trips and Access to STEM Professionals

The learning activities of professional enrichment trips and access to STEM professionals in Project
Engage are good activities that can help STEM pre-service teachers to experience real world STEM
applications and to gain insights into STEM careers. In Project Engage, professional enrichment trips
augment the STEM college classroom experience with real world STEM practice by providing expo-
sure to STEM professionals in their work environment. Pre-service teachers in Project Engage have
interacted with STEM professionals such as NASA scientists and other related NASA careers with trips
to the Marshall Spaceflight Center; environmental scientists, engineers, and educators at the Alabama
Nature Center; and biologists and biotech engineers at the Hudson Alpha Biotech Center. Interactions
with STEM professionals in the work setting provide a deeper understanding of STEM applications that
pre-service teachers can take with them into their future classrooms.
Project Engage has also afforded project participants with the opportunity to engage with STEM
professional speakers. Project participants have listened to a NASA project director discuss the future of
space flight; engaged in an interactive science show; and built boomerangs along with a world champion
boomerang thrower. The most significant occasion for Project Engage participants was the lectures by a
former U. S. Surgeon General who provided inspiration as well as realistic advice for success in STEM
careers. On-going professional development for pre-service teachers in the form of enrichment trips to
STEM industries as well as access to real-life practitioners working in STEM-related fields reinforces
the significance of STEM education at the K-12 level.

UWA STEM 101 Course

In Project Engage, the UWA STEM 101 course was designed and implemented to help project partici-
pants build STEM knowledge and skills. Project Engage faculty and staff developed a curriculum and
syllabus to be used with the UWA STEM 101 course. The specialized curriculum requires STEM UWA
101 students to investigate a STEM topic of their choosing as part of class assignments facilitated by
their STEM UWA 101 professor. One example is the investigation of various topics through the “How
Does It Work?” exercise. In this activity, which promotes understanding of the scientific method, students
engaged in their own research throughout the semester, seeking answers to their questions, conferring
with experts in the subject (faculty members, researchers, mechanics, engineers, scientists, etc.), and
sharing their discoveries with fellow classmates. Supported by Engage mentors, STEM faculty, and a
Career Counselor, in-class activities offer participants opportunities for directed study into personal
areas of interest. The UWA STEM 101 course offered a new way to improve STEM pre-service teach-
ers’ STEM knowledge and skills.

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Invention Convention

The Invention Convention in Project Engage is a learning activity that can be used to improve STEM pre-
service teachers’ STEM knowledge and skills, and gain hands-on experience about STEM learning and
STEM teaching. The Invention Convention in Project Engage focuses on involving STEM undergraduate
students and K-12 students in competitions which foster STEM creativity and discovery. During year
one of Project Engage, STEM undergraduate students were involved in a robotics competition hosted
in-house at the University. The undergraduate STEM students were taught programming in several ses-
sions, divided into teams, and given the challenge of building/programming a robot to complete a task.
Survey results indicated students agreed (58%) or strongly agreed (24%) that the robotics competition
increased their knowledge in STEM. However, during year two the robotics competition was coupled
with an enrichment trip to the Marshall Spaceflight Center where undergraduate STEM students were
exposed to programming and robotics under the tutelage of NASA scientists. As a culminating activity,
STEM undergraduate students competed in a robotics competition on site at the Marshall Spaceflight
Center. Results from the year two survey showed an increase in the percentage of students from 24% to
63% strongly agreeing that the robotics competition increased their STEM knowledge. Working with the
NASA scientists at Marshall Spaceflight Center had a positive effect on STEM undergraduate students’
perception of their increased STEM knowledge.
The K-12 component of the Invention Convention has taken various forms including 1) creating in-
ventions from recycled materials, 2) building and testing egg drop carriers, and 3) making boomerangs.
UWA STEM students received hands-on experience working with K-12 students as the K-12 students
competed head-to-head in these various STEM –themed events. The experience of leading and assisting
the K-12 students as they competed provided an authentic “teaching” experience as the undergraduate
pre-service teachers developed the skills needed for teaching success. First-hand experience working
with K-12 students is invaluable preparation for pre-service STEM educators.

STEM Challenge

The STEM Challenge component of Project Engage is another activity that can be used to help STEM
pre-service teachers gain hands-on experience with K-12 students. The STEM Challenge incorporates all
facets of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) using a crime scene investigation
theme to pose a real world problem for Project Engage and local K-12 students to solve. During year one,
both undergraduate STEM students and K-12 students worked on the same crime scene to collect and
analyze evidence as well as create and present their solutions to the crime scenario. The setting for the
STEM Challenge was complete with a judge, bailiffs, and suspects creating an authentic atmosphere for
the crime solving. Feedback from the undergraduate STEM students indicated they preferred more of a
teaching/leading role in the STEM Challenge, thus for year two, the STEM undergraduate students were
assigned as leaders for the various K-12 student teams rather than as competitors in the event. Fifty-six
percent of the K-12 participants in year two indicated that the STEM Challenge increased their interest
in STEM. The excitement of working with college-level students to solve a simulated crime promotes a
curiosity about STEM fields which can inspire future generations of STEM majors.

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Outcomes from Project Engage

The overall goals of Project Engage centered on recruitment and retention of underrepresented students
in STEM majors. The four-pillar model of professional development for pre-service teachers was de-
veloped as a by-product through the implementation of this grant program, Project Engage. Data is still
being collected at this juncture of implementation and further data collection and analysis is needed. At
this stage, results during year one of the program indicated retention of freshmen STEM majors, previ-
ously significantly less than freshmen non-STEM majors, equalized at 56%. Current retention data for
year two indicates the proposed model has increased retention rates of freshmen STEM majors (70%)
above that of non-STEM majors (62%). Retention of students in STEM majors is only one aspect of the
effectiveness of Project Engage. By keeping undergraduate students in STEM majors, including STEM
education majors, this program stands to prepare more highly qualified STEM professionals and in the
end will result in a more highly skilled workforce.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter argues that one of the possible solutions to improving K-12 students’ STEM learning out-
comes, promoting their motivation and interest in STEM, and narrowing the STEM achievement gap,
is to cultivate STEM teachers’ ability to create authentic STEM learning experience for their students.
Avery and Reed (2013) concluded that professional development “is important to STEM education” (p.
55) and affords STEM educators the opportunity to learn methods of integrating new teaching practices.
The authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development model is proposed as being
able to prepare pre-service teachers for providing authentic STEM learning experiences to their future
students and for making sustainable contributions to K-12 STEM education. But the fact exists that it is
often difficult for teachers to translate knowledge gained through professional development into effective
teaching practice (Duffy, 2004; Gordon, 2004) and this is especially true for pre-service teachers who
normally have no previous teaching experience. This knowledge transfer problem is reflected in the com-
mon lore among teachers: teaching as happening in classrooms and “talk about teaching” as happening
in universities are incommensurable. Because of the knowledge transfer problem, the “from knowledge
and skills to effective STEM pedagogy” component (see Figure 1) has been added into the professional
development model. Pre-service teacher professional development providers are recommended to em-
phasize this component in their professional development programs and employ appropriate professional
development activities (e.g., reflective practice activities and outreach programs) to facilitate the transfer
of knowledge from STEM professional development into effective K-12 STEM teaching practices.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The authentic and sustainable four-pillar STEM professional development model proposed in this
chapter is intended to provide STEM pre-service teachers with training that will not only improve their
STEM content knowledge and their STEM PCK but also cultivate their ability to create authentic STEM

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learning experiences for K-12 students. Such training is rather comprehensive in nature. Pragmatically,
it might be difficult to add such professional development training into already tightly-packed teacher
preparation programs. Future research is needed to provide clues regarding effective and feasible ways
or formats that can make the training possible.
This chapter uses learning activities from Project Engage as examples that can be used to achieve
the purposes specified in the four-pillars of the professional development model. However, there is no
empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of these learning activities. Research needs to be conducted
to either determine the effectiveness of these activities or to help decide what kind of learning activities
should be designed and developed instead. Possible future research efforts include: (1) investigating the
effects of a particular learning activity on STEM pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about STEM
teaching, (2) investigating the effects of a particular learning activity on STEM pre-service teachers’
STEM content knowledge and PCK, (3) conducting longitudinal research revealing the effects of a par-
ticular learning activity on pre-service teachers’ future STEM teaching performance.

CONCLUSION

This chapter argues that (1) STEM teachers’ ability to provide their students with authentic STEM learn-
ing experience is crucial to cultivating among K-12 students an interest in STEM and encouraging them
to study STEM in college and later pursue STEM as a career; (2) it is not enough for STEM professional
development to focus mainly on improving teachers’ STEM content knowledge and their PCK in STEM;
and (3) the task of cultivating STEM teachers’ ability to create authentic STEM learning experiences for
their students should be put on STEM professional development programs’ agenda. The authentic and
sustainable four-pillar professional development model is proposed in this chapter reflecting the above
opinion regarding K-12 STEM professional development.
This professional development model as illustrated in Figure 1, is intended to guide the development
of STEM professional development training for STEM pre-service teachers that will not only aim to im-
prove their STEM content knowledge and their STEM PCK but also to cultivate and enhance their ability
to create authentic STEM learning experiences for K-12 students. It is envisioned that future research
will be conducted to test the validity of the model and to improve it to better serve STEM pre-service
teacher preparation purposes. Also, it is hoped that research efforts will be made in the future to modify
this model to be used to provide effective STEM training to in-service teachers as well.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Authentic Learning: A wide variety of educational and instructional techniques focused on con-
necting what students are taught in school to real-world issues, problems, and applications.
Content Knowledge: knowledge about the actual subject matter that is to be learned or taught.
Professional Development: Form vocational training that allow someone to acquire new knowledge
and skills that relate to his/her profession, job responsibilities, or work environment.
Scaffolding: The support given during the learning process to facilitate learning.
Social Constructivist Theory: A theory that suggests that social interaction plays a fundamental
role in the development of cognition and the construction of knowledge.

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 91

Chapter 6
The Role of Teacher Leadership
for Promoting Professional
Development Practices
Patricia Dickenson
National University, USA

Judith L. Montgomery
University of California Santa Cruz, USA

ABSTRACT
This chapter examines the status of teacher professional development in mathematics and explores the
role of teacher leadership to promote innovative professional development strategies that sustain the
growth and development of an organization. Survey data was collected from teacher leader participants
of one mathematics professional development organization to understand how participants’ growth
and development as a teacher leader not only shaped their mathematics instructional practices, but
influenced their choices in leadership roles. Further the authors share how the learning environment
and pedagogical choices of the project director supported a teacher-driven professional development
approach. Recommendations as well as a model for developing a teacher-driven professional develop-
ment organization are provided for replication.

INTRODUCTION

The authors’ of this chapter explore the development and growth of ten mathematics’ teachers and one
program director in a University-based mathematics professional development organization that has been
established for over ten years in Northern California of the United States of America. Teacher leaders’
profiles, motivations and beliefs about mathematics practices were examined to determine what elements
of belonging to a professional mathematics development organization shaped their classroom practices
and role as a teacher leader in a professional development organization. Interviews with the director of
the organization were conducted to gain insight to the evolution and progression of the organization
through social changes, political policies and reform efforts. The organization capitalizes on the idea of
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch006

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices

“teachers-teaching-teachers” and the human desire of belonging, to grow and sustain teacher membership.
The approach to a teacher-centered professional development is teacher-driven and created and rooted in
a constructivist approach of learning whereby participants construct knowledge about how children best
learn mathematics through active techniques such as applying approaches to their classroom practice and
demonstrating practices and student work for feedback and replication. Further, participants share their
ideas with colleagues in informal group meetings and demonstrate their best practices at professional
development seminars to share with other teachers for investigation.

Traditional Professional Development Scenario

The last bell of the school day has rung, Ms. Myer scrambles around her fourth grade classroom to gather
student workbooks to review while she attends staff development in the school cafeteria. Ms. Myer has
been a teacher at Longview Elementary for the past few years, where every Wednesday the teachers
listen to a presentation given by the school administration or guest speaker. Fresh baked cookies and
coffee are located in the back of the room where the teachers sign in as they enter. Ms. Myer values the
time to work with her grade level peers and share what she is doing in her classroom, but professional
development at Longview Elementary does not leave much time for teachers to collaborate and share
best practices. Before the presentation begins and whenever breaks occurs Ms. Myer shares a few ideas
and hears what her colleagues are doing but rarely do they speak during the presentation.
Although this week’s presentation is on problem solving in mathematics a topic Ms. Myer class is
struggling with, she finds the presenter misses the mark when it comes to what can actually work in her
classroom. The strategies that are shared may be appropriate for typical fourth graders but this year her
class is struggling with reading and comprehension so she usually skips this section in the student textbook.
Ms. Myer feels a sense of relief as she closes the last of her student’s workbooks and records their
grades just before the presentation draws to a close, “time well spent” she thinks to herself. She asks her
colleague for name of the presenter to place on the top of the form and quickly completes the evaluation
consisting of questions where she has to rate the presenters’ style and content, rather than reflect on
her experience. When asked “What did you enjoy the most?” she writes “problem solving” but thinks
silently “this won’t work in my classroom”. Yes it is not surprising to hear that while 90 percent of teach-
ers reported participating in professional development, most of the teachers also reported it was totally
useless (Darling-Hammond et al, 2009).
If student achievement is the desired result than teacher professional development must ensure that
teacher participants are actively involved in the process and ideas are transferrable to the classroom. Much
like the students who enter the K-12 classroom, teachers also bring their experiences, beliefs and views
of learning into professional development. Shaping a teacher’s beliefs and pedagogical practices takes
time, commitment and support. Teacher professional development however is often presented through
a traditional teaching lens where participants are passive receivers of information rather than active
participants. This model of instruction is outdated and lacks impact to teachers’ daily practice. As such
in the case study of Ms. Myer teachers “check out” when the traditional professional development ap-
proach does not require participants to be actively involved in the process. It is necessary for professional
development models take into account what Confucius has been credited in saying “I hear and I forget.
I see and I remember. I do and I understand.” Research has found traditional professional development
fails to produce substantive or sustained change in teachers’ practice (Cohen and HIll, 2001; Parsad et
al., 2001; Porter et al., 2000). Traditional professional development usually consists of in-service days

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The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices

through the district in which techniques or ideas are shared (Little, 1993) or university based courses
which teachers attend that focus on academic perspectives (Stein, Smith, & Silver, 1999). Other modes
of professional development such as one-day workshops often make teacher professional development
“intellectually superficial, disconnected from deep issues of curriculum and learning, fragmented, and
noncumulative” (Ball & Cohen, 1999, pp.3-4). There are four critical characteristics of professional
development that improve instruction (Knapp, 2003) they are:

• Aligned with reform initiatives

• Ongoing
• Grounded in a collaborative and inquiry-based approach to learning
• Embedded in the context-specific need of a particular setting

In mathematics shifting the paradigm of traditional teacher professional development is imperative

in a time where problem solving, conceptual understanding and critical thinking are essential skills for
students to enter higher-level mathematics course and without access to higher-level mathematic students
may not have the prerequisites to enter college or professional careers and this is especially true for
disadvantaged and minority students (Achieve, 2008). But such a shift in teacher professional develop-
ment requires not only changing the model but the decision making process. It requires a growth-driven
approach that is ongoing and collaborative from the moment planning begins. Research has found when
professional development is driven by the needs of the participants their content knowledge and practice
grows and this directly impacts the students in their class (Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin 1995;
Little 1998). The purpose of this chapter is to examine one such model of professional development in
mathematics. The present study examines an established and successful teacher professional development
organization and the teacher participants’ motivations and reasons for engaging and becoming part of
the organization. Through this lens it is the hope that other organization can develop best practices for
designing and supporting teacher-centric professional development practices that fosters leadership skills
and promotes collaborative practices within a professional organization. The goals of this chapter are:

1. Discuss present research on Teacher Professional Development in Mathematics and the Role of
Teacher Leadership.
2. Identify teacher leaders’ motivation for participating in professional development.
3. Explain the process of developing a Teacher Leadership team.
4. Describe how a volunteer leadership team designs and executes a mathematics professional event.

BACKGROUND

Teacher Professional Development

Research suggests what hinges on reducing the achievement gap is not just a students’ home address,
but the quality of the classroom teacher (Center for Public Education, 2005). While the achievement
gap in the United States between minority and non-minority students continues to persist and an even
greater international gap appears when students from the United States are compared to their interna-

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tional peers (Timms, 2011). Professional development is a critical means of shaping teachers practices
especially in a time when reform initiatives require significant changes to the way teachers teach and
students are assessed.
There are numerous models in which teacher professional development is conducted however the end
goal is usually the same, to improve teachers’ practice for the benefit of student learning. According to
Yoon and colleagues (2007) professional development affects student achievement through three steps:

First, professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills. Second better knowledge and
skills improve classroom teaching. Third improved teaching raises student achievement. If one link is
weak or missing, better student learning cannot be expected. If a teacher fails to apply new ideas from
professional development to classroom instruction, for example, students will not benefit from the teach-
ers’ professional development (p.11).

Numerous studies have revealed the positive correlation between teacher effectiveness and student
achievement (Haycock, 1998; Hanushek & Rivkin, 2003; Marzano, 2003; Nye, Konstantopoulos, &
Jedges, 2004). Further value-added studies by Sanders and Rivers (1996, as cited in Haycock, 1998)
found that students who were assigned to three effective teachers in a row scored up to 30 percentile
points higher in mathematics assessments than children assigned to three ineffective teachers in a row.
Whether a reform initiative is successful in education is largely determined by the qualifications and ef-
fectiveness of the teachers who are implementing it. Teacher professional development is a major focus
of systemic reform initiatives (Corcoran, 1995; Corcoran, Shields, & Zucker, 1998).
In the United States, the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) was developed to establish consistency
in what students should be able to know and do at every grade level across the states for mathematics and
English Language Arts. The goals of the initiative is to raise the achievement of students as compared to
international peers, reduce remediation in college courses, and ensure all students are college and career
ready (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2015). In mathematics the CCSS require teachers to
change what they teach as well as how they teach. There is a greater focus on fewer topics at each grade
level and a higher expectation for students to master the concepts. Pedagogical practices form a balanced
approach to teaching that includes conceptual understanding, procedural skills and fluency. Adopting
a reform approach of teaching will require effective professional development for teachers to learn new
approaches to teaching concepts.

Mathematics Professional Development

In a review of the research on mathematics teaching and learning conducted for the National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics, James Hiebert (1999) found teacher learning shared several core features:

ongoing (measured in years) collaboration of teachers for purposes of planning with the explicit goal of
improving students’ achievement of clear learning goals, anchored by attention to students’ thinking, the
curriculum, and pedagogy, with access to alternative ideas and methods and opportunities to observe
these in action and to reflect on the reasons for their effectiveness . . . (p. 15).

Yoon and colleagues (2007) also examined 1,300 studies of professional development research to find
which types of programs had the greatest impact on student achievement. Programs that were lengthy and

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The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices

intensive had the greatest impact. In fact several studies have found the duration of professional develop-
ment is related to the depth of teacher change (Shields, Marsh, & Adelman, 1998; Weiss, Montgomery,
Ridgway,& Bond, 1998). Teachers much like students need an opportunity to practice and rehearse new
skills prior to implementing them in the classroom. In fact research has found teachers need at least twenty
instances of practice to master a new skill (Joyce & Showers, 2002). Further instructors of professional
development can identify and address misconceptions as well as answer questions related to teaching
strategies when teachers have an opportunity to develop expertise. In his research of teacher transferring
new skills Bush (1984) found that about 10 percent of teachers could transfer a skill to practice when
the training simply describes a skill to teachers. Darling-Hammond and colleagues (2009) analysis of
well designed experimental studies found that professional development that includes over six to twelve
months of contact hours with at least 30 to 100 hours in total spread over six to twelve months showed
a positive and significant effect. In addition when professional development included at least 49 hours
in a year, student achievement was raised by approximately 21 percentile points.
Research also shows that teachers will change their beliefs about how to teach something only after
they see success with students (Guskey, 2002). Therefore it is imperative that professional development
practices abandon the one-shot approach and develop ongoing dialogues that support a community of
practice for all learners. Further giving teachers much like students time to achieve mastery, provides the
facilitator with an opportunity to scaffold learning and support participants. Teachers are more likely to
abandon a new practice and teach the way they were teaching when they do not see success, regardless
of the research.
Additional research is needed to determine the efficacy of various types of professional development
activities, such as colloquiums, pre-service and in-service trainings, workshops, and summer institutes.
Studies are needed to evaluate professional development activities that are extended over time and across
broad teacher learning communities to identify the processes and mechanisms that contribute to the
development of teachers’ learning communities (Bransford, Brown, &Cocking, 1999, p. 240).
In review much of the research shared with regards to professional development suggests teachers
need to be engaged in learning opportunities that are continuous and lengthy and connected to prac-
tice. Teachers need multiple instances to practice new skills and see success in using the skills with
students. Further teacher professional development should be a collaborative process that provides time
for teachers to meet, plan curriculum, use data to design instruction and learn from each other. In high
achieving countries about 60 percent of work time is classroom instruction whereas the remaining time
is to collaborate with colleagues and develop curriculum and instruction, in the United States teachers
spend about 80 percent of their time in classroom instruction (Darling Hammond, et al., 2009). Thus the
present study is timely and much needed to understand how to develop and sustain teacher engagement
in professional development practices.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Teacher Professional Development through a Constructivist Lens

The idea that teachers must learn more about the subjects they teach, and how students learn these sub-
jects has been argued for quiet some time (Shulman & Sparks, 1992). Shifting to a mastery approach to
teaching mathematics requires teachers to develop a greater understanding of subject matter as well as

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The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices

pedagogical practices that will support their students in applying, transferring, and constructing knowl-
edge in different contexts. In addition teachers need to determine what skills, and knowledge a student
has in order to design and scaffold instruction, and support students toward mastery. That being said
planning for professional development requires a sophisticated understanding of the participants’ level
of understanding to bridge the gap between prior knowledge and new knowledge. Beyond the usual
icebreaker, professional development models often fail to assess teachers’ knowledge before they begin
instruction. Working from a constructivist model to design professional development requires data to
be used to design instruction, informal and formal assessment to be embedded within the context of the
training, training to be ongoing and monitored, and content delivery to be an active learning experience.
School and districts can transform into a community of learners when adults are motivated to grow and
learn through professional development (Zepeda, 1999).
When it comes to mathematics professional development teaching strategies to promote multiple
representations and ways of knowing is essential, especially in a time where reform practices are valued.
However in order for strategies to transfer into teachers’ classroom practice authentic activities must
be embedded to provide an opportunity to experiment and explore new concepts, construct knowledge,
engage in dialogue with peers and develop the confidence to master new strategies. Adult learners need to
see the results of their efforts as well as get feedback on their progress toward reaching their goal (Zemke
and Zemke, 1995). Additionally, there is value when teachers not only hear their colleagues share suc-
cessful teaching methods but see colleagues demonstrate these practices. Much like students modeling
for their classmates, having a relevant peer demonstrate a task or share an experience provides evidence
that such a goal is obtainable (Omrod, p. 259). Opinions about our own abilities are often formed by
observing the successes and failures of other people, especially those with ability levels similar to our
own (Dijkstra et al., 2008; Usher & Pajares, 2008; Zeldin & Pajares, 2000).

Teacher Leadership

According to Angelle & DeHart, (2011) teacher leadership is as varied as the context in which educa-
tors work, therefore there is not one singular meaning when it comes to teacher leadership. Educators
may take on formal roles such as academic coach or grade level chair that require them to work outside
the classroom or informal roles such as teacher advisor or mentor that focus on student development in
the classroom. For this study, we will use Angelle and DeHart’s (2011) definition of teacher leaders as:

those teachers who maintain focus on student learning, seek lifelong learning for themselves, use fa-
cilitation and presentation skills, engage others in shared vision and meaning, develop and maintain
relationships, work with a sense of integrity, and plan and organize. (p. 143)

The field of leadership study has increasingly included the importance of teacher as leader in school
reform (Crowther, Kaagan, Ferguson, & Hann, 2002; Frost, Durrant, Head, & Holden, 2000; Katzenmeyer
& Moller, 2001; Murphy, 2005). Increasing the extent of teacher leadership in a school can bring posi-
tive change to schools, transforming the school into a place of adult, as well as student, learning (Ryan,
1999). Expertise is critical to the teacher leader, according to Snell and Swanson (2000), because teacher
expertise is what establishes credibility with peers. Along with credibility, Childs-Bowen, Moller, and

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Scrivner (2000) identified teacher competency as a major component of teacher leadership. Odell (1997)
also stressed the importance of teacher competency by stating that “one cannot be an effective teacher
leader if one is not first an accomplished teacher” (p. 122). Literature informs us that teacher leaders
are those who have the ability to “encourage colleagues to change” (Wasley, 1991, p. 23) and have the
willingness to “lead beyond the classroom and contribute to the community of learners” (Katzenmeyer
& Moller, 2001, p. 17). In a traditional school structure teacher leaders are elected to serve in a position,
are selected for a role or volunteer to take on a leadership position. What makes the teacher leaders in
this chapter unique is their participation and willingness to serve is intrinsically driven by their desire
to learn and improve their practice. The roles and responsibilities they take on for the organization are
outside their school workplace.
Most teachers who take on leadership roles do not see themselves as leaders, as the term leader is
often associated with those who take on formal positions such as principals or district supervisors. They
perceive that most of their work is done informally through collaboration (Moller et al., 2001). Teacher
leadership in an atmosphere of collaboration was found to be an element in successful change throughout
the literature (Dimmock, 2002; Harris, 2002; Turk, 2001; Wikeley, Stoll, & Lodge, 2002).
What we know about teacher leaders is they must not operate in a vacuum to be effective. Teacher
leaders must share their ideas, and beliefs with their colleagues and peers. Further when teachers learn
from one another teacher leadership is significantly enhanced (Little, 1995). Boles and Troen (1994)
characterized teacher leadership as a form of collective leadership in which teachers work collaboratively.
Having the time, space, and opportunity for collaboration are essential for teacher leaders to reach their
potential (Clemson Ingram & Fessler, 1997; Gehrke, 1991; Stone et al., 1997). The importance of shar-
ing leadership to improving schools has been shown through out the literature (Harris, 2002; Moller et
al., 2001; Snell & Swanson, 2000; Suranna & Moss, 2002). Similarly the idea of sharing leadership is
aligned with the inner workings of the Monterey Bay Area Mathematics Project (MBAMP). Without
the sharing of leadership in this volunteer leadership team the organization would not be able to sustain
and support year round professional development for over ten years.

Teacher Leadership and Teacher Professional Development

Creating a bridge between teacher leadership and professional development is essential for two rea-
sons: to enhance teacher leadership and to improve teacher practice. Previous research has suggested
that teacher leadership can only be successful with the support of the school leadership (Harris, 2002;
Moller et al., 2001). Further schools with the greatest extent of teacher leadership are led by principals
who are empowering, treat teachers with respect, and value the work of teacher leaders (Acker-Hocever
& Touchton, 1999). Unlike the traditional school leadership model which is administrator driven and
selected the MBAMP organization is voluntary and teacher-driven as leadership roles and responsibili-
ties take place outside of the traditional school day. This approach to developing a leadership team does
not limit an organization in valuing the specific skills and styles of a selected group of teachers rather
participation is teacher initiated allowing teachers to share their unique skills, knowledge and experiences.
Research has suggested that teacher leadership in a school is dependent on whether the top-level ad-
ministrators in a school are able to relinquish power to teacher leaders (Little, 2002). MBAMP’s model
is based on the idea that teacher leadership can happen outside of the school district. Leadership should

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not be limited to a administrator directed process, as all teachers should be given the opportunity to lead.
MBAMP is based on the teachers’ desire to receive the benefits that come from being an MBAMP teacher
leader. As a result of the teacher leadership opportunity MBAMP participants gain districts and schools
are utilizing the leadership of these participants to support and train other teachers at their respective
school site. Districts are funding teacher participants to attend MBAMP summer institutes so they can
reap the benefit of having their teachers engage in year long professional development that impacts not
only the participants classroom but their colleagues as well.

CONTEXT, RESEARCH DESIGN, AND MODES OF INQUIRY

Context

This research project took place over the course of one year examining the profile of participants who
are involved with a university based mathematics professional development program in Northern Cali-
fornia of the United States. The University based professional development program is one of 19 sites
supported by the state of California and residing in a public university to support K-12 mathematics
initiatives. The program offers year round professional development and support to teachers of students
in grades K-12 through a variety of events including summer institutes, consulting services with local
school districts, independent study programs and weekend seminars.

Research Design and Modes of Inquiry

Participants Survey: A total of ten participants responded to this survey. Survey questions were cre-
ated based on the existing literature of professional development practices and teacher leadership and
included both closed-ended and open-ended questions that allowed participants to share their beliefs,
knowledge and experiences. A sample of an open-ended question is “How did your participation in the
Teacher Leader team shape your classroom instruction?” Survey Monkey, an online web survey tool
was used and a link was emailed to all participants of the University project. The survey had five parts:
demographic information, reasons and motivations for working with MBAMP, qualities of the director,
type of participation, and benefits of participation.
In-depth Interview: The director of the program was interviewed four times throughout the school
year to understand how she develops and grows her professional development community. Multiple inter-
views were conducted to examine how her practices might change throughout the school year. Questions
were asked to understand the processes to organize and structure mathematics professional development
events, as well as establishing a professional development community that is teacher-driven and focused
on the collective strengths of teacher leaders.
Analyzing Documents: In order to understand the history and context of the professional development
organization as well as the growth and development over the last ten years meeting notes and documents
from event planning as well as research grants were analyzed. Content analysis was conducted to inter-
pret the various types of communication within the organization as well as the structure and process for
developing professional development.

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RESULTS

Demographics of Teacher Leaders: Table 1 displays the overall teacher leader participants’ demographic
data. The study focuses on ten participants who have been involved with the University of California
Santa Cruz mathematics project for an average of more than five years.
70% of the participants in this survey identified as a K-12 teacher. In addition most of the participants
held at least a Masters degree (80%) and a multiple subject teaching credential, which permits them to
work at the K-6 grade level in a self-contained classroom.

Hours of Reported Work with MBAMP

Participants were asked to report the number of hours they have contributed as part of the MBAMP or-
ganization. This includes planning, presenting and attending MBAMP events. Results appear in Figure 1.
Overall the majority of participants reported more than 100 hours of work with MBAMP. 40% of
participants shared they have contributed at least 30 to 50 hours and 10% contributed 50-70 hours of
professional development.

Identified Roles as MBAMP Teacher Leader

Participants were asked to identify the roles they have engaged in while actively involved in the MBAMP
professional development organization (see Table 2).

Table 1. Overall teacher participation

      N       P
Professional Position
Teacher (K-5)       4       40%
Teacher (6-12)       3       30%
Administrator       1       10%
Retired Teacher (K-12)       1       10%
College Professor       1       10%
Years as Teacher Leader
1-5       1       10%
5-10       4       40%
10-15       6       60%
Education Level
Bachelors Only       1       10%
Masters       8       80%
Doctorate       1       10%
Credential
Multiple Subject       7       70%
Single Subject       3       30%

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Figure 1. Hours of work with MBAMP

The tasks were organized by type to identify the most common kinds of tasks that participants se-
lected in their role of teacher leader. For administrative tasks, 90% of participants reported attending
face-to-face meetings and 80% selected communicating via email for schedules, surveys, and flyers. For
mentoring tasks, teacher leaders were most likely to report allowing visitors to come into their classroom
for observation (60%) and least likely to report supporting a new teacher leader (20%). For advising tasks,
70% of teacher leaders reported they were most likely to engage in activities that include determining
the direction of the 1-day conference, determining the direction of an institute (60%) and serving as a
liaison between MBAMP and school districts (50%). Presenting and planning tasks that were commonly
reported include planning and presenting an entire content session without support (80%) and breakout

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Table 2. Identified roles as MBAMP teacher leader

N P
Administrative Tasks
Promoting MBAMP events 10 10%
Attending face-to face planning meetings 9 90%
Writing grants or funding 4 40%
Giving email feedback
For flyers, surveys or schedules 8 80%
For participants survey 5 50%
Daily schedule of an event 7 70%
Networking for MBAMP 7 70%
Mentoring Tasks
Working with UCSC Pre-service Teachers 3 30%
Supporting a new Teacher Leader 2 20%
Attending Teacher Leader session to support 3 30%
Opening your classroom for visitor observation 6 60%
Advising Tasks
Determining the direction of 1 day conference 7 70%
   Determining the direction of an institute 6 60%
   Assisting to start a new leadership team 4 40%
   Finding other Teacher Leaders 3 30%
   Serving as a liaison between MBAMP and school districts 5 50%
Presenting/Planning Tasks
Breakout sessions with another teacher leader 6 60%
Entire content for session without support 8 80%
Solo Producing an entire event without director 2 20%
Producing an entire event with another teacher 3 30%
3 day institute 1 10%

session with another teacher leader (60%). Solo producing an entire event without director support was
not commonly reported (20%). Teacher leaders were also less likely to report producing an entire event
with another teacher (30%).

Perceived Benefit of Mathematics Professional Development Organization

Participants were asked to report the benefits they received from working with MBAMP. Teacher
responses were organized into three categories: teaching skills, sense of belonging, and professional
development skills (see Table 3).
90% of participants reported their experience with MBAMP deepened their pedagogical understand-
ing. 80% of participants also reported their mathematical understanding deepened and they learned new
teaching practices. Tasks that were identified as developing a teachers’ sense of belonging were highly

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Table 3. Perceived benefit of MBAMP

N P
Teaching Skills
Deepening my mathematics understanding 8 80
Deepening my pedagogical understanding 9 90
Learning new teaching practices 8 80
Sense of Belonging
Part of a professional community of educators 10 100
Feeling connected an less isolated 7 70
Sharing my teaching experience with teachers 10 100
Being a professional outside of the class 8 80
Sharing about your work with MBAMP 8 80
Professional Development Skills
Developing a session to present 6 60
Developing the skills to present to other teachers 7 70
Spreading the word on effective practices 10 100
Planning an institute 8 80
Planning a 1-day conference 7 70

rated and include 100% of the participants reported a benefit of being “part of a professional community
of educators”. Participants also reported sharing their teaching practices (100%), being a professional
outside of the classroom (80%) and sharing what they are doing at MBAMP (80%) to be a benefit as
well. The most common professional development skill reported was 100% of participants identified
spreading the word on effective practices to be a benefit of their work at MBAMP. They also reported
planning an institute (80%) and 1-day conference (70%) to be a benefit as well.

Shaping Classroom Instruction

Participants were asked to share how their participation in the MBAMP organization shaped their class-
room instruction. Similar to the results from the survey above the participants’ responses were generally
related to three specific areas: teaching skills, sense of belonging, and presentation skills. With regards
to teaching skills one participant shared “I have learned specifically how to implement number talks
and use different engagement strategies which encourage my students to communicate and be part of
our discussions about math.” Participant responses also indicate the value of belonging to a professional
development organization with regards to their own motivation and teaching style “being involved in
leadership helps me to stay motivated to teach the way we preach” and “MBAMP helps inspire me to
keep stretching for the next best practice”. Sense of belonging to a professional development organization
was also evident in teacher responses as one teacher shared “It has sustained me through difficult times”
and “I bring more of a spirit of curiosity into my classroom now than I did previously”. With regards to
presentation skills teachers reported “I became more confident in my presentation skills” and “I use my
classroom as a lab to try new lessons or ideas that I consider sharing with other teachers.”

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Participants were also asked to provide a specific example of how MBAMP supported their work in
the school or classroom. Participant responses reflect not only how specific professional development
shaped their practice but also how the opportunity to partake in a leadership role influenced their profes-
sional growth and school community, one participant shared:

MBAMP provided needed support and structure for organizing professional development at our school
site throughout the year, from the Winter Colloquium to the Summer Institute. Those opportunities al-
lowed us to not only develop our leadership as math training facilitators, but also as offered a regular
forum for deeper and informed professional collegial conversations about math practice. From there we
have been able to carry the message to others and share resources at our individual schools.

Several other participants also shared how their involvement in the organization continued to further
their professional growth as an educator. One participant shared “MBAMP has supported me by offer-
ing resources such as model lessons from other teachers and the opportunity to borrow materials and
books to try in my class” and “As a science lecturer and student teacher supervisor, I am constantly using
MBAMP material with my students.”

Leading Teacher Leaders

Participants were asked “what qualities do you find important in working with the director of the MB-
AMP organization” and “share what the director does well and can improve”. Several themes emerged
in the participant responses as valuable qualities of a director. Flexibility emerged as a strong theme in
participants’ responses. Participants stated the director was flexible and would provide time for the lead-
ers to develop and grow into teacher leaders. “Judith’s flexibility, creativity and enthusiastic response to
meeting teacher training needs provides a needed contrast to more traditionally structured professional
development. That flexibility encourages others to take leadership.” Figure 2 shows the most reported
comments regarding qualities of a director. The qualities were organized into four categories: manage-
ment style, personal qualities, vision and technical knowledge.
For Technical knowledge and personal qualities one participant shared:

The director of MBAMP does a really good job of bringing people together. Everyone loves the leader-
ship dinner we have at the beginning of the school year where we discuss plans for the year and share
a good meal. I also think she stays on top of current information in the field of mathematics education,
and shares these resources with all of the leaders. She also makes it clear how much she appreciates
the team and our input.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study found all of the participants reported at least 30 hours of work with MBAMP. This
finding is significant as Hammond and colleagues found at least 30 hours of professional development a
year leads to significant impact in student achievement (2009). More than 60% of participants indicated
they spent more than 50 hours a year engaged in professional development. Hammond and colleagues
found participants who engage in at least 49 hours in one-year student achievement by approximately

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Figure 2. Qualities of director

21 percentile points. Although the purpose of this study was not to identify if student achievement was
gained as a result of professional development, it is worthy to note that the participants in this study are
engaged in activities that have been found to have significant impact on student achievement. Future
research should examine if the impact from professional development does lead to an increase in achieve-
ment from a classroom and school level.
The types of roles teacher leader participants engage in extend beyond the typical task of planning
and presenting material. Results from this study show in order for an organization to be successful and
thrive participants need to contribute to the growth and direction of the organization. Networking and
sharing information beyond just the day of the event is essential to build capacity and to create a sense
of community and belonging in an organization that extends beyond the traditional school day. Although
digital tools are available and accessible, the research from this study suggests it is still of value for
team members to meet face-to-face in order to establish a bond and commitment among colleagues. A
sense of belonging emerged in both the quantitative and qualitative data from teacher participants as a
valuable benefit of their work with MBAMP.
The most common administrative task included attending face-to-face meetings this finding suggests
participants see the value in making personal connections with colleagues to support the work they are
doing together. Communicating via email regarding administrative tasks such as schedules, flyers and
surveys were also commonly reported by participants (80%) suggesting that teacher leaders are able
to distinguish between the types of tasks that can be completed without personal communication and

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the types of tasks that can be delegated among peers. Moreover participant responses also indicate the
feeling that their time face-to-face was well spent, highly structured and organized. Higher-order tasks
that require participants to think critically and negotiate meaning are more valuable during face-to-face
meetings whereas lower-level demand tasks can be managed and completed via electronic communication.
Mentoring tasks that were highly reported include allowing a visitor to observe (80%) but least likely
to include supporting a new teacher leader (20%) this finding suggests the teacher leaders in this study
were less likely to take on a coaching and supportive role. This could be an area for growth for this
organization. The program director and/or experience teacher leaders may consider ways to promote
teacher mentoring. Teacher leaders were more likely to report engaging in activities such as allowing
someone to observe them in their class, but less likely to engage in activities that new teacher leaders
often need to develop their competence and confidence as a teacher leader. Since teacher leaders were
also less likely to report finding other teacher leaders (30%) this may be an area for growth within the
organization. Training and advisement may be necessary to support teacher leaders in this task.
Common advising tasks include determining the direction of a conference (70%) and institute (60%).
This is aligned with the types presenting and planning tasks that were commonly reported by teacher
leaders such as planning and presenting a breakout session and doing this without the support of a teacher
leader. These findings suggest teacher leaders appreciate the autonomy and choice that the director pro-
vides in designing and delivering professional development. Only two of the participants shared they
were able to produce an entire event without the director. More training may be necessary by the director
or Level 5 teacher leaders to give teacher leaders the support to produce an entire event independently.

Establishing a University-School Model of Teacher Professional Development

The Monterey Bay Area Math Project (MBAMP) is a site of the California Math Project (CMP) and
part of the California Subject Matter Project (CSMP). CMP was founded in the early 1980s through a
grant from the University of California Office of the President (UCOP) in order to provide Professional
Development (PD) to K–12 math teachers. The original seed money funded a 21-day summer retreat for
15 to 30 teachers and teacher-leaders and UC faculty to support the participants in pedagogy, mathemat-
ics content and leadership skills. At first, there was no need for MBAMP to write grants or partner with
school districts because the UCOP funding covered all program expenses. At this point, all of MBAMP
staff was able to spend all their time in service of summer institutes and developing teacher-leaders. In
2001, however, UCOP reduced their funding by 70 percent. As a result, the originally promised “seed”
funding became conditional. In order to receive the money, each site needed to develop a plan outlin-
ing how they would find additional funds for developing teacher leadership; staffing the site; offering
the summer institute; continuing to work with Mathematics faculty and Mathematics Education fac-
ulty; serving a minimum of 200 teachers from low-performing school districts; working with regional
Mathematics PD providers; building relationships and partnerships with local school districts; building
relationships and partnerships with other university programs involved with PD. The requirement to
“develop teacher-leadership” forms the cornerstone of all CMP work. It is the presence of teacher-leaders
that enables the program’s unique “teachers-teaching-teachers” approach to professional development.
In the face of little to no funding for this foundational requirement, MBAMP director developed the
Volunteer Teacher Leadership method. This helped MBAMP change so it could thrive despite lack of
funding and continue developing teacher-leaders.

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Volunteer Leadership Team

The Volunteer Leadership Team (VLT) is the backbone of every MBAMP event. Whether conducting
a one-day conference; Teacher Learning Community (TLC); or a monthly colloquium series; the VLT
plays a vital support role. Each team collectively operates to advise the MBAMP director, helping with
and consulting about every aspect of the event.
In today’s financial climate, it is a challenge to reward the leadership team for their keystone role.
MBAMP cannot pay teacher-leaders the compensation that their invaluable work merits. Furthermore,
MBAMP asks teachers to do high quality work outside of their regular working day—work that their
district is not particularly interested in. However after teachers become MBAMP teacher leaders districts
typically want to use them at a district level.
In Figure 3 MBAMP Teacher Leader Growth and Governance there are five levels of teacher-leaders.
As noted in the model each level denotes a certain level of content knowledge and professional develop-
ment (PD) responsibilities. The model consists of five levels of participation for teachers in MBAMP
events. These are the ways a teacher can grow with MBAMP. Teachers can enter at any level they are
qualified to.

• Level 1 is where a teacher might be introduced to MBAMP for the first time. This might be the
first time a teacher has done any professional development outside of their district.
• Level 2 is for teachers who are interested in going a bit deeper with MBAMP. They make a com-
mitment to attend a monthly colloquium session, work on an independent study or be mentored
(usually by email) by the director or a senior teacher-leader.
• Level 3 is for teachers who want to become teacher leaders they take a co-leadership role on a
leadership team or assist a senior teacher leader in a presentation.
• Level 4 is for teachers who are ready to present a PD session independently. They want the support
provided by the director or a senior teacher leader to have the session as part of an event. Many
teacher leaders stay at this level, because they do not have the desire or possibly the time to take
on more responsibility.
• Level 5 is for teachers who are ready to head up a leadership team or produce an event on their
own. They determine when the director needs to give them support. These teacher leaders are
often paid an honorarium for the work they do.

Teacher Leader Developing A Mathematics Professional Development Event

At level 5 teacher leaders can construct a MBAMP event independent of the support from a senior teacher
leader and director. They determine when the director will need to support them as she is available to
meet or via email. The teacher leaders can develop their own leadership team and schedule meetings
to determine the planning and outcomes of an MBAMP event. The teachers determine how much time
they have to spend on their MBAMP work. The below excerpt is a detailed outline of what transpired
for the MBAMP 2015 Winter conference in terms of work and time spent.

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Figure 3. Teacher leader growth and governance

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• February 2014:Teachers read an initial email, sent by the MBAMP director inviting them to a
meeting about the start of a possible teacher leadership team around the subject of Mathematics
PD and the arts. (Teachers 5-min, Director 25-min)
• March 2014: A venue (often a coffee shop) is chosen for a face-to-face meeting to discuss with
all interested teachers and an electronic poll is sent out to determine the day and time. (Teachers
5-min, Director 25-min).
• March 2014: The face-to face meeting happens, the director makes the pitch for math and art and
describes a bit of the history around the idea and explains why each person was invited. Each
person has a chance to share their thoughts, their interest in math and art and ask each other ques-
tions. At the end of the meeting 5 teachers volunteered to be part of the leadership team. A follow
up meeting for planning is set for August (90 minutes).
• March 2014: The meeting notes are sent out to all the participants with the date of the next meet-
ing. (Director 25-min)
• August 2014: At this 2nd face-to-face meeting the teacher leaders commit to participation. They
decide the date for the MBAMP Winter conference on Jan 24, 2015. Four people on the team will
present and they will look for outside presenters. They decide the possible topics for the Math and
Art day are: literature, music, dance, visual art, graphic art and math walks. They decide the event
will be held at a school site as they would like an auditorium for the dance and music. (90 minutes)
• Between August 2014 and December 2014 Teacher-leaders are connected by email and the direc-
tor does the work to get location and participants. The following tasks are completed via electronic
communication:
◦◦ Sending out flyers electronically to past participants, and contacts from districts and county
offices.
◦◦ Setting up online registration (The registration is also a survey that will be used to inform the
leadership team when they do their final planning for the breakout sessions)
◦◦ Keeping leadership team informed as the event fills.
◦◦ Monitoring the registration and setting up the waiting list when the event is full.
◦◦ Contacting districts about POs for conference fees
◦◦ Emailing participants with conference information
◦◦ Finalizing the details for the school site (a teacher liaison from the school for the event, insur-
ance, required rooms, school rules, etc…)
◦◦ Setting up the final face-to-face meeting
• Jan 2015 the last face-to-face meeting happens. This time the team meets at the school site where
the event will be with the teacher liaison. The team tours the site, reviews the registration survey,
determines the agenda and the breakout sessions of the day and decides which rooms they want
to use for the event. Four members of the team are also presenters. There will be only one outside
presenter. (90 minutes)
• Jan 24, 2015 the day of the event. For leadership team members who are not presenting they will
be at the event setting up and monitoring the event. For leadership members who are presenting
they will prep their session and also help when they are not presenting. (8 hours, + prepping time
for presenters)
• February 2015 All teacher leaders and participants will be sent an event post survey. For the lead-
ership it will focus on their experience as a leadership team member and their impressions of the

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event. For participants it will be a post survey about experience at the conference and what it will
lead to. (Director: 1 hour to make the survey, Teacher-leaders and Participants: 30 min to take the
survey)
• February 2015: Using the survey results the director composes a Math/Art conference report. It
will be sent to all districts who paid for teachers to attend and to the leadership team.

The hours of work time for teacher leaders will range from 15 - 20 hours to 40 hours. The hours of
work time for the director will be about 80 hours. The work will take place over a period of 1 year. The
remote work is done at everyone’s convenience using computers, phone or tablets. The flexible remote
aspect makes the time spent very efficient. Teacher leaders are involved in email streams about parts of
the conference they care about. The teachers determine how much or how little they work.

Planning a Professional Development Event

The planning of a Monterey Bay Area professional development event begins with an idea (see Figure 4).
The critical INPUT is an idea for a topic and interested teacher leaders. The OUTPUT for the teachers
is the work of directing and producing the event, for the director it is using the infrastructure of MBAMP
in service of supporting the vision of the teacher leaders, being the person with the institutional knowledge,
helping the leadership team to make sure they do not overlook any details. The teacher participants who

Figure 4. Planning an MBAMP event

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attend the event will hopefully benefit from the experience, but is there an impact beyond the individual
teachers who participate? That is what the Logic Model addresses. Teacher leadership teams are plan-
ning MBAMP events throughout the year. The OUTCOME is the impact beyond the experience of the
participants. The Logic Model in Figure 4 details INPUTS and OUTPUTS of planning an event and
also shows desired outcomes:

1. All Teachers’ pedagogical and content knowledge increase.

2. MBAMP’s profile raises.
3. Students’ respond with increased mathematical intuition and understanding.
4. Districts Administrators are motivated to support MBAMP events, because these events are training
some of their district teachers to be leaders (see Figure 5).

These outcomes are larger than a single event. They are the impact seen over time on the districts
and the counties that the teacher leaders come from. The results from exit surveys of MBAMP events
overwhelmingly suggest teachers are reporting they have increased pedagogical and content knowledge.
Further the MBAMP Director is being contacted frequently in district and county outreach. When asked
why this model of teachers-training-teachers works the project director stated:

Figure 5. Logic model of MBAMP

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The Role of Teacher Leadership for Promoting Professional Development Practices

I think what works well is the teachers who are attending the conference see the value and relevancy
from the teachers who are presenting ideas. The teacher leader who is presenting might say this is what
I did last week and these are teachers that are actually teaching kids with the material they are working
with. (J. Montgomery, personal communication, November 12, 2014).

Teachers are reporting by applying the strategies they are learning their students are explaining their
mathematical thinking. The director has reported “school district administrators continue to fund MBAMP
events and reap the rewards of their teachers participating by asking their MBAMP trained teachers to
do in house PD” (J. Montgomery, personal communication, September 14, 2014).

FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHER-DIRECTED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The flowchart in Figure 6 outlines the steps to follow and the components to include for a Teacher
Leadership Team to direct and produce an MBAMP event. This general flowchart can be applied to any
event whether it is a 1-day conference or a multiple day summer institute. It begins with an informal
discussion of thought and ends with teacher participants at an event.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

Supporting Teacher-Directed Professional Development

It is the belief of the program director that a Volunteer Leadership Team (VLT) functions best when it is
composed of teachers who believe in the team’s mission. This earnest commitment not only provides a
common language between MBAMP and the team, but also creates a nourishing reciprocal relationship

Figure 6. Framework for PD

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between the two parties. Teachers feel like MBAMP works for them by facilitating service opportunities;
MBAMP benefits from teacher-leaders assistance at events. For the teacher’s sake and for the benefit of
the event itself, the leadership team requires support and nurturing. A motivated, well-supported VLT
means participants who deeply understand the content of the event, affects the desired change in the
teaching practice of the participants and ultimately benefits students of the participants. The MBAMP
director works to nurture the leadership team members in a variety of ways including but not limited
to: maintaining regular email contact, visiting classrooms, facilitating team-wide meetings, taking the
team to conferences, and helping teachers present at conferences. It is important to note that—beyond
the event itself—the teacher-leaders act as ambassadors to their district and their county. In the end, each
team member is promoting an ideal that they believe in by doing service to their community. The VLT
is truly a body that affects positive change.
Volunteer leadership teams that are a grassroots movement are a successful way to produce profes-
sional development and train teacher leaders. This model is geared toward an apprenticeship approach,
whereby people interested in teacher leadership move through the five different stages to become teacher
leaders who are self-sustaining and growth oriented. Applying a growth model approach to a professional
development organization sustains the membership of teachers as they become intrinsically motivated
to improve their practice and develop leadership skills.
One of MBAMP’s core values is to support teachers in developing a trajectory toward leadership
growth. In Figure 5 we make a case that teacher leadership in a team is an opportunity for teachers to
organically grow into powerful leadership roles. Teachers might start being little more than an observer
on a team, but 4 years later they can be leading their own team and explaining mathematics content and
pedagogy that used to elude them. This approach to teacher leadership promotes:

• Teacher-to-teacher mentoring
• Teachers visit other teacher in their classroom
• Collaboration across grades
• Sharing and developing pedagogical and content knowledge.

One place that illustrates this outcome is the movement of the teachers from level to level in MBAMP
participation, the outcomes are difficult to document, but they are being observed by the MBAMP director.

CONCLUSION

Collaboration, community building, and participation in communities of learners are key features to
high quality professional development (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Borko, 2004; Loucks-Horsley, et al, 2003;
Wilson & Berne, 1999). We also believe one key element in learning to participate in a professional
community is valuing the unique skills, experience and knowledge that each teacher brings with them
as a teacher leader. MBAMP professional development is centered on what teachers are doing in the
classroom and the expertise they have to share.
As one teacher leader stated “I use my classroom as a lab to try new lessons or ideas that I consider
sharing with other teachers”. Approaching professional development from a constructivist stance is a
powerful method as it allows group members to explore an area of interest and develop expertise at their
own pace. When teacher leaders view their classroom as a learning lab they are demonstrating what is

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referred to as a “stance of inquiry (Ball & Cohen, 1999). From this perspective teacher leaders are us-
ing their teaching practice as a source of inquiry and continued professional learning. When they have
developed expertise using a particular strategy then they are able to demonstrate mastery by presenting
this approach to their colleagues at a professional development session. As stated by the MBAMP direc-
tor, “Professional development becomes so embedded in what they do that they are creating a mindset of
consistently reflecting and thinking about their practice with a goal of improving their practice” (personal
communication, November 13, 2014).

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by Experience, Degree, and Position. NASSP Bulletin, 95(2), 141–160. doi:10.1177/0192636511415397
Ball, D. L., & Cohen, D. K. (1999). Developing practices, developing practitioners: Toward a practice-
based theory of professional development. In G. Skyes & L. Darling-Hammonds (Eds.), Teaching as
the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice (pp. 30–32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bush, R. N. (1984). Effective staff development in making schools more effective: Proceedings of three
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Center for Public Education. (2005). Teacher Quality and Student Achievement: Research Review.
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Darling-Hammond, L., Chung Wei, R., Andree, A., & Richardson, N. (2009). Professional learning in
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Darling-Hammond, L., & McLaughlin, M. (1995). Policies That Support Professional Development in
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Lieberman (Ed.), Rethinking School Improvement. New York: Teachers College Press.
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Youngs, P. (2013). Using teacher evaluation reform and professional development to support Common
Core assessments. Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress.
Zeldin, A. L., & Pajares, F. (2000). Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in mathemati-
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Zemke, R., & Zemke, S. (1995). Adult Learning: What Do We Know For Sure? Training (New York,
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Zepeda, S. J. (1999). Staff Development Practices That Promote Leadership in Learning Communities.
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 115

Chapter 7
Teachers’ Professional
Development in the
Digitized World:
A Sample Blended Learning Environment
for Educational Technology Training

Emsal Ates Ozdemir

Istanbul Sehir University, Turkey

Kenan Dikilitaş
Hasan Kalyoncu University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
Professional development for in-service English language teachers has increasingly become a need in
higher education not only in Turkey but across the world. Due to the limited time teachers have and the
distance between the source of service and the potential participants, using digitized activities and ma-
terials have naturally become a necessity. The purpose of this research is to report the potential impact
of the course described below and discuss the role of blended learning experience of professional devel-
opment on the participating teachers. The theoretical background of the study is experiential learning
initiated by Kolb and socio-constructivist learning theory by Vygotsky in that both theories highlight
the role of experiencing the change and focus on personal meanings and learning with and from others
in real and online environments.

INTRODUCTION

Professional development for in-service teachers has increasingly become a need in the education field
not only in Turkey, but across the world. Due to the limited time teachers have and the distance between
the source of service and the potential participants, using digitized activities and materials have natu-
rally become a necessity. In the digitized world, teachers are expected to develop their technological
pedagogical knowledge so as to keep up with the developing pedagogical innovations.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch007

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Teachers’ Professional Development in the Digitized World

With the growth of digital facilities, professional development activities for teachers have become
more visual and comprehensible. However, in developing countries, teachers who grew up with non-
technological environment experience challenges in the digitized world, which makes it really difficult
to deal with the changing nature of the training materials for their professional development. Turkey is
one of the examples of such educational settings with several contextual constraints for the integration
of digitized teacher development activities. Moreover, teachers do not have enough opportunities of-
fered by their institutions. However, they attempt to develop professionally by searching materials on
the Internet and attending relevant conferences or short courses.
It has also been observed that professional development activities which are more regular, organized
and focused on the integration of technology into teaching rather than learning about how to use tech-
nological tools are needed. The training program offered in this study is planned according to this need.
The purpose of this research is to report the potential impact of ‘The Certificate Program for Educational
Technology’ (ETUSP) course described in this study and discuss the role of blended professional devel-
opment program on the participating teachers. The theoretical background of the study is experiential
learning initiated by Kolb and socio-constructivist learning theory by Vygotsky in that both theories
highlight the role of experiencing the change and focus on personal meanings and learning with and
from others in real environments.

Literature Review

It is widely believed that teachers are key to putting information technologies in the hands of students by
integrating it into the teaching and learning process. By using technology as a natural and necessary part
of classroom practice, teachers can give students the knowledge and experiences they need. Therefore,
for students to be better prepared to ‘learn with technology, teachers need to be better prepared to ‘teach
with’ technology (Luke, Moore, Sawyer, 1998 as cited in Fossum, 2010).
There are also pedagogical theories to guide technology integration in classrooms. Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) is a framework for teacher knowledge for technology inte-
gration prepared by Koehler and Mishra (2006). They argue that developing good content requires a
skillful interweaving of three sources of knowledge: technology, pedagogy and content. They also assert
that there is no single technological solution that addresses every teacher, every course or every view
of teaching. For a productive technology integration teachers should consider all three issues within
complex relationships rather than in isolation.
The Substitution Augmentation Modification Redifinition (SAMR) is another model for technology
integration. This model was prepared by Puentedura (see Figure 1). It displays a new way to look at the
different levels of integrating technology into the classroom.
As Dexter, Anderson and Becker (1999, p.223) explained, ‘For teachers to implement any new
instructional strategy, they must require new knowledge about it and then weave this together with the
demands of the curriculum, classroom management and existing instructional skills’. Teachers need
information about how, as well as why, to use technology in meaningful ways. Lack of knowledge regard-
ing either element can significantly decrease the potential impact that these powerful resources might
have on student learning. Lock (2006) explains in his study that described shortcomings in traditional
professional development models have started a shift toward community based models to provide the
continuous support teachers need to promote for teaching better, thus enhancing student learning. With
advances in Information Communication Technologies (ICT) and ICT infrastructures in schools, online

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Figure 1. SAMR Model by Dr. Ruben Puentedura, http://hippasus.com/rrpweblog

environments can be designed, implemented and developed in a meaningful way to support teachers’
professional practice and continuous development. The community of participating teachers in the cur-
rent course exemplifies such a group who wanted to promote their skills for integrating technology into
their lives, classrooms, and schools.
Potter and Rockinson-Szapkiw (2012) state that researchers are aware of the fact that adult learners do
not respond favorably to conventional, behavioral pedagogy and methods of instruction; they respond more
favorably to social constructivist pedagogy and methods. Similarly Vygotsky’s (1978) social constructiv-
ism also underlines the fact that learning is a social collaborative activity He adds that an instructional
guide is necessary and should use the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to improve instruction. The
learning activities should extend into real world activities, so they should be applicable. Knowles (1980)
also states in his theory of andragogy that adult learners have prior knowledge and experience to build
upon and prefer experiential learning; they are more motivated to learn what is relevant.
Various trainings have been held and are still being held by many institutions. The impact these
trainings create on the teachers’ practices and future plans are not reported or investigated extensively.
Therefore, one of the aims of this paper is to inform about a teacher training that has been recently held
and how it has affected its participants in time (after 8 months) the training.

ETUSP 2 (Digitized Course)

This blended professional development course was designed and delivered by a group of professionals
whose common feature is their experience in integrating technology into teaching; they are four tech-
nology specialists. These trainers specialized themselves in the integration of technology through their
academic studies or joining some training activities abroad and in Turkey. They are also working at 1:1
schools where they lead the technology integration into teaching.

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The course is a five-week program through which the participants meet face to face once a week with
the trainers in a computer lab and follow activities such as doing homework, participating in forums dur-
ing the week at any time they would like throughout the online learning platform. Moodle was chosen
as the learning platform as it gave the trainers the chance to share feedback, lesson materials, samples,
homework and to discuss via a forum. The trainers had worked on the curriculum for two years before they
came up with the final version. It took a while to decide on what to include in the training and to create
the written content for Moodle. They employed simulations, sample lesson plans, videos to enhance the
education program for teachers. They got feedback from the teachers in their schools as they wanted to
include the most needed technological tools and their integration into teaching. The name of the course
was derived from the initials of the phrase ‘Egitim Teknolojileri Uzmanlıgı Sertifika Programı’ which
meant ‘Educational Technology Expert Certificate Program’.
8 intern students from Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department at the school
where 3 of the trainers work at and 3 other teachers of different subjects working at different private
schools (Maths, Turkish and Computer) volunteered to work in the program by helping the creation of
the digital content and assisting the trainees during the face to face sessions.
They finalized the digital content as a large group (trainees, trainers, three teachers who volunteered
to work with the trainers). Finally, the trainers searched for ways to start this training. They wanted to
equip the course participants with a certificate through a continuous learning center of a university.
They communicated with the administrative people from a university and they were accepted to use the
computer laboratory and the certificate would be given by the university. ETUSP 2 was delivered at a
private university as a professional development activity for teachers (teaching at all levels and subjects)
who were working in İstanbul and two teachers from other cities. The participants who were able to
fulfill the requirements of the course (passing the online quizzes, participating in the forums and doing
the homework) would be given a certificate by the university. Any teacher who would like to learn more
about technology would apply to the program regardless of their background.
The course consists of six modules which are:

• Social Media in Education

• Digital Citizenship
• Tablets and Web 2.0 Apps
• Pedagogical Models for ICT integration
• Google Apps for Education
• Learning Management Systems

However, the training was limited to 21 teachers thinking that it would be the best number of people
to be dealt during face to face training. The educational technology training program was announced on
the following website http://www.egitimtek.com, which was prepared by teacher trainers. 60 teachers
applied for the program, and 21 of them were selected for the training. Teachers of different subjects
and levels were selected to create a heterogeneous group which could share experiences and be inspired
by one another. The group was intrinsically motivated to professionally develop as they volunteered to
take the training. Moreover, the number of teachers working at the same school was low thinking that
they would form technology support groups within their schools and share their knowledge with their
colleagues.

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The face to face sessions and the digitized section of the course went smoothly. The teachers seemed
engaged in the activities they were doing and doing their tasks on time. They were also working in groups
and sharing their projects in the classroom with the other teachers. However, the researchers thought
an investigation about the teachers’ perspectives on the integration of technology throughout a blended
learning program was necessary. They wanted to find out how the teachers felt after the process of train-
ing. The researchers also aimed to find out the transfer of learning into their professional contexts and
changing practices in using educational technology and its effect on their teaching. This experiential and
hands-on training course would provide critical insights into the dimensions of development and teacher
change. The study will also focus on the reflections, feelings and experiences of teachers after the course.

METHODOLOGY

Research Questions

1. What are the expectations of the teachers from the digitized technology training course?
2. How did the participating teachers feel after the digitized training course (ETUSP)?
3. What was the impact of the digitized technology training course on the participating teachers?

Participants

Participant demographic information presented in Table 1.

Data Collection Tools

Data to evidence impact of the training n the teachers were collected three times in the following order
to triangulate the data sources.

1. Pre-course data
◦◦ Background information survey to reveal about the context
◦◦ Written report from the participating teachers in order to reveal the impact of the course on
their development

Table 1. Demographic information about the participants

Area of Teaching N Experience Gender

History 1 4-7 Male
Homeroom Teacher 4 3 - 17 4 Female
Mathematics 6 4-22 1 Female
5 Male
English 2 8-17 2 Female
Science and Technology 3 0-12 2 Female
1 Male
Turkish 1 8-12 Male
German 4 8-17 4 Female

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2. While-course data
◦◦ Interview for immediate impact
◦◦ Analysis of completed tasks and documents
3. Post-course Data
◦◦ Written report from the participating teachers in order to reveal the impact of the course on
their development
◦◦ Written report to reveal the impact on the institution

Data Analysis

The data collected from the participants through written reports and the participants’ posts on the social
media. An open, axial, and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) was followed in the analysis. In
open coding, transcribed data was sorted out as sentences or larger groups sentences that contain single
ideas. A code was given to the emerging concept. The items from the open coding analysis were reduced
to concepts through axial coding. During selective coding, these concepts were then gathered as two
central categories (expectations and impact on professional development. The two central categories
were further divided into sub-categories, presented in Table 2 and 3 respectively.

Table 2. Central themes regarding participants’ expectations from the course

Learning to • As it will relate to how I can use technology in my classroom

Integrate ICT • To experience how technology can be integrated into classrooms
• In order to learn how to use it more effectively in my classroom
• To find an answer to how I can use technology better in my classroom
• By developing professionally, I want to learn how I can adapt technology into my classrooms
• To learn about new technological applications and reflect over how I can integrate them into my classroom
• To find technology-integrated applications from lessons
Self- • To improve myself and learn new things
Development • To update myself about technology and develop myself
• Promote my skills in the use of technology in education
• It will be informative for me
• To enhance my professional knowledge and competency
• To learn more about how students are learning in the 21st century and developing a perspective in order to teach
more
• To learn about alternative technology-based methods of teaching as it is needed in this century
• To share to learn and to self-develop
Curiosity • I am curious about technology and keen on generating through technology
• I love technology.
• I am always interested in trainings on the use of technology for educational purposes
• I have developed tremendous curiosity about using technology in lessons recently
Training • I want to run workshops in my school and share with them what is new about the use of technology
• To share what I have learnt about technology with my colleagues
Fun • To make my lessons more interesting and fun
• To teach in a way that is enjoyable and appealing to students
Awareness To raise my awareness towards educational technology
Motivation To increase students’ motivation to learn

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Table 3. The prospective impact of the training on teachers’ professional development

Major Specific Excerpts

Impact Impact
Professional Classroom I will generate ideas for how to use it better.
Practice
I already start to think about specific ways of using web 2.0 tools, Google documents and LMS.
I have already started to integrate. I put technology into the lesson plans.
I am sharing what I have learnt with my students and then we implement the technological tools.
I am implementing several new applications in the classroom now.
I will use it in the assignment checking.
I am using technology for consolidation activities and students’ evaluations.
I am implementing technology for creative writing and collaborative writing
Student I am planning to use technology inside and outside the classroom where ever possible to increase student
learning motivation and learning.
The students reported that they feel more motivated and learn better and more.
Students are learning better with individual and groups work and have greater motivation now.
Planning It has already integrated. What I used to do on the basis of trial and error became more planned and with
more awareness.
I have become more professional when I am planning to integrate technology in my classes.
I have been thinking about ways of integrating technology into my lesson plans considering the target
topics.
I have started to organize technology-enhanced implementation especially for classroom management.
Development The training taught me how to catch fish rather than gave me fish to eat whenever I need.
Institutional Change I will reconsider the content of my lessons as a leader of change in my institution.
I have been given an opportunity to become technology leaders in my school so that I can enrich
instructional varieties.
I have already set up a Google Drive to share with 21 colleagues the syllabuses, meetings sheets, and
etc.,.
I plan to become technology leader in the institutions I work for especially in the area of integration of
ICT in the classrooms.
I am preparing applications and implementations in line with the curriculum.
I want to become an agent of change in my school and environment.
Expertise I am sorting out problem arising at school through the use of technology.

FINDINGS

Analysis of the pre-course written report: The expectations of the participants before the course

21 participants responded to the first question of the online course evaluation survey. Table 2 presents
the central themes participants mentioned regarding the specific and personal reasons for attending the
course, ETUSP.
From the 26 responses of the 21 participants, 7 central themes were grounded. The responses are
very positive and all have connotations with intrinsic motivation to develop their digital and techno-
logical literacy as teachers. There seems to be a tendency to grasp the importance of technology use

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in classroom because 8 responses were directly related to classroom implications. This also shows the
changing nature of classroom instruction and teachers’ growing awareness towards the need to integrate
ICT in their instruction. Another most mentioned theme was self-development. The participants were
well aware of the need to self-develop in the area of the use of ICT in the classroom. The initial positive
stance towards technology integration and self-reported needs for integration positively influence the
commitment they have put into learning from the training. In addition to these, some mentioned that they
would like to lead their colleagues in terms of using technology and guide them towards the correct us-
age. This brings another perspective to teachers’ practices in the teachers’ room. Learning from a peer is
something natural for these participants, which makes the sharing of best practices useful for all teachers.

The Impact of the Training on Teachers’ Professional Development

The scope of the impact of the training on teachers turned out to have layers such as personal, and
institutional. On the personal layer, they want to be more skillful, to be able to cater the needs of the
21st century learners. As they are aware of the different profile of students who are born in a techno-
logical world, they think they need to improve themselves professionally. The teachers participating in
the digitized course volunteered to learn more about the integration of technology. They state that they
would like to keep up with the needs of their learners. One of the participants was unemployed and she
participated the course to be more skillful in the use of technology and look for a job then. She thought
she would find a job more easily with the skills she acquired at the digitized course.
When it comes to the institutional layer, it is noted that some participants were working at schools
where there were 1:1 computing projects, however where techno centric view dominates. They were just
given the devices and could not use these devices effectively in the classroom. Therefore, the teachers
participated in the course especially to contribute to their school’s success through their own personal
development. They were aware of the critical role played by teachers in contributing to a school’s de-
velopment through direct impact on their and other teachers’ classroom practices. Table 3 shows the
various areas of the prospective impact on teachers.
The major impact of the training on teachers seems to be the one on their classroom practices. The
ultimate aim of any training is to impact the teaching and learning in the classroom. As can be seen in
Table 3, the impact reported by the participants can be categorized into two general themes: professional
and institutional.
The participants were asked to comment on the initial immediate impact of the course after the
training, which could also indicate the commitment to the long-term impact. The immediate responses
can be categorized under three themes such as pedagogical technological knowledge, change, and tech-
nological network.

Immediate Impact After the Training

The teachers were based to fill out an online written survey where they reflected on the immediate impact
of the participation in the training. The responses were categorized as presented in Table 4.
OECD report entitled ‘Education and New technologies: Teacher Training and Research’ states that
the potential of the new information technologies for improving learning and teaching will not be real-
ized unless teachers are well trained and retrained in the pedagogical use of technology in the classroom
(OECD, 1992, as cited in Orhun, 2002).

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Table 4. The experienced impact areas immediately after the training

Pedagogical I am feeling more competent in technology now.

technological
My knowledge increased about different technological tools.
knowledge
I learnt a low and feel competent to make interdisciplinary connections. I also developed ideas about what I can do in
the lessons.
I feel that I am more equipped with educational technologies
I have overcome the fear of using technology after the training.
I feel that I have developed new ways of using technologies.
I feel that I want to learn more of educational technologies.
I feel that I can actively use these tools autonomously
I realized that there is still more to learn about educational technologies.
I think the training made me feel that I am promoting my pedagogical technological further skills.
Change I have started to change my perspective of teaching via technology.
I feel that I am changing in terms of personal development and views about teaching.
I feel impressed and satisfied with new skills I have learnt.
I have more alternative ideas about new applications when I make lesson plans.
I feel that I am learning and developing skills that I lacked before.
I feel synergetic and happy to equipped new ideas about technology use in the classroom.
Technology I have been part of a network where I can find support and share my ideas
network
I now know that teachers can make difference in the way they use technologies when they are connected to others.

DISCUSSION

ETUSP 2 was designed as a digitized in-service teacher training program to enhance the integration
of technology into teaching such various subjects like Maths, Science, English,Turkish. Teachers were
given the online content and guided feedback on their lessons to have better outcomes in teaching and
learning. The participants had the chance to work in groups and could visit other groups to see how
they integrate various tools into their subjects. This worked well and teacher had to share their group
work with some other teachers during the training. It created a positive atmosphere to exchange ideas
for the same goal. Similarly, Overbauch and Lu (2008 in Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012) came up
with the idea that an increased emphasis on technology integration was positively correlated to col-
laborative efforts. Moreover, Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw (2012) state that as teachers’ technological
competence and confidence increased, so did their self-efficacy. Overbaugh and Lu (2008) state that
the increase in self-efficacy resulted in more experimentation with technology in the classroom and in
the teachers’ immediate environment i.e. their colleagues and the school. This was also observed in the
answers teachers provided about the short-term impacts of the course. The teachers who participated
the online course expressed that they felt themselves more knowledgeable after seeing and practicing
various technological tools into their teaching during the training. This encouraged them to continue
learning and disseminate their knowledge to other teachers through conferences and social platforms
(writing posts on Twitter, on technology blogs, Facebook).
Another positive impact of the digitized course ETUSP 2 was teachers spending more time on plan-
ning before integrating any kind of technology in their lessons. One of the modules in the training was

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on the ‘Pedagogical Models for Tech Integration’ and teachers were introduced with TPACK Framework
(Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) by Mishra & Koehler (2006), the SAMR model (Pu-
entedura, 2012). Having investigated these models teachers were trying to be more careful and focus on
the teaching goals more than the technological tools to be used. One of the main goals of this digitized
course was to make teachers aware of these models and to be more meticulous. That’s why they started
to question more, think more before using any kind of technological tool in their lessons. In line with
this, Weinbaum, A., Allen, D., Blythe, T., Simon, K., Seidel, S., & Rubin, C., (2004 as cited in Lock,
J, 2006) mention that when teachers develop and work from an inquiry stance and in collaborative in-
quiry groups, it opens them to questioning, exploring issues as they believe as important, making their
work public, gaining new ideas on their work and students’ work and providing avenues for intellectual
growth and renewal as the teacher. This study supports this view as most of the teachers reported greater
growth as a professional teacher who is able to share experience and knowledge particularly in an ex-
periential way within their own context. The professional and social growth gained during the training
led to greater awareness and further needs for creating opportunities to benefit from their developing
experience. The while- and post-training sharing in the specific context made the outputs of the training
program pedagogically more valuable especially because the participants became agents of change and
development through their personal attempts to disseminate the new ideas and innovative practices. A
further study in which the participants of the course are planned to be surveyed after a longer time to
see if the impacts of the training have undergone any change.

REFERENCES

Dexter, S. L., Anderson, R. E., & Becker, H. J. (1999). Teachers’ views of computers as catalysts for
changes in their teaching practice. Journal of research on computing in education, 31(3), 221-239.
Duran, M., Fossum R. (2010). Technology Integration into Teacher Preparation: Part 1—Current Practice
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11,Sayı 2,Agustos, Sayfa 209-228
Herreid, C. F., & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case studies and the flipped classroom. Journal of College
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Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd ed.).
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Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for
teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054.
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Overbaugh, R., & Lu, R. (2008). The impact of a NCLB-EETT funded professional development program
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Potter, S. L., & Rockinson‐Szapkiw, A. J. (2012). Technology integration for instructional improvement:
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Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V.
John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Trans. & Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Chapter 8
Introducing Educational
Technology into the Higher
Education Environment:
A Professional Development Framework

Linda Van Ryneveld

University of Pretoria, South Africa

ABSTRACT
Over the past decade or two advancements in educational technology have taken place so swiftly that
it threatens to revolutionize the education system. This phenomena seem to drive higher education in-
stitutions to respond with costly roll out plans that bring state of the art computing hard- and software,
together with other highly specialized educational technologies, to their campuses. The dilemma is
that these investments in educational technology are often made in isolation, without consideration for
imperative aspects such as professional development. To progress, educators need to acquire the skills,
knowledge and attitudes necessary to make optimal use of the technology. This can be achieved, among
other, by means of well-structured professional development programmes. In this chapter the author
explores the role of educational technology in higher education and establishes the need for capacity
building by means of carefully designed professional development programmes. It furthermore suggests
an alternative professional development framework.

INTRODUCTION

Over the past decade or two advancements in educational technology have taken place so swiftly that
it threatens to revolutionize the education system (Quinn, 2003). This phenomena seem to drive higher
education institutions to respond with costly roll out plans that bring state of the art computing hard- and
software, together with other highly specialized educational technologies, to their campuses. The dilemma
is that these investments in educational technology are often made in isolation, without consideration for
imperative aspects such as professional development (Tlhoaele & Van Ryneveld, 2007).

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch008

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Introducing Educational Technology into the Higher Education Environment

Cuban (2001) makes a strong case when he argues that the mere fact that educational technologies are
available, does not, by itself, change the educational practices inherent in an institution. In fact, there is
little conclusive evidence that investments in hard- and software alone, make any significant difference
in the teaching and learning practices of Universities. To progress, educators need to acquire the skills,
knowledge and attitudes necessary to make optimal use of the technology. This can be achieved, among
other, by means of well-structured professional development programmes.
In order to teach effectively in the current networked educational environment, educators require ap-
plied knowledge, coupled with a functional awareness of the potential of the various technologies. They
need a sound educational foundation, as well as practical skills to meaningfully integrate the technology
into their learning programmes. Ignoring the need for professional development may therefore come at
a high cost for institutions that expect a return on their initial investment in educational technologies.
The anticipated results are unlikely to materialise without the proper empowerment of staff.
As a result of this threat, some institutions do, in fact, launch impressive training programmes which
normally take the form of a series of workshops and seminars scheduled throughout the academic year.
The effectiveness and value of such a decontextualised approach is questionable with practitioners label-
ling them as ‘hit-and-run’ (Darling-Hammond and Ball, 1997), or ‘learning-where-to-click’ workshops
(Greyling, 2007) and ‘button pushing clinics’ (Carlson, 2002).
This chapter first explores the role of educational technology in higher education and establishes
the need for capacity building by means of carefully designed professional development programmes.
It highlights the outdated elements of the workshop approach and suggests an alternative professional
development framework. The chapter concludes with a summary of lessons learnt and recommendations
for professional development practice aimed at integrating technology into higher education.

TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH TECHNOLOGY

AT A UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

At one of the prominent Universities of Technology (UoT) in South Africa, a variety of educational
technologies was introduced over time, with the aim to improve student success rates and to address chal-
lenges that surfaced due to abnormally lage classes. In some cases, educational technology was brought
in to address quality assurance issues, for example, standardising the teaching of similar courses across
geographically dispersed campuses. Online tutorials, simulations and drills were introduced to provide
additional support to underprepared learners, whilst online assessment opportunities were utilised by
lecturers for continuous and formative assessment purposes.

Rethinking Traditional Professional Development Activities

In an attempt to get lecturing staff on board, workshops and training programmes were developed and
offered each time when a new technology or a new functionality became available. Frustrations with
the workshop format of professional development, however, included the fact that these sessions often
only focussed on the ‘Click here, click there’ activities and as such lacked the educational/pedagogical
grounding that was required to make the outcome of the workshop optimal. Furthermore, lecturers had
difficulty to attend workshops that spread over anything from 3 hours to 3 days due to their own heavy
workloads and teaching schedules.

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Due to these time constraints, lecturers also struggled to find the time needed to develop their teach-
ing and learning materials, using the skills they mastered at the workshop. As such, months sometimes
passed before a lecturer would have the time to sit down and develop learning materials or opportunities,
by which time they had long since forgotten what they have learnt in the workshop.
Sometimes, training sessions would focus on new technologies/software packages that were not yet
available for use in a particular department. Workshops then added to the levels of frustrations experi-
enced by teaching staff as they now knew what was possible, but due to financial or other constraints
were not able to utilise the new funcitonalities.
Another constraint is the everpresent emphasis on research and research outputs, as is prominent in
all higher education institutions world-wide. Acknowledging that learning to use and implement new
educational technologies takes an initial time investment, it is obvious that time spent in this manner
competes with that of other academic key performance areas, specifically time to do research.
As a result of the abovementioned realities, the Partners@Work project was thus conceptualised and
implemented.

Research Methodology

The Partners@Work programme was introduced when it became clear that the traditional workshop-
based approach to professional staff development was not going to be effective in empowering educators
to adequately address the problems experienced in higher education. With this sense of dissonance in
mind, the professional development framework was designed as described below. The Partners@Work
framework for the empowerment of educators who are interested in using technology in their teach-
ing, was firmly grounded on the theories of adult learning (Decker, 2002; Rogers, 1993; Cross, 1981;
Knowles, 1959) and further informed by the motivation theories of Lieb (1991), O.Houle (1988), Malone
and Lepper (1987), Csikszentmihalyi (1975), Herzberg (1959) and Maslow (1954).
The case study has been hailed as a major methodological tool in social science inquiry and as
a distinctive means for providing valid social knowledge (Sjoberg et al. 1991). The term case study,
however, has multiple meanings. It can be used to describe a unit of analysis or to describe a research
method. Stake, in Denzin and Lincoln 2000, argues that a ‘case study is not a methodological choice but
a choice of what is to be studied. By whatever methods, we choose to study the case.’ In this study, the
Partners@Work professional development programme as it was presented at the University of Technol-
ogy in question, was selected as the unit of analysis.
According to Patton (1987) the ‘evaluation of any research data should take into consideration a
multiplicity of evidence gathered through numerous data collection methods and incorporate both quan-
titative ad qualitative methods.’ Data was therefore collected by a variety of means including question-
naires, surveys, focus groups, personal interviews, research diaries, electronic communication (email and
bulletin board messages), reflective journals (webblog entries), video reflections, group and informal
individual discussions, course statistics and exploratory visits to other higher education institutions.
Literature concerning professional development, capacity building and academic development were
also scrutinized. These data sources acted as powerful instruments to investigate the extent to which a
professional development programme can address the challenges faced by a higher education institution.

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PARTNERS@WORK: EMPOWERING EDUCATORS

TO USE TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

In essence the Partners@Work programme is a professional development programme, extended over

the course of a year, aimed at empowering educators to meaningfully use technology as part of their
teaching and learning practices. The programme focuses on the development and consequent implemen-
tation of well-rounded technology-enhanced courses that address specific challenges such as low pass
rates, geographically dispersed learners and large classes. One of the strengths of the programme is its
underlying focus on action research relating to the use of educational technology.
The Partners@Work programme consists of 4 components. The first component is a capacity-building
empowerment phase that equips lecturers with the skills, knowledge and attitudes needed to successfully
introduce technology into their teaching practices. The next component is a design and development
phase, during which lecturers create technology-enhanced teaching and learning materials. Once the
materials are developed, the third component follows in the form of an implementation phase. In this
phase, lecturers pilot the materials that they developed previously. The final component focuses on re-
search and in this phase lecturers study and report on the impact of their interventions. As a result this
component produces tangible research outputs in the form of journal articles, conference papers and
research posters. The 4 components are shown in Figure 1.
In the section below, each of these components will be unpacked with detail from the Partners@Work
programme, as it was presented at the University of Technology in question.

Preliminaries

A number of activities had to take place before the official launch of each year’s new Partners@Work
programme. A call for nominations typically went out 6 months prior to the launch of a new group.
Interested lecturers then had the opportunity to discuss their wish to participate in the programme with
their Deans and Heads of Departments (HODs), who in turn, had to scan their environments for courses
that could benefit from the introduction of educational technology.

Figure 1. The 4 phases of the Partners@Work programme

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The various Deans subsequently nominated the lecturers representing their Faculties. Once the nomi-
nations were received, the Directorate for Teaching and Learning with Technology (TLT) arranged an
introductory lunch to which the Dean, the relevant HODs and the new nominees (also known as Partners)
were invited. At this occasion, approximately 3 months prior to the commencement of the programme,
the Partners@Work concept was explained in detail, and all parties were informed of their distinct roles
and responsibilities. Contracts were signed, and after the HODs had the opportunity to introduce their
‘candidate’ to the audience, a celebratory lunch was offered.
After the lunch, the selected lecturers had to undergo a 2 hour long computer skills assessment that
tested their computer fundamentals, essential word processing skills, typing speed and accuracy, and
basic Internet browsing and searching skills. Afterwards, each lecturer received a report indicating pos-
sible areas for further training. Training opportunities (presented in-house) were also highlighted. This
activity managed to raise the lecturer’s awareness of the skills that they needed and most of them made
a concerted effort to improve these before their official Partners@Work programme started.
Lecturers (the new Partners) were also given the outline of a typical project plan, and were requested
to draw up a draft plan for the project they intended to work on. The plan profiled the subject area that
the Partner were to develop and provided background information with regards to the profile of their
students, the number of lecturers involved in teaching the programme involved, mention of the campuses
where the subject was offered, previous pass rates, and other illuminating facts about the programme.
Unique challenges and problems experienced in the programme were also highlighted. During the first
week of the Partners@Work programme, these documents then served as a starting point for a thorough
needs analysis.
In the mean time, the HOD and the Dean had to find and appoint a replacement for the seconded lec-
turer from their faculty. Financial support for the replacement was made available to replace the lecturers
in the form of seed funding. These funds were provided by Top Management in support of the Univer-
sity’s strategic vision to lead through innovative teaching practices that include the use of technology.
It was agreed that the Partner would be replaced in totality for the first six months on the programme.
During this time they would be seconded to the Directorate for Teaching and Learning with Technol-
ogy (TLT). Since they were substituted in their Faculties, and as a result ‘lost’ access to their offices,
alternative arrangements had to be made to accommodate the lecturers on the programme. They were,
therefore, provided with a laptop, pre-loaded with all the necessary software and drivers, and Internet
connectivity. During the initial offerings of the Partners@Work programme, fixed line broadband Internet
connections were provided at lecturer’s homes, however in later programmes, these were replaced with
wireless connections.
The abovementioned provisions enhanced mobility and made it possible for lecturers to work wher-
ever they wished. The TLT classroom was often used as a social gathering space, and some Partners
preferred working there rather than at their own homes. They benefited from the close proximity of the
instructional designers who were close by to assist if needed. Others preferred to work in the comforts
of their own homes and kept in touch by means of online instant messaging, email and the telephone.
For the last six months on the programme, Partners returned to their departments on a part-time
basis. Partners had to be in a position where they could implement their technology-enhanced materi-
als in an authentic environment, and still have enough time left to rework or expand sections based on
student feedback. Partners also spent time on their research projects during this time and as such Deans
and HODs were advised to limit the Partners’ lecturing load to the subject they were working on only.

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The Capacity-Building Component

During the first six months of the Partners@Work programme, lecturers were empowered to function
independently by means of an extensive capacity-building programme. This programme involved a two-
month initial face-to-face block session, followed by weekly one-day contact sessions thereafter, and a
variety of online training courses throughout their time on the programme. Active participation in the
online courses, earned Partners certificates that stated the specific levels of their achievements. At the
initial block session, and thereafter during the weekly contact sessions, time was spent networking with
other partners, sharing progress, taking part in workshops and hands-on training sessions facilitated by
experts, and by asking and answering questions related to their own development activities.
Skills development activities, focused on applications such as the learning management system, as-
sessment software, website development and video editing programs. Knowledge development activi-
ties included among other: Writing a scientific article, Preparing and presenting a conference paper,
Designing an outcomes-based curriculum, Instructional design for elearning purposes, Facilitating and
managing online learning, Encouraging online collaboration and interaction, Implementing high quality
electronic learning activities, Implementing interactive multimedia products, Creating and administering
quality electronic assessments, and Managing a technology-enhanced course. Constructive attitudes were
fostered through heated class debates and journaling by means of reflective weblogs.
During this phase lecturers also attended a series of workshops on the basic principles of conducting
a research project. Apart from simply absorbing the facts, Partners were encouraged to start thinking
about a possible problem or hypothesis that could be examined during the research phase. Having done
this, lecturers could plan specific design and development outcomes with the aim to support the research
data required later.

The Design and Develop Component

This component ran parallel with the capacity-building phase. Lecturers spent the majority of their
time during their first six months on the Partners@Work Programme actively designing and developing
technology-enhanced teaching and learning materials and learning activities for their courses with the
help of an expert team consisting of specialists such as programmers, instructional designers, curriculum
designers, student development officers, quality experts, graphic artists, and video editors. During this
phase, time was spent designing and developing materials for a particular subject using the technolo-
gies, applications, tools and services available at the institution. These included the Internet, animations,
graphics, interactive multimedia, electronic testing, video- and audio conferencing, mobile learning and
video productions.
For example, in a management course, a case study on leadership styles included a video clip of the
current president of South Africa, Mr Jacob Zuma, making a speech. The video clip paused at particular
points and was then interspersed with thought provoking questions with regards to leadership issues.
The aim was for students to reflect on the various characteristics of this particular leadership style, and
to provide a stimulus for group discussions, either online using a bulletin board or a wiki, or in group
discussions face-to-face.
The lecturers on the programme met their instructional designers weekly for individual sessions to
plan and discuss areas of concern. This ensured that the lecturer got personalised advice and support in

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the areas that they still lacked experience. They also stayed in contact with each other during the time
between contact sessions by means web-based technologies. They interacted using the e-mail and bulletin
facilities available in Blackboard (the learning management system), as well as instant messaging facili-
ties such as Yahoo Messenger and Skype, and as such become part of an online support community. The
instant messaging feature in particular was extremely popular due to the immediacy of the interpersonal
contact that it managed to facilitate. The lecturers reported that they experienced these interactions as
their lifeline when they sat struggling, for example, with a particular piece of software in the late hours of
the night. Moral and technical support was easily available from others who were synchronously online.
The lecturers on the programme were required to schedule stakeholder meetings to which they invited
all people with a direct interest in what they were doing. Stakeholders such as the Dean, HOD, fellow
lecturers, a student representative, the subject librarian, and the computer laboratory technician all joint
the lecturer in these meetings. The Partners@Work lecturers presented their progress and defended
their instructional design decisions at these meeting. They also got the opportunity to discuss and plan
for the logistics of the implementation phase. For example, if their design included regular continuous
electronic assessments, they had to schedule weekly contact sessions in a computer laboratory. This
aspect had to be booked into the laboratory schedule for which the IT technician had to prepare specific
settings (for example, loading Java-enabled scripts). These contact sessions also had to be incorporated
into the students’ time table for which the Faculty’s scheduling officer had taken responsibility. Fellow
educators had the opportunity to question learning programme-specific issues, whilst the librarian had
to take note of the sections where specific library resources would be required (for example, if an as-
signment required students to watch a copy of a particular video clip, the library’s multimedia section
had to be informed and consulted).
The research activities that took place in this phase culminated in a mini-conference as described
below. At this event, the lecturers showcased the technology-enhanced materials that they designed.
For example, they demonstrated their interactive multimedia and specialised animations and graph-
ics, shown their video clips, explained their electronic assessment strategies, explained their learning
activities, and talked the audience through examples of other resources and facilities available in their
online classrooms. The audience typically included their peers and other interested educators, but all
stakeholders were invited.

The Implementation Component

Following the last 6 months on the programme, lecturers piloted their new technology-enhanced learning
programmes, with actual students in an authentic learning environment. This phase provided formative
feedback for refinement purposes. Lecturers monitored students’ reactions and analysed what was hap-
pening as they implemented their technology-enhanced teaching and learning materials. In the light of
this analysis and the associated reflection, they subsequently refined their thinking and made changes
where needed. Some lecturers shared their newly created materials with colleagues presenting the same
subjects, and in doing so they started the required mentorship relationships in their departments.
This phase turned out to be the most difficult one, from the perspective of the Directorate for Teach-
ing and Learning with Technology. Since many influencing factors were out of the management control
of the instructional designers, contingency plans often had to be made on the fly, for example when
technical problems hampered progress in the computer laboratories.

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During this phase lecturers had to collect the data needed to answer their research questions or to
validate the hypothesis of their research projects. Some of these projects focused on a single interven-
tion, whilst others used data mined throughout the entire course.

The Research Component

One of the most significant components of the Partners@Work programme is the fact that lecturers were
guided through a structured research process. This phase demonstrated the ease with which research
and teaching responsibilities can be integrated meaningfully. Even though research is one of the three
key performance indicators (teaching, research and community service) for educators employed at a
higher education institution, many of the Partners on board have had preciously little previous research
experience. Therefore the mandatory research project in itself significantly contributed to the lecturer’s
professional development as it aimed to strengthen these important skills. This component culminated
in 4 research outputs, namely a research poster, two conference papers, and a scientific journal article.
As part of their exposure to research activities during the first 6 months of the programme the lectur-
ers had to design a research poster. This assignment required the lecturers to reflect on, and then defend
their instructional design decisions during the design and development phase. They may have set out to
design a particular piece of interactive multimedia, and in this poster, the lecturers had to explain what
the learning problem was that they hoped to address and why they had chosen this particular medium
to support both their teaching and the learning of their students.
As a surprising number of the lecturers had never presented papers at research (or practitioner) con-
ferences, the Partners@Work programme included two in-house conferences to serve as a learning and
preparatory experience. In both cases, an open invitation to attend went out to all staff members of the
University, but stakeholders in particular were personally invited to attend. The first in-house confer-
ence, at the end of the design and development phase, was dubbed a ‘mini-conference’. At this occasion,
Partners presented their design decisions that were made based on the original challenges that they
experienced during their courses. They also showcased the technology-enhanced teaching and learning
materials that they designed. The mini-conference mirrored a typical ‘practitioner’-style conference and
created a safe in-house environment in which they could hone their presentation skills and gain experi-
ence at presenting in front of an audience of peers. Many of the Partners reported this as an extremely
worthwhile experience, especially since they had to be prepared to respond to unexpected questions from
the audience, simulating the exposure they were bound to get at national and international conferences.
The second in-house conference was held at the end of the Partners@Work year and was dubbed the
Annual Teaching and Learning with Technology Research Indaba. According to the Free Dictionary
(http://www.thefreedictionary.com/indaba) an ‘Indaba’ is seen as “a council or meeting of indigenous
peoples of southern Africa to discuss an important matter”. The TLT Research Indaba emulated a typi-
cal national conference in order to give Partners exposure to all the processes involved. These ranged
from a call for papers, deadlines, abstracts and full paper submissions, peer reviews, short CVs for the
session chairs, test runs with the equipment in the auditorium, presentation timekeepers, and question
and answer sessions. At this conference, the lecturers had to present their research findings, and as such
a typical national research conference were simulated. The conference was typically held over a period
of two days and lecturers had the opportunity to present their research findings to the broader academic

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community of the University and other interested parties. In most cases, the focus of the papers was on
how the technology-enhanced learning materials that they developed during the course of their Partners@
Work year influenced the challenges (such as low pass and retention rates) that the University faces.
Finally, the research activities of this phase culminated in a proper scientific journal article that had
to be of such quality that it could be submitted to a respected accredited journal in their discipline, or
alternatively, in relevant fields such as higher education or elearning. These articles were written as part
of a structured writing programme throughout the final six months of the programme. The article started
out as a research proposal and was developed, as data was collected and analysed into a fully fledged
article in the end. Weekly peer reviews gave much needed feedback as each lecturer was a member of a
research syndicate, as part of which they were required to critically read each others’ work and provide
constructive feedback. This important aspect of the programme, contributed to a higher level of criti-
cal academic attitude. Research professors from their own disciplines were appointed to act as mentors
throughout the period of six months, and together with the inputs from the instructional designers and
a language editor, the articles were finalised for submission.
The purpose of the research phase of the programme was, among other, to build and nurture a schol-
arly community that focus on the use of technology in teaching and learning within the institution. The
research phase also provided lecturers with the opportunity to improve their qualifications to a Masters,
Doctorate or Post Doctorate level. This became possible as a result of the extended nature of some of
the research projects.

The Closing Component

To conclude the lecturer’s year on the programme, a ‘graduation’ ceremony was held where awards were
made for exceptional quality, and certificates of achievement and competence were handed out. At this
ceremony, the next year’s group of Partners@Work lecturers were also inaugurated. All stakeholders
were invited and a celebratory cocktail party usually followed.
After the graduation, seasoned lecturers returned to their departments in a full time capacity, but still
remained active as part of the Partners@Work community and played an important role as mentors for
the new lecturers who were embarking on their own educational technology journeys. Deans and HODs
were encouraged to use the new abilities of the lecturer in question to the benefit of the entire Faculty.
Many lecturers continued their design and development work in the years following their participa-
tion in the programme. Having gained the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes to survive using
technology to enhance their teaching practices, these lecturers tackled the next subject and developed it
in a similar manner. Others spent their time following the programme, improving the existing materi-
als, developing more technology-enhanced materials, and focusing on the empowerment of their peers.

A FRAMEWORK FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The Partners@Work programme, as it was presented at this University of Technology, underwent a num-
ber of iterations before most of the challenges were ironed out. It is believed that the current format of

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the programme can add value to other higher education institutions who grapple with staff development
challenges when introducing new educational technologies. The professional development framework
described in this chapter, relies on a number of critical components to ensure success.
At first, the buy in and support of the university’s top and middle management structures is essential.
Whilst the programme is unlikely to be successful without the support of the Dean and Deputy Deans of
a Faculty, it is essential to also ensure that the Heads of Departments and Section Heads are on board.
Secondly the identification of the right Partners is of the utmost importance. Not only should Partners
be foreward-thinking, passionate about teaching, and enthusiastic about participating in the programme,
but the modules that they develop should also be selected based on their strategic importance in the
Faculty. Selection of the modules should explicitely consider existing challenges, for example large
classes or low success rates.
Thirdly, the programme should make provision for the full range of supporting resources, fulfilling
hardware, software and connectivity needs. During the development phase, Partners must have access
to high end computing equipment, preferably in the form of mobile technology, to ensure that they can
work any time and anywhere. All the required software programs that may benefit the development of
the module, should be licenced and available on such a mobile device. Furthermore, 24/7 access to a
stable and fast Internet connection is a minimum requirement.
During the implementation phase, lecture halls and other spaces where staff have face-to-face contact
with their students should be equiped to handle the modality in which the module is presented. For ex-
ample, data projectors, sound systems and computer laboratories should be available when required, and
should be well supported by trained technical staff. Students should also have access to all the required
technologies, albeit in or outside of class, in residences, in computer laboratories, and/or in the library.
Fourthly, since academics are typically torn between their teaching, research and community service
as competing key performance areas, time constraints for development work are often a concern. The
successful introduction of any new educational technology however, relies heavily on staff having the
time to develop their teaching and learning materials thoroughly. As such, the framework discussed
above, allows for ‘teaching sabbaticals’ where a staff member gets dedicated time off for the purpose of
developing their technology-enhanced module.
The fifth important component of the framework is empowerment. In order for staff to fully embrace
the enhancements that adding educational technologies bring to a module, they need to be empowered.
This component of the programme could include workshops and seminars, but also encourages peer
teaching. Each of the Partners comes with a unique set of expertise and effort should be put into getting
these Partners to share their knowledge and skills, and to teach the others in the group. Empowerment
should also overtly focus on educational theory, sound instructional design principles and teaching with
technology.
Without support a programme such as the Partners@Work would not be successful. As mentioned
above, management backing is essential, however, provision should also be made for significant IT and
logistical support as well as instructional design support. If the research component is included, additional
reseach support is also required, especially in the case of novice researchers.

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CONCLUSION

As higher education invest in technologies that support teaching and learning, it has become a priority to
ensure that lecturing staff are adequately trained. The traditional workshop approach did not succeed in
empowering lecturing staff to the point where they are able to use educational technology independently.
This chapter proposed a comprehensive professional development framework that stretches over a
period of a year, and consists of four distinct components. The framework makes provision for building
the necessary capacity, providing time, resources and support in the development and implementation of
technology-enhanced learning materials, and provided lecturers with the opportunity to conduct research
based on their improved teaching activities.
The Partners@Work framework is heralded as a highly successful professional development programme
to build capacity and elearning leadership in the University of Technology where it was implemented.
As a result of the success stories that were generated by the lecturers involved with the programme, the
number of academic staff interested in enhancing their teaching with technology multiplied manyfold.
Another significant consequence that two other higher education institutions has adopted this approach,
opening the scope for inter-institutional collaboration and further refinement of the framework.

REFERENCES

Carlson, S. 2002. Wired to the Hilt: Saint Joseph’s University stakes its future on a $ 30 million bet.
The Chronicle of Higher Education: Information Technology. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/free/
v48/i29/29a03301.htm
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold & Underused: Computers in the Classroom. Harvard. University Press.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Ball, D. L. 1997. Teaching for high standards: What policymakers need to
know and be able to do. National Educational Goals Panel. Retrieved from http://www.negp.gov/Re-
ports/highstds.htm
Greyling, F. C. 2007. The why and how of technology-assisted learning: Authentic professional devel-
opment for higher education practitioners [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. University of Johannesburg,
Johannesburg.
Quinn, D. M. (2003). Legal Issues in Educational Technology: Implications for School Leaders. Edu-
cational Administration Quarterly, 39(2), 187–207. doi:10.1177/0013161X03251152
Tlhoaele, M. J., & Van Ryneveld, L. (2008). What’s in it for me? An analysis of the need for credit-bearing
professional development modules on the topic of elearning. SAJHE, 22(6), 1279–1291.

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Chapter 9
Supporting the Enactment
of Standards-based
Mathematics Pedagogies:
The Cases of the CoDE-I
and APLUS Projects

Drew Polly Chuang Wang

University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Christie Martin Richard Lambert

University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
David Pugalee
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

ABSTRACT
In order for professional development in the STEM fields to be effective, teachers need worthwhile ex-
periences to simultaneously develop their knowledge of content, pedagogy, and understanding of how
students’ learn the content. In this chapter we provide an overarching framework of learner-centered
professional development and describe the implementation of two mathematics professional development
projects designed to support elementary school teachers’ mathematics teaching. We follow our descrip-
tion by highlighting some of the findings from our line of professional development research and provide
implications for the design of learner-centered professional development programs in mathematics.

OVERVIEW

The Need for Mathematics Professional Development

Professional development continues to be held up on a pedestal as a potentially powerful vehicle for

supporting practicing teachers’ adoption of new pedagogies and knowledge (Borko, 2004; Darling-
Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009; Desimone, 2009; Polly & Hannafin, 2011).
In the field of mathematics education, administrators and district leaders must provide effective profes-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch009

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Supporting the Enactment of Standards-based Mathematics Pedagogies

sional development so that teachers have a robust understanding of mathematics content and are also
prepared to enact the most effective strategies in their classrooms (Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry,
& Hewson, 2010; United States Department of Education, 2008).
In the United States, this has been especially true in the last few years with the large-scale adoption
of the both standards-based (reform-based) mathematics curriculum as well as the Common Core State
Standards in Mathematics ([CCSSM]; Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2010). More school dis-
tricts than ever before have adopted standards-based mathematics curriculum; these sets of instructional
resources are described by having alignment with the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics
([NCTM], 2014) Principles to Action, in that students learn mathematics by exploring cognitively-
demanding mathematical tasks and mathematics games, engaging in discussions about mathematical
tasks and concepts, and reasoning and justifying their paths to solving tasks and problems.

Learner-Centered Professional Development

Large-scale syntheses of research studies on professional development have yielded components of

highly effective learning experiences for teachers (Garet et al., 2001; Darling-Hammond, et al., 2010).
The construct learner-centered professional development (LCPD) (Polly, 2006; Polly & Hannafin,
2011; Hawley & Valli, 2000) has been used to describe professional development programs that focus
on meeting the specific professional needs of teachers and align with the American Psychological As-
sociation’s Learner-centered Principles (hereafter Principles) (APA Work Group, 1997). The Principles
were grounded on empirical findings related to teaching and learning and reflect both cognitivist and
constructivist views of how people learn (Alexander & Murphy, 1998). Hawley and Valli (2000) identi-
fied nine primary design recommendations associated with LCPD:

1. LCPD should focus on content that students need to learn and problems that students face learning
that content;
2. LCPD should be driven by addressing the difference between goals and standards for student learn-
ing and actual performance;
3. LCPD should involve allowing teachers to identify their own learning needs, and when possible,
involve them in the design of professional learning activities;
4. LCPD should be primarily school based and integral to school operations;
5. LCPD should relate to individual learning needs but should include collaborative problem solving;
6. LCPD should be continuous and ongoing involving follow-up and support for further learning;
7. LCPD should include an evaluation that includes multiple sources of information including class-
room implementation;
8. LCPD should allow teachers to develop a deep theoretical understanding of the content and pedagogy;
9. LCPD should be part of a comprehend change process that addresses impediments to and facilita-
tors of student learning.

Many of these nine design recommendations have been verified by an extensive synthesis of the
Principles, Hawley and Valli’s (2000) recommendations and research on professional development
(Polly & Hannafin, 2010). To that end, LCPD provides a robust framework for the design of professional
development programs.

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Supporting the Enactment of Standards-based Mathematics Pedagogies

Mathematics LCPD Programs

Mathematics professional development research studies have examined the influence of programs that
align with LCPD. In one line of work, researchers examined how the InterMath professional development
program influenced teachers’ knowledge of mathematics content, pedagogical content knowledge, and
their use of technology (Polly, 2006; Polly & Orrill, 2012). In one study, teacher-participants reported
focusing on varying aspects of the professional development including learning about technology, math-
ematics content, or the intersection of how to use technology to better teach mathematics (Polly, 2006).
The learner-centered framework allowed teachers to hone in and focus their learning on their greatest
perceived need.
In a subsequent study (Polly & Orrill, 2012), the participants reported gains in both knowledge of
technology and knowledge of mathematics, but did not report gains in more frequent uses of integrating
technology into their mathematics study. One possible conclusion is that the LCPD framework allows
teachers to focus their learning, but in some cases boundaries are needed to ensure that the goals of the
professional development are met.
An example of LCDP that had boundaries or more structure would be the nation-wide Australia
Numeracy Project (Higgins & Parsons, 2009). This nationwide professional development program
included numerous aspects of LCPD activities, but limited teachers’ choice and ownership of activities
until it was time to implement the emphasized pedagogies in their classroom. The professional learning
activities were pre-determined, and included active, ongoing learning, collaborative tasks, a balance
of knowledge about pedagogy and content, as well as a focus on addressing problem areas regarding
students’ learning (Higgins & Parsons, 2009).
Based on the theoretical underpinnings of LCPD and the research regarding professional develop-
ment that embodies the LCPD principles, there is definite potential for these types of teacher learning
experiences. However, there is a need to closely examine the specific activities in an LCPD program
and look at how these activities specifically influence teachers’ practice and student learning outcomes.
In the next section we describe two multi-year LCPD programs designed to support elementary school
teachers’ mathematics teaching and their students’ learning.

EXAMPLES OF LEARNER-CENTERED PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MATHEMATICS

Content Development to Teach Investigations (CoDe-I)

Content Development to Teach Investigations (CoDe-I) was a project funded by the (state) Mathematics
and Science Partnership (MSP) grant program for teachers from Grades Kindergarten through Grade
5. The goal of the project was to support teachers’ adoption of standards-based mathematics practices
through the use of the mathematics curriculum Investigations in Number, Data, and Space (TERC,
2008). During the project the (state) Department of Education adopted the Common Core Mathematics
Standards, so the Common Core was also a focal point of the professional development.
The Investigations curriculum is a standards-based curriculum that includes components designed to
support the development of students’ mathematical thinking. The lessons include cognitively-demanding
mathematical tasks (NCTM, 2014) that include all students to use concrete mathematical manipulatives,
pictorial representations, and transitional mathematical procedures to support students’ computation

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and mathematical understanding. The curriculum also includes mathematics games to build students
mathematical fluency (Russell fluency article).
The project included teachers from two school districts in <state> from the United States. Each district
had similar professional development experiences but they were implemented separately. District 1 was
a large urban school system that had 98 elementary school teachers during the project. Approximately
180 District 1 teachers participated for each of the three years of the project. District 2 was a small,
suburban school system that had 5 elementary schools. Approximately 30 District 2 teachers participated
for each of the three years of the project.

Goals

The goals of the CoDe-I project were to:

1. Develop teachers’ knowledge of mathematics content related to the mathematics in the Kindergarten
through Grade 5 mathematics standards.
2. Develop teachers’ knowledge of connections between mathematics topics related to the mathemat-
ics in the Kindergarten through Grade 5 mathematics standards.
3. Support teachers’ shifts to more favorably teaching in a standards-based manner.
4. Develop teachers’ skills related to selecting, modifying, and creating cognitively-demanding math-
ematical tasks.
5. Develop teachers’ skills related to analyzing how the Investigations curriculum can support students’
mathematics understanding.
6. Increase teachers’ enactment of standards-based mathematics pedagogies.
7. Positively influence student achievement in mathematics.

Description of Activities

The Mathematics Science Partnership projects require teacher-participants to engage in an intensive

summer institute and follow up activities during the year. As a result there was an 8 day summer institute
and various experiences during the school year. The summer institute focused on three main concepts:
1) solving and exploring cognitively-demanding mathematical tasks in order to explore the mathematics
concepts heavily emphasized in elementary school classrooms; 2) analyzing the activities and lessons
in the Investigations curriculum and considering alignment to standards; and 3) examining how to dif-
ferentiate Investigations and other activities for both struggling and high-achieving students.
The exploration of tasks occurred in multi-grade breakout sessions which allowed teachers from
various backgrounds to collaborate to explore and discuss the mathematics embedded in each task. The
other activities were carried out in grade-level specific sessions, which enabled teachers to work with
others at their grade level to intensively focus on the analysis of grade-level specific resources, standards,
and how to meet the needs of learners.
During the school year, both districts supported teacher-participants through half-day workshops and
classroom-embedded projects. The half-day workshops mirrored the work of the summer institute with
more of a focus on mathematics concepts that teachers were about to teach in their classrooms. These
projects included conducting a video analysis of a mathematics discussion in their classroom, conducting
a thorough data analysis of student work on a cognitively-demanding mathematical task, and facilitating
a professional development session for their colleagues.

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Summary of Findings

During each year of the three-year project numerous data sources were collected. They included a
Teacher Beliefs Questionnaire (TBQ; Swan, 2006), Teacher Practice Questionnaire (TPQ; Swan, 2006),
and pre- and post-test data for three units for each grade level. In some instances the evaluation team
also collected classroom observation data in order to examine teachers’ instruction as a function of the
CoDe-I project.
In the first year of the CoDe-I project teachers reported a shift from teacher-centered to student-
centered practices, while others who were student-centered before the project reported enacting similar
pedagogies (Wang. Polly, LeHew, Lambert, & Pugalee, 2013). Teachers also demonstrated significant
growth in their mathematics content knowledge. Further, some teachers reported a shift towards more
traditional beliefs about teaching mathematics, which was contradictory to the goals of the professional
development. The study also indicated a statistically significant relationship between teachers’ shift
from teacher-centered to student-centered practices and increases on curriculum-based assessments. In
another study about teachers who participated in the first year of the CoDe-I project, teachers were ob-
served and interviewed and found to be implementing Investigations with a high level of fidelity, which
included increases in their enactment of cognitively-demanding mathematical tasks and higher-level
questions about mathematical reasoning (McGee, Wang, & Polly, 2013). Further, many teachers reported
embracing this student-centered way of teaching; however, teachers also expressed apprehension using
the curriculum and student-centered pedagogies in upper elementary school grades due to the pressure
on statewide high-stakes tests (McGee, et al., 2013).
Research from the second and third years of the project continued to find statistically significant find-
ings between teachers’ content knowledge and their students’ achievement (Polly, Wang, McGee, Lambert,
Martin, & Pugalee, 2014; Polly, McGee, Wang, Martin, Lambert, & Pugalee, in press). Teachers also
reported shifts from teacher-centered to student-centered practices each year (Polly et al., 2014; Polly et
al., in press). The only inconsistency was once again teachers’ beliefs, as some teachers reported shifts
from traditional to more student-centered beliefs, but others reported shifting from student-centered to
traditional beliefs (Polly et al., 2014).

Assessment Practices to Support Mathematics Learning

and Understanding for Students (APLUS)

Assessment Practices to Support Mathematics Learning and Understanding for Students (APLUS) is a
project funded by the (state) Mathematics and Science Partnership (MSP) grant program that involves as-
sisting kindergarten through second grade teachers in learning to effectively use the Assessing Mathematics
Concepts (AMC Anywhere) tool for formative assessment which is then analyzed for instructional purposes.
This project includes six school districts throughout a large state in the southeastern United States.
AMC Anywhere is a web-based formative assessment system designed based on children’s number
sense (Richardson, 2012). There are nine assessments in AMC Anywhere: Counting Objects, Changing
Numbers, More/Less Trains, Number Arrangements, Combination Trains, Hiding Assessments, Ten
Frames, Grouping Tens, and Two-Digit Addition and Subtraction. These assessments include different
parts and varying number of activities. The assessments are administered one-on-one with the teachers
using an iPad or computer. AMC Anywhere assessments produce reports for individual students with the
letters A, P+, P, P-, I, and N. The letters stand for apply, practice, instruction, and needs prior skill. The

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assessment includes + or – with these letters that indicate the degree to which the student is perform-
ing in this area. AMC Anywhere can provide data on students’ learning and recommended instructional
activities from Developing Number Concepts, a set of mathematics activities focused on number sense.
Teachers can take the report and match it up with ways to support their students. The professional de-
velopment provided with this grant intended to instruct teachers how to use the assessment and provide
support to develop number sense.

Goals

The grant lists the overarching goals that guided the implementation of APLUS and served as a tool
for evaluation:

1. Strengthen teachers’ understanding of number concept development.

2. Build teachers knowledge base for key mathematical ideas underlying number concepts and how
children think with numbers and use numbers to solve problems.
3. Develop teachers’ abilities to differentiate instruction to support learning for all students.
4. Increase teachers’ use of formative assessment data to plan instruction.
5. Extend teachers’ own mathematical understanding as they develop new ideas about how students
learn mathematics.

The professional development (PD) provided to teachers in the summer for five days (8 hours per day).
After the summer PD, follow-up PD (40 hours) was in the form of three on-line modules. The PD focused on
instructing teachers on how to use the assessments, how to analyze the data, and how to effectively pair the
data with instruction. Facilitators, during the summer sessions, provided background on the development of
AMC Anywhere, the importance of developing number sense that leads to greater conceptual understanding,
and how this one-on-one formative assessment can provide data on individual learners. The PD included video
illustrations of students and teachers working with AMC Anywhere and toward the end of the week actual
students were brought in for teachers to work with directly. Each experience with students on video and in
person was paired with an opportunity to work with the Kathy Richardson support texts. Teachers worked in
groups to identify next steps from the data they acquired. The support for this work continued through three
online modules that included similar activities and asked for teachers to post plans, questions, and challenges.
The goals of this grant were to introduce a web-based formative assessment tool and give teachers
the PD needed to become active and effective users. Teachers becoming active and effective users would
have a greater understanding of number sense, value formative assessment for instruction, and plan with
the individual student in mind, and through this increase student achievement.

Description of Activities

The summer session began with teachers getting introduced to AMC Anywhere, this included infor-
mation on the development and developer of the program, the theoretical foundation of the assessments,
and meeting the developer, Kathy Richardson. Richardson spent many years teaching kindergarten and
was able to share how she created and used the AMC Anywhere assessments in her instruction. She dis-
cussed personal experiences in her classroom and instances of assisting other teachers. The facilitators
showed the teachers the website and navigated through the assessments, the reports, and used test mode

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to illustrate the actual questions found in the assessment. As previously mentioned, teachers evaluated
videos of students engaged in an assessment, worked with real students, and used actual data with the
instructional supports.
The summer session ended and PD continued through online modules. The first module required
teacher participants to discuss their classroom environment, describe their mathematics routine, and
explain how they use data as an instructional tool. Module two included video assessments of students
for teachers to evaluate, a place to propose an instructional plan, and an opportunity to post the imple-
mentation follow-up. The last module focused on introducing number talks, developing strategies for
number talks, and designing purposeful talks.

Summary of Findings

APLUS is a three year MSP grant that includes an evaluation team that provides a full report yearly.
The summer sessions included a pre and post survey that examined teacher versus student centered in-
struction and included a gauge of the teachers’ data collection goals. In addition there were open ended
responses. The teachers’ responses in the online modules were also collected and evaluated. The assess-
ment data for each student, which identifies who their teacher was that year, how many times they were
assessed, the assessments they took, and the level they reached for the assessment.
There were several findings from the quantitative and qualitative data analysis. The summer pre/
post survey showed a statistically significant change from teacher-centered to student-centered practices
(Martin & Polly, 2015; Polly et al., 2014). In addition, there was a statistically significant increase in
teachers’ reported scores for being able to collect and analyze data (Wang, Polly, Lambert, Pugalee,
Evans, & 2014). Further, teachers in year one of the project who used the AMC Anywhere system at
least three times saw more significant gains in student learning than teachers who only used the system
once or twice (Polly et al., 2014).
The examples below are the open ended responses included on the post survey from teachers. These
highlight participants’ reactions to the professional development project:

This was such an excellent training workshop that opened my mind up to a more hands on center based
classroom. I want my students to leave my room feeling confident about numbers and number sense.

Another teacher-participant commented about her learning about the importance of data-based plan-
ning. This “totally changed my thinking. I plan to collect my data first and then plan lessons/activities
based on the need of my children”
The responses show support for the quantitative findings from the survey and illustrate the teach-
ers’ enthusiasm for using the AMC Anywhere that school year. The module findings indicated a divide
between high fidelity teachers and low fidelity teachers. Those that were in the high fidelity used AMC
Anywhere, participated in the PD, offered thoughtful responses, and had the AMC student data that sup-
ported their implementation. The low fidelity teachers may have been enthusiastic when the summer
session ended; however, their participation waned. It appeared they may have needed more support to
continue effective use of the assessments. The actual student data indicated that the teachers that used
the assessments often with their students saw the most student growth. The evaluation of the grant is
continuing to evolve to better understand how teachers can be supported and the effect of using AMC
Anywhere formative assessments on student achievement.

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IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Meeting the Needs of Teachers and Participating school Districts

Learner-centered professional development (LCPD) must be designed to meet the individual and collec-
tive needs of teacher-participants and the school districts that they work for (Polly & Hannafin, 2010;
Hawley & Valli, 2000). In the two projects described in this chapter there were specific needs related
to mathematics instruction and student achievement. Through collaborative partnerships between the
university faculty and school district leaders, both projects were designed to address student learning
deficiencies and also address teachers’ and school districts’ needs related to mathematics instruction.
Future professional development projects must include an ongoing collaborative partnership between
the professional development facilitators and district or school-based leaders (Polly, 2012). Professional
development activities are such a large investment of both time and resources that it is critical that proper
planning has been done to ensure that the learning activities meet the needs of teachers (Polly & Han-
nafin, 2011). As seen in these two projects the benefit of having professional development co-designed
by university faculty and district-leaders was that the learning activities were relevant to teachers’ needs
and aligned to major comprehensive mathematics support efforts in each district.

Teacher Ownership

Teacher ownership is a key principle of learner-centered professional development (Polly, 2011; Haw-
ley & Valli, 2000). In these two projects, the professional development activities were divergent in that
specific activities were included in the summer institute workshops, but teachers were given ownership
of how they chose to implement and apply the knowledge and skills that they learned in the professional
development. In the CoDe-I project, teachers reported shifts from enacting teacher-centered to more
instances of learner-centered mathematics pedagogies (Polly et al., 2013; in press). In the APLUS project
teachers’ online discussion board posts indicated that teachers were applying the content of the profes-
sional development differently as they created instructional plans based on their formative instructional
data (Polly, Martin, Wang, Lambert, & Pugalee, under review).

Designing Professional Development Activities During the School Year

Participants took part in the program for a year, which included an intensive summer institute as well
as school-based learning activities during the school year. The goal of school-based or job-embedded
professional development is to develop teachers’ knowledge and skills through activities that are closely
related or embedded to the daily work of teachers (Hawley & Valli, 2000).
In the CoDe-I project teachers completed job-embedded activities such as assessing and reflecting
on student performance through the analysis of curriculum-based assessments, video recorded class-
room discussions and spent time reflecting and watching their videos and their colleagues’ videos, and
facilitating professional development and planning meetings with their colleagues. CoDE-I participants
reported that these job-embedded activities provided learning opportunities without adding too much
undue burden to the already challenging workload of teachers.

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In the APLUS project teachers completed a series of online modules, which included a refresher of
how to use the AMC Anywhere system, support in setting up data-based instructional activities, as well
as learning more content. The job-embedded professional development activities in the APLUS project
were focused on the use of the AMC Anywhere system, which meant that it was closely connected to
the work of teachers who frequently used the tool, but not connected to those teachers who were not
consistent in their use of the system.
Future professional development projects need to closely examine the goals of their program and look
for ways to capitalize on opportunities to situate teacher learning in classroom-based or job-embedded
activities (Polly & Mims, 2009; Polly et al., 2014). While summer or outside of classroom workshops
provide an opportunity to intensively engage with content and new pedagogies, the most relevant and
related professional learning activities are those embedded in teachers’ classroom and daily work.

Evaluation of Professional Development

The evaluation of the impact of professional development on both teachers and their students is quite
problematic to assess (Yoon et al., 2007). Part of the potential issue is linking professional development
activities to teacher learning and then linking evidence of teacher learning to student learning outcomes.
The evaluation of APLUS includes several challenges that continue to be considered and rethought.
The teachers can use any of the nine assessments at any time and usually make their assessment deci-
sions based on evidence they see in their classrooms. This means a student may be assessed with the
counting numbers assessment and a few weeks later, based on work in the classroom, the teachers may
decide to assess the student using the hiding assessment. If the student is not assessed more than once
with the same assessment it is difficult to accurately chart growth. Teachers may also make decisions to
assess students at a level that is too high and end up having to make readjustments that also distort the
data’s picture of student growth. Another challenge for evaluating growth is the ceiling effect. Teachers
may have students performing beyond an assessment, this may be a reason for either moving on to a new
assessment or a reason the teacher decides to use other resources. Accounting for these decisions and
understanding the full picture of student progress is difficult; however, this formative assessment was
meant to be adaptable and used at the teachers’ discretion and not necessarily be used in a linear fashion.
Another challenge for evaluation of PD is identifying the various causes for lack of participation in
the online modules and to understand the responses that were somewhat disconnected from the goals of
the PD. The survey at the end of summer session indicated the teachers were excited and felt empowered
to use formative assessment to inform their instruction and increase student mathematical performance.
The online modules, which lasted throughout the academic year, had a large drop in participation. Re-
searchers are considering the support systems that are in place or lack thereof as a possible cause of the
decreased participation. The online module that focused on implementation of instructional plans based
on AMC Anywhere data was also analyzed. The prompt specifically asked teachers to reference their
AMC Anywhere data and offer a rationale for instructional activities based on their data; however only
67.4% included their data and 43.5% provided a rationale in their response (Polly et al.,, under review).
The PD also intended for teachers to be able to use the Developing Number Concepts (DNC) resources
provided to support instruction based on AMC data. The instructional plans posted in the module that
referenced instructional activities from Developing Number Concepts (DNC) resources were 55.1% and
these types of responses closely matched the expectations from the professional development (Polly et al.,
under review). These areas are being analyzed to provide greater support and to enhance the future PD.

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In the CoDe-I project, evaluators used curriculum-based assessments from the Investigations curriculum
to examine student progress. Students completed identical assessments before and after three different
units during the year in order to look at growth. Data analysis indicated that there were empirical links
between teachers’ instructional practices and content knowledge to gains in student achievement (Polly et
al., 2013, 2014). However, the empirical links were inconsistent in various grade levels and across units.
One of the issues with the Investigations curriculum-based assessments was that the assessments
included few items and some were multi-part. The evaluation team developed rubrics for each item
and scored them on a percentage basis in order to provide consistency across grades and units. Future
professional development projects should examine empirical links between teacher learning and student
learning by examining student assessment data. The use of curriculum-based assessments provided
measures that were aligned to the goals of the professional development as well the content that teachers
were focusing on in their instruction.

CONCLUSION

Learner-centered professional development has potential to transform how teachers learn as well as how
teacher learning impacts both teachers’ instruction and student achievement. In this chapter both the
CoDe-I and APLUS projects were designed using LCPD principles to support elementary school teachers’
mathematics instruction. The findings from the evaluation and research of these LCPD efforts included
gains in student learning outcomes, teachers’ adoption of student-centered practices, and shifts towards
more student-centered instruction. Further, in the APLUS project, teachers documented their successful
use of formative data to design developmentally-appropriate instruction for their students. Implications
for the design of future LCPD programs includes continuing mutual partnerships between professional
development facilitators with district and school-based leaders, the careful design of classroom-based
or job-embedded learning activities, and the methods used to evaluate LCPD programs.

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Chapter 10
Identifying the Target Needs of
Non-Native Subject Teachers
Related to the Use of English
in Their Professional Settings:
A Case from Northern Iraq

Ece Zehir Topkaya

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

İbrahim Nişancı
Ishik University, Iraq

ABSTRACT
This study primarily explores the target needs of subject teachers from various disciplines who are all
non-native speakers of English and enrolled in a training program preparing them to teach their subjects
in English. Secondarily, it looks into the key stakeholders’ evaluation of the program to understand its
effectiveness to meet the needs of the teachers. For the first question, key stakeholders were interviewed
to identify the needs, wants, and lacks of the teachers based on Hutchinson and Water’s (1987) needs
analysis framework. Then, the pooled items were converted into a questionnaire which was adminis-
tered to the teachers in the program. To investigate the second question, open-ended questions and
semi-structured interviews were used. Findings revealed that participants were in need of developing
productive language skills while they reported satisfaction over the program. It is concluded that a more
specifically tailored course both in terms of content and practice is needed.

INTRODUCTION

As English has become the language of international commerce, sciences, business, communication, and
technology everywhere in the world, it is now considered as a basic skill that every individual needs to be
competent at a certain level. Therefore, governments and educational institutions all around the world are
now seeking ways to teach English to the younger generations more effectively in order to provide them

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch010

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers

with “some kind of competitive advantage… in the job market” or global economic market (Graddol,
2006, p. 107). Some are doing it through integrating content and language education and thus adopting
an English-across-the-curriculum approach while some are launching bilingual education where the
medium of instruction (MoI) is English. Following this trend, “many countries in Asia, Europe and Latin
America have already experimented with teaching one or more subjects through [English] programmes
and national initiatives” (Hodijah, 2012, p.82).
Like all rapidly developing countries, there has also been a great development in every field of life in
Iraq, especially in Northern Iraq, including education since 2003. Although Iraqi universities and higher
educational institutions have been cut off from progress in educational curricula, resources, teaching
methods, modern technology and research for two decades, there is a great demand for integration with
the global academic world as well as the economic market. In such a context, the need for learning Eng-
lish has become one of the major concerns of the country giving rise to a rapid growth in the number of
institutions conducting most of the instruction in English. This situation, on the other hand, has brought
about the problem of finding subject teachers who can teach in English since it is hard to reach them in
Iraq or bring them to Iraq.
Feeling this pressure for qualified teachers who can teach in English, one of the biggest educational
institutions offering multilingual education in Kurdish, Turkish, Arabic, and English at different levels
in Northern Iraq has initiated a year-long teacher training program for non-native teachers from vari-
ous subjects such as science, mathematics, and primary school education which comprises a language
course segment as well. While pedagogy, intercultural issues, general instructional knowledge and skills
form the teacher education segment, the language course segment aims at preparing non-native subject
teachers to function in school settings using English as the MoI. It includes a general English language
course and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course run in two separate academic terms.
This unique program has never been investigated in terms of its critical components such as admin-
istrative staff, program staff, course attendees, course materials, assessment procedures, or the syllabus
since its start three years ago. Yet, based on the knowledge that needs analysis is the starting point for
designing and revising programs of any kind, this particular study aims to identify the language needs of
the subject teachers attending the language course segment of the program and understanding whether
the current program is able to meet these needs. This study is thus guided by the following two research
questions:

1. What are the target needs of the non-native subject teachers attending the language course segment
of the program?
2. What is the overall evaluation of the key stakeholders -the subject teachers and course manager-
regarding the language course segment of the program?

Before moving on the details of the study, however, a brief literature review on the two core issues
of it, English as the MoI and needs analysis, are presented below.

English as the Medium of Instruction

As Graddol (2006, p. 82) states, “learners, their families, teachers, governments, employers, textbook
publishers, examination providers” are the major stake holders of education who have different opinions
and beliefs about how English language should be taught and learnt. For decades, there have been two

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major approaches to English language teaching: either as a foreign or as a second language. However,
now more governments are interested in making their countries bilingual such as Singapore, Columbia,
Mongolia, Chile, South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Indonesia. In this context, one of the ways of
adopting this kind of approach is to start teaching a number of subjects such as science, mathematics,
biology, chemistry in English.
Therefore, now an increasing number of teachers in different corners of the world need to use Eng-
lish effectively in order to deliver subject specific content knowledge and skills to their learners (Low,
Chong & Ellis, 2014; Othman & Mohd Saat, 2009). While doing so, they need to have certain linguistic
competencies and fulfill tasks when using English as the MoI. As listed by Richards (2010 cited in Low,
Chong & Ellis, 2014, p. 66),

• To comprehend texts accurately,

• To be good language models,
• To maintain constant and fluent use of the target language in the classroom,
• To give explanations and instructions in the target language,
• To provide examples of words and grammatical structures and give accurate explanations (e.g. of
vocabulary and language points),
• To use language appropriate for classroom usage,
• To select appropriate target-language resources,
• To be able to effectively monitor one’s own speech and writing accurately,
• To give correct feedback on learner language,
• To provide input at an appropriate level of difficulty, and
• To provide language enrichment experiences for learners

are but some of these competencies and tasks. Moreover, in multilingual settings, the use of English
is not just limited to classrooms. Teachers also need to use it as the means of communication with par-
ents, colleagues, school personnel and other stakeholders for various purposes. Therefore, several other
linguistic competencies and tasks can be added to the list offered by Richards above.
In this context, educating specialist teachers who can focus on their subjects using English as the
MoI is becoming a major concern in several countries around the world. There are certain initiatives
that are already underway in several countries both at pre-service and in-service levels. For example,
in Malaysia pre-service English language teachers are also trained to teach science at primary schools
(Hudson, 2009). In Singapore, where English has been the MoI since 1987, teacher candidates have
to take the Entrance Proficiency Test which “provides a threshold proficiency in English for teacher
candidates applying to teach English medium subjects” (Low, Chong & Ellis, 2014, p. 65). In Vietnam,
where some high schools have started teaching subjects in English recently, there are no official training
programs to prepare subject teachers to teach their subject in English but the Ministry of Education and
Training is planning to offer such programs for both pre and in-service teachers (Nguyen, 2013). On the
other hand, in Finland the University of Helsinki, Department of Teacher Education offers a program in
English geared for both Finnish and international pre-service teachers giving official qualifications for
teaching in basic and secondary education.
As can be detected from these examples, there are three major policies addressing the training of
subject teachers using English as the MoI. One is that teacher candidates take courses on language and
teaching skills in order to teach their subject through English, the other one is that teacher candidates

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receive all of their training in English and the third one is that in-service training is offered to practicing
teachers. Each country depending on their own contextual constraints and opportunities seems to adopt
the best option available to them.
Together with this accelerated interest in and implementations of teaching other subject through
English movement, a parallel increase in studies investigating pre and in-service teachers’ perceptions
on the challenges of teaching other subject through English with a focus on language needs can be
observed. For example, in a small scale study conducted in Malaysia with the participation of 26 sci-
ence and mathematics teachers using English 92.3% of the respondents reported problems using new
terms or words correctly while 88.5% of them had difficulty in expressing themselves correctly in Eng-
lish (Yahaya, Noor, Mokhtar, Rawian, Othman, & Jusoff, 2009). Similarly, another study done in the
Malaysian context in 2012 reported that subject teachers of science and mathematics needed “general
English language skills, certain specific language aspects such as instructional vocabulary and phrases”
(Masuum, Maarof, Zakaria, & Yamat, 2012, p. 1004). In Singapore, Low, Chong and Ellis (2014) found
that although the pre-service subject teachers in their cohort fell into the categories of ‘very good’ and
‘good’ users of English according to their IELTS scores, they had relatively lower scores in productive
skills of speaking and writing, especially in terms of pronunciation features and formal writing styles.
In another study in the Malaysian context by Hudson (2009), 50 pre-service teachers at the end of their
first year of a Bachelor of Education Studies (Primary Science) degree stated that having not enough
time to learn English with the associated science terminology was the biggest barrier for them to learn
how to teach science using English as the MoI. They also reported understanding and memorizing sci-
ence terminology as challenges for them.
As these studies show, general English language skills, field-related terminology and phrases are the
major areas that can be regarded as language needs of pre and in-service subject teachers. It is obvious
that as school systems, learning and teaching change in this new global context of education, teacher
preparation programs and in-service training courses should be designed to support subject teachers us-
ing English as the MoI so that they could attain the required highest level of English proficiency needed
to teach their subjects effectively.

Needs Analysis

Investigating learner needs is a prerequisite in effective course design and revision. Since the specific-
ity of tasks, genres and discourse in various situations that language learners have to operate change, a
“one-size-fits all” approach has proven to be ineffective. Therefore, every language course ought to be
considered unique and be designed through needs analysis (NA) (Long, 2005).
It can be better to understand what is meant by needs before discussing NA in detail. Simply put,
needs refers to wants, desires, demands, expectations, lacks, deficiencies, goals, aims, purposes and
objectives (Jordan, 1997, p. 22). NA, on the other hand, is “the process of establishing the what and
how of a course” (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998, p. 121). Especially in ESP course design NA is “a
stage in which the course developers identify what specific language and skills the group of language
learners will need” (Bashturkmen, 2010, p. 17). Main directions of needs analysis are goals and content
of a course. What students are in need of learning and what they know already are questioned in this
process. By doing NA, it is assured that the course will involve germane and beneficial things for learn-
ers (Nation & Macalister, 2010, p. 24).

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NA can be considered as an umbrella term since it “has become increasingly sophisticated” over the
years (Bashturkmen, 2010, p. 17) and several other approaches have been included to it such as target-
situation analysis, present-situation analysis, situation analysis, means analysis, strategy analysis and
etc. (Jordan, 1997), all of which offer clear descriptions and systematic procedures to conduct a needs
analysis (see Basturkmen, 2010; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Munby
1978). Since this study has taken up Hutchinson and Waters’ framework of NA as the basic departure
point to investigate the research questions posed at the beginning of the study, some more information
will be given on their approach here.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) believe that learners should take active participation in the process
of NA since learning is a “process of negotiation between individuals and society” (Jordan, 1997, p.
25). Therefore, NA should not just focus on what is to be learnt, i.e. the content (knowledge, skills, and
understanding) but also on the activity through which it is to be learnt (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.
92). With this underlying philosophy, thus, Hutchinson and Waters group needs into two categories as
target needs and learning needs. The former refers to the expected abilities; tasks and activities learners
will carry out in the target situation while the latter deals with the efforts necessary to learn them. They
further divide target needs into three sub categories: necessities, lacks, and wants. By necessities they
mean what learners should know to meet the target situation requirements. Lacks is the gap between the
present state of the learners and what they need to know, do in the target situation while wants represent
learners’ individual desires, expectations from the language learning process. Despite the fact that not
all of these wants are likely to be addressed in the course design and development, the wants of majority
can be negotiated and responded. As can be seen, NA provides the initial data upon which the design
and development of any kind of ESP course/program becomes possible and by means of on-going NA,
objectives, teaching techniques, materials, assessment procedures can be revised and modified.
Although there is a fast growing body of research on NA, the scarcity of studies on the needs of subject
teachers using English as the MoI is noteworthy given the increasing number of countries experimenting
with this new educational model. Thus, there is a need for studies to understand what pre and in-service
teachers around the world feel they need to know, understand and do in order to teach their subjects ef-
fectively. Therefore, this study may have the potential of making a modest contribution to the existing
literature on NA and the training of subject teachers to use English as the MoI.

The Present Study: Program Specifics and the Significance of the Study

This program started three years ago with 20 subject teachers as course attendees when an educational
institution that offers education to students from pre-school to undergraduate level needed subject teach-
ers from various fields to teach their related subjects in primary, secondary and high schools in English.
The vice general director of the educational institution explained how and why they started this specific
program in the initial interview. He stated:

Every establishment looks for people whom they can work with well. In previous years, we witnessed
that some of the teachers we hired could not keep up with our educational system. Even experienced
ones had some difficulties for a number of reasons. Therefore, we looked into those likely reasons and
we came up with the idea of organizing a course involving teacher development (general pedagogy and

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Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers

field-related support), language development and cultural orientation concerning the realities of our
schools and the country. We put an advertisement on the internet and interviewed with the applicants.
Those who were accepted were taken into the course.

As could be understood, the educational institution faced several challenges implementing their de-
sired system in their schools and thus took an action by designing a teacher training and language course
program for those selected subject teachers. The vice general director summarized their broad aim as fol-
lows: “We plan to overcome many obstacles that our teachers may encounter before they start teaching”.
Every year around 40 teachers attend the program. As stated above, it is a multifaceted program with
courses covering several issues related to learning English for general purposes, teaching subject mat-
ter in English, and general teacher education. Seminars are also given on intercultural perspectives and
the vision and mission of the educational institution. The medium of instruction in this teacher-training
program is English. The program consists of two terms. In the first term, a general English course is
given to the attendees including grammar, main course and four language skills, in total 30 hours a week,
which lasts 20 weeks. In the second term, an 8-week ESP program follows, which was designed by the
coordinator of the course, who holds an M.A. in TESOL and is an experienced teacher and the head
of the English department in the educational institution. The ESP course includes five fields: Primary
School Education, Science, Mathematics, Physics, and Biology. The heads of each department simulate
sample lessons on one of the topics they teach at school in English. Through these simulations, they
highlight possible instructional techniques, classroom management skills, and the use of classroom
language. Then, the course attendees micro teach to their colleagues, where they get the opportunity
to put the knowledge and skills they learn into practice. In Table 1 the language course segment of the
program and its details are given.
The program staff includes one native and three non-native English language teachers who are as-
signed to deliver general English courses in the first term. The English language teachers also work as
the coordinators of the course in general. That is, they develop the curriculum, decide on the procedures,
choose the content, and develop/select the materials. In the second term, on the other hand, there are four
experienced subject teachers who are the heads of science, mathematics, biology, and primary school
education departments.
In the initial unstructured interview, the course manager explained how they decided the methodology
and content of the program. For needs analysis, they focused on the in-service teachers’ needs and lacks
mostly as the aim of the program was to prepare competent teachers for the sector. He stated:

Table 1. Teacher-Training Program: Language Courses

Courses Hour/week Materials Carried out by

First Grammar 12/20 Reference books English language teachers
Term
Main course 8/20 Various course books English language teachers
Skills 10/20 Various skill books English language teachers
Second ESP sample lessons 8/8 PowerPoint slides, handouts Heads of departments
Term
Microteachings 12/8 PowerPoint slides, handouts Course attendees
(Subject teachers)
School observations 4/8 Course attendees
(Subject teachers)

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Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers

We observed about 45 different teachers from different subjects for a year. We worked as a team with
the heads of the departments. At the end of the year, we wrote a report concerning the pedagogical and
linguistic lacks of in-service teachers. Then, we also had discussions with the administrator about the
findings.

It is obvious that the educational uniqueness of this ESP course requires a thorough investigation to
identify the needs of all stakeholders in a scientific way. Although the program has been running for
three years, the actual needs of the participants, their lacks and wants have not been openly questioned
before. Therefore, this study is the first attempt taken to understand subject teachers’ needs, lacks, and
wants, which will inform the stakeholders about the effectiveness of the program in meeting the needs
of the participants and, thus, could certainly give way to a sound program revision and development.

METHODOLOGY

Descriptive research design was chosen to investigate the research questions of this study. While doing
so, a mixed methodology approach was taken up in order to create a more complete view on the needs
of the participants. Huhta, Vogt, and Tulkki (2013) explain that “[t]his is an approach to needs analysis,
which may also be referred to as a triangulation of data, in which the researcher has used a combination
of qualitative and quantitative methods to identify the learning needs of stakeholders” (p. 16). Therefore,
all parties of stakeholders, the vice general director of the institution, program staff, in-service subject
teachers, some of whom already participated in the course and teach at different schools of the educa-
tional institution, and the course attendees, i.e. the subject teachers participating in the program, were
included in different phases of the study using qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques.
The steps of data collection, techniques utilized, and stakeholders involved in each step for each research
question (RQ) of this study are shown in Table 2.
As can be seen in the table, unstructured and semi-structured interviews were used to find out about
different stakeholders’ experiences of the training program and the needs felt by these parties. These
interviews also helped to develop the main source of data collection instrument, which was a question-
naire. As known well, self-report questionnaires are the most frequently used data collection technique

Table 2. Details for data collection

Steps Data Collection Stakeholders Aims

Techniques
RQ 1 1 Unstructured Vice general director of educational To identify the needs of the institution
interview institution
2 Unstructured • Subject teachers (in-service teachers) To identify the necessities and lacks of
interviews • Program staff the subject teachers
3 Questionnaire Subject teachers attending the program To identify their perceived necessities,
lacks and wants
RQ2 1 Questionnaire Subject teachers attending the program To identify their opinions and
(open-ended questions) evaluations of the language course
2 Semi-structured Course manager To identify his opinions and
interview evaluations of the language course

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Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers

in descriptive research design. They are administered to large groups efficiently in a short time with
minimum effort where financial resources are also used wisely (Dörnyei, 2010, p. 9-10). Lastly, the tri-
angulation of these methodological approaches and data sources provided a basis to enhance confidence
in the data and its interpretation.
The quantitative data obtained were analyzed using frequencies and percentages while the qualitative
data were analyzed through thematic analysis inductively without referring to a theoretically informed
coding frame.

Setting and Participants

The study took place in a special teacher-training program in Erbil, Northern Iraq in 2013-2014 teaching
year. The data were collected in May, when the program was about to finish. There were 40 subject teach-
ers from Turkey and Iraq enrolled in the program and 36 of them participated in the study voluntarily.
The demographic information about the participants is given in Table 3.
As it can be seen in the table, all participants were young teachers with very minimum teaching ex-
perience. Although teaching is generally considered as a feminized profession, the equal distribution of
teachers among the participants in terms of gender suggests that male teachers favored this program as
much as their female counterparts. A majority of the teachers were Turkish, while only 4 of them were
Kurdish, as there was a small number of Kurdish applicants. Lastly, the participants’ English language
backgrounds differed from one another. As the table reveals, 47.2% of the participants reported to have
studied English only for a year and within this particular program. It should be noted that although
44.5% of them had more than 4 years of English instruction before they attended the language course,
the proficiency level of the participants did not vary since all learners were elementary level learners.
The other stakeholders included in the needs analysis to have an in-depth understanding were the vice
general director of the educational institution (GD) and the course manager (CM) and 3 program staff
(PS) and five subject teachers who were the heads of departments (HD). They were coded for anonymity
and some details for this group of participants are presented in Table 4.

Table 3. Demographic information about the subject teachers attending the course

Label Categories f %
Age 20-25 26 72.2
26-30 10 27.8
Gender Male 18 50
Female 18 50
Country/ Ethnicity Kurdish 4 11.1
Turkish 32 88.9
Work experience 0-2 year 36 100
Years of English studied 0-1 year 17 47.2
Subject specialization 2-3 years 3 8.3
4-5 years 2 5.6
6 or more years 14 38.9
Science 15 41.7
Mathematics 12 33.3
Primary school 4 11.1
Biology 5 13.9

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Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers

Table 4. Codes and details about different stake holders

Participant Code Gender Age Years of Subject

Experience Specialization
GD M   49 27 Mathematics
CM M   47 25 English
PS1 M   36 14 English
PS2 F   32 8 English
PS3 F   30 5 English
HD1 M   39 16 Mathematics
HD2 M   33 11 Science
HD3 M   38 15 Biology
HD4 M   39 16 Primary School Education
HD5 M   34 12 English

Data Collection Instrument and Its Development

In order to find answers to the first RQ posed at the onset of the study, in other words to elicit the target
needs, lacks and wants of the participants, a four-part needs analysis questionnaire was designed by
the researchers (see Appendix 1). It included both closed and open-ended items. The participants were
asked to respond to the closed-ended items by using 3-point Likert scale. For different parts, different
anchors were used. The first part of the questionnaire aimed at identifying the lacks of the participants
concerning communicative target tasks, i.e. occupational tasks, requiring speaking, writing, reading and
listening skills. The second part asked the participants to evaluate their general English skills in order to
have a deeper understanding of their lacks. At the right side of each item in these first and second parts,
the participants were provided spaces where they were invited to give more in depth information about
their target needs. In the third part, they were asked to select those language skills and communicative
target tasks given in the first two parts that they would like to develop more in the course. They were
also given space to write more about their individual expectations from the course. By this way, their
wants were identified. In the last part of the questionnaire, demographic information about the partici-
pants was collected.
While developing the needs analysis questionnaire, firstly, three parties of stakeholders, i.e., GD,
CM, 3 PSs and 5 HDs were interviewed about the priorities of the course and target needs of the subject
teachers related to the knowledge and skills in English. These initial unstructured interviews provided
exploratory data in return (Long, 2005). All interviews were tape-recorded. This data were not only
used to understand the phenomenon under investigation but also formed the basis of the needs analysis
questionnaire in that the interview data were transcribed and analyzed to determine those needs that
were emphasized and the ideas were turned into items and pooled according to Hutchinson and Waters’
‘target needs’ focus. Then, the pooled items were first presented to the interview participants for ‘member
checking’. As known, member checking is a technique for establishing the validity of an account where
participants correct errors, confirm and/or revise the interpretations, and add any new points to the data
(Guba & Lincoln, 1989). After this first step, some minor changes in wording took place and the first
version of the questionnaire was designed. Secondly, this earlier version was sent to two experts from

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the ESP field to get their ideas about the face and content validity of the questionnaire. In the light of
the feedback taken from them, extra blank columns were added to the first and second part so that the
respondents could reflect on the information provided in the questionnaire and write their personal ideas
more freely. These parts provided detailed qualitative data about their choices and shed light on their
deeper attitudes and feelings related to their necessities, lacks and wants. After these steps taken, the
final version of the questionnaire was formed.
In order to assess the degree of consistency of results across items within the survey, the Cronbach’s
Alpha was calculated for Part 1 and 2 of the questionnaire. The analysis revealed satisfactory levels of
internal consistency for both parts; first part’s Alpha value was found to be .89 while the second part
occurred as .68.
The second RQ of the study sought to investigate the extent to which the current language course
meets those occupational needs as specified by the subject teachers. To this aim, firstly, an open-ended
item was added to the third part of the questionnaire asking the current participants of the ESP course
to reflect upon their expectations from the course and how much these expectations were fulfilled.
Secondly, the course manager was interviewed about the feedback the program receives from the sec-
tor and his overall evaluation of the language program (see Appendix 2 for the questions used in the
interview with the course manager). In the analysis of the data collected for this research question, the
steps outlined by Stemler (2001) were followed. Firstly, the two researchers of this study reviewed the
transcripts and categorized the themes and topics independently. Next, they compared their notes and
agreed on the emergent themes and topics. Then, they went through the data independently again using
the consolidated themes and topics. Lastly, they checked the reliability of the coding and found that they
maintained a significant degree of similarity between the coding (92%).

FINDINGS

Research Question 1: What Are the Target Needs of the Non-Native Subject
Teachers Attending the Language Course Segment of the Program?

As stated before the conceptual framework of this study was constructed upon Hutchinson and Waters’
‘target needs’ notion. Therefore, to answer the first research question, the findings are discussed in three
parts: necessities, lacks, and wants.

Necessities

Necessities of a course simply mean the demands of the target tasks in learners’ future professions (Na-
tion & Macalister, 2010). Therefore, in this particular study the first goal was to find out those target
situation tasks which are carried out by the subject teachers in English in their working places. To do
this, three different parties were involved in the data collection: the GD, the CM, three PSs and five HDs.
The interview data with the GD revealed that the institutions did not have a clearly specified set of
target situation tasks to be done in English, but an overall understanding to the competencies that these
subject teachers should have when they start teaching through English. He stated:

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… [W]e expect our teachers to be very proficient in classroom language, to have a good command of
field terminology, and to able to explain their subjects clearly.(GD)

He did not clearly mention what this classroom language or field terminology might include or what
the subject teachers should do to clearly explain their subjects. However, it could be assumed that the
educational institution puts emphasis on those competencies related to learning and teaching process
and knowledge of content. Therefore, the data he provided might indicate those necessities regarding
various skills and knowledge related to these competencies such as beginning and ending the lesson,
language of classroom management and spontaneous situations, giving feedback, exemplifying a topic,
summarizing the main points and etc.
At this stage, the data derived from the other key stakeholders (CM, PSs, HDs) supported the inter-
pretation made above about the necessities, which were just briefly mentioned by the GD. Being the
designer and implementers of the course, they stated what these subject teachers should be able to do in
English in their work places, which could be linked to six categories of general teacher competencies as
described by the Turkish National Ministry of Education (MEB, 2006) including personal and profes-
sional values-professional development, knowing the student, learning and teaching process, monitoring
and evaluation of learning and development, school-family and society relationships, and knowledge of
curriculum and content. Table 5 shows the target situation tasks identified by these participants and the
general teacher competencies they may be classified into.
These findings show that subject teachers need to possess pedagogical, professional, personal and
social competencies, all carried out in English. The interviewees touched upon a wide range of tasks
related to target situation. They cited some tasks similar to the ones listed by Richards (2010 cited in Low,
Chong, & Ellis, 2014). However, as Table 5 clearly shows, they reported more detailed and individual
occupational tasks unique to their working place as well and they are those necessities related to the
competency areas of learning/teaching process, personal and professional values-professional develop-
ment, and school-family relationship.

Table 5. Target situation tasks as identified by language course coordinators and staff members

General categories Target situation tasks Participant Codes

Learning/ • Presenting a subject (a lesson) in class CM,HD1, 2, 3, 4, 5, PS 2
Teaching Process • Writing questions for my subject (for exams etc.) HD 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, S 1, 3
• Preparing posters and notices CM, HD 1, 5, PS 1, 3
• Writing the roll book CM, HD 5, PS 2, PS 3
• Reading the materials of the lesson to prepare a lesson CM, HD 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, S 1
• Reading web sites on my field (blog, wiki, forum etc.) CM, HD 5, PS 3
• Listening to videos and audios related to my field to prepare a lesson CM, HD 5, PS 1
Personal and • Presenting a subject in department meetings CM, HD 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
professional • Reading books, articles on my field CM, HD 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
values-professional • Conversing with supervisors CM, HD 3, 5
development • Reading web sites on my field (blog, wiki, forum etc.) CM, HD 5
• Writing a CV CM, HD 5
• Understanding the teacher’s book and its audio files CM, HD 5
• Listening to complementary files of books (video and audio files) CM, HD 5
• Listening to videos and audios related to my field for professional
development CM, HD 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, PS 1,
• Commenting on colleagues’ presentations HD 5, PS 2

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When the number of the participants indicating the necessities is taken into account, the most es-
sential ones seem to be those requiring academic competence and productive skills such as reading the
material of the lesson, reading books and articles, reading web sites, and presenting a subject (lesson) or
presenting a subject in departmental meetings. The findings of these interviews show that subject teach-
ers around the world lack similar competencies and have some common necessities (see Low, Chong,
and Ellis, 2014; Masuum et al., 2012).

Lacks

Lacks means looking at where learners are at present. Although the identification of lacks could be
investigated by looking at learners’ assignments or test scores and asking lecturers who evaluate these
assignments about the weaknesses and strengths of them, the learners are useful source of information
about their lacks. We can have them to do self-evaluation by providing a specific checklist (Nation &
Macalister, 2010). As already explained in the methodology part, the target situation tasks identified by
the HDs, CM and PSs were rephrased and turned into questionnaire items to understand how they were
perceived by the subject teachers attending the course and, thus, to determine the lacks as reported by
the subject teachers. While doing so, to ease the analysis, the target situation tasks were grouped under
two categories: communicative target tasks including speaking and writing skills and comprehension-
based target tasks including reading and listening ones. These two categories and the perceived lacks of
the participants will be presented under separate subheadings below.

Communicative Target Tasks

Table 6 shows those lacks related to speaking as perceived by the subject teachers attending the ESP course.
The participants of the study reported that they needed practice on most of the speaking tasks on the
list except the skill regarding starting the lesson, where almost half of them felt they could cope with this

Table 6. Perceived lacks related to the communicative target tasks: speaking

Communicative Target Tasks Options

I need a lot of I need some I do not need any
practice on this practice on this practice on this
f % f % f %
1- Greeting and checking attendance - - 19 52.8 17 47.2
2- Small talk 9 25 23 63.9 4 11.1
3- Communicating with students 15 41.7 17 47.2 4 11.1
4- Speaking on the phone. 12 33.4 21 58.3 3 8.3
5- Presenting a subject (a lesson) in class 8 22.2 26 72.2 2 5.6
6- Presenting a subject in department meetings 17 47.3 16 44.4 3 8.3
7- Commenting on colleagues presentations 6 16.6 24 66.7 6 16.7
8- Conversing with supervisors 20 55.6 12 33.3 4 11.1
9- Giving feedback to parents 17 47.3 16 44.4 3 8.3
10- Welcoming guests and informing them about the school 18 50 14 38.9 4 11.1

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target situation task (n = 17, 47.2%). Yet, more than half of them still felt they needed some practice (n
= 19, 52.8%). Presenting a subject (a lesson) in class was identified as one of the top necessities by the
participants (n = 34, 94.4%) along with presenting a subject in English in department meetings (n = 33,
91.6%). However, when the ratings were inspected closely, it is seen that while 17 participants (47.2%)
reported a strong need for practicing on the latter task, only 8 of them (22.2%) stated they needed a lot
of practice on presenting a subject in class. This finding suggests that these subject teachers felt more
concerned about speaking English in front of their colleagues. There can be several reasons for this:
the possibility of presenting in front of more able teachers in terms of English language skills might be
the likely cause of this perceived lack. Similarly, the prospect of spontaneity in language use in these
interactive contexts may be another source of this feeling.
Similarly, the participants rated the task, i.e. communicating with students, as a strong necessity (32,
88.9%). However, surprisingly, 15 participants felt they needed a lot of practice on this. This finding
seems somewhat contradictory to the rating given to presenting a subject in class and, therefore, requires
interpretation. One interpretation could be that these teachers found teacher-to-student interaction pattern
easy to handle while face-to-face, spontaneous interaction much more challenging, which may suggest
that these subject teachers attending the language courses need to be given more oral production activities
where creativity in language is supported and more unpredictable language could be used and practiced.
Definitely, this finding may also indicate that the language proficiency level of these participants was
not up to this sort of interaction pattern yet, thus, they might still be in need of more general English
language instruction.
In the same line with this argument, the target situation tasks of welcoming guests and informing
them about the school, giving feedback to parents, conversing with supervisors, speaking on the phone
that require more spontaneous social interaction were equally rated as high-priority necessities, a finding
which also supports the interpretations made above regarding the use of English in interactive contexts.
When it comes to the communicative target tasks requiring writing, the participants regarded all the
tasks identified as skills they needed more or less practice on (see Table 7). They reported a lower need
about writing emails, writing CVs, writing roll book, and writing reports. Although fewer participants
indicated these target writing tasks to be their top rated necessities, however, it should be noted that more
than half of them still viewed them as tasks they needed to practice. Conversely, a great majority of the
subject teachers identified writing meeting minutes (n =34, 94.4%), writing a defense (n =34, 94.4%),
writing information notes to parents (n =33, 91.6%), writing reports (n =30, 83.3%) and writing questions
related to their subject matter (n = 29, 80.5%) as the top necessities they felt they needed either a lot of
practice or some practice on. These data indicate that, as might be expected, the subject teachers found
themselves to be more capable of fulfilling those every day and less demanding communicative writing
tasks such as email and CV writing while they considered those writing tasks that require more creative
language use, a more formal style and register where cohesion and coherence are more important as
challenging. These findings also support the findings already reported above regarding communicative
speaking tasks where the subject teachers were found to be more concerned about (Low, Chong, & Ellis,
2014; Masuum et al. 2012; Yahaya et al., 2009). Thus, it could be concluded that these subject teachers
were still worried about their general language proficiency while they were found to be more confident
about those tasks where more formulaic language can be used.

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Table 7. Perceived lacks related to the communicative target tasks: writing

Communicative Target Tasks Options

I need a lot of I need some I do not need any
practice on this practice on this practice on this
f % f % f %
1- Writing e-mails 5 13.9 24 66.7 7 19.4
2- Writing report cards 10 28 19 52.6 7 19.4
3- Writing register book 7 19.4 20 55.6 9 25
4- Preparing posters and notices 10 27.7 20 55.6 6 16.7
5- Writing petitions 13 36.1 20 55.6 3 8.3
6- Writing invitations 10 27.7 24 66.7 2 5.6
7- Writing a CV 6 16.7 25 69.4 5 13.9
8- Writing questions (for quiz, exam etc.) 12 33.3 17 47.3 7 19.4
9- Writing reports 8 22.2 22 61.1 6 16.7
10- Writing information notes to parents 12 33.3 21 58.4 3 8.3
11- Writing a defense 18 50 16 44.4 2 5.6
12- Writing meeting minutes 21 58.3 13 36.1 2 5.6

Comprehension-Based Target Tasks

As identified by the GD, CM and HDs working at schools, some comprehension-based target language
tasks, i.e. reading and listening, are also needed while teaching subject matter in English. Therefore, the
participants in the study were asked to evaluate themselves with regard to these tasks. The following
table shows their responses (Table 8).
As the data in Table 7 show, unlike the target situation tasks based on production, the receptive tasks
were not regarded as very strong lacks by the majority of the participants where only some of the par-
ticipants reported to be in need of a lot of practice. Additionally, when reading and listening tasks are
compared, the subject teachers appeared to be a bit more confident in target listening tasks. Field-related

Table 8. Perceived lacks related to the comprehension-based target tasks: reading and listening

Comprehension-based Target Tasks Options

I need a lot of I need some I do not need any
practice on this practice on this practice on this
f % f % f %
1- Reading books, articles on my field 6 16.7 25 69.4 5 13.9
2- Reading the materials of the lesson 1 2.7 29 80.6 6 16.7
3- Reading web sites on my field (blog, wiki, forum etc.) 3 8.3 28 77.8 5 13.9
4- Understanding teacher’s book. 1 2.7 29 80.6 6 16.7
5- Listening to videos and audios related to my field. 4 11.1 24 66.7 8 22.2
6- Listening to complementary files of books (video and audio 3 8.3 24 66.7 9 25
files).

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reading was found to be demanding by these subject teachers as majority of them stated they needed a
lot of or some practice on them (for example, reading books, articles and reading the materials related
to their fields on the websites (n = 31, 86.1%), reading lesson materials and teacher’s book (n = 30,
83.4%). These findings may indicate a lack in terms of vocabulary knowledge related to their own subject
fields. Similarly, these teachers might also be unfamiliar with the genres used in these reading materials.
However, to determine the exact reasons for this perceived lack, more in depth research needs to be done.
Lastly, the subject teachers were also invited to evaluate their overall language skills and knowledge
(see Table 9). The results revealed that productive skills are the ones the participants did not feel them-
selves very competent (speaking and fluency). This finding is consistent with the points already identi-
fied in communicative target tasks where the participants rated most target speaking and writing tasks
as considerably more demanding (see Tables 7 and 8). As could be expected, pronunciation was another
skill the subject teachers reported to be weak (n = 32, 88.9%). Thus, it could be concluded that speaking
was the major skill the participants had problems with. Apart from these, one third of the participants
stated that they felt weak regarding the terminology of their subject matters (n = 12, 33.3%), which can
also be linked to the reported lacks in reading skills as was interpreted for the likely reason of problems
with reading above (see the interpretations for Table 8).

Wants

Learning the wants or the subjective needs of learners is of paramount importance since learner motiva-
tion largely depends on these perceived wants. To elicit the data regarding the subjective needs of the
subject teachers attending the course, they were invited to write their opinions about their expectations/
wants from the language course segment of the program while they were filling out the questionnaire.
All of them responded this part and their responses were analyzed and grouped under three categories
(see Table 10). For anonymity, the code ST is used to refer to the subject teachers.

Table 9. Perceived lacks related to basic language skills and knowledge

Basic Language Skills and Knowledge Options

I feel myself weak I think I am OK I think I am
on this strong on this
f % f % f %
1- Reading 3 8.3 23 63.9 10 27.8
2- Listening 5 13.9 20 55.6 11 30.5
3- Writing 5 13.9 25 69.4 6 16.7
4- Spelling 4 11.1 22 61.1 10 27.8
5- Punctuation 9 25 19 52.8 8 22.2
6- Speaking 13 36.1 21 58.3 2 5.6
7- Fluency 16 44.4 19 52.8 1 2.8
8- Accuracy 5 13.9 24 66.7 7 19.4
9- Pronunciation 8 22.2 24 66.7 4 11.1
10- Classroom language (vocabulary) 4 11.1 30 83.3 2 5.6
11- Everyday English (speaking phrases) 9 25 23 63.9 4 11.1
12- Terminology of my field 12 33.3 20 55.6 4 11.1

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Table 10. Wants (subjective needs) of the subject teachers related to the language courses

Categories Wants (Subjective Needs) Participants

Speaking practice & Fluency More practice for speaking and fluency ST 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 16,
17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 35
Course to be in an English-speaking country or visiting one ST 11, 14, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 35, 36
Always practicing English during and after the lessons ST 1, 5, 16, 22, 24, 34, 35, 36
Learning and using daily phrases ST 1, 3, 7, 26, 27, 30
Reading Understanding field-related scientific articles ST 4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 27
Writing Writing in formal genres ST 7, 27, 31

As the Table 10 shows, the first major category of wants is related to the speaking skill, where the
reported wants are classified under four sub-headings. Firstly, the respondents expressed that they needed
more practice for speaking and fluency. As ST 8 stated “here has to be more focus on speaking practice
and fluency”. Secondly, a lot of participants reported a strong want for the courses to be in an English
speaking country or to be financially supported to visit one for some time (ST 11, ST 14, ST 18, ST
21, ST 23, ST 24, ST 25, ST 28, ST 29, ST 30, ST 31, ST 32, ST 35, ST 36). For example, ST 23 stated
“Had we had the course in a country where English is the official language, we would have had more
chances to use what we had studied and we would not have fluency and pronunciation difficulties now”.
Another want identified by the subject teachers was having more opportunities to practice speaking as
ST 1 stated “… we must be provided with more speaking opportunities”. They also offered some sug-
gestion as to how this could be achieved. ST 24 and ST 34 stated that speaking in English in and out
of the classroom should be compulsory and that they should not be allowed to use any other languages
during the course while ST 5 said that an increase in class hours for speaking skill would be better. ST
24 even wanted the course teachers to force everyone to speak in the target language by saying “The
teachers should be insistent that everybody speak in English language all the time”. Lastly, the teachers
expressed their wants related to the content of what needs to be practiced, i.e. daily phrases and expres-
sions. For example, according to ST 7 “it can be more beneficial for students if there are chances for
practicing daily spoken expressions and communication skills”.
The next category of wants was related to the reading skill, for which understanding field related
articles was reported as a major want. This finding also supports the findings related to reading skills
presented in Table 8 and 10 above, where the participants indicated greater competency in general read-
ing skill (Table 9) while they reported understanding field related books and articles as a lack (Table
8). Regarding this point, ST 6 stated ‘I would like to have the capacity to understand scientific articles
in my field’.
Lastly, three subject teachers (ST 7, ST 27, ST 31) stated that they wanted to learn more about formal
writing genres although they reported to have had sufficient writing practice.
In conclusion, the findings presented in this part indicate that the participants mostly referred to those
wants that could be classified under general English language competencies rather than professional needs,
which might be due to the fact that these teachers did not start teaching at the time of data collection
for this study and therefore they developed limited insights into their individual needs as professionals
getting prepared to teach their subject through English.

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RQ2: What Is the Overall Evaluation of the Key Stakeholders-

the Subject Teachers and Course Manager- Regarding
the Language Course Segment of the Program?

To find answers to this research question, qualitative data were collected from the subject teachers and
the course manager. The data from these two sources were reported under separate subheadings below.

Views of the Subject Teachers Attending the Course

The qualitative data obtained from the subject teachers were categorized under three broad themes of
positive and negative opinions regarding the language course segment of the program.
As for the positive opinions, almost all the respondents reported to have benefitted from the program
to a great extent. They appeared to appreciate not only the language course but also the professional
development segment of the program. For example, ST 13 indicated that “I feel that the course is way
more than I had imagined. I have learned many things and developed myself both in terms of language
and professional knowledge and skills”. Similarly, ST 10 stated that “I had expected to learn English
well and to develop my skills as a teacher. When I reflect on the year, I see I have achieved most of it”.
Yet, it should be noted that some of the subject teachers also reported to have had some concerns
and doubts about the language course at the beginning. ST 27 stated that “At the beginning, I had huge
concerns, as I had not studied English before”. As could be understood, this doubt seems to stem from
the participants’ lack of English instruction. Having no or very little prior foreign language experience
was an issue for these participants as another respondent, ST 26, also said “When I joined the course…
I knew nothing at all except very little English grammar. So I was not sure if I would be able to improve
the language or not”. The length of the program also seems to have given way to these concerns as ST 29
pointed out that “At first, I thought that in 8 months, I would not be able to learn a language’. However,
these initial worries seem to have been replaced by more positive ideas later on. Especially being able to
communicate to a certain extent appears to have given the course attendees a sense of accomplishment
as ST 27 asserted that “… now as we approach the end of the course, I feel that I can communicate in
English better”.
Grammar and writing components of the language course segment were identified as more successful.
For example, ST 29 stated that “… I have made a great progress especially for writing and grammar”.
Likewise, ST 32 wrote that “… my writing has developed more than I had expected”. This finding also
supports those views of the participants about grammar (accuracy) and writing as reported in Table 9,
where a majority of them stated they found themselves rather strong on these language areas. Yet, it is
worth reminding that the participants felt they needed more practice regarding communicative target
tasks requiring writing (see Table 7). In other words, occupational and formal writing was a challenge
for these subject teachers. Therefore, this finding should be read as an indication of the participants’
present state in language learning as also stated by one of the respondents: “this course has helped us to
establish baseline knowledge and skills in English”, who also made a comparison between the past and
present concluding that “When we consider the fact that we were just beginner-level learners of English
when the course started, I believe this course has been successful” (ST 21).
With regard to negative opinions, majority of the respondents stated their dissatisfaction with the
speaking component of the course. Some of them expressed their disappointment in their development
of oral skills saying that “At the beginning of the year I thought that I would be able to speak accurately

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and fluently, now I feel that I have not mastered enough” (ST 32). Having the same expectation, ST 10
also reported to “have difficulty in speaking English fluently”. Two of the respondents called speaking
their “biggest worry” (ST 8, ST 21) since in the near future they would start teaching which requires
more face to face oral interaction than anything else.
As for the reasons for this perceived underdevelopment, fear of making mistakes was found to be
the major emotional barrier as ST 27 pointed out “… we need to build self-confidence. We do not want
to talk in front of people for fear that we would make mistakes”. ST 28 also stated that “I avoided the
Canadian teacher every time I saw her, because I was scared to make mistakes. I want to communicate
with her without feeling any stress”. The second identified reason was a lack of opportunities to prac-
tice speaking (ST 28, ST 29, ST 9, ST 5, and ST 7). Also, time allocated to speaking in the course was
not enough as 12 subject teachers stated that speaking skill was not as much emphasized as writing in
the language course schedule (ST 2, ST 4, ST 6, ST 7, ST 8, ST 9, ST 11, ST 17, ST 28, ST 29, ST 34,
and ST 36). Apart from these reasons, the insufficient number of native speaker teachers available was
another point raised by the respondents as ST 28 clearly stated that “I believe that there must be other
native speakers or native-like people to practice English. Only one Canadian teacher is not enough for
all the students”. However, some subject teachers also assumed the responsibility for not developing
their speaking skills as much as they expected. For example, ST 28 stated that “It is partly our fault
for we do not try to speak with teachers” while ST 24 indicated that developing fluency in speaking is
basically her own “responsibility”.

Course Manager’s Views

The semi-structured interview with the course manager provided data that were categorized under two
major themes: needs and lacks of subject teachers attending the language course and strengths and
weaknesses of the language course.
Under the first theme, the course manager firstly stated that subject teachers had similar necessities
and lacks regarding certain language skills and sub-skills. Similar to the views of the subject teach-
ers above, he also identified speaking as the major skill they needed although he stated that “all skills
ought to be developed”. According to him, subject teachers “mostly worry about their accuracy and
avoid speaking with the teachers or in the classroom” and this prevents them from developing their oral
skills. Listening and writing are the next two main skills the course manager pointed out as lacks to be
developed. He pointed out that especially at the beginning of the course, subject teachers lack effective
listening skills because they are beginners or elementary learners. He said “they usually cannot answer
any questions… since they do not comprehend what is asked or said”. In terms of writing, the course
manager also mentioned the subject teachers’ needs to develop and practice a range of sub-skills from
the simplest ones like spelling to more complicated ones like academic essay writing, which also shows
the tremendous job that the course tries to achieve in a limited period of time i.e. 8 months. The simi-
larities between the course manager’s and the subject teachers’ opinions and perceptions as reported in
the quantitative and qualitative data analyses prove that the course manager is aware of the needs and
lacks of the course attendees.
Under the second theme, on the other hand, the course manager’s comments on the strengths and
weaknesses of the program were identified. Firstly, he stated that all course attendees are intrinsically
motivated and open to new ideas, two traits that are most needed in an intensive program such as this

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one. He pointed out that the program staff includes experienced teachers from different subject fields
“who are good models for the language and methodology in their subjects” mentioning the sample
lessons these teachers present. As for micro teaching sessions, the course manager stated that they are
good opportunities for these teachers where “they learn from each other” adding that “They usually take
note of every new vocabulary because they know that they will need them next year while teaching”.
Apart from these general comments on the strengths of the language course, the manager also men-
tioned specific implementations and learning strategies they employ throughout the course. For example,
he stated that “… we have them read at least 100 graded books during the course” and for each skill “we
ask them to keep separate notebooks”. He also believed that “There are plenty of listening and writing
exercises”. Finally, he emphasized that “there is constant assessment and evaluation to ensure that the
aims and goals of this training program are met”.
As for the weaknesses of the course, the manager identified two major ones: lack of enough speaking
practice and the intensity of the program. Like the subject teachers, he believed that not having several
native speaker teachers is a problem as he pointed out that “We have only one native speaker for them
to practice their English in a natural way”. Although it was not mentioned by the subject teachers them-
selves, the course manager also stated that “the intensity of the program was very challenging for some
of the teachers especially for those who had just completed their undergraduate studies as they wanted
to relax after four years of study”.
Consequently, in the light of the findings presented under RQ2 it can be claimed that the program
is successful in helping the subject teachers develop especially their basic receptive English language
skills. Given the entry proficiency level of the course attendees and the more emphasis put on reading
and grammar as stated by the stakeholders, this result may be an expected one. Overall, the similarities
between the views of the stakeholders regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the language course
have some implications for program revision and development.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

This study primarily investigated the target needs of non-native subject teachers who were attending a
specifically designed training program preparing them to teach their subjects in English. Secondarily,
the study looked into the key stakeholders’ overall evaluation on the language course segment of the
program to understand whether the present course is able to meet the needs of the subject teachers.
There are three main conclusions that could be drawn out from the findings of this study. They are
presented below and possible implications are discussed:
Firstly, the subject teachers reported to have developed basic English language skills and knowledge
related to comprehension-based tasks. The course structure can be a reason for this particular result. As
the subject teachers reported not to have enough practice in speaking and some of them indicated that
they needed to develop their writing skills, it can be assumed that there is an imbalance in the distribution
of skills courses in the language course program. Therefore, the lesson hours allocated to different skills
in the weekly program could be revised. Apart from this reason, the teaching methodology used in the
language course might be another cause for this perceived underdevelopment of productive skills. Thus,
it might be necessary to question whether the program staff utilizes integrated or segregated approach
to skills teaching in the language course.

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Secondly, the subject teachers reported to need more input and practice regarding those general
skills and tasks in learning English since they were observed to rarely identify professional skills and
tasks they will have to perform in English as their needs. This might be due to the fact that almost all of
these teachers were beginners when they started the program. Therefore, they might not have attained
the proficiency level where they would be more concerned about the professional use of English. This
can have three implications for this teacher training program. First, the goals of the course (learning
outcomes) could be narrowed down to be more manageable and reachable. This might reduce the nega-
tive perceptions of the course attendees regarding their lacks. Second, subject teachers could be taken to
school observations as early as the first term of the course, which may help them realize the long-term
goals of the language course. Third, an in-service teacher training component can be added to the pro-
gram, where the graduates of the course continue their training as they teach their subjects in English.
Lastly, the subject teachers reported satisfaction over the general English language course compo-
nents but did not make any comments on the ESP course component. The existence of criticisms and
suggestions from both stakeholders (course manager/designer and subject teachers) imply that a more
specifically tailored language course in terms of both content and practice should be launched.
The conclusions and implications stated above have direct practical relevance and serve mutually
for course designers, program staff and subject teachers taking the course. Any attempt to revise and
restructure the existing program will definitely call for future needs analyses.
Further research may also explore the learning needs of course attendees as proposed by Hutchinson
and Waters (1987) since this study solely focused on target needs. Yet, what learners bring into the learn-
ing context should also be investigated to better understand what language learning strategies work best,
which study skills prove to be effective in an intensive course such as this one.
Since this study concluded that the subject teachers were in need of developing professional skills
and knowledge regarding teaching their subjects in English, follow-up studies of former course attend-
ees may surely provide more information about the course design not only for this program but also for
in-service training programs.

Limitations of the Study

This present study has some limitations. To start with, it should be noted that this study was a case study
where a specific program with specific goals and program structure was investigated. Therefore, the
study does not claim that the findings of this study are generalizable across different contexts. Secondly,
semi-structured and unstructured interviews were used to identify the necessities of the subject teachers.
It is possible that only a partial picture of the target situation tasks was elicited through these interviews.
Therefore, in future studies the inclusion of observations of subject teachers using English as the MoI
in real school settings could help to triangulate the data to have a more complete description of target
situation tasks. Thirdly, a self-report questionnaire was used to collect data from the course attendees to
determine their lacks and wants based on the data of the initial interviews with different stakeholders.
The closed-ended items in the questionnaire might have limited the possible range of responses although
the questionnaire included open-ended questions. Therefore, any other future study may include face to
face interviews with the participants in order to get more in-depth information about their lacks, wants
and overall evaluation of the course.

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Dörnyei, Z. (2010). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and
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Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-
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Hutchinson, T. (1987). English for specific purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/
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Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design: A sociolinguistic model for defining the content of
purpose-specific language programmers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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141–147. doi:10.5539/elt.v2n2p141

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Hutchinson and Waters: Two key people on ESP who advocate a learner centered approach to ESP.
They inspired a lot of researchers and practitioners by coining the term ‘target needs’ and categorized
them as ‘necessities’, ‘lacks’, and ‘wants’.
Needs Analysis: As Brown (1995) explains, needs analysis refers to “the systematic collection and
analysis of all subjective and objective information necessary to define and validate defensible curricu-
lum purposes that satisfy the language learning requirements of students within the context of particular
institutions that influence the learning and teaching situation”.
Non-Native: If someone is not born or raised in a particular country he/she is considered to be non-
native. As for non-native speaker of English, it refers to a person who was not born in an English spoken
country or family, and learned it later.
Productive Language Skills: They refer to skills that require production of target language (mainly
speaking and writing).
Receptive Language Skills: They refer to skills that require comprehension of target language
(mainly listening and reading).
Stakeholders: This term refers to person(s) with an interest or concern in something, especially a
business. In this context, it refers to an independent party who has connection with the teacher training
program especially in two groups: staff (policy makers and supervisors of the program) and attendees
(subject teachers).

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Identifying the Target Needs of Non-Native Subject Teachers

Subject Teachers: Teachers who have teaching qualification in the specialist subject such as phys-
ics, chemistry, mathematics etc. They are usually graduates of different first degree titles available in
universities around the world that require qualifications for entry.
Target Needs: Hutchinson and Waters (1987) group needs into two categories as target needs and
learning needs. The former refers to the expected abilities; tasks and activities learners will carry out in
the target situation while the latter deals with the efforts necessary to learn them. They further divide
target needs into three sub categories: necessities, lacks, and wants. By necessities they mean what learn-
ers should know to meet the target situation requirements. Lacks is the gap between the present state
of the learners and what they need to know, do in the target situation while wants represent learners’
individual desires, expectations from the language learning process.
Teacher Training: It is a process of professional preparation of teachers, usually through course in-
struction and practice of teaching. This term involves teacher education programs in tertiary educational
intuitions, graduate programs, and special courses (certificate programs etc.).

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APPENDIX 1

Table 11. Vocational English needs analysis survey for subject teachers

I believe that …
I need I do not
Part 1. Communicative Target Tasks I need a lot Your
some need any
of practice on detailed
practice practice on
this opinion
on this this
Greeting and checking attendance
Small talk
Communicating with students
Speaking on the phone.

Communicative Presenting a subject (a lesson) in class

(speaking) tasks Presenting a subject in department meeting
Commenting on colleagues presentations
Conversing with supervisors
Giving feedback to parents
Welcoming the guests, informing them about the school.
Writing e-mails
Writing report cards
Writing a register book
Preparing posters and notices
Writing petitions

Communicative Writing invitations

(writing) tasks Writing a CV
Writing questions to my subject
Writing reports
Writing information notes to parents
Writing a defense
Writing meeting minutes
Reading books, articles on my field
Reading the materials of the lesson
Reading web sites on my field (blog, wiki, forum etc.)
Comprehension-
based tasks Understanding teacher’s book.
Listening to videos and audios related to my field.
Listening to complementary files of books (video and
audio files).
Other (Write yourself)
Other (Write yourself)
Other (Write yourself)

continued on following page

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Table 11. Continued

I believe that my…

Part 2. Basic Language Skills and Knowledge Your
insufficient OK sufficient
opinion
Reading
Listening
Writing
Spelling
Punctuation
Speaking
Fluency
Accuracy
Pronunciation
Classroom language (vocabulary)
Everyday English (speaking phrases)
Terminology of my field
Other
Other
Other

Part 3

1. Please put these items in Part 1& 2 in order of importance for you. (Please prioritize your needs.)
1. …………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………….
3. …………………………………………….
4. …………………………………………….
5. …………………………………………….
6. …………………………………………….
7. …………………………………………….
8. …………………………………………….
9. …………………………………………….
10. ………………………………………….
2. What is your overall evaluation of the language course (Term 1 and 2)? Explain the reasons for
your evaluation of the program in as much detail as possible, please.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..……………………………………………
……..…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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…..……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
3. Please use the space below to indicate your suggestions for the development and revision of the
language courses in the first and second term of the training program.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………..………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………..………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Part 4

Demographic Information

Gender:
Country/Ethnicity:
Age:
Work Experience: …………….….……………………………… (Duration month or year)
If you would like to give more information about your work experience, use the space below, please.
I have been learning English for…………………………………… (Duration month or year)
If you would like to give more information about your language learning experience, use the space
below, please.
Thank you for your participation and cooperation ☺

APPENDIX 2

Course Manager’s Interview Questions

a. Demographics:
1. How do you describe your job?
2. What is your field of expertise?
3. How old are you?
4. How long have you been working as a teacher trainer?
5. Can you tell us about your teaching experiences?
6. How long have you been the manager of the course in this program?
7. Have you ever had a similar job?
8. Have you ever taught in a course similar to this before?

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b. About the Language Course:

1. How long has this course been running?
2. What is your role in the program?
3. How was English language related part of the program shaped? Who are the other decision
makers in the design of the language program? How do you plan the program?
4. Have you ever revised the program? If yes, how many times? How did you decide on the
revisions? What parts were revised?
5. Do you have any connections with the sector which look for candidates who can teach in
English?
6. What do you think about the needs of the sector which employs subject teachers who can
teach in English? What is expected from these subject teachers?
7. What are the needs of the teachers who attend this course?
8. Do you run any needs analysis to find out their needs? If yes, what do you do?
9. Do you think that education provided in the course can meet the needs of both the sector and
the course attendees?
▪▪ If yes, to what extend?
▪▪ How do you understand this? In other words, do you have an evaluation process? (For
example; do you have any inspectors or do you collect feedback from the schools where
your graduates work? Or do you get any feedback from the subject teachers about their
experiences?)
10. What are the strengths of the program?
11. What are the weaknesses of the program?
12. Are there any points you would like to add?

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176

Chapter 11
Impact of a Professional
Development Programme
on Trainee Teachers’ Beliefs
and Teaching Practices
Yasemin Kırkgöz
Cukurova University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
This study emerged from the concerns experienced by the last-year English language trainee teachers
during their school practicum. An increasing number of trainees complained that their existing beliefs
conflicted, in many ways, with the school-based mentor’s teaching practice. A collaborative action re-
search (CAR) professional development programme (PDP) was established to help prospective teachers
resolve many of the dilemmas and improve their classroom practices in a 10-week practicum course.
It was found that CAR has a powerful impact upon teacher candidates as it solves many of the dilem-
mas and concerns. Belief changes of one trainee teacher are presented as an exemplary case. While
such findings can improve our understandings of pre-service teachers’ cognitive learning and problem
solving skills at the practicum site, they also generate useful insights into designing a PDP to promote
trainee teachers’ school-based professional development in STEM (science, technology, engineering,
and mathematic) education.

INTRODUCTION

In the initial teacher education, teaching practice has been recognized as one of the most important
aspects of the L2 teacher education programme (Farrell, 2003; Gebhard, 2009; Tang, 2004). Research
investigating student teacher practicum reveals that the practicum component constitutes a very important
aspect of language teacher learning (Johnson, 1999; Borg, 2006; Farell, 2008). It provides opportunities
to apply theoretical knowledge and skills, previously gained through instruction to authentic educational
settings (Williams, 2009). During the practicum, trainees can apply their beliefs based on language

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch011

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Impact of a Professional Development Programme

learning theories they acquired in the course of their university studies. Much evidence points to the
value of pre-service student teaching due to the realistic nature of the experience (Slick, 1998). Hascher,
Cocard and Moser (2004) state ‘it is the best way to acquire professional knowledge and competences
as a teacher’ (p. 626). As noted by Leshem and Bar-Hama (2008), the practicum is the trainee teach-
ers’ first hands-on experience with their chosen career; as such, it has an important impact on trainees’
future careers (Myles, Cheng & Wang, 2006; Rozelle & Wilson, 2012). The practicum also serves as
a ‘protected field for experimentation’ and ‘socialization within the profession’ (Hascher et al., 2004).
Thus, a trainee’s future in education may be determined by what happens during their training period
(Leshem & Bar-Hama, 2008). Zeichner (1990) points out that trainees consider the practicum experience
as the most significant element in their teacher training; they benefit more from spending time in the
field watching others teach than from attending classes at the university or colleges. Tsui (2003) supports
this assertion in her discussion on teachers’ personal values and beliefs by claiming that trainee teachers
consider classroom experience as the most important source of knowledge about teaching.
Among the important aspects of the practicum, school-based mentor teacher plays a crucial role in
shaping trainee teachers’ beliefs and teaching skills, contributing to their knowledge base and profes-
sional development. By teaching under the supervision of mentoring teachers and engaging in various
classroom tasks, trainee teachers can enhance their teaching knowledge and skills and reflect upon their
deeply held values and beliefs, which can contribute to their cognitive learning and development (Cheng,
Cheng & Tang, 2010; Gebhard, 2009). Additionally, mentors, through their own teaching, “can model
appropriate teaching practice, and have a positive impact on mentees’ self-confidence, and effective-
ness” (Noe, 1988:459).
Ragins and Kram (2007) highlight the crucial effect of mentoring as follows:

At its best, mentoring can be a life-altering relationship that inspires mutual growth, learning and
development. Its effects can be remarkable, profound and enduring; mentoring relationships have the
capacity to transform individuals, groups, organizations and communities (p. 3).

The literature on mentoring in L2 teacher education has tended to focus on mutual effects of the
mentor-mentee relationship, models of mentoring and mentor-mentee roles (Eliahoo, 2011). Yet, the
impact of the mentoring on trainee teachers’ cognitive change, particularly on the process of trainees’
belief change and teaching practice, has remained relatively unexplored (Borg 2006; 2009).
To fill this gap, this study investigates

a) the impact of mentoring on the process of belief change among the trainee teachers, and
b) the impact of an innovative professional development programme (PDP) that highlights cognitive,
constructive and interactive aspects of development on trainee teachers’ beliefs.

The following chapter aims to present the implementation of an innovative PDP for the last-year
trainee teachers of English as part of a 10-week practicum course. First, the collaborative action research
is provided as the theoretical grounding for the development of the PDP. The ensuing section gives the
rationale for initiating this study and details the methodology that is used to answer the research questions
of this study. The process of the collaborative action research (CAR) applied in this study is described,
followed by a presentation of a case study of a pre-service trainee teacher’s belief changes and teaching

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experiences to illustrate the impact of the CAR in facilitating the trainee teacher to resolve many of her
dilemmas and concerns during the PDP. The article concludes with solutions and recommendations
based on our findings and directions that future studies might take.

ACTION RESEARCH

Action research is a methodology through which practitioners study their own practice in order to solve
problems in their day-to-day practice (Corey, 1953, cited in Mitchell, Reilly & Logue, 2009), and to
improve the quality of action (Elliot, 1991) through systematic inquiry (Bullough & Gitlin, 1995). Of
the multiple models of action research, CAR, as a form of inquiry, requires practitioners to engage in a
cycle of problem identification, action planning, implementation, evaluation and reflection. The insights
gained from the initial cycle are integrated into planning of the second cycle, for which the action plan is
altered and the research process is repeated (McKernan, 1991). It also aims to create collaboration with
different stakeholders functioning as co-researchers (Mitchell, Reilly & Logue, 2009).
Studies on the impact of CAR in teacher education show that both pre-service and in-service teachers
become more reflective, critical, and analytical about their teaching practices as they engage in collab-
orative research (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Mitchell, Reilly & Logue, 2009; Kırkgöz, 2014). Case studies
involving pre-service teachers and their cooperating teachers have further revealed strong evidence to
support collaborative research as a professional development tool (Catelli, 1995; Levin & Rock, 2003;
Atay, 2006).
In the present study, CAR was established between a university researcher/teacher educator, the author
of this chapter, and eight trainee teachers, to provide the mentorship and support for trainee teachers’
professional development. In addition, it was aimed to create an ongoing climate of collaboration among
trainees and the supervising teacher in helping trainees resolve their teaching concerns and dilemmas
within a supportive framework; it would help trainees develop strategies and meaningful solutions that
are trainee-based and process-oriented, so that they were going to improve their classroom practice by
adopting a problem based inquiry to learning and teaching. In addition, the process of cognitive change
was investigated in trainees’ situated classroom context in order to identify potential impacts of involve-
ment in the CAR experience on the professional development of trainee teachers.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE STUDY

This study describes the author’s engagement, who is the teacher educator, in implementing a school-
based professional development programme (PDP), informed by the principles of collaborative action
research (CAR). The study was conducted with Turkish pre-service English language trainee teachers
as part of their practicum course (School Experience II) and lasted 10 weeks. An increasing number of
last-year trainee teachers complained that their existing beliefs, based on their university course work,
conflicted, in many ways, with the school-based mentor’s teaching practices they observed in school
classrooms. Consequently, trainees experienced discrepancies as their beliefs about teaching English
did not match the observed teaching practice of their mentors. They encountered a dilemma as they
were left to choose between the teaching methodology recommended by their university tutors and their
mentors’ teaching practice.

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Impact of a Professional Development Programme

The present study was initiated to identify concerns of trainee teachers on a large-scale, and to con-
duct a PDP as part of their professional practice that would reconcile those conflicting views by helping
trainees develop appropriate strategies, and support them in weighing alternatives for action, and deciding
upon the one which best meets specific needs.

Participants and the Research Setting

Participants of the study were final-year trainee teachers of English attending a four-year English Lan-
guage Teacher Education Programme in a Turkish university, the first three years of which include EFL
courses. In Turkey, the Initial Teacher Education for primary and secondary school teachers takes place
through a four-year university programme leading to a Bachelor of Education degree. The curriculum
of the Teaching Practice at the university where this study took place is typical of other universities in
Turkey where the Teacher Education programme is offered. In the first term of their final-year of the
teacher education programme, as part of the ‘School Experience I’ course, trainee teachers are placed
in various schools to observe mentor teachers to develop awareness of English language teaching and
learning experiences.
In the second term, trainee teachers visit the placement schools, generally twice a week, as part of
the ‘School Experience II’ course, to take responsibility for teaching. A serving teacher from the school
is appointed as the mentor, responsible for guiding, supporting and evaluating the trainee teachers’
learning. Additionally, each trainee is supervised by a cooperating teacher from the university. All the
trainee teachers’ teaching performance during the practicum is assessed by their university supervisors.

Data Collection

This multiple-source qualitative study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) explored a phenomenon in its natural
school setting. A collective case study design was adopted “to examine, in-depth, a case within its ’real-
life‘ context” (Yin, 2003: 111), in order to provide both description about how each trainee teachers
engaged in CAR and explanation regarding the Turkish pre-service English language trainee teachers’
beliefs and problem solving skills in teaching practicum during the 10-week School experience II course.
Data were collected from multiple sources in two stages as described below:

School Experience I: 150 trainee teachers of English in their fourth-year of teacher education programme
were the participants of this part of the study. Assigned to classes in primary and secondary schools,
they observed 25 mentors. Before their observation of the mentors, I asked the participants to write
what their expectations were from the school-based mentors to investigate the participants’ pre-
established beliefs about language teaching and learning. At the end of the ten-week mentoring
observation period, participants were asked to reflect upon the extent to which their expectations
were met by the mentors whose lessons they observed.

Furthermore, the participants wrote two different reports each week: 1) field notes, in which they
mostly included their observations of the mentors; 2) a reflective report or a commentary, in which they
critically reflected on the experiences they gained from their observation of their mentor; that is, a more
personal account of the course of the inquiry. By doing so, they produced a written summary of their
evaluations/reactions to their mentor’s lesson delivery in terms of how the mentor’s teaching influenced

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Impact of a Professional Development Programme

(if any) their existing beliefs. Their summative evaluations varied in length from 500 to 600 words.
Many respondents wrote extensive reports about their thinking expressing dilemmas resulting from
the mismatch between their existing beliefs and what they observed in the mentor’s teaching practice.
Producing a reflective commentary served an important element of the trainees’ professional learning,
and gave insights for the design of the PDP to be conducted in the second term of the practicum.

School Experience II: Eight trainee teachers, three male and five female, each supervised by a differ-
ent school-based mentor, participated in this part of the study. They were from the same cohort of
pre-service language teachers (150 in total). They were placed in two schools, which allowed me
convenience in data collection and explore the subject in depth.

The Process of CAR Research Teacher Development Programme

The process started with each trainee’s identified dilemma or a concern. Then, the trainees started to
investigate issues related to the concern and implemented a plan designed to address that concern. Re-
flection is an important part of an action research. Trainee teachers were actively engaged in the process
of critically exploring their own classroom contexts and working toward resolving that concern.
Prior to initiating CAR, a meeting was held with the participants by the author of this study to famil-
iarize them with the basic knowledge on action research and the PDP. I made it clear to the participants
that my role was to act as a supporter, organizer, facilitator and resource person (Goodnough, 2003).
The active role assumed by the trainees as researchers of their own teaching context was highlighted.
Drawing upon the action relationship principle of CAR (Kemmis, 1998; Mitchell, Reilly & Logue,
2009), each trainee teacher employed a recurring spiral of cycles, focusing on planning, acting, observing,
reflecting, re-planning, and re-acting for the attainment of goals which involved investigating dilemmas
and/or an authentic problem. They started examining their problem from various aspects, setting up an
inquiry in light of the literature as part of the planning process. The action research process involved each
trainee teacher conducting research within the school context. First, each trainee prepared action plans
to solve their problems or overcome their concerns in the areas in which they felt the need for further
improvement. In the following weeks, they read relevant literature, conducted research in their specific
school context, and reflected upon the action taken. Each trainee was guided through the entire process
lasting 10 weeks covering the whole practicum period. The author visited each trainee class every two
weeks. In addition, she had access to mentors through e-mail.

Data Sources during the CAR

Throughout the process of CAR, data were collected from multiple sources; interviews, classroom
observations, reflective journals and collaborative meetings about the participants’ belief changes and
learning experiences in the CAR professional development programme.

Semi-Structured Interviews

During the teaching practicum, trainee teachers’ beliefs were investigated with three rounds of semi-
structured interviews. These interviews were scheduled before, during and after the teaching practicum
to explore potential changes in trainees’ beliefs derived from their participation in different professional

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Impact of a Professional Development Programme

activities. The participants were guided to reflect on the whole field experience, their belief changes,
and the factors influencing their beliefs. All the interviews were conducted in English and audio-taped.

Classroom Observation and Stimulated Recall Interview

The trainee teachers taught 20 lessons (45 min each) during the practicum, and I, as the university super-
visor, observed and videotaped the 1st, 7th, 14th, and 20th lesson of each participant with observation
notes taken. Each trainee also watched their video recorded lessons and wrote a reflection about their
teaching. At the end of each observation, I held a stimulated recall interview with each participant to
identify belief changes in their teaching practice. I also identified some teaching episodes based on my
observation notes, which might reflect or contradict the beliefs stated by the participants in their interviews.

Participants’ Reflective Journals

Each participant maintained a reflective journal to express their beliefs, to record insights they gained
during this programme, and how these contributed to their professional development. Each participant’s
weekly journals (in English) were collected at the end of each week. These writings provided the author
with insights into the personal and implicit processes that the trainees experienced in their research process.

Collaborative Meetings

A schedule of three collaborative meetings was held during the 10-week practicum. The purposes of
the meetings were to share trainees’ learning of ideas, practical strategies and solutions they were ap-
plying to achieve proposed principles in their teaching, and to collaboratively reflect on the process. All
discussions from the meetings were audio-recorded and later transcribed for analyses.

Data Analysis

Given the large number of participants who provided written reflections of school mentors during the
first semester of the practicum, a corpus tool was used for analysis. First, the responses were collated.
Through repeatedly reading the data, frequently used key words and phrases were identified, i.e., dis-
cipline, use of L1 and classroom management. Wordsmith was used to search for these key words and
create the preliminary categories. Further categories were created through searching the remaining data,
and identifying further key words. As for the recorded interviews, I transcribed them all. Afterward, the
interview transcripts of each participant were first reviewed to identify the specific beliefs the participant
held about language teaching and learning. The emerging beliefs were then categorized and compared
across different interviews, paying special attention to the relationships between the identified belief
change processes to account for the evolutionary nature of belief development. The videotaped classroom
observations were reviewed together with the transcribed stimulated recall interviews and the observa-
tion notes. Relevant data from the participants’ written reflections were revisited to triangulate with the
other data sources (Merriem, 2009).
The research findings are presented according to a case, which provides both a descriptive and analytic
account of what the participant’s beliefs were like before the teaching practicum, how her beliefs changed
as she was involved in teaching and the collaborative research, and what the newly emerged beliefs were.

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Illustration of a Case

This section illustrates Özge, as one of the case study participants in the study. The choice of this par-
ticipant was decided during the study as this particular case produced a rich source of data. In order to
shed light on the complex and dynamic processes of the trainee teachers’ belief transformation in her
situated classroom context, I asked Özge (pseudonym), like other trainees, to express what her expec-
tations were from the school-based mentors to investigate her pre-established beliefs about language
teaching and learning.
In terms of her belief, before the practicum, Özge believed that

A language teacher should manage the class very effectively using different techniques and materials.
Classroom atmosphere is very important so a teacher should make a good classroom atmosphere. A
teacher should arouse the students’ interests using different materials, activities and real tasks. I think
that during lessons, students should often be given opportunities to work in small groups and with a
partner, which might help students feel more comfortable and relaxed and possibly reduce the anxiety
related to attempting the target language. Young learners need to speak out! Teachers should struggle to
increase the quantity and the quality of English spoken by the students in classrooms. So, it is essential
to create a more interactive and communicative classroom, particularly for young learners of English.
By also doing this, I believe in creating a S-SS ad S-T interaction in the classroom. Students must be
exposed to the target language; therefore, he or she should mostly use L2.

At the end of the ten-week mentoring observation period, her prior expectations from the mentor(s)
whose lessons she observed contradicted her beliefs in many ways, as stated below:

In my observation, I saw that the teacher always used the course book, he didn’t benefit from any other
interesting materials like I expected before. I know that one way to capture students’ attention and keep
them engaged in activities is to supplement the textbook activities with brightly coloured visuals puppets,
or objects. These can also be used for follow-up activities and make the language input comprehen-
sible. Unfortunately students in my class didn’t have a chance to study in small groups or in pairs, as I
expected before. During my observation period, I clearly understood that one of the most challenging
parts of teaching is classroom management. My mentor teacher was not effective in managing the class
and involving students in the learning process. We know young learners are very energetic and they have
limited attention span, it’s not an easy job for teachers. I also have doubts about controlling the class
before starting to teach and I’m very scared of not being able to convey what I would.

She explains the impact of the mentor on her beliefs resulting in a real dilemma as follows:

I think I got three contradicting views in my head. On the one hand, I like to follow my university lecturer’s
advice to use L2 because the students should be exposed to English as early as possible. They should get
used to the sound, the structure, the vocabulary… so that they can learn the language unconsciously.
And from the approaches course that I received at the university, I thought it would be more logical to
use L2 all the time and expect students to respond in English. On the contrary, during the observation,
I witnessed that the teacher didn’t use the target language as the medium of instruction. He was using
a lot of mother tongue.

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The next contradiction was related to the methodology used:

I have also learned from my mentor what I should not do. He was using very traditional ways of teach-
ing English like translation or ‘repeat after me’ technique. Students got bored and they forgot if they did
not write and study what they learned. I could see the drawbacks of this implementation. I don’t want
to teach in a traditional way as my mentor (Interview).

Before the teaching practicum, Özge held a set of conflicting beliefs about language teaching by
perceiving a dichotomy between the traditional approach (focusing on translation and drills) and a com-
municative classroom. Influenced by the university coursework, she believed that “language learning
needs to be meaningful and interactive and teachers develop students’ communicative abilities, use L2
mostly and manage the class effectively” (Interview).
She further stated the class she dreamed about as:

…full of communication opportunities, materials, audios etc. And when I saw that classroom, I thought
it would be impossible to manage young learners and take their attention even with interesting activities
and in a friendly way because I couldn’t imagine that a teacher chose such a traditional way without
trying the others. Briefly, I was hopeless for that (Interview).

However, these beliefs were at odds with her mentor’s teaching instruction, dominated by grammar
drills and memorization. Thus, she was not certain whether communicative activities could be success-
fully applied to the real language classroom.
The next interview with the participant was carried out before she started teaching in the practicum,
which aimed to investigate her beliefs about language teaching and learning and about herself as a lan-
guage teacher:

Since I had so many opportunities to observe my mentor in the first term, I made some decisions about
my own teaching process. For example, I decided that I would use L2 in class frequently and I would be
more a facilitator towards the students. Teaching young learners is like creating a new picture. Those
children are looking at your eyes, watching what you will teach them. They are open to new things.

In the following section, changes in Özge’s belief system in three areas are presented: (1) the use of
L2; (2) classroom management; (3) activities to attract students’ attention

Belief Changes in Relation to L2 Use

As noted by Stuart & Thurlow (2000), trainee teachers can engage in dialogic reflection with their mentors
in their teaching practice where different ideas and understanding can be shared and developed, which
can exert great influence on their belief transformation. First of all, through designing lesson plans and
her dialogic interaction with the mentor, her prior perception of language teaching in relation to the use
of L1 versus L2 was challenged (Mattheoudakis, 2007), as she reflects in her journal, following her first
teaching experience:

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In my very first lesson, I had difficulty in using the target language in the classroom not because of myself
but because of my mentors. I wanted to use my knowledge that I gained from my university Young Learn-
ers Classes but my mentors didn’t let me use the target language because they didn’t trust the students
in understanding the language (Reflective journal).

This incident overturned Özge’s prior belief that “teachers should mostly use L2 in the classroom”
(Reflective journal). To resolve her dilemma concerning the use of L1-L2 dichotomy, she initiates her
action research project. She was offered guidance and was provided a set of articles to read. During this
process, she shared her own understanding by relating it to what she had learned in the teacher education
courses. Through the dialogic mediation (Vygotsky, 1978) with the author of this study, the supervising
teacher, she saw the importance of “forming a situational understanding of the subject matter, the school
curriculum, and the students” in teaching (Reflective journal). Such understanding, according to Özge,
is “the key to integrating the theoretical knowledge into a coherent and practical framework to guide
her teaching” (Reflective journal).
Özge seemed to be going through a slow and gradual process of developing and modifying her beliefs
concerning the use of L1 versus L2. She expresses this process in her journal:

I was left alone in the classroom because of my mentor’s illness; I did everything as I wanted. My thoughts
changed when I was the only authority in the class because in the presence of a mentor, I believed I would
not be able to put my plan into practice. So, I planned my lesson, prepared my materials, organized the
activities. All of my negative feelings started to vanish. When students started to learn the songs that I
taught them and tried to express themselves in English, this motivated me more. Every class listened to
songs related to the topics. I tried to find a suitable song for them sometimes spending a whole night. I
tried to make them speak in English because the mentor didn’t use L2 in the classroom. I struggle with
this a lot but when I heard a word of English from them, I was motivated more.

She continues her experience as follows:

I tried to use L2 all the time because the students hadn’t been exposed to it till then. They were somehow
shocked and puzzled whenever they heard me speak English. All the same, they tried to listen to me and
understand what I was saying but they couldn’t wholly concentrate on it. I didn’t think of using L1, even
if I got some problems I thought I could find some other ways not to use L1. I used my body language
and put stress on the instruction they had problem with. I realized again that they just began to face
with English and I tried to keep on using English without ignoring Turkish because I could summarize
the important points in each class through Turkish.

This seemed to be a great opportunity for her as she further stated:

I can’t fully motivate the class when there is a mentor because, while I am using L2 in the classroom,
the mentor can interrupt to warn me about what the students can and can not understand. This distracts
me too much. But when I am alone I don’t have any anxiety so I can feel that this class is fully mine
(Reflective journal).

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As noted by Borg (1999) classroom teaching can play a mediating role in trainee teachers’ belief
development. Particularly, by critically examining their values and beliefs in classroom actions, trainee
teachers could become more aware of the possible convergence and disparity between their beliefs and
practices so that their belief systems could be constructed and transformed to guide their teaching (Far-
rell, 2007).
Özge’s belief about the use of L2 was further challenged and reconstructed in her own teaching
practice. Her ongoing reflection made her realize that instead of dichotomizing L1 and L2, she could
resort to L1 when needed:

When I started to teach, I mostly used L2 in class. After a while, I realized that some students did not
understand me. Since I did not want to lose them in teaching process, I tried to speak in a more under-
standable manner. If they still did not understand me, then I used gestures and theatrical expressions.
So the problem was solved. I realized that using L1 is inevitable for young learners only when it is more
efficient to use L1 for a difficult expression or a word, we can use it. For instance; for words that students
can figure out, we can rely on visuals, realia, and gestures. We should spend class time focusing on
those target language objectives rather than spending time trying to make a difficult word or expression
comprehensible in English.

Thus, in terms of Özge’s beliefs about language teaching, due to the continuous interaction between
her field experiences and personal reflections (Stuart & Thurlow, 2000), she modified her original po-
larized view about the use of L1 and L2 to language teaching, and began to embrace a new belief that
“I can use L2 mostly but L1 when needed” (Interview).

Belief Changes in Relation to Classroom Management

The second concern running through the trainees’ thoughts was related to classroom management, which
involves dealing with misbehaviour, as well as establishing rules and routines, among a host of other
teacher activities. The challenge in maintaining control in class throughout the practicum was somewhat
further compounded by her not having a good model as stated in the interview:

Unfortunately, I didn’t see a good model of classroom management. Children are full of positive feelings
and they are very willing to share these feelings with another person. No matter how disrespectful or
energetic a child is, you can find a way to effect him/her and maybe with just a couple of words can solve
all problems in the classroom. I know that students are very good imitators and they reflect whatever
they observe, on their own behaviours. I start to think all of them as I am controlling the classroom.

Through the teaching practicum, Özge expanded and deepened her beliefs of the classroom manage-
ment. Her concerns related to classroom management began to change as she engaged students with
activities as expressed below:

In my first teaching, I wasn’t able to manage the classroom because I was inexperienced. When I prepared
some materials such as visuals, pictures and games students became more willing to learn English. They
did not want to just sit and listen to the teacher. I saw while students were playing a game like ‘which
one is missing’ they were practicing the language actively and they were also learning from each other.

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To manage lessons effectively, she tried to establish classroom rules through a reward system:

I realized that managing misbehaviours of students was not a big deal. Because I saw that they were
willing to learn English when they had fun during the lessons. For example, in one of my classes I asked
students to draw an object. I told them that if they could draw the object and write the name correctly,
I would reward those students by putting a star in their notebooks. This may sound very ordinary but I
was very surprised when I saw how it made students alert and this activity became more important for
me later because the students who were not interested in learning English and were not very attentive
to any word of mine suddenly became very enthusiastic about my lessons. Students like rewards and
competitions.

Another belief she developed concerning classroom management was that of authoritative stand, as
reflected in her journal:

While teachers should be friendly with students, they should also be authoritative in the classroom.
During the course of my practicum I also realized that I had to be the authority in the class in order
to manage students’ misbehaviour. For instance, in 4/H classroom, students knew that I was a trainee
teacher in their school so they treated me as if they did not trust my knowledge. When I tried to teach
something they made a lot of noise and did not listen to me. I could not implement the management of
that classroom. I mean I could not manage them because they did not accept me as their teacher. So, in
my opinion students should not know whether the teacher in their classroom is an official teacher or a
student-teacher.

Therefore, through her dialogic interaction with the students during the teaching practicum (Johnson,
2006; Tang, 2004), the participant realized the complexities of classroom management, which entails
a comprehensive and situational understanding of the subject matter, the curriculum and the students.
Contrary to her previous simple belief that teachers should be friendly now she realized that teachers
should also be authoritative.

Activities to Attract Students’ Attention

Although Özge firmly believed in the value of using a variety of activities, games and songs in the young
learner classes, she had a real dilemma as she stated earlier “I am idealist and want to use them in my
teaching. However, I don’t know whether these can really work in the classroom” (Reflective journal).
Her uncertainty could be attributed to her mentor’s traditional way of teaching. However, the participant’s
belief to create a communicative classroom using songs, games and activities were sustained throughout
the programme, and she integrated them in her teaching.
To illustrate, the interview, conducted during the 4th week of the practicum, explored the possible
change in her beliefs and teaching behaviour derived from her participation in CAR and different pro-
fessional activities including lesson planning and practical teaching, in the field school. In planning the
weekly lesson, she expressed confirmation of her original beliefs to use a variety of activities:

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I believe that I have to use games, songs, visuals and physical activities because I have learned to do so
in one of my methodology classes, Teaching English to Young Learners. I am aware of the advantageous
and disadvantageous of teaching young learners.

Using such activities also contributed greatly to promoting students’ motivation and managing the
lesson effectively, as she reflects in an interview:

I managed to capture their attention with different activities, colourful pictures, songs, etc… As I stated
earlier, taking their characteristics into account helped me to involve them. Of course there were slight
distractions during the classes, but they weren’t really problematic; I could maintain it by moving from
activity to activity. Students were active and took part in games and activities that I’m very proud of them.

In the following section, changes in Özge’s belief system in three areas discussed in the preceding
section are illustrated by means of a lesson observation.

Lesson Observation

The lesson observation with following stimulated recall interviews documented changes in Özge’s belief
system. During the stimulated recall, the trainee was asked to stop the videotape every time she recalled
what she had been thinking and she was encouraged to share everything she could recall at that point
(Meijer, Zanting & Verloop, 2002). As a further data collection tool, the observation notes of the researcher
revealed reflection on or modification of beliefs that Özge had mentioned in the previous interviews.
In the first example, Özge prepared a lesson plan to teach foods and drinks for students in grade 2
(age six). The following extract comes from the author’s observation notes:

First, she posted pictures of items of foods and drinks, vegetables and fruits on the board. She pointed to
each of the pictures and pronounced their names and asked the students to pronounce all together. The
next activity involved “Match the names with the pictures”. For this, she mixed the names of the items on
the pictures and posted them on the board randomly and wanted students to stick the right name under
the right item. The next activity “Putting pictures under the right super ordinate”, the trainee posted
the pictures without their names and wanted students to put appropriate names under the right super
ordinate by saying its name and the super ordinate. (i.e., this is an apple. It is a fruit).

Özge commented on this teaching episode in the following stimulated recall interview as follows:

First of all, I knew that I had to be prepared before the lesson. I believed that I had some extra techniques
in my mind in order to use when I could not attract students’ attention or when they made a lot of noise.

The teaching episode below illustrates how Özge implemented extra techniques to attract students’
attention:

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The activity is named “What is there in the refrigerator?”. She puts up a model refrigerator and hides
items of food and drinks. She asks the students to close their eyes and guess what is hidden by giving
clues. The students try to guess what is hidden. The students are highly motivated and use the target
language effectively (Observation notes)

She commented on the above activity as follows:

I hoped to create S-S and S-T interactions. The students were successful in constructing such interactions,
especially S-S interaction; they were active and motivated (Stimulated recall interview).

Stimulated recall interview concerning this lesson further revealed that her aim was to encourage
students to communicate:

My aim was to teach the students correct pronunciation and recognition of the super ordinates of the
items. I gave importance to fluency instead of accuracy because my first concern is their ability to com-
municate in the target language. In my first activity, I intentionally separated the names of the items and
posted them on the board by letting them see what I was doing because it was the first activity of the topic
and I didn’t want to raise anxiety. I took care of all students and tried to include all of them in the lesson.

Through classroom teaching, Özge’s beliefs about language teaching and learning were further refined
and developed. To begin with, she had concerns about the traditional approach to language teaching and
she was more inclined towards communicative, activity based language teaching. Özge reflected on how
she could turn a lesson into an opportunity for students’ learning. In the next lesson, she introduced not
only a variety of activities, but she also tried to get the students engaged in the activities. This teaching
incident made a strong resonance with her classroom observation as mentioned above, which consoli-
dated her belief that teachers can effectively manage misbehaviour. More importantly, by reflecting on
her teaching and seeking improvement (Farrell, 1999; 2007), she enriched her belief and came to realize
the teacher’ role as a facilitator of the students’ learning in the classroom:

Actually my beliefs changed thanks to my own experiences. I saw that the more I practiced on teaching
in classroom the more I could deal with difficulties easily because practicing provided me the chance of
getting to know students’ behaviours and I could comment on them so I could use different techniques
accordingly. For example; while I was teaching ‘foods and drinks’ I used ‘smiling face stickers’ when
they joined to the activities and beyond any doubt every student was willingly interested in the activities
(Reflective journal).

Johnson (1994) posits that

if the aim of teacher education programmes is to provide trainee teachers with opportunities to experi-
ence real teaching, then teacher educators (in this case the practicum mentors) should make sure that
trainee teachers are granted a reasonable amount of control over what and how they will teach, so that
they can test their emerging conceptions of teaching (p.47).

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The last interview took place during the last week in the practicum summarises nicely how Özge
perceived her belief changes. Through participation in the CAR, she experienced how the initial ideas
of teaching and student learning were brought into reality and her ability to come to terms with many
of the dilemmas and concerns improved. This was expressed as follows:

Since I had so many opportunities to observe my mentor in the first term, I made some decisions about
my own teaching process. For example, I decided that I would use L2 in class frequently and I would
be more facilitator towards the students. Teaching young learners is like creating a new picture. I have
been very determined because I tried my way and didn’t choose the traditional way though it was really
hard, at times. During the lessons, I used L2 as much as possible. And my students were always busy
doing the activities. Sometimes these were stir-up activities, sometimes settle-down. I always had two
activities about a topic. I gave them the chance to choose which activity they wanted. So they didn’t have
time to get bored in my classes.

While I was teaching, every class has taught me something. I used realia, songs, games, reinforcements,
etc. during the lesson to support my teaching. I gave clear instruction, did a lot of practice, and tried to
monitor classroom activities, gave feedback and reinforcement regarding their behaviour. While doing
these all, I made use of humour, when suitable, to stimulate student interest or reduce classroom ten-
sions. Thanks to these, I could involve students in lessons and didn’t have problems related to classroom
management.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Situated in an L2 teacher education context, the present study reveals that collaborative action research is
a valuable tool to promote trainee teachers’ problem solving skills in resolving dilemmas and concerns;
and, contributing to their professional development during their school practicum, when facilitated in the
field school with expert support. Involvement in action research helps teacher trainees reflect upon the
concerns originating from observation of mentors and their specific classroom contexts and promotes
deeper reflection and the ability to deal with genuine problems. As revealed from reflective journals,
interviews and other data sources, all the participants, as well as Özge perceived the implementation of
CAR positive despite the fact that action research is an additional workload. In the present study, the
CAR was part of formal assessment of school practicum.
Despite the short duration of the teaching practicum, the participants’ prior beliefs interacted with the
new input and experiences through participation, practice, and reflection. As a result, their beliefs about
language teaching and their self-understanding as a language teacher were transformed and developed
(Freeman & Johnson, 1998; Kelly, 2006). The study also reveals that trainee teachers’ beliefs about
language teaching and learning are not stable, but open to change and development, which corroborates
Borg’s (2006, 2009) claim that significant changes do take place in pre-service teachers’ beliefs through
the teaching practicum. Given their past learning experience as a language learner and student teacher,
trainee teachers could form a set of beliefs about language teaching and learning. As they come to the
field school, their encounters with the realities of language teaching could trigger a chain of changes in
their beliefs. In the present study, the participant consolidated, confirmed or modified many of her original

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beliefs, and as a result, her prior beliefs became more established, as in the use of L1-L2 dichotomy, as
well as adding some new constructs to her existing beliefs. She elaborated her existing beliefs by adding
new input, in her beliefs regarding classroom management during the practicum.
The practicum generally provides trainee teachers with atypical teaching experience that could dif-
fer from that of regular teachers. In this study, the trainee teachers taught only 20 lessons in a 10-week
practicum. It is uncertain whether and how their beliefs might change when they become real language
teachers in the classroom upon starting teaching profession. It is also uncertain whether their changed
beliefs in the teaching practicum can be sustained in their future practice where more contextual chal-
lenges might emerge. Moreover, in terms of school contexts, while the learning environment in the field
school was considered highly favourable, particularly in the case of this participant, it remains unclear
whether the trainee teachers’ beliefs would have undergone similar changes had they been placed in a
school with less support.
The study was conducted with teacher candidates in the context of an (English language) teacher
education department in Turkey; as such, it might be considered context-specific. However, this research
leads to a deeper understanding of how teacher educators can support and challenge future teachers
in their ability to think critically and thoughtfully in coming to terms with dilemmas and concerns in
their teaching practicum. It is expected that this study provides insights into designing an innovative
programme to promote trainee teachers’ school-based professional development in STEM education.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The study demonstrates the complex processes of a trainee teacher’s belief change in coming to terms
with her dilemmas. Such findings can improve our understanding of pre-service teachers’ cognitive
learning at the practicum site and generate useful implications about how such learning can be facilitated
and supported through CAR in teacher education programmes in similar EFL contexts.
The presents study focuses on one participant in a particular school; its findings cannot be general-
ized to other contexts. Despite this, some insights can be gained from the findings for the design and
improvement of the practicum component of the pre-service language teacher education. First of all, it
can be pointed out that maximum opportunities should be provided for trainee teachers to take part in
various professional activities in the teaching practicum, such as reflective journal writing (Lee, 2008),
post-lesson interviews (Watson & Williams, 2004), and collaborative action research (Johnston, 2009;
Mitchell, et al.,2009). Through exposure to various forms of professional learning activities, trainees can
engage in critical reflection on their perceptions about language teaching and learning (Gao & Benson,
2012), develop an appreciation of the complexities and challenges that comprise teachers’ professional
practice, and construct a strong self-belief as a language teacher (Borg, 2006; Turnbull, 2005). Further
research can investigate in greater depth the long-term belief development of pre-service language teach-
ers, particularly the possible change in their beliefs in their first few years of teaching.
In addition, the data derived from the participants in the present study suggest that school mentors
with their obviously grammar-based teaching styles developed a favourable perception about the train-
ees’ more communicative teaching after a rather deprecating initial reaction to the trainees’ teaching
practices. Noticing that students’ attention was enhanced, they greatly appreciated and welcomed such
communicative activities. Hence, further research can investigate this area.

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A short version of this chapter has been presented at the symposium “Looking Forward and Back:
Bridging Pre-Service and In-Service Teacher Education Programs in English Teaching” organized by
the British Council / Hacettepe University SFL on 2-3 February 2015, Ankara, Turkey.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Belief: Implicit assumptions about various aspects of teaching and learning such as the subject matter
to be taught, the teacher, students and classroom and they generally have a powerful impact on teachers’
or trainee teachers’ reasoning and practice.

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Collaborative Action Research: A model of action research, in which a university teacher educator
or a researcher collaborates with practicing teachers or pre-service trainee teachers to provide support
for teachers or teacher candidates’ professional development.
Dilemma: It is a situation in which a decision has to be made between two alternatives, as in the
case of whether to use L1 or L2 as the medium of instruction. Both alternatives in a dilemma typically
contain aspects that are not acceptable.
Mentor: An individual who creates a working relationship with students to improve the quality of
student learning.
Practicum: A course that offers trainee teachers the opportunity to apply academic theory and
acquired skills from their teacher education programmes in a real school setting. It is supervised by a
school-based mentor.
Reflection: A process in which a teacher or a trainee expresses, in writing or in oral, beliefs and
ideas about an experience, and think about what s/he would ideally do in a similar situation. Reflection
can be recorded through journals, diaries, and be elicited through interviews.
Trainee Teacher: A prospective teacher or a teacher candidate who is undergoing training at schools
for the teaching profession. A trainee teacher is supervised by a school-based mentor and a supervising
teacher, in this particular case, one from the university.

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Chapter 12
Prospective EFL Teachers’
Perceptions of Using
CALL in the Classroom
Anıl Rakicioglu-Soylemez
Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey

Sedat Akayoglu
Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
The study focuses on prospective English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ perspectives on the use
of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) resources in teaching English as a foreign language
context. In addition to examining prospective teachers’ perceptions, the similarities and differences in
their perceptions and factors affecting their beliefs about using CALL resources will be addressed. The
study aimed to identify the prospective EFL teachers’ perceptions of their existing skills to integrate
CALL into their future professional practices. The perceived factors that will facilitate and inhibit their
future teaching practices by using CALL resources and their expectations from the teacher education
program in terms of providing the necessary training to use CALL resources in their teaching practices
were examined. The perceived benefits and challenges of using CALL in EFL teaching contexts will
be addressed from the participants’ perspectives. Finally, the study provides implications for further
research in addition to recommendations for EFL teacher education programs.

INTRODUCTION

In the field of English as a foreign language (hereafter, EFL), computer assisted language learning (here-
after, CALL) has received a lot of attention and the uses and effectiveness of integrating CALL practices
have been addressed in the current literature (i.e. Brown, 1997; Garcia & Arias, 2000; Kilickaya & Krajka,
2010; Kilickaya & Krajka, 2012; Stokes, 1997). Within the current context of EFL classrooms, CALL
has been addressed from three perspectives; one is the theoretical foundations and proposed applications
of CALL (Chapelle, 2001; Levy & Stockwell, 2006), the second is the use and effectiveness of CALL
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch012

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Prospective EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of Using CALL in the Classroom

practices in the language classrooms as well as using CALL as a language teaching tool (Blake, 2005;
Hubbard, 2004); and finally the perceptions of the stakeholders (i.e. Teachers, students and developers)
(Jamieson, Chapelle, & Preiss, 2005; Wiebe & Kabata, 2010).
A number of technological learning theories have been used in the literature to define the intentions
and perceptions of the subjects’ ways of using technology in a teaching context. One of the comprehen-
sive studies on the theoretical frameworks of using technology in teaching, Lee (2010) examined four
main theoretical frameworks; the expectation–confirmation model (ECM), the technology acceptance
model (TAM), the theory of planned behavior (TPB), and flow theory (Koufaris, 2002) to propose a
theoretical model to predict the participants’ intentions to continue using computer assisted learning
tools in the teaching practices after graduating from the teacher education programs. On the other hand,
Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior (DTPB) developed by Taylor and Todd (1995) drawing on
the Theory of Planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) offers a focus on the attitudes, subjective norms and be-
havior control to examine the perception of the proposed behavior and in return predict one’s actions or
future plans to implement. The proposed attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavior control are
explored through decomposing the frameworks of existing beliefs into belief-based indirect measures
(Sadaf, Newby & Ertmer, 2012).
Although current studies in the literature address the issues of using CALL in the language class-
rooms from tripartite perspectives, the perceptions of the prospective EFL teachers (hereafter, PTs) and
the processes they are going through during their professional learning experiences within the teacher
education programs have not been addressed in an EFL teacher education setting.
Moreover, governments usually ignore the training of pre-service teachers while trying to imple-
ment some programs to provide the educational institutions with technological devices. As an example
to these projects, one of the high-cost projects started to be put into practice in 2012 in Turkey and it
is still in progress. The aim of this project is to provide ICT equipment to classes in order to achieve
the ICT supported teaching until the end of 2013 in related to the goals that take place in the Strategy
Document of the Information Society, the Development Report, the Strategy Plan of our Ministry and
The Policy Report of ICT that have described all activities of our country in the process of being an
information society and have been formed within the scope of the e-transformation of Turkey (http://
fatihprojesi.meb.gov.tr).
Although the project seems ground-breaking, the training of the pre-service teachers was ignored.
In-service training was included in the project, but the curriculum of the pre-service teachers of English
remained the same.
Hence, the study in hand is designed to examine PTs’ perceptions of using CALL in language teach-
ing, their skills and priorities as well as their reflections of integrating CALL resources in their teaching
practices. In addition, a basis for a needs assessment of integrating CALL courses in the curriculum of
EFL teacher education programs will be addressed.
Thus, in order to examine the aforementioned aspects of PTs’ attitudes toward using CALL resources
in their teaching practices, the following research questions will be addressed;

1. What are the prospective EFL teachers’ perceptions of using CALL resources in EFL teaching
practices?
2. How do prospective EFL teachers currently perceive their skills to use and integrate CALL tech-
nologies in their own future teaching practices?

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3. What are the factors that will facilitate and/or inhibit prospective EFL teachers’ use of CALL in
their future teaching practices?
4. What are their expectations from the teacher education department in terms of introducing CALL
resources in the teacher education curriculum?

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The literature in CALL field has concentrated on the theoretical foundations of CALL, the effectiveness
of the CALL tools mainly, however, some researchers (Volman, 2005; Chapelle, 2006; Kessler, 2006;
Robb, 2006; Drent & Meelissen, 2008; Stockwell, 2009; Kılıçkaya & Seferoğlu, 2013) mentioned the
need for CALL training in the language teacher education programs as the prospective teachers are ex-
pected to use CALL tools effectively in and after their classes. According to them, the teacher education
programs should prepare these prospective teachers for the technologically equipped classrooms and for
the classrooms of the digital age.
Volman’s (2005) carried out a study with 13 interviewees and asked to discuss upon some predeter-
mined themes varying from the expected competencies of the teachers to the new roles of the teachers
in teaching profession. At the end of the study, the discussions were transcribed and analyzed. As the
result of the study, the changing role of the teacher was also mentioned and summarized as the role of
teachers, however, will become more complex rather than simpler. Teachers must know what programs
are available that are suitable for their students’ individual needs and keep abreast of this. They are the
‘arrangers’ of students’ learning processes: they bring together the educational tools and set them up
in a particular way. In addition, they fulfill the role of instructor, trainer, coach, advisor, consultant and
assessor.
As mentioned here, the teacher is expected to know what programs are available for their students.
In other words, they should competent enough to evaluate the tools on the Internet and bring them into
their classrooms and this is only possible with a training in teacher education programs.
The same point was also expressed by Chapelle (2006) as “second-language teachers today need
to be able to choose, use, and in some cases, refuse technology for their students” (p. vii). In order to
refuse a technology, a teacher should be aware of the potential tools that could be used in teaching a
foreign language. In case of a disadvantageous position, they should provide an alternative tool or an
alternative activity as well.
Kessler (2006) studied with 240 graduates of master’s program. He collected data through a survey,
interviews and focus groups. At the end of the study, he went beyond just selecting or refusing the tool
and mentioned the appropriate methodology and practices. According to him, teachers should be aware
of the CALL methodology and even its history and stated that “CALL use is becoming more prevalent
within language programs, particularly as programs gravitate toward the web. Teachers need to become
more proficient in their understanding of CALL methodology, practices, history and possibilities.” (p.
35). While using the CALL tools in language classrooms, teachers should know which tool is appropriate
for the context of the classroom and which tool serve the objectives of the course.
Robb (2006) also cited the importance of teacher training; however, he specifically mentioned the pre-
service teachers rather than in-service training. He claimed that teachers should autonomously improve
themselves and teacher preparation programs should provide some opportunities with these pre-service

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teachers for this purpose. He pointed out that “teacher preparation programs must thus look beyond the
mere teaching of today’s software and skills to ensure that teachers can act autonomously to upgrade
their knowledge and be able to apply new technologies to their teaching in a timely manner” (p. 335).
Stockwell (2009) believed that CALL is not something to learn in a course or training, but instead,
it is a process in which the teachers should develop themselves continuously. Although he provided a
professional development workshop for the part-time teachers working at a private university in Tokyo,
he found out that there was a need for autonomous teachers who could choose their tools for their classes,
educate themselves continuously. Moreover, he claimed that the success in CALL was mostly dependent
on the age of the participant and the available resources for the teachers. If the teacher could not find
enough resources, he could easily give up CALL. The institutions and teacher training programs should
guide these teachers in the field of CALL.
Finally, the importance of CALL integration was touched upon by Kılıçkaya and Seferoğlu (2013)
and some teacher education programs started to offer some courses related to CALL tools for the future
teachers. They stated that “recognition of the importance of ICT curriculum integration has already oc-
curred, and most teacher education programs have introduced courses in ICT for future teachers” (p.22-23).
Within this framework, this study was designed to find out the attitudes of prospective teachers of
English towards the use of CALL tools and their intentions to use technology in their future classes.
The results of the study will give insight into the future use of technology by the pre-service teachers
and provide data for the curriculum designers of teacher preparation programs.

METHODOLOGY

This study follows a mixed-method approach as it includes both qualitative and quantitative nature of
data collection and analysis procedures (Creswell, 2003). The participants were given an adapted sur-
vey and a representative group of participants were interviewed during the data collection process. The
collected data were analyzed by means of content analysis and the results of the survey were reported
in terms by means of descriptive statistics. Drawing on the proposed framework, the study addressed
PTs’ perceptions of using CALL and the possibility of adapting CALL resources into their future EFL
teaching practices.

Participants

This study was carried out at the Department of Foreign Language Education, Abant İzzet Baysal Uni-
versity in Bolu, Turkey. The study group was composed of junior and senior prospective teachers of the
department and the approximate number of enrolled prospective teachers is 150. An online survey was
employed through Google Forms. The return rate of the survey is 70%.
The prospective teachers enrolled in the EFL teacher education program have not taken a course
related to the use of technology in their curriculum. The reason for excluding freshman and sophomore
is that with the beginning of the 2014-2015 academic year, the junior prospective teachers began to take
practice related course where they find the chance to explore their teaching practices through macro-
teachings. The senior group of the participants is enrolled in practice teaching and has the chance to
actualize their teaching practices. The senior group of prospective teachers also has the chance to practice

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their teaching skills at state-run schools from all levels of proficiency. PTs with an age range of 19 to
24 enrolled in the study. The participants formed a homogeneous group in terms of attending the same
program and taking the same courses with the same pre-service instructional experience in their initial
teacher education program.

Data Collection Tools

The survey adapted from Sadaf, Newby & Ertmer (2012) was used in the first phase of data collection.
The survey had have three sections: (a) demographics of the participants, (b) PTs’ attitudes towards
using CALL and perceptions of using CALL resources in their teaching practices, and (c) the adapted
version of the DTPB (Sadaf, Newby & Ertmer, 2012) survey. Due to the fact that the participants of
the study are PTs who do not have any actual teaching experience in real school setting, the wording
of the survey was modified and adapted to reflect on the practices of the PTs and to avoid any possible
misunderstanding due to technical wording. For instance, the following statement “I feel that using Web
2.0 will help my students learn more about the subject” was rewritten as “I feel that using technology
will help my students learn more about English”.
The DTPB (Sadaf, Newby & Ertmer, 2012) survey was composed of three subscales in the original
version; attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior. In the attitude subscale, PTs’ perceptions
of usefulness, ease of use, and compatibility were addressed. In the perceived behavior subscale, self-
efficacy, facilitative conditions in terms of technology and resources were addressed. Due to the fact that
the study in hand focused on addressing PTs’ perceptions using CALL in their classrooms, the second
subscale, Subjective norm, was eliminated. The subjective norm subscale was designed by Sadaf, Newby
and Ertmer (2012) to address the influences of student, peer and Superior. However, in the context of the
current study, PTs are not offered a course on CALL resources; thus it is assumed that their perceptions
should be considered on a personal basis. Therefore, the items of the subscale were eliminated in the
analysis. As the researchers eliminated the subjective norm subscale, due to the lack of courses offering
CALL applications in the department, 10 items (i1, i15, i17, i18, i19, i22, i23, i24, i25, i26, i27) were
eliminated from the analysis.
In addition to the scale items, PTs were asked to reflect on the level of confidence in using comput-
ers. PTs were asked three additional open-ended questions to reflect on their description of technology,
ways of using technology in English language classrooms, and their readiness to use technology in their
future teaching practices. The open-ended questions asked to the PTs were

• What does “technology” mean to you?

• How would you use technology in an English language classroom?
• Are you ready to use technology in your future classes?

The interview protocol of the study was mainly based on the attitudes and perceptions of the PTs’
use of CALL and gaining further insights to address their needs and intentions of using CALL in their
future classrooms. The semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 PTs. The interview partici-
pants were randomly selected from the group of participants who attended the survey part of the data
collection. The duration of the interview was approximately 15-20 minutes. The participants who were
selected to participate in the interviews were asked for their consent to participate.

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The interview protocol of the study was as follows;

• What do you think about technology resources? Can you name any resources/tools to be used in
ELT classrooms?
• Have you ever observed a teacher/an instructor using CALL resources in their classroom?
• Have you ever used any of the resources in your teaching practices [refer to your macro teachings
at the department or at the schools?
• What do you think of using technology resources within an English language classroom
environment?
• Do you think your existing skills in technology will be enough to integrate into your future lan-
guage teaching practices?
• Would you use technological tools in your future English language classrooms? Why or why not?

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

The validation of the both data collection tools were reviewed by three experts in the field. For the com-
prehensiveness, clarity of the wording and organization of the data collection tools. The three experts
who had solid background in the field of foreign language teacher education, were invited to conduct a
think aloud procedure (Dillman, Smyth & Christian, 2014) to discuss the content and applicability of
data collection tools.
During the implementation of the survey, the participant group was sent a link of the Google forms
and asked to fill in the form within a week time.
Data analysis procedures composed of reliability and frequency analysis of the quantitative data in
addition to content analysis of the qualitative data. The descriptive statistics of the survey results were
also examined in the content analysis of the interviews. Thus, content analysis of the interviews pro-
vided the necessary insights to examine the perceptions of the prospective EFL teachers’ use of CALL
resources in their future teaching practices.

RESULTS

The first section of the survey was the demographics of the participants. In Table 1, the demographics
of the participants who participated in the study were presented. As seen in Table 1, the PTs (N=106)
participated in the study were at the junior year (N= 51), at the senior year (N=47) and irregular PTs
(N=8) who has spent more than four years in the program. The female participants (N=69) of the study
constitute the 65% whereas the male participants (N=37) were the 35% of the study participants. The
range of the group was 18 to 24+. The majority of the participants were at the range of 20-21 (N=73)
which was the 69% of the participants.
The second section of the survey focused on the attitudes and perceptions of PTs’ use of CALL in
EFL classes. In order to analyze the descriptive statistics of the survey, first a reliability analysis was
conducted. Rather than investigating the factor affecting the use of technologies in the classroom, the
study in hand focused on addressing the needs of the department where the study was conducted and

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Table 1. The demographics of the participants

Variables n %
Gender Male 37 34.9
Female 69 65.1
Age 18-19 1 .9
20-21 73 68.9
22-23 21 19.8
24+ 11 10.4
Year at the department 3 51 48.1
4 47 44.3
4+ 8 7.5

address the perceptions and attitudes of the PTs with regards to the use of CALL resources. Therefore,
descriptive statistics were calculated and reported. The reliability of the scale was found high in the
analysis (23 items, α=. 952). After conducting the reliability analysis for the required items, descriptive
statistics focusing on the mean and standard deviation of the items were analyzed. The items were listed
according to descending values of the analysis (see Table 2).
According to the descriptive analysis of the scale, PTs agreed on the statement that using technol-
ogy is a good idea (M=6.67), and they referred to their future plans as they plan to use technology in
their future classrooms (M=4.65) because they believed that technology will be useful in their English
language teaching practices (M=4.55). According to the descriptive statistics, PTs believed that they
feel comfortable using technology in an English language classroom (M=4.22) and reflected on their
intentions to use technology as soon as they start teaching English (M=4.31).
In terms of PTs confidence of using technology in their future classrooms, PTs believed that they
could easily use technology on their own in the classes (M=4.24) and they feel that technological tools
will be easy to use in an English language classroom (M=4.22). Similarly, PTs highly believed that
incorporating technology in their future English language classroom will be easy (M=4.10). By look-
ing at the overall results, PTs beliefs about the usefulness of the technology tools in the classroom were
higher than their confidence in figuring out the ways of using technology in their classes. For instance,
PTs referred to their knowledge of using technology in an English language classroom (M=3.87) was
lower than their belief that technology is a good idea (M=4.67).
PTs not only asked to refer to their confidence and opinions in using technology in the classrooms,
they also referred to the extent to which they think that their students will benefit from incorporating
technology into the classrooms. According to the descriptive of the scale, PTs have high expectations
from using technology in their classrooms in terms of its potential to help students to learn more about
the topic of the lesson (M=4.17), improve the students’ satisfaction with the course (M=4.37), improve
students’ evaluation of the topic of the lesson (M=4.17), improve students’ grades (M=4. 12) and learn
better (M=4.36).

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Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the scale

N M SD
7. Using technology is a good idea. 106 4.67 0.70
3. I plan to use technology in my future English language classroom. 106 4.65 0.71
5. Technology will be useful in my English language teaching practices. 106 4.55 0.79
10. I feel that using technology will help my students learn more about the topic of the lesson. 106 4.44 0.81
11. I feel that using technology will improve my students’ satisfaction with the course. 106 4.37 0.86
14. To help my students better learn the material. I will incorporate technology in my future English 106 4.36 0.83
language classroom.
32. I would feel comfortable using technology in an English language classroom. 106 4.33 0.78
4. I intend to use technology as soon as I start teaching English. 106 4.31 0.84
33. I could easily use technology on my own in my classes. 106 4.24 0.84
29. Using the technology fits well with the way I will teach English. 106 4.23 0.83
8. I feel that technological tools will be easy to use in an English language classroom. 106 4.22 0.87
28. Using technology in the classroom is compatible with the way I will teach English. 106 4.18 0.78
13. I feel that using technology will improve students’ evaluation of the topic of the lesson. 106 4.17 0.87
6. The advantages of technology in the English language classroom outweigh the disadvantages of 106 4.17 0.87
not using it.
12. I feel that using technology will improve my students’ English language grades. 106 4.12 0.92
9. I feel that incorporating technology in my future English language classroom will be easy. 106 4.10 0.85
2. I would have no difficulty explaining why technology may or may not be beneficial in an English 106 4.04 0.99
language classroom.
21. I have the knowledge and ability to use technology in an English language classroom. 106 4.03 0.81
30. The technology will be compatible with the computer I will use in the classroom. 106 4.01 0.83
31. I will be able to use technology using any computer connected to the Internet. 106 3.99 0.99
34. I know enough to use technology in an English language classroom. 106 3.87 0.98
20. Using technology in an English language classroom is entirely within my control. 106 3.81 0.98
16. My instructors at the department confirm my ability and knowledge to use technology in my 106 3.76 0.98
future classroom.

Although item 16 belonged to the subjective norm subscale, considering the significant others in using
technology resources at the department was one of the topics that draw the attention of the researchers.
Thus, it was added into the analysis. Moreover, it received the lowest mean value of the whole scale
items (M=3.76).
PTs were also asked to reflect on the level of confidence in using computers. The responses to their
confidence level of using computers was moderate (M=3.18). PTs were asked three additional open-ended
questions to reflect on their description of technology, ways of using technology in English language
classrooms, and their readiness to use technology in their future teaching practices.
As for the qualitative data, two questions were asked to the participants. The first one was about how
they perceived the technology and how they defined it; and the responses were categorized as shown
in Table 3.

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Table 3. PTs’ proposed features of technology

Feature f %
Easiness 54 50.9
Inevitability 35 33.0
Accessibility 30 28.3
Facilitation 19 17.9
Communication 15 14.2

When the qualitative data was analyzed, it could be seen that 50.9% of the participants perceived
technology as easiness. The participants believed that life was much easier with the help of the technology,
especially by means of the Internet. They could easily communicate, share their ideas and communicate
with other users of the Internet. The second category was about its inevitability. Of the participants, 33%
believed that technology is inevitable. They could not imagine a world without technology and, as a
prospective teacher; they mentioned that it was impossible for them to be a teacher without technology.
Another point mentioned very frequently was the accessibility. In today’s world, they could easily access
whatever they want regardless of their physical conditions. They could find information very easily and
this was only possible with the advancements in technology. Fourthly, the participants mentioned that
technology was very helpful in all tasks they were responsible for. Not only in educational settings but
also in their daily tasks, technology was very helpful. The final feature of technology is communica-
tion, which should have been at the top in this list. As it is the age of communication, it should have
been mentioned more frequently; however, it the least mentioned category in this list. To sum up, the
participants of this study defined technology with the aforementioned features.
The second question was about how they could use technology in their future language classes. The
responses were analyzed and grouped under seven headings. The responses were presented in Table 4.
When the responses were analyzed and categorized, it was seen that the most frequently mentioned
use of technology was about the materials. However, in these responses, the participants did not utter any
word about designing or preparing the material, but they were planning to find and download materials
from the Internet. They could download pictures illustrating the target culture; or they could find some
worksheets shared on different websites. The participants preferred using the ready materials rather than
producing their own materials.

Table 4. Ways of using technology in foreign language classes

The Use Technology f %

Material (Pictures, audial materials, worksheets, listening materials) 60 56.6
Video 45 42.5
Hardware (Computer, Interactive White Board, Printer, Speakers, Overhead Projector) 36 34.0
Presentation 21 19.8
Source of Information 21 19.8
Web 2.0. (Blogs, Edmodo) 12 11.3
Communication 7 6.6

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The second most commonly mentioned way of using technology in language classes was to show
some videos related to the topic from different websites. They found it very authentic to use some videos
related to the target culture. Since the percentage of this category was distinguishably high, it was given
under a different title.
The third category was about the use of hardware in language classes. The participants expect to
find some equipment in their future classes and they stated that they could only use technology in their
classes if the required equipment is available.
The use of presentations and slideshows was also mentioned very frequently; 19,8% of the partici-
pants perceive technology as slide shows and PowerPoint presentations. The same amount of participants
claimed that they could use the Internet as the source of information. They could find some information,
or they could search for materials on the Internet.
The final two categories were appropriate for the rationale computer assisted language learning. Web
2.0 tools and communication were among the most important keywords in the field of CALL; however,
they were not mentioned in the data. The participants who responded as Web 2.0 tools were the ones who
used blogs or an online classroom for their courses at the department. This was also a good indicator of
the fact that the students were affected by their instructors at the university.

DISCUSSION

When PTs’ confidence levels were asked the mean value of the overall confidence level was moderate
(M=3.18). The discrepancy between the overall confidence level and their opinions about the using the
technology in the classroom (M=4.67) was obvious. Although they did not feel confident enough to
use the computer, the results of the scale suggest that they are aware of the importance of incorporating
technology into their future classes.
At the end of the data analysis of the qualitative data, the most commonly observed category in the
definition of technology is easiness. However, the participants were not aware of the potential uses of
technology in language classes. The use of online platforms requires a teacher to spend many hours on
the Internet while designing an activity and evaluating their students.
Moreover, the most frequently observed response about the future use of technology in language
classes is about finding out ready materials on the Internet. However, in a CALL course, pre-service
teachers could be trained how to create their own materials using podcasts, wikis, blogs, online classes
and discussion boards. Since they did not have any idea about designing new materials, they preferred
to download ready materials on the internet.
In addition to these, although Warschauer (1996) defined the last phase of CALL as integrative CALL
and he mentioned the importance of communication, the percentage of the participants who were plan-
ning to use technology for communication was very low.
Since the participants of this study were not familiar with Web 2.0 tools, they had never uttered a
word related to Web 2.0 tools. They were cited in some responses; however, the reason for this is the fact
that some of their instructors used blogs or online classes for their courses. This can a good indicator of
the fact that the students took their instructors as the role model for their future practices.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Prospective EFL teachers’ perceptions about the use of technology in EFL classrooms should be ex-
amined and acknowledged in the initial teacher training programs. Prospective EFL teachers and the
administration of the program needs to be aware of the possible preconceptions about technology and its
integration into the teacher education programs to enable its applications in real classrooms. Therefore,
addressing the needs of the 21st Century skills for using technology will be achieved.
The primary aim of the foreign language teacher education departments is to provide the necessary
context of professional learning for the prospective teachers. However, the context of professional learn-
ing not only requires teacher educators to convey the necessary theoretical knowledge for EFL teach-
ing but also to provide the necessary opportunities for prospective teachers’ to practice their possible
classroom applications. Thus, the curriculum of the initial teacher education programs should address
the possible demands of national education. Although there are specific courses (e.g. Teaching English
to Young Learners, Foreign Language Assessment) offered by the Council of Higher Education (1998),
there are not any courses offered in the foreign language teacher education programs addressing the
use of technology in EFL classrooms which is thought-provoking. The present study, therefore, creates
the opportunity for an immediate call for the policy-makers to create opportunities for foreign language
teacher education departments to offer necessary courses focusing on the integration of technology in
EFL classrooms.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

The study was not designed as a psychometric analysis to examine the underlying factors of PTs’ using
CALL in their future classes. Rather, it was designed to reflect on the effectiveness of the practices of
the department that the current study was implemented. Therefore, the results of the study provide a
reflection on the effectiveness of the instruction provided in the applications of the department to train
foreign language teachers.
The study was carried out in one of the EFL teacher education programs with a limited number of
participants. Therefore, having more participants will provide a coherent understanding of the beliefs of
the PTs to use technology in their classes and their readiness to incorporate technology in their teaching
practices. It may also be worthwhile to investigate the opinions of the academic staff working at the initial
teacher education program to examine the extent to which they believe that they prepare EFL teachers
working at the schools and actively using technological resources in their classrooms.
The study investigates PTs’ definitions of technology and ways of using technology in their classes.
Thus, the study is design solely on PTs’ personal opinions. As a suggestion for the future studies, obser-
vations can be conducted during practice teaching and at PTs’ first year of teaching. Therefore, future
studies focusing on the on-site observations of using technology will display a coherent understanding
of PTs’ teaching practices.

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CONCLUSION

The study presented the results of a case study with a mixed-method design addressing EFL PTs’ percep-
tions of using technology in their future practices to teach English in a foreign language setting. Using
technology has received tremendous amount of attention in the recent years (Chapelle, 2001; Chapelle,
2006; Levy & Stockwell, 2006). Although teachers are expected to use technology as an assistant tool
to the education, there is not a specific course offered to equip prospective teachers with the necessary
skills to use technology at the initial teacher education programs in Turkey. In addition to the lack of a
course in the curriculum of foreign language teacher education programs in Turkey, the extent to which
the instructors are using technology and incorporating technological resources to their instruction has
been addressed in the current foreign language teacher education context in Turkey.
Considering the limited number of cases presented in the study, the findings may not be generalized
to all foreign language teacher education programs. Despite this fact, the findings of the study add to
the foreign language teacher education literature by providing insights of the prospective EFL teachers’
attitudes and perceptions of using technology and CALL resources in their future practices.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

CALL: The use of computers and the Internet in teaching and learning a foreign language.
Prospective EFL Teachers: Student teachers who are enrolled at a 4-year degree program on English
as a foreign language teacher training.
Technology Resources: The available resources on the Internet for the teachers and the learners of
the target language.

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Chapter 13
The Impact of Pre-service
Teachers’ Reflection on their
Instructional Practices
Yesim Kesli Dollar
Bahcesehir University, Turkey

Enisa Mede
Bahcesehir University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
This chapter aims to investigate the impact of reflection on freshmen pre-service English teachers’ class-
room practices. Specifically, it explores how the participating student teachers’ perceptions influenced
their instructional practices as a result of participation in reflection activities. The participants of the
study were ten freshmen student teachers enrolled in the English Language Teaching undergraduate
program at a foundation (non-profit private) university in Turkey. Data came from the reflections of the
participating student teachers about their recently-completed 15-hour field-based experience at the pre-
school level. As a part of this class reflection activity, the participants were prompted to keep a diary in
one of their undergraduate courses and respond to a series of statements or questions related to their
classroom observation tasks. They were also engaged in class discussions and were required to write
their overall feedback based on their field-based experience. The findings of the study revealed that re-
flective activities helped the prospective student teachers identify their strengths and weaknesses related
to classroom activities, use of materials (use of technology and visuals) and classroom management,
leading to self-awareness about their understanding and application of teaching skills and strategies.

INRODUCTION

The importance of teacher candidates being able to develop their ability to engage in reflective practices
has gained the attention of various theorists and practitioners in the field of teacher education (Fairbanks
and Meritt, 1998; McDraw, et.al., 2004; Frid and Reid, 2005; Pedro, 2005; Rodman, 2010). Based on
a theoretical framework derived from the works of Dewey (1919, 1933) and Schön (1983), the use of

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch013

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The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection

reflection and reflective practice encourage pre-service teachers to actively consider and reconsider their
beliefs and to think critically about their classroom practices (Rodman, 2010). As Dewey (1933) argued,
reflection preceded intelligent action and is the act of active, persistent and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of grounds that support it, and the consequence to
which it leads. Emanating from Dewey’s work, Shön (1983, p. 26) defined two distinct kinds of reflec-
tion: reflection-in-action which is the process that allows teachers to reshape what they are working on
while they are working on it and reflection-on-action referring to thinking back on what teachers have
done in order to discover how their knowing-in-action may have contributed to an unexpected outcome.
A close examination of research on the Turkish training system reveals that most studies are descrip-
tive and there has been little empirical research. One of the possible reasons behind this problem might
be the fact that many teacher education programs in Turkey provide pre-service teachers with inadequate
opportunities to actively engage in designing their lesson plans, reflecting on their classroom practices
and developing research-based strategies in a classroom context. In the Turkish education system, the
pre-service teachers start their practicum experiences in their senior year which gives them few op-
portunities to develop their reflective thinking skills. Right after graduation they start teaching in a real
classroom environment without having enough reflective practice, which causes feelings of frustration
and burnout. Thus, particularly in Turkish teacher education programs, there is a great need to ensure
that pre-service teachers are involved in continuous reflection which help them to make meaning of their
teaching practices through connecting the learned theories and teaching practice experiences. In light of
these observations, this chapter examines the effects of reflection and reflective activities on freshmen
English pre-service teachers’ instructional practices.
This chapter will highlight the following objectives:

1. Give a brief preview of pre-service teacher education programs and reflective teaching.
2. Investigate the effects of reflection and reflective activities on freshmen English pre-service teach-
ers’ instructional practices in a Turkish context.
3. Discuss the results of the study for evaluating and developing pre-service teacher education programs.
4. Provide solutions and recommendations for the existing pre-service teacher education programs.

BACKGROUND

There are many definitions of the term reflection (e.g., Goodman, 1984; Houston, 1988; Roth, 1989;
Schön, 1987). One of the most widely known definitions, based on Dewey’s 1904 notion, states that “the
primary purpose of teacher preparation programs should be to help students reflect upon the underlying
principles of practice” (Goodman, 1984; p. 9). Likewise, Grant and Zeichner (1984) claim that “reflective
teaching involves a balance between thought and action; a balance between the arrogance that blindly
rejects what is commonly accepted as truth and the servility that blindly receives the ‘truth’” (p. 10),
whereas Semerci (2007) proposes “a reflective thinking teacher always tries to train students with his/
her best” (p. 1370). Finally, Crowe and Berry (2007) argue that “becoming a teacher involves learning to
think like a teacher…thinking like a teacher involves developing a sensitive awareness of one’s actions
and a consistent focus on recognizing alternative perspectives and approaches to learning situations” (p.
32). Based on these definitions, it can be inferred that reflection is one of the most important components
in teacher education programs.

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Why Reflection in Teacher Education Programs?

In teacher education programs, there needs to be a shift from an apprenticeship to a reflective practice
model (Calderhead, 1989). Pre-service teachers have the capacity to analyze and evaluate their practices;
therefore, teacher education programs should emphasize not only the technical parts of teaching but also
the relationship between theory and practice, and the importance of reflecting upon what they practice.
How to reflect must be one of the required parts of the teacher educators programs; pre-service teachers
need to learn to initiate new ways of thinking and reflecting because they are only provided with the
theories and principles at their teacher educator programs.
When you think of a pre-service teacher in his/her first years of education, they lack the necessary
skills to analyse and evaluate their own practice, they do not even know how to word their experiences
or think about situations related with their teaching.
According to Richert (1992), pre-service teachers must actively engage in the process of reflection
to make it become a habit in their profession. Richert also claims that reflection of their practices gives
teachers the opportunity to construct knowledge about teaching and their profession. The process of
reflection should not be a process for pre-service teachers only; rather, both pre-service and in-service
teachers need to engage in it in order to learn from their experiences.
Reflection or reflective teaching is a central part of the teacher/learning process. Without reflec-
tion or reflective teaching, one can risk of relying on routinized teaching and problems in professional
development. Mewborn (1999) states that teacher education programs should give opportunities to
pre-service teachers to learn how to reflect on their personal experiences and learn how to make use
of those experiences and reflections for their future teachings. It is believed that if pre-service teachers
learn how to reflect on their teaching during their practice teaching process and continue doing so during
the in-service years (Loughran, 2007). This will end up improving teaching, and professional develop-
ment. Likewise, teacher education programs should focus on the reason why teachers employ certain
instructional strategies and on how they can achieve effective teaching with professional development;
that is why pre-service teachers are highly encouraged to be involved in reflective practice not only to
achieve a better state of professional development but also to have a better and more positive effect on
their students through their teaching.
Although several studies attempted to find out the effect of reflection and reflective practice of pre-
service teachers in teacher education, the overwhelming majority of these studies have been qualitative
in design, focusing on a small number of cases (Fairbanks and Meritt, 1998; McDraw, et.al., 2004; Frid
and Reid, 2005; Pedro, 2005; Rodman, 2010; Robichaux and Guarino, 2012).
Teacher educators must start teaching about reflection, its importance, and how to reflect on actions
before the practice teaching experiences begin. For a pre-service teacher to get used to reflecting, they
need time and a lot of practice. Frid and Reid (2002) proposed that long before novice teachers start their
actual teaching in their own classrooms, their teacher educators should provide them with controlled
situations which will help them to improve the ability to reflect on classroom practice and teaching.
Through this, educators will raise awareness in pre-service teachers of the different choices and teaching
behaviours observed in them through reflection and in this way they can integrate their observations
made through reflections into their future teaching.
McDraw, et al. (2004) worked with four undergraduate special education majors to observe the devel-
opment of a personal philosophy of education as well as the effectiveness of reflection and its influence

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on teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours. They suggest that reflecting thinking should be a process
offered as a component of a teacher education program. In addition, they believe that reflection is a way
of developing critical thinking on education among pre-service teachers.
In their research, Fairbanks and Meritt (1998) tried to apply activity theory to the learning-to-learn
experiences of four pre-service teachers. They analyzed the products of the pre-service teachers’ reflec-
tive activities and observational data gathered during their year-long preparation. They looked into the
intersections between context and practice. The study found that reflection on the activities and the
teaching indicated the value of reflection in the teacher education program, and this affected their social
identity growth. Moreover, the reflections provided them with an understanding of the people and the
events they may encounter during their teaching. In brief, reflective activities helped the pre-service
teachers to construct their professional identity.
Pedro’s (2005) qualitative study using a descriptive and interpretive design, aimed to interpret the
pre-service teachers’ conceptions and understandings of reflective practice through the transcription and
analysis of three individual in-depth interviews and through the examination of the pre-service teach-
ers’ reflective journals. According to the findings, the pre-service teachers understood the concept of
reflection which they used as a conceptual device to help them think about their knowledge and better
their teaching skills. In a parallel study, Rodman (2010) attempted to learn how the reflective engage-
ment of pre-service teachers reinforces the application of the teaching-learning process in the classroom
and enables them to construct meaning from that application. The results of this study suggested that
repeated use of reflection throughout the teacher preparation experience can be useful for encouraging
growth and professional development.
Robichaux and Guarino (2012) examined the hypothesis that pre-service teachers who were required
to assemble portfolio assessment would promote greater scores on professional growth than the pre-
service teachers who were not required to assemble a portfolio assessment. The results of the study
revealed that even if pre-service teachers do not receive any formal training on how to reflect upon their
teaching and are not given reflection prompts, they still appear to reflect more on issues considered
important to becoming effective educators, which aids in their capacity to handle the complexities of
the teaching profession.
The findings of these studies support the notion that through reflection and reflective activities, pre-
service teachers have the ability to develop a better understanding of their teaching skills and practices.
They point the way to how pre-service teachers should be engaged in reflective practice and how reflec-
tion can be encouraged in different pedagogical contexts.
Apart from the research studies carried out in different ESL/EFL contexts, several studies in Turkey
revealed that pre-service teachers were limited in discussion and reflections on teaching practices in their
teacher education courses (Çakıroğlu and Çakıroğlu, 2003; Şahin-Taşkın, 2006; Armutcu and Yaman,
2010; Hacıömeroğlu, 2010). Hacıömeroğlu (2010), for example, examined the nature of pre-service
secondary teachers’ instructional strategies and views about teaching and learning with regard to teach-
ing mathematics in Turkey. The analysis of the pre-service teachers’ written reflections, activities, class
discussions and observations indicated that engagement in reflective activities helped the participating
teachers identify their major strengths and weaknesses in their lessons, and analyze issues in teaching.
As a result of reflective activities, collaboration between pre-service teachers increased which helped
them to refine and revise their lessons and improve their teaching. Moreover, Armutcu and Yaman
(2010) explored teacher reflection of senior ELT pre-service teachers during their practicum experience
in terms of “sex and instruction types”. The researchers collected the data through “Teacher Reflection

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The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection

Scale and semi-structured interviews” (p.30) both at the very beginning and at the end of the practicum
in a form of a pre- and a post-test. As a result of the study, it was found that both before and after the
practicum experience senior ELT students’ teacher reflections were high; in other words, no mean-
ingful differences were found between the effect of gender and instruction types on teachers’ teacher
reflections. These findings indicate that reflection is a continuous process starting at the freshman year
through senior year. Finally, Odabaşı Çimer and Çimer (2012) tried to explore and analyze the current
practices of reflection in teacher education programs in Turkey. In this study, the researchers came to
the conclusion that, within the teacher education community, the views regarding being an effective
teacher have changed; traditional views have shifted to recognize the importance of reflection. They
also conclude that if there is a demand to increase the quality of education in schools, it is important to
develop reflective skills in student-teachers and make reflection part of their teaching experience and
part of the teacher education programs.

MAIN FOCUS OF THIS CHAPTER

Issues, Controversies, Problems

Methodology

The qualitative methodology for this study is positioned within critical research. According to Merriam
(2009), critical research is interpretive as is other forms of qualitative research which attempt to investi-
gate a phenomenon in which participants make meaning of the world. However, unlike basic qualitative
studies, critical research seeks not just to explore and understand but also to examine, challenge, and
transform the perceptions of the participants about themselves and others. Thus this study examined:

1. How participants interpret their experiences within a given context,

2. How participants construct their own meaning,
3. What meaning participants attribute to their experiences as a result of their reflections,
4. What kind of effects these reflections have on the participants’ instructional practices.

Participants
In this study, the participants were ten freshmen pre-service teachers (8 female and 2 male) aged 10-to-22
years who were enrolled in the English Language Teaching (ELT) undergraduate program at a private
university in Turkey. All participants were full-time students of Turkish nationality. They passed the
language proficiency exam before they started their freshman year at the department.

Data Collection Instruments

Data was collected from the reflections of the participating pre-service English teachers about their
recently-completed 15-hour field-based experience in a private kindergarten. As a part of this class re-
flection activity, the participants were prompted to keep a diary in one of their undergraduate courses in
which they received an observation task with specific topics: teaching activities, instructional materials,
and classroom management. They were asked to make observations in English kindergarten classrooms

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The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection

and complete each task as a requirement of their field-based experience. After each week, the participants
had a discussion session, of which the researcher kept field notes, about the observation tasks completed
that week. Finally, at the end of the term, the participants were required to write their overall feedback,
by responding to prompts regarding what they did throughout the semester.

Data Analysis
The data from diaries were subjected to content analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Due to the small
number of the participants, the data were coded by hand. Next, the researcher identified the central themes
for each set of data relating to a specific objective which were in turn identified under sub-themes. This
process was carried out with the help of another researcher who was blind to the aim of the study to
ensure the reliability. As for the class discussion, the notes taken by the researcher were analyzed in ac-
cordance with the categorizations obtained from the diaries. Finally, the participants’ written feedback
was investigated to find out how the freshmen pre-service English teacher felt during their field based
experience.

Findings
Regarding the findings gathered from the diaries, the pre-service ELT teachers shared common obser-
vation points about teaching activities, use of materials and classroom management. In the diaries, the
majority of the participants mentioned the same central themes and sub-themes shown in Table 1.
As can be seen in the table, due to the fact that the observed classrooms were kindergarten, the most
used teaching activities are games, songs, and stories which reflect the needs of this particular age group.
Since, in kindergarten, the students do not yet have literacy skills, the main activities are based on play
and fun. Following are some examples in which the freshmen pre-service English teachers reflected on
the teaching activities:

...they generally play games like, matching or they do painting to learn the names of things (Freshmen
pre-service English teacher 1, Diary).

...they play musical chairs. It was so funny (Freshmen pre-service English teacher 1, Diary).

Table 1. Perceptions about teaching activities, use of materials and classroom management

Central Themes Sub-Themes

Teaching activities Games: Question game, matching game and board game
Songs: Nursery rhymes
Story telling
Instructional materials Pictures and paintings
I pads
Smart board
Flashcards
Classroom management Teacher’s action zone
Teacher’s role: Mothers and fathers
Use of positive language
Creating friendly classroom atmosphere

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The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection

...the teacher sings songs together with the students (Freshmen pre-service English teacher 2, Diary).

...their teacher tells them English stories or teachers them some adjectives through stories (Freshmen
pre-service English teacher 1, Diary).

Parallel to the reflections made about teaching activities, the participants also made some reflections
on the use of instructional materials. For example:

...I observe use of technologies and visuals in the classroom...Children play musical chairs with the
songs from an I pad...So, they generally benefit from technology when they are playing games.....There
are lots of things such as the pictures of colours, numbers, animals on the walls of the classroom. Also
they sometimes put the paintings that they panted themselves on the walls (Freshmen pre-service English
teacher 1, Diary).

...the teacher uses the smart board to make the students practice. For example, she teaches them how to
search for a specific country or play a game on their individual I pads (Freshmen pre-service English
teacher 3, Diary).

...the teacher uses flashcards while presenting a new topic to the class (Freshmen pre-service English
teacher 2, Diary).

Finally, the participating pre-service English teachers emphasized the role of classroom manage-
ment in kindergarten through their diary reflections. They not only made some reflections on classroom
management, but made further suggestions as can be seen in the following excerpts:

...actually there isn’t an exact action zone for the teachers. I mean they should be able to move everywhere
in the classroom. Because children are always moving, teachers should be dynamic in order to keep up
with them (Freshmen pre-service English teacher 1, Diary).

...they are not just teachers but also they are in the role of mother and father. For instance, they help
children to wear their clothes, to eat their meals and to go to the toilet (Freshmen pre-service English
teacher 1, Diary).

...using negative or positive language is extremely effective on children. The teacher always keeps stu-
dents motivated by telling them positive things such as “good job, nice work and very good example”
(Freshmen pre-service English teacher 2, Diary).

...the teacher creates a friendly classroom atmosphere. She doesn’t start the lesson immediately, but first,
she welcomes the students, asks about their health and then starts the lesson. She knows every student
names and also treats them equally (Freshmen pre-service English teacher 2, Diary).

Besides the reflections made in the diaries, the participants shared their general impressions from
their observations in the classroom discussions which were noted by the researcher in field notes. Some
examples of field notes gathered from the class discussions were quoted as follows:

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The Impact of Pre-service Teachers’ Reflection

...when they want to do something, it is really hard to prevent them or when they don’t want to do some-
thing, it is again very hard to persuade them to do it. However, whatever they do, they are so forgivable.
I mean, you know they are so little and cute, so, you can’t get angry with them. Therefore, if someone
wants to be a kindergarten teacher, s/he should be more patient and lovely that anyone else.

...it was really good to learn. I wonder what I would learn more thanks to these observations.

...I have learned that it is not easy to be a teacher. I have learned a lot and I will try to use all of them
in the future.

...I think the teachers’ way of teaching is very effective. I hope to follow these techniques in the future.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As reflection is a link between what is being done in the past and what can be done in the future, it is
very helpful for pre-service teachers in terms of making the connection between theory and practice, as
well as professional development.
Proposed by many researchers (Frid and Reid, 2003; McDraw, et.al. 2004; Fairbanks and Meritt, 1998;
Rodman, 2010), there is a fair consensus that teacher education programs, beginning in the very first
year, need to integrate reflection and reflective practice in their curriculum in order to help prospective
teachers construct their professional identity. This will provide them with the opportunity to develop
their personal philosophy of education with regard to their beliefs, attitudes and behaviours. As indicated
in the findings of this study, engaging pre-service teachers in reflective activities at an early stage of
their education raised their awareness of the importance and effectiveness of reflection into their future
teaching. The earlier the reflective practice component is integrated in teacher education programs,
the sooner the pre-service teachers will start establishing their personal and professional constructs for
understanding teachers, students, teaching, and the learning environment.
Furthermore, in the study, the analyses of the diaries, field notes, and class discussions revealed that
freshmen pre-service English teachers started to think more critically about the incidents happening in
a real teaching environment. This indicates that if teacher education programs give more importance
to reflection and reflective practice, it will enhance the development of critical thinking skills at early
stages which will have a positive effect on their instructional practices in the future.
These experiences also facilitate the feeling of being a teacher and the capacity of dealing with the
complexities in the real classroom environment. To exemplify, when the participating teachers first
started the observations, they were not aware of important concepts in teaching such as teaching activi-
ties, instructional materials, and classroom management. After completion of the observation tasks, they
became more aware of effective materials and activities to be implemented during language teaching and
learning as well as with the efficient strategies to cope with classroom management problems in general.
To conclude, based on the findings of the study, through reflection and reflective activities, pre-service
teachers develop the ability to better understand their teaching skills and practices. It is recommended
that teacher education programs in Turkey should be evaluated and redesigned according to the needs
of the students, teachers, administrators, parents and other stakeholders while taking into consideration
the premises of reflection and reflective practice in professional development.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

As an application drawn from this study, in Turkey there is a need to improve teacher education programs
based on constructivist models (Armutcu and Yaman, 2010) especially in the field of English Language
Teaching (ELT). Since this is a case study, more extensive research should be conducted for the gen-
eralizability of the results to explore the effectiveness of reflection in practice teaching. An interesting
future research project would be to do a follow up study with the same group of pre-service students in
upcoming years which will enable the researchers to monitor the impact of reflection throughout their
academic studies. Another future study could focus on novice in-service English teachers to highlight
what the strengths and weaknesses are in their teaching which should be reflected in teacher education
programs.

CONCLUSION

This chapter tried to highlight the importance of reflection and reflective practices in pre-service teacher
education programs. Especially, this chapter aimed to share the findings of a study which tried to explore
the effects of reflection and reflective activities on freshmen English pre-service teachers’ instructional
practices in a Turkish context. The findings of the study supported that if teacher education programs
integrate reflection and reflective practice into their programs, pre-service teachers will develop the
ability to better understand their teaching skills and practices and critical thinking skills at early stages.
In addition, the study proposes that there is an emergent need for evaluating and developing pre-
service teacher education programs. Most of the pre-service English teachers start their teaching prac-
tice right before their graduation which results in feelings of frustration and incapability as they start
their teaching career after graduation. This obviously indicates that there is serious need for beginning
practice teaching during the first years of teacher education programs. In order to accomplish this, all
of the ELT programs in Turkey should establish a consortium to take action on improving the practicum
component of current programs.

REFERENCES

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teacher education: Cases and critiques (pp. 187–197). Albany: State University of New York Press.
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Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner Toward a new design for teaching and learning
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Classroom Management: A term used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring that classroom
lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students.
EFL: The teaching of English to people whose first language is not English.
Instructional Practices: All approaches that a teacher may take to actively engage students in learning.
Pre-Service Teacher Education: A period of guided, supervised teaching.
Reflection: Important human activities in which people recapture their experience, think about it,
mull over and evaluate it.
Teaching Activities: Implementations used by the teachers that help to enhance learning in the
classroom.
Teaching Materials: A spectrum of educational materials used by the teachers in the classroom to
support specific learning objectives.

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Chapter 14
Exploring Prospective EFL
Teachers’ Beliefs about
Teachers and Teaching
through Metaphor Analysis
Anil Rakicioglu-Soylemez
Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey

Ayse Selmin Soylemez

Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey

Amanda Yesilbursa
Uludag University, Turkey

ABSTRACT
This study aimed to explore prospective EFL teachers’ metaphors of “teachers, teaching” and “being
a prospective EFL teacher” at the beginning and end of a ten-week practicum course. A total of 110
Turkish prospective EFL teachers voluntarily participated in the study. Data were collected by means
of semi-structured interviews and metaphor-elicitation forms. Results lead to three major conclusions.
First, the participants’ prior beliefs about the role of an EFL teacher and teaching were affected by
their previous experiences as language learners. Second, although the content analysis of the metaphors
revealed a limited change throughout the practicum experience, the analysis of the interviews showed
the dynamic nature of beliefs held by the prospective teachers. Finally, data analysis of the interviews
showed that the variation in beliefs and practices mainly derived from individual experiences with the
mentoring practices of the cooperating teachers and the socio-professional context of the practicum school.

INTRODUCTION

Teacher education programs face challenges in training highly motivated and competent teachers. The
major aim of teacher education departments is to provide the necessary circumstances for prospective
teachers (henceforth, PTs) to access professional learning opportunities. Therefore, it is important to iden-
tify the development of teaching motivations throughout the initial teacher education (ITE) experiences
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9471-2.ch014

Copyright © 2016, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Exploring Prospective EFL Teachers’ Beliefs

of the PTs (Rots, Kelchtermans & Aelterman, 2012). A number of motivational sources for PTs to enter
teaching profession are listed in the literature (see, e.g., Sinclair, 2008). Field experience in particular
has a notable effect on PTs’ professional learning experiences (Roness & Smith, 2010; Sinclair, 2008).
These experiences of PTs have been addressed in a number of ways in terms of data collection tech-
niques, such as self-narratives (e.g., Dyson, 2007; Ruohotie-Lyhty, 2013), journals (e.g., Appel, 1995;
Bailey, 1990; Numrich, 1996), in-depth interviews (e.g., Borg, 2006; Cheng, Cheng, & Tang, 2010) and
classroom observations (e.g., Mattheoudakis, 2007). Metaphor analysis has also been widely used in
mainstream and language teaching studies both internationally (see, e.g. Beijaard, Meijer, & Verloop,
2004; Ellis, 1998; Farrell, 2007) and in the Turkish context (see, e.g., Eren & Tekinarslan, 2012; Saban,
Koçbeker & Saban; 2006, 2007; Saban, 2010; Yeşilbursa, 2012; Yeşilbursa & Sayar, 2014).
These studies are based on the notion of metaphor as a cognitive process, rather than the traditional
view of metaphor as ornamental use of language in the literary sense (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Marchant,
1992). According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphor is a means of understanding new concepts
with reference to familiar ones and ‘is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and
action’ (p. 3). Thus Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stressed the fact that our conceptual system is mainly
metaphorical in nature. Given that, as Nespor (1987) pointed out ‘to understand teaching from teach-
ers’ perspectives we have to understand the beliefs with which they define their work’ (p. 323). Thus,
metaphor analysis has the potential to provide a ‘comprehensive picture which reveals how PTs envi-
sion their teaching-related future’ (Eren &Tekinarslan, 2012, p. 435), we considered it to be a suitable
approach to adopt in the current study.
Although PTs are one of the main participant groups of practice teaching, the extent to which they
professionally benefit from the process has not been addressed to date in the researchers’ knowledge in
the Turkish EFL context. Thus, the current study aims to provide an in-depth understanding of prospec-
tive EFL teachers’ (henceforth, in the current paper all PTs referred to will be those in the field of EFL)
reflections on their professional learning throughout their field experience. In addition, it aims to attract
the attention of teacher educators and other stakeholders of practice teaching to the fact that beliefs and
perceptions are important in understanding the way PTs approach the profession. Although most of the
studies on practice teaching in the literature focused on the problems, perceptions, beliefs and practices
of PTs (e.g., Atay, 2007; Merç, 2004, 2010; Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez, 2012; Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez & Eröz-
Tuğa, 2014; Seferoğlu, 2006), or the processes of change were labeled (Oxford, Griffiths, Longhini,
Cohen, Macaro & Harris, 2014; Yuan & Lee, 2014), concepts of change in their professional learning
processes have not been addressed in the EFL teacher education literature. Therefore, the present study
aims to address the conceptual changes in the metaphorical descriptions of PTs, in addition to the reasons
of change they propose as the agents of change.
Very recently the possible extension of beliefs through real classroom experiences has been empha-
sized in the international literature(e.g. Tang, Cheng & Cheng, 2013; Rusznyak & Walton, 2014) and
is considered as a useful way of accessing participants’ conceptions of teaching and the profession as
well as tracking the process of how the conceptions develop over time. However, the dynamic nature of
beliefs held by PTs has not been addressed throughout their practicum experience. Thus, the study aims
to fill this gap in the extant literature. The following research questions have been formulated to this aim:

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1. What are the perceptions of PTs on self, teachers and teaching before attending the practice teach-
ing course?
2. What are the perceptions of PTs on self, teachers and teaching after attending the practice teaching
course?
3. What change, if any, did they experience in their professional perceptions of self, teachers and
teaching throughout the course?
4. What factors might explain such change or lack of change?

The findings of the study will offer insights into PTs’ beliefs about themselves, teachers’ role and the
profession and practices of EFL teaching in a real school setting.

BACKGROUND

The unprecedented spread of English as a global language has been widely acknowledged by many
scholars over the past four decades (e.g., Crystal, 2003; Kachru, 1986). Similar to many other countries
whose official language is not English, Turkey has responded to the status of English by making adjust-
ments to its language policy at a macro level, and to instructional implications at a micro level (see,
e.g. Doğançay-Aktuna & Kızıltepe, 2005; and Kırkgöz, 2007, 2009 for more details). Briefly, with the
reforms of 1998 which increased compulsory education from five to eight years by combining the primary
and lower-secondary tiers, EFL was introduced into grades four and five with the aims of increasing
exposure to the language. In methodological terms this reform was significant, because the concept of
the communicative approach in ELT was introduced into the Ministry of National Education (MoNE)
EFL curriculum for the first time (Kırkgöz, 2007). The more recent educational reforms of 2012 (see,
e.g., MoNE, 2013; OECD, 2014) resulted in the separation of the single eight-year primary tier into a
four-year primary tier and a four-year lower secondary tier. The consequence of this reform on ELT has
been that EFL has been made part of the grade-two curriculum.
With the establishment of the Council of Higher Education (henceforth, CHE) in 1981, full respon-
sibility for teacher education was given to the Faculties of Education, which currently offer four-year
undergraduate degree programs (see, e.g., Çakıroğlu & Çakıroğlu, 2003; Grossman, 2013). At present,
the only route into these programs is via the centralized two-phase University Entrance Examination
(Kilimci, 2009). In order to increase the quality of teacher education, the content of which had largely
been left to the preferences of the academic staff, in 1998 CHE decreed that teacher education programs
for all domains (e.g., English Language Teaching, Primary School Teaching) be centrally developed
(CHE, 2007). The current ELT program (CHE, 2007) requires PTs to take a number of field-specific
courses (e.g., Teaching English to Young Learners) in addition to general pedagogical courses (e.g.,
classroom management). In the final year, there are two 10-week Practicum courses, School Practice
and Teaching Practice, during which PTs are assigned to local state-run primary and secondary schools
to conduct observations and teaching under the guidance of a cooperating teacher from the school and
a university supervisor (Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez, 2012). Following completion of teacher education, new
teachers are appointed to state schools by means of a centralized selection examination (Yüksel, 2012).

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METHODOLOGY

The study is designed as a descriptive case study in that it aims to report on a naturally occurring repre-
sentation of professional learning beliefs throughout the practice teaching course. In that sense, the study
aims to provide an in-depth understanding of PTs’ reflections on their professional learning throughout
their field experience. As Yin (2011) suggests, case study approach is suitable when contextual conditions
are met and highly relevant. The study can also be considered as an opportunistic case study (Creswell,
2007) as the case was accessible because the researchers were the instructors of the course and one group
of the triad members of practice teaching as university supervisors. Although a case study aims to focus
on a particular aspect of a case (Creswell, 2007; Yin, 2011), the findings of the study can be compared
to other contexts and experiences presented here by practitioners and researchers to make naturalistic
generalizations (Stake, 2005).

The Research Context

The two field-experience courses, School Experience and Practice Teaching, provide the context of the
current study. In order to complete the requirements of these courses, all PTs are appointed to selected
state-run schools of Ministry of National Education (MoNE) in the city where they pursue their under-
graduate studies. Therefore, the courses are twofold, one part takes place the MoNE schools for six hours
a week, focusing on observation and teaching practices of the PTs; the other is a two-hour seminar once
a week and offered by the university supervisors. The seminars aim to gather PTs together and share
their professional experiences in the cooperating schools throughout their practice teaching.
Throughout the observations and teaching practices PTs attend the English language classes at the
cooperating schools. They are assigned to prepare lesson plans, materials and incorporating necessary
assessment tools to their teaching practices. During the processes of observations and teaching practices,
PTs work with CTs at the cooperating schools. Therefore, they have a certain professional contact with
the CTs at their last year of initial teacher education program.
Although the curriculum is provided by CHE (2007), only the responsibilities and task descriptions
are provided. Thus, the content of the School Experience and Practice Teaching courses are designed by
the university supervisors offering the course without a certain course outline proposed for the aforemen-
tioned courses in the initial teacher education programs (Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez, 2012). The university
supervisors’ applications and theories to evaluate PT practices throughout these courses depend on the
supervisors’ priorities. In the current research context, the university supervisors organized the course
according to CHE regulations, thus there was no intervention to design the study to collect the data.

Participants

A total of 110 PTs (female N=81, male N=29, age range 20-22 years) voluntarily participated in the
study. They were all in their senior year of studies the English Language Teaching (ELT) program of a
state-run university located in the Mid-Western Black Sea region of Turkey, and enrolled on the practice
teaching course. Most of the participants in the study were graduates of teacher training high schools
in Turkey. Therefore, the participants formed a homogeneous group in terms of their educational back-
ground and pre-service instructional experience.

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Exploring Prospective EFL Teachers’ Beliefs

The Roles of the Researchers

The potential influence of offering the course as well as collecting the data by the instructors of the
course has been acknowledged. Therefore, throughout the data collection and analysis, the researchers
were cautious of the importance of willingness on the part of the PTs to participate in the study and tried
to observe and reflect on the effects of the researchers’ presence in the study as well as participating in
the participants’ reflections through conducting interviews.

Data Collection

As Creswell (2007) emphasizes, the fact that case studies collect multiple sources of information (e.g.
observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description
and case-based themes, throughout the analysis, perspectives of the PTs were gathered from multiple
data sources (see Table 1). In Table 1, the participants and valid return rate of the data collection tools
were also highlighted.
As Table 1 presents, the data sources consisted of pre- and post-course metaphor forms in addition
to semi-structured interviews with the PTs during the data collection procedures. Data were collected
during the spring semester of 2013-2014 academic year. Data cited from the pre- and post-course meta-
phors and interviews are referred as Pre-M, Post-M and Int, respectively throughout the study. All PTs
participated in the study were informed about their rights to participate in the study and asked to give
their consent to participate. Throughout the data collection and analysis procedures, PTs were given
pseudonyms to preserve their anonymity.

Data Analysis

Data were collected and analyzed on a simultaneously on-going basis. Specifically, to examine PTs’
professional perceptions of selves and teaching practices, a qualitative approach was employed and the
grounded theory procedures (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) based on the procedures of thematic analysis (Miles,
Huberman & Saldaña, 2014). The interviews conducted with the PTs were transcribed verbatim, and the
transcriptions were reviewed by the researchers for accuracy. The transcriptions of the interviews and
the reflective journals as well as the metaphor forms of the PTs were read several times in order to find
commonly emerging topics and themes about ‘teachers, teaching and being a prospective EFL teacher’
throughout the practice teaching course. The topics and themes of each data source were listed and then
grouped into similar categories. Categories uncovering the change or lack of change in the perceptions
of PTs were then established with reference to the conceptual framework and related literature in PTs’
situated professional learning. Following the naming and labeling stage, the researchers decided on the
unit of analysis by sorting the metaphors. The metaphors were compiled and categorized considering the

Table 1. Data sources of the study

Early-M Post-M Int

Participants 110 119 10 (appr. 15 min)
Valid data turnout 44 81 10 (appr. 15 min.)

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Exploring Prospective EFL Teachers’ Beliefs

establishment of an inter-rater reliability analysis (K=.90). Finally, the data were analyzed quantitatively
to elaborate more on the content and frequencies of metaphors used by the prospective EFL teachers to
outline their professional learning experience during practice teaching.
During the data analysis, not every metaphor produced by the PTs was considered valid. A total of 95
metaphors were excluded from the analysis with the following qualities: plain description or no mention
of a metaphor at all, mention of a metaphor but no provision of a rationale, fuzzy/hybrid metaphors or
researchers’ having difficulty in placing the metaphor under one clearly recognizable conceptual theme.
There were no specific hypotheses suggested due to the explorative nature of the present study.
Nevertheless, previous studies provide a solid basis to predict the metaphors disposed by the PTs (e.g.
Saban, Koçbeker & Saban, 2006, 2007; Seferoğlu, Korkmazgil & Ölçü, 2009; Yeşilbursa, 2012; Eren &
Tekinarslan, 2012; Yeşilbursa & Sayar, 2014). The valid metaphors collected and analyzed in the data
analysis were explored and examined according to their relevancy, coherency, and meaningfulness in
terms of addressing the research questions of the study.
The results of the study were grouped under three main headings (see Table 2). The first stage of
the analysis was the early images of the PTs with regards to the proposed concepts. In the second stage,
PTs were asked to reflect on their experiences after attending the practice teaching. In order to elicit the
post-images of the PTs, they were given the same data collection tool at the end of the practice teaching.
Finally, interviews were transcribed and analyzed in order to address the possible changes of definitions
made by the PTs.
The order of sequencing showed that before attending the practice teaching, PTs thought of their
role more as an obedient and a directed figure when compared to the metaphors they gave after at-
tending the course. However, after attending the practice teaching, PTs considered themselves more
as an infant which is explained by the PTs as professional learning is a progress and they have ‘a lot to
learn’(Ercan, Post-M). The concepts of teachers and teaching were not examined by the PTs through
significant changes. The sequencing of the objectives did not show any radical changes when the early
and post images were examined. However, some of the definitions gained priority such as in the images
of teachers, PTs considered teachers as source in their early images of third place, whereas PTs consid-
ered teachers as frustrated figures as third in their post images. In addition, PTs’ definition of teaching
was considered as transmitting of knowledge as priority. On the other hand, PTs defined teaching as
guiding in the post images.

Table 2. Initial content analysis of the metaphors

Metaphor Data Themes

Being a PT Early images Obedient/directed, craftsperson, examiner, guide, infant
Post images Infant, obedient/directed, provider of knowledge, guide, bystander, craftsperson,
flourishing, source, reflective, needed object
Teachers Early images Guide, craftsperson, source, needed object, hoper, bystander
Post images Guide, craftsperson, frustration, source, nurturer, tool
Teaching Early images Transmitting knowledge, guiding, interaction
Post images Guiding, transmitting knowledge, interaction, suffering, blessing

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The first stage of data analysis began with the examination of PTs’ early images of the given concepts
(see Table 3). The metaphors given by the PTs were grouped under three headings, being a PT, teachers and
teaching, respectively. The number of occurrence of the metaphors and the percentages were calculated.
As shown in Table 3, the PTs reflected on their role more as an apprentice, helper and a little child
referring to their role as an assistant to the cooperating teacher and as someone in a progress of profes-
sional learning. The second most frequently used metaphor was chef. When PTs referred to their role
as a chef, they defined their role as ‘someone who is responsible for a number of duties’. Although the
metaphor chef seems to have an active role in the process, PTs reflected on the number of duties and the
extent to which they feel responsible for the teaching and learning context. PTs considered their role as
daylight by referring to their ‘existence in the classroom through bringing a new energy to the classroom’.
In the early-images of the PTs, the roles of the teachers were defined as sun, earth, light, lighthouse
and precious stone, referring to the teachers as the sources of knowledge and learning process. When
PTs reflected on the roles of the teachers, they used the metaphor friend to refer to the teachers ‘they
travel with the students together on the learning road’. The definition of teachers being a friend on the
road provides an understanding of how PTs observe the learning process as a road, and the teachers as
travel mates. PTs quote on their metaphors of teachers as architects assigning the roles of the teachers
as they ‘build-up a future’. In the early-images of teachers, PTs characterized them as playing a main
role in the teaching process.
The last concept of early-images defined by the PTs was teaching. In order to refer to the concept of
teaching, PTs refereed to teaching English in the classrooms. PTs referred to the concept of teaching as
specifically teaching English in the classrooms. In the explanations of the metaphors, PTs characterized
what they understand from teaching English in the current context. PTs referred to English language
teaching as teaching the world, mostly. By relating the concept of teaching the world and teaching Eng-
lish, PTs conveyed that ‘English is a global language and in ten years time, people who cannot speak it
will be considered as illiterate’ (Ali, Pre-M). Similar to teaching as teaching the world metaphor, PTs
referred to teaching as revolution. PTs considered that ‘if learning is living then teaching is revolution’
(Elcin, Pre-M). PTs extended their definition of teaching as revolution stating that ‘in order to have a
good quality of life, everyone should learn English’ (Sonay, Int.) and through teaching English, a revo-
lutionary act of ‘transforming a regular life into a qualified one’ (Kenan, Int.). While defining teaching
through metaphors, PTs defined teaching as cooking and art in terms its nature in ‘providing a number
of opportunities and a coherent context of experience’ (Esra, Post-M). In defining teaching as raining

Table 3. Findings of the early-images

Being a PT N % Teachers N % Teaching N %

apprentice 6 13.6 sun 5 11.3 teaching the world 6 13.6
chef 5 11.3 earth 5 11.3 cooking 5 11.3
helper 5 11.3 architect 5 11.3 art 5 11.3
daylight 4 9.0 light 4 9.0 raining 4 9.0
guide 4 9.0 lighthouse 4 9.0 revolution 4 9.0
a little child 3 3.7 lighthouse 5 6.17 raining 4 9.0
magnet 3 6.8 precious stone 3 6.8 transmitting 3 6.8
knowledge

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and seeding, PTs addressed the nature of teaching as ‘pouring water to the earth/soil to make it grow
and become healthy’ (Melih, Post-M). This definition of teaching was very similar to the definition of
teaching as transmitting in terms of ‘pouring information and knowledge on someone’s life’ (Serap, Int.).
In the second stage of data analysis, the post-images of the PTs were examined (see Table 4). The
metaphors of the PTs were grouped under three headings, the frequencies and the percentages were cal-
culated. When the data of post-images were examined, there was a consistency in the thematic analysis
of the data.
As shown in Table 4, although the frequency of metaphors is the same, the content analysis of the
post-images reveals that the metaphor of PTs as learners has the highest frequency of the analysis. PTs
reflected on their role as a learner and apprentice by not just referring to their role as an assistant to the
cooperating teacher and as someone in a progress of professional learning: They also referred to their
role as a camera and as an observer to ‘record the classroom events and reflect back on them’ (Ayşe,
Post-M.). Each role definition made by the PTs reveals a secondary role during the practice teaching
experience. The second most frequently used metaphors of the post images of self were gardener and
producer. Although gardener has an active role in ‘collecting the seeds’ (Sevim, Post-M) and ‘produc-
ing a film’ (Fulya, Post-M) as output of learning, PTs referred to their role as gardener and producer
to reflect on ‘the number of duties to accomplish’ (Ezgi, Post-M) during the learning process. As PTs
previously mentioned their role as a chef in the early images of self, in the post images, they refer to an
active role to address the number of tasks to be accomplished. PTs considered their role as a camera and
an observer to characterize their secondary role in the classroom during practice teaching. PTs defined
their role in the classroom as ‘a tool to record the events of the classroom’ (Ozlem, Post-M). In addition
as an observer who ‘is not allowed to intervene the classroom events’ (Kadir, Post-M).
In the post-images of the PTs, the roles of the teachers were defined as sun, lighthouse, and compass
referring to the teachers as’ the source of knowledge’ and ‘learning process’ (Soner, Barış, Sema, Gu-
lin, Post-M). The post-images of the PTs are similar to the ones they provided for the early-images as
they considered teachers as the source of information. When PTs reflected on the roles of the teachers,
they used the metaphor tour guide to refer to the teachers’ role as they describe in the early images as
friend. In the early-images, PTs referred to teachers by saying ‘they travel with the students together on
the learning road’ (Kayra, Post-M) as travel mates. In the post-images, PTs reflected on the image of
teacher as a guide rather than a travel mate. As a novel description of the teacher concept, PTs portray
the teachers as candles at its end. With this metaphor, PTs refer to the burnout of the teachers as they

Table 4. Findings of the post-images

Being a PT N % Teachers N % Teaching N %

learner 5 6.1 tour guide 7 8.64 teaching the world 6 7.41
apprentice 5 6.1 gardener 7 8.64 watering 6 7.41
gardener 5 6.1 a candle at its ends 6 7.64 travelling 6 7.41
producer 5 6.1 sun 6 7.41 cooking 5 6.41
camera 4 4.9 chef 5 6.17 art 5 6.17
observer 3 3.7 lighthouse 5 6.17 raining 4 4.94
sun 3 3.7 compass 4 4.94 growing up a child 4 4.94

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are ‘energy-free’ (Betul, Int.) and not ‘willing to do anything new’ (Emel, Post-M). According to the
PTs, teachers are contended with the flow of the teaching process and resist on not bringing something
new to the classroom.
The last concept of post-images defined by the PTs was teaching. PTs referred to English language
teaching as teaching the world, mostly, as they did in the early-images. By relating the concept of teach-
ing the world and the teaching English, PTs highlighted the importance of learning English in the global
context. Similar to teaching as teaching the world metaphor, PTs referred to teaching as raising a child.
PTs considered that ‘learning is an onerous process and it takes a lot of time just like raising a child’.
While defining teaching through metaphors in the post-images, PTs defined teaching as cooking and
art as they did in the early images with similar explanations in terms its nature as a ‘coherent context of
experience’ (Tuğba, Post-M) and a ‘gradual process’ (Gulcin, Post-M).
PTs reflected on their perceptions of being a PT, teachers of English and teaching profession both
before and after the practice teaching experience. In terms of overall content analysis, it was observed
that PTs found it difficult to reflect on their role as a prospective teacher before they attended the prac-
tice teaching. Although PTs were given the same data collection tool at the end of the practice teaching
experience, it was observed that the descriptors used by the PTs to define their role increased and PTs
used an increased number of secondary concepts that do not play a primary role in teaching to define
their role in the practice teaching course.

Interviews

In this section, the change (or lack of change) in the beliefs of the prospective EFL teachers in terms of
self, teachers and teaching will be reported. The data analyses of the interviews were conducted after
completing the verbatim transcription of the interviews. The findings based on the influencing factors
were examined and discussed.

Change (or Lack of Change) Throughout the Practice Teaching Course

The findings showed that some PTs reported on a stable understanding of their experience throughout
the course, whereas some of the PTs reflected on the difference in their understanding of the profession
which could be ascribed to a number of reasons. The influencing factors of change or lack of change
were addressed by the PTs as the context of practice teaching and the independence of the PTs during
practice teaching experience. The two concepts were very closely related to each other and were difficult
to distinguish. In addition to the conceptual change in the professional learning processes of PTs, they
considered a number of facilitating reasons for them to monitor their professional learning and imped-
ing factors affected their understanding of the practice teaching process. By referring to the context of
professional learning experience, PTs were worried about their role as they were treated as students
rather than prospective teachers.

The mentors I observed were very kind and nice to me; however, [rather than a professional], they
treated me like a student… It was true but they should have considered the fact that I will become a
teacher soon.(Seda, Int.)

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Similar to Seda’s explanation of her role in the practice teaching, Ümit addressed the importance
of being addressed as a prospective teacher and gaining independence as a teacher during the practice
teaching experience. As she had the chance to experience to work with two teachers, she compared two
different applications of cooperating teachers during their professional learning.

I figured that teaching is learned when you can find the chance to experience [practice] it…Some men-
tors let me practice and conduct the lesson plans that I prepared…whereas others were very strict and
in control all the time [referring to not providing the chances of practicing teaching].(Ümit, Int.)

PTs, who had the chance to gain independence in the classroom, further claimed that not only PTs
benefitted from the practice teaching experience. CTs were also in advantage in terms of having PTs in
their classes. During the interviews, a PT, Orhan, addressed the fact that CTs learn from the currently
used activities from the PTs since PTs have recently learned how to implement a number of activities
and find time to prepare extra learning materials other than the course books used in the classes.

I prepared and used a number of activities, games, worksheets, and other materials to attract the atten-
tion of the students… I think my mentor really liked that because she [integrated extra materials other
than the textbook] focused on grabbing the attention of the students…I think we learned a lot from each
other. I think I made a positive effect on the mentor.(Orhan, Int.)

As facilitating factors of monitoring the professional learning process, PTs also considered the content
of the seminar course and professional development activities organized by the university supervisors
throughout the seminar. The opportunities provided for the PTs to reflect on their professional learning
processes were highlighted by the PTs. In addition to reflecting and sharing the ideas with peers, PTs
also addressed the role of the university supervisor and CTs as role models and sources of professional
support. Therefore, significant others were addressed in the professional learning process in addition to
Self-professional learning experiences.
The results of the study demonstrate potentially positive effects of practice teaching on professional
learning of prospective EFL teachers. The change in the beliefs can be explained by the opportunities
of reflective practices conducted throughout the practice teaching both at the university setting and at
the school setting. Thus, the mutual interaction among the stakeholders of practice teaching, in addition
to guidance provided both by the cooperating teachers and the university supervisor play an important
role in the professional learning processes of the PTs.

Dynamic Nature of Belief Systems

Although the exact change or lack of change cannot be clearly observed through elicited metaphors and
interviews, a certain development and modification of professional ideas is observed in the data analysis.
The content analysis of the interviews showed that the variation in beliefs and practices mainly derived
from PTs’ individual experiences with the mentoring practices of the mentors. In addition, the socio-
professional context provided for the PTs within the school context also played an important role in PTs
ways of practicing their ways of becoming an EFL teacher. As Ayşe suggests in the following quote,
PTs should get the chance of building relationships with everyone involved in the process in order to
consider themselves that they are actually practicing to become an EFL teacher.

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I believe that an English language teacher should [get to know his/her students and] build up a strong
relationship to engage the students. (Ayse, Int.)

When PTs professional learning experiences were considered, the real teaching experience cannot be
replaced with the macro teachings they conduct for certain courses at the university. As Birol suggested

Language teaching is different from knowing a language. The microteachings [in the department] were
not that effective when compared to the real classroom experience. We got answers from our peers [dur-
ing the microteachings at the university courses] whereas in the real classroom, getting the students talk
was quite difficult (Birol, Int.)

Through their experiences in the practice teaching, PTs find the chance to live the real teaching ex-
perience. As they experience the reality shock in real teaching contexts, they realize the need to modify
their beliefs (Rakıcıoğlu-Söylemez & Eröz-Tuğa, 2014). Therefore, through experiencing difficulties as
well as the joyful experience of teaching, PTs make adaptations and modifications in their beliefs. As
it is directly stated, ‘at the beginning of the practicum, I thought I could handle 10-year-old kids in the
classroom… because I am good with kids… but teaching was different…I had difficulty in classroom
management’ (Esra, Int.).

DISCUSSION

Although the content analysis of the metaphors revealed a limited change throughout the practicum
experience, the analysis of the interviews displayed the dynamic nature of belief systems throughout the
practice teaching experience. In addition to the difficulty of addressing belief change in a short amount
of time (Borg, 2006; Yuan & Lee, 2014), the modifications and adaptations in the professional learning
beliefs could depend on a number of reasons. As Yuan and Lee (2014) suggested, prospective teachers’
personal motivation as a prospective professional and the socio-cultural factors play an important role
in the process of professional learning. In addition, professional motivation of the PTs is reported as
having a considerable impact on the future work experiences and continuing professional development
involvement (Eren, &Tekinarslan, 2012). Considering the complexity of PTs’ belief change related to
self, significant others and the profession, it is very important to cater prospective EFL teachers’ beliefs
at the initial stages of teacher education (Darling Hammond, 2014; Manuel & Hughes, 2006; Seferoğlu,
et al. 2009; Yuan & Lee, 2014). Otherwise, the aims of the teacher training program might not be well
understood by the PTs and may not accomplish its aims the way it is planned to prepare prospective
teachers for the profession.
The current study demonstrates the extent to which beliefs of PTs are not considered as stable or sub-
ject to drastic changes. However, beliefs held by the PTs are ‘open to change and development’ (Yuan &
Lee, 2014, p. 8). The results of the study corroborates with the claim that significant modifications and
developments do take place in PTs’ professional learning beliefs through the practice teaching experience
(Borg, 2006; 2011). In addition, drawing on socio-professional perspectives, a number of influencing
and impeding factors can be identified which contribute to the processes of PTs’ belief adaptation and
modification during practice teaching. First of all, through actively participating in the socio-professional
context of the school, PTs find the opportunities to take part in a variety of professional learning activi-

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ties (e.g. classroom observation, grading students’ work, preparing assessment tools). The professional
learning activities provide effective professional learning context for the PTs to expand their beliefs about
EFL teaching and becoming a language teacher (Johnson, 2006). As PTs reflected on their professional
learning experiences to test out their time management skills, the more opportunities they find to prac-
tice their teaching skills, the more they adapt their beliefs about classroom implementations. Therefore
as a second factor of providing the necessary socio-professional context for the PTs, CTs also play an
influential role in their developing PTs’ beliefs about teaching.
In terms of content analysis of the metaphors, the findings showed both consistencies and displayed
novel results for the literature. Specifically, the metaphors to refer to the role of the teacher as a guide is
consistent with the results of the studies reported in the literature (e.g. Saban et al., 2007; Farrell, 2011;
Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011). However, unlike the studies conducted with the practicing teachers, the
flexibility of teaching practices (e.g. Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011; Yeşilbursa, 2012), the nurturing nature
of teaching practices (Farrell, 2011; Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011; Yeşilbursa, 2012), and the authority
of teachers (e.g. Saban et al., 2007; Seferoğlu et al., 2009) were not addressed by the PTs in the current
study. However, the exhaustion of the teachers have been observed and reported on by the PTs by using
the metaphor ‘candle at its ends’. The aspect of frustration and considering teachers as hamsters were also
addressed in the literature (e.g. Thomas & Beauchamp, 2011; Yeşilbursa, 2012). Although the findings
of the current study show that the metaphors provided by the PTs could be categorized under certain
concepts, as Seferoğlu et al. (2009) and Oktay and Vancı-Osam (2013) claimed, the differences among
the reflections of the participants were observed throughout the data analysis.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

PTs’ cognitions about their previous experiences regarding the roles of teachers and teaching practices
should be examined and addressed in initial teacher training programs. Teacher educators should guide
PTs to become aware of their unexamined preconceptions about teaching and becoming EFL teachers
in order to consider the ways those beliefs influence their teaching and approaches to teaching. Given
the strong relationship between beliefs (Verbinska, 2014), attitudes and practice, teacher beliefs are
important in understanding teachers’ way of thinking and their professional growth.
Foreign language teacher education departments mainly focus on providing the context of professional
learning for the prospective teachers. However, the context of professional learning not only requires
teacher educators to convey the necessary theoretical foundations of learning and teaching a foreign
language but also to provide the necessary opportunities for PTs to reflect on their professional devel-
opment processes. Thus, metaphors are an alternative platform for PTs to examine their beliefs about
language learning and teaching. The metaphorical analysis of the beliefs could provide the chance for PTs
to form their professional identities. The present study, therefore, creates the opportunity for the current
and future PTs studying at the current EFL teacher education program to construct and reflect on their
beliefs throughout their professional learning experience within their initial teacher training program
(Saban, 2010). The metaphorical representations of the professional learning processes guide not only
teacher educators but also PTs in terms of examining, understanding and modifying the preconceived
professional beliefs regarding language learning and teaching. As an alternative, PTs could be asked to
reflect on the professional learning theories through analyzing the metaphors they provide for reflec-

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tion. In examining their professional learning theories, PTs will have the chance to put the theoretical
foundations into application through developing professional awareness on their personalized practices.
In addition, PTs could be asked to reflect on the perceived and idealized conceptions of the profes-
sion and reflect on the differences of their personal considerations. Through examining the differences
in idealized and actual conceptions of the professional learning processes, PTs could have the chance to
enhance their progress in the professional learning processes.

LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The study was limited to one EFL teacher education program in a non-native teacher education setting.
Therefore, more participants are needed in order to reach a coherent understanding of the socio-cultural
underpinnings of the PTs in the current initial teacher education setting. It may also be worthwhile to
investigate the epistemological reasoning of PTs in terms of perceived and idealized understandings
of the proposed professional concepts, which was beyond the scope of the current study. The study
examined the changes and possible development in the awareness of the PTs throughout their practice
teaching experience; however it did not consider any possible changes in teaching behavior. Therefore,
future studies focusing on the change in PTs’ teaching behavior through observations will display a more
coherent and in-depth understanding of PTs’ teaching practices.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides an example of asking PTs to reflect on their professional learning experi-
ences through metaphors. The data analysis provides an important insight into the professional learning
experiences of the PTs during their contact with real teaching contexts. The metaphor analysis conducted
in the study indicated a move from the early images of language teaching to a post-image nature as PTs
progress in the practice teaching. As Yuan and Lee (2014) and Borg (2006) pointed out, beliefs about
learning and teaching do not change in a short amount of time, but modifications and developments might
be observed. Therefore, the professional learning processes of the PTs tend to tie beliefs, experiences and
professional needs. Thus, the professional awareness to be raised throughout the initial teacher education
of the PTs will guide them to adapt and modify their beliefs about EFL teaching (Yeşilbursa, 2012).
Considering the number of cases presented in the study, the findings may not be generalized to a
number of foreign language teacher education programs across the globe. Despite this fact, the findings
of the study add to the foreign language teacher education literature by providing insights of the prospec-
tive EFL teachers’ professional learning experiences during their practice teaching.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Practice Teaching: 10-week course in which PTs spend time in the schools of MoNE observing,
teaching and practice in the real teaching contexts.
Prospective EFL Teacher: Student teacher enrolled in a four-year degree program specializing in
English Language Teaching.

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Exploring Prospective EFL Teachers’ Beliefs

Teachers: Professionals who are performing the teaching action in schools during the practice teach-
ing context.
Teaching Self: Student teachers’ role as a prospective teacher in the teaching practice context.
Teaching: PTs’ beliefs about the purposes and actions of teaching and reflection on the concept as
a profession.

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Related References

To continue our tradition of advancing knowledge management and discovery research, we have compiled
a list of recommended IGI Global readings. These references will provide additional information and
guidance to further enrich your knowledge and assist you with your own research and future publications.

Abril, R. M. (2011). The quality attribution in data, information and knowledge. In D. Schwartz & D.
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tion Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-59904-931-1.ch129
Abufardeh, S. (2013). KM and global software engineering (GSE). In S. Saeed & I. Alsmadi (Eds.),
Knowledge-based processes in software development (pp. 12–34). Hershey, PA: Information Science
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Aggestam, L., Backlund, P., & Persson, A. (2010). Supporting knowledge evaluation to increase quality
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Aggestam, L., Backlund, P., & Persson, A. (2012). Supporting knowledge evaluation to increase quality
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knowledge management: New technologies (pp. 24–44). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference;
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Aiken, P., Gillenson, M., Zhang, X., & Rafner, D. (2011). Data management and data administration:
Assessing 25 years of practice. [JDM]. Journal of Database Management, 22(3), 24–45. doi:10.4018/
jdm.2011070102
Akabawi, S., & Hodeeb, H. (2013). Implementing business intelligence in the dynamic beverages sales
and distribution environment. In M. Khosrow-Pour (Ed.), Cases on performance measurement and
productivity improvement: Technology integration and maturity (pp. 194–221). Hershey, PA: Business
Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-2618-8.ch010
Al-Busaidi, K. A. (2011). A social and technical investigation of knowledge utilization from a reposi-
tory knowledge management system. In M. Al-Shammari (Ed.), Knowledge management in emerging
economies: Social, organizational and cultural implementation (pp. 122–139). Hershey, PA: Information
Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-61692-886-5.ch007


Related References

Al-Busaidi, K. A. (2012). The impact of supporting organizational knowledge management through a

corporate portal on employees and business processes. In M. Jennex (Ed.), Conceptual models and out-
comes of advancing knowledge management: New technologies (pp. 208–229). Hershey, PA: Information
Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-0035-5.ch011
Alaraifi, A., Molla, A., & Deng, H. (2013). An empirical analysis of antecedents to the assimilation of
sensor information systems in data centers. [IJITSA]. International Journal of Information Technologies
and Systems Approach, 6(1), 57–77. doi:10.4018/jitsa.2013010104
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Sáez, G. Castro, J. Navas López, & M. Delgado Verde (Eds.), Intellectual capital and technological
innovation: Knowledge-based theory and practice (pp. 271–296). Hershey, PA: Information Science
Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-875-3.ch013
Alhashem, A., & Shaqrah, A. A. (2012). Exploring the relationship between organizational memory and
business innovation. [IJKBO]. International Journal of Knowledge-Based Organizations, 2(3), 32–46.
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memory’s reach with wikis and tagging. In M. Jennex (Ed.), Global aspects and cultural perspectives
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Alsmadi (Eds.), Knowledge-based processes in software development (pp. 35–48). Hershey, PA: Infor-
mation Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4229-4.ch003
Alstete, J. W., & Meyer, J. P. (2011). Expanding the model of competitive business strategy for knowledge-
based organizations. [IJKBO]. International Journal of Knowledge-Based Organizations, 1(4), 16–31.
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based organizations. In J. Wang (Ed.), Intelligence methods and systems advancements for knowledge-
based business (pp. 132–148). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-
1873-2.ch008
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uted knowledge in higher education. In G. Morais da Costa (Ed.), Ethical issues and social dilemmas in
knowledge management: Organizational innovation (pp. 131–159). Hershey, PA: Information Science
Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-873-9.ch009
Anantatmula, V. S., & Kanungo, S. (2011). Strategies for successful implementation of KM in a university
setting. In M. Jennex & S. Smolnik (Eds.), Strategies for knowledge management success: Exploring
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Andriessen, D. (2011). Metaphor use in knowledge management. In D. Schwartz & D. Te’eni (Eds.),
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Reference; doi:10.4018/978-1-59904-931-1.ch107
Angelopoulos, S., Kitsios, F., & Moustakis, V. (2012). Transformation of management in the public
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Badia, A. (2011). Knowledge management and intelligence work: A promising combination. In D.

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About the Contributors

Kenan Dikilitas is currently an Assistant Professor at department of English language teaching at

Hasan Kalyoncu University, Gaziantep, Turkey. He completed his PhD in ELT at Yeditepe University,
Istanbul. He has published articles and edited books on teacher research as a professional development
strategy. He has also conducted teacher research projects and has given hands-on workshops on how to
do educational research across Turkey and overseas. His teacher training experience primarily includes
supporting teacher research for professional development. His primary research interests are language
teacher education, educational research, research into language teaching and learning, and linguistics
for teaching pedagogy. He is one of the committee members of IATEFL ReSIG.

***

Sedat Akayoglu graduated from the Department of English Language and Literature, Hacettepe Uni-
versity in 2002 and he completed his MA degree at Abant Izzet Baysal University. He moved to Ankara
and started to work at Middle East Technical University in 2007 and he completed his PhD Degree at
the same university. Currently, he is working as an assistant professor at AIBU.

Patricia Dickenson is Lead Faculty of Teacher Education at National University in San Jose. She
completed her doctoral work at the University of Southern California in Educational Psychology. Her
research focuses on the sociocultural aspects of motivation, engagement, and instruction, within math-
ematics, technology and standard-based teaching practices of Latino English learners. Dr. Dickenson
began teaching for the Los Angeles Unified School District. She has taught elementary, middle and
high school. In addition to classroom teaching Dr. Dickenson was a Mathematics Coach. She believes
strongly in the use of alternative assessments such as performance based tasks, project-based learning and
authentic assessment to measure students knowledge and skills. Dr. Dickenson has worked as a teacher
trainer and consultant for Princeton Review and Harcourt Publishing. She has taught courses in Teacher
Education at University of California Santa Cruz, University of Southern California and University of
Phoenix. Dr. Dickenson Website: www.doctorofed.com Twitter: @techteacherprep.

Yesim Kesli Dollar is an assistant professor and chair of the Department of Foreign Language Edu-
cation at Bahcesehir University, Turkey. Dr. Kesli Dollar holds a BA degree in ELT from Middle East
Technical University, Turkey; a MA and a Ph.D. degree in English Language Education from Cukurova
University, Turkey, and a second MA degree in Applied Linguistics from Texas Tech University, USA.


 About the Contributors

Some of Dr. Kesli Dollar’s professional interests include SLA, language teacher education (pre-service
and in-service), teaching English to young learners, curriculum evaluation and design, use of technol-
ogy in language education.

Donna Farland-Smith is an Associate Professor of Science Education in the School of Teaching

& Learning at The Ohio State University. Her research focuses on middle school girls’ attitudes and
perceptions of scientists who are working ‘side-by-side’ with scientists as well as the characteristics of
scientists that most positively affect the girl’s perception of scientists. She previously taught science to
all grades K-12.

John Fulton is Principal Lecturer in Nursing at University of Sunderland UK.

Murat Gunel is Professor at the Department of Primary Education, TED University. His research
interest areas include argumentation based science inquiry, improving critical thinking skills, profes-
sional development for teachers, non-traditional writing in science, improving students’ understanding
of science with multi modal representations.

Alastair Irons is Associate Professor of Computing at University of Sunderland UK.

Melike Özer Keskin is Associate Professor at the Department of Biology Education, Gazi University.
Her research interests include biology education, socioscientific issues, argumentation based inquiry
and bioethics education.

Yasemin Kırkgöz works as a professor at the ELT Department of Çukurova University, Turkey.
She completed her MA and PhD at Aston University, England. Previously, she has been a vice direc-
tor and director of the Centre for Foreign Languages, curriculum coordinator, and teacher trainer. Her
main research interests include foreign language education policy and its implementation, curriculum
renewal, innovation management, teaching EAP/ESP in higher education, and the use of technology in
education. She has published on these topics in international journals, and has reviewed several books.
Yasemin has also received the IATEFL award for her work on Initiating and Managing the Process of
Curriculum Innovation from the IATEFL’s Leadership and Management Special Interest Group in 2013.

Richard Lambert is a Professor in the Department of Educational Leadership at the Univesrity of

North Carolina at Charlotte. He has served as the external evaluator of multiple professional develop-
ment grants and state-wide initiatives.

Christie Martin is an assistant professor in the Instruction and Teacher Education Department at the
University of South Carolina in Columbia. Her research interests include content area writing, digital
literacy, and evaluation of professional development.

306
About the Contributors

Enisa Mede is an Assistant Professor and the MA TEFL Program Coordinator of the Department of
Foreign Language Education at Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey. She holds a BA degree from
Bogazici University, Department of Foreign Language Education; and an MA and a PhD degree from
Yeditepe University, Department of Foreign Language Education. Her chief research interests are program
design and evaluation, early bilingualism, intercultural competency and language transfer.

Judith Montgomery has been the director of the Monterey Bay Area Math Project (MBAMP) since
1998. MBAMP is housed in the Mathematics Department and is the University of California Santa
Cruz Mathematics project. MBAMP’s primary purpose is to deliver Professional Development (PD)
in mathematics to k-12 teachers, while mentoring teachers to become teacher leaders. MBAMP uses a
teachers-teaching-teachers model for all PD.

İbrahim Nişanci graduated from the English Language Teaching Department, Hacettepe University
in 2004. Since then he has been teaching English in different countries; Kosovo, Bosnia, and Iraq. He
is currently teaching at ELT Department of Ishik University in Erbil. He has written his M.A. thesis on
use of songs in language teaching. He is doing his PhD on English Language Teaching at Canakkale
Onsekiz Mart University. His interest areas are developing materials from authentic videos and songs,
ESP, and language teacher education.

Emsal Ates Özdemir holds a BA degree in English Language and Literature from Hacettepe University
and holds MA in English Language Teaching from Mersin University. She has been teaching English
for 17 years. Emsal has completed her PhD studies on “The use of technology in English Language
Teaching” at Çukurova University. Constructivist learning theory, computer assisted language learning,
moodle learning management system and the use of Web 2.0 technologies, Google Apps and IOS apps
are among her interests. She is also a certified Google Education Trainer.

Drew Polly is an associate professor in the Department of Reading and Elementary Education at the
University of North Carolina at Charlotte. His research agenda focuses on examining how to support
the implementation of technology and standards-based pedagogies.

David Pugalee is the Director of the Center of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM) Education and a Professor in the Department of Middle Grades, Secondary, and K-12 Education
at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. His research interests focus on supporting research-based
pedagogies in mathematics and incorporating writing in mathematics classrooms.

Reenay R. H. Rogers holds a Master’s degree in secondary science education and a Ph. D. in instruc-
tional leadership with an emphasis in instructional technology from The University of Alabama. She is
an assistant professor at The University of West Alabama. Dr. Rogers currently serves as a co-director
for Project Engage, a STEM grant from the U. S. Department of Education, the chair of the Department
of Instructional Leadership and Support, and was recently named Director of Assessment and Evalua-
tion for the College of Education. Research interests include online education, technology integration,
and STEM education.

307
 About the Contributors

Linda van Ryneveld believes that it is not what you teach, but what your students learn that matters.
As such she is passionate about creating learning environments that are authentic and real, and prepare
the learners for their future employment. She believes that learners, who take courses that are fun and
inspirational, are more motivated to spend time on task. Linda van Ryneveld joined the University of
Pretoria in March 2013 in the position of Director: Teaching and Learning, Faculty of Veterinary Science
at the Onderstepoort campus. From 2008 to early 2013 she was the Director for Curriculum Develop-
ment and Support at the Tshwane University of Technology. Previously, she was a Deputy Director in
the Directorate for Teaching and Learning with Technology at the same institution. Linda van Ryneveld
was awarded a Doctorate degree in Computer-Integrated Education by the University of Pretoria in 2004
and an Associate Professorship in 2013. Linda loves living life to the fullest and appreciates humour,
passion and a zeal for life in others. Her current interests include all types of learning (including mo-
bile learning), instructional and curriculum design, open educational resources, educational games and
simulations, assessment, student hand-held response devices (clickers), learning theories, recognition
of prior learning, faculty/staff and professional development, cost-effective web-based applications for
teaching and learning and gender issues.

Nilay Keskin Samanci is Assistant Professor at the Department of Primary Education, Gazi University.
Her research interests include bioethics education, argumentation based inquiry and socioscientific issues.

Gail Sanders is Professor of Management Education and Development. She is programme leader
for the University of Sunderland Professional Doctorate and leader of the ‘Leadership and Professional
Practice’ research cluster in the Faculty of Business and Law.

Peter Smith is Emeritus Professor of Computing. He joined the University as an undergraduate

student in 1975 and received his Doctorate in 1981. Since then he has held several teaching, research
and management positions at the University, including Dean, and Chair of the University Research De-
grees Committee. He has published over 250 papers, and supervised and examined over 100 doctoral
candidates at Universities in the UK, Europe and Hong Kong. Peter is a Fellow of the British Computer
Society and the Higher Education Academy. He has published extensively on a range of subjects includ-
ing computing, management, and doctoral studies, particularly in relation to Professional Doctorates.

Anil S. Rakicioglu Soylemez is an instructor at Abant İzzet Baysal University. Her major research
interests include teacher education, mentoring practices and practice teaching.

Ayse Selmin Soylemez is an instructor at Abant İzzet Baysal University. Her major research interests
include teaching English to young learners, materials evaluation and teacher education.

Yan Sun is an Assistant Professor of Instructional Technology at the University of West Alabama
(UWA). She received her Ph.D. in Learning, Design, and Technology from Purdue University and worked
as a Postdoctoral researcher at Texas A&M University before joining UWA. Her research interests revolve
around K-12 STEM education and technology integration.

308
About the Contributors

Ece Zehir Topkaya is a lecturer at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, ELT
Department. She teaches several courses at undergraduate and graduate levels. Her research interests
include teacher education, program evaluation, psychology of learning.

Amanda Yesilbursa is an associate professor at Uludag University. Her major research interests
include teacher education and reflective teaching.

Chuang Wang is an associate professor of educational research at the University of North Carolina
at Charlotte. His research interests include self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulatory behaviors of students
studying English as a second language and mathematics. He teaches educational research courses and
provides program evaluation services to federal- and state-funded grants. He has published 6 books, 10
book chapters, and 62 journal articles. Of the 78 publications, 45 were in the areas of reading or math-
ematics and were related to factors such as student, teacher, principal, superintendent, and community
characteristics. He also had more than 40 paper presentations at national and international academic
conferences.

Jodie Winship holds a Ph. D. from Capella University. She currently is an Assistant Professor in
Special Education and serves as the Department Chair for Curriculum and Instruction at the University
of West Alabama. Dr. Winship has also served as the principal investigator on Project Bloom, a STEM
grant for recruiting first generation black American STEM students. Dr. Winship’s research interests
include assistive technologies, students with special needs, and STEM education.

309
310

Index

A F
Action Research 11, 14, 16, 129, 176-178, 180, 184, Fidelity 32-33, 35-48, 141, 143
189-190, 194 flexibility 5, 29, 39, 45, 103, 231
AMC Anywhere 35-42, 44-48, 141-145 Formative Assessment 32-37, 41, 44, 46-48, 127,
Authentic Learning 74, 77-78, 90, 132 141-142, 145

B H
Blended Learning 115, 119 Higher Education 9-10, 115, 126-128, 133-136, 205,
222
C Hutchinson and Waters 153, 157-158, 168, 170-171
CALL 38, 76, 129, 133, 168, 195-201, 204-206, 208 I
Capacity Building 126-128
classroom activities 34, 189, 209 Instructional Practices 37, 46, 91, 145, 209-210,
Classroom Management 54, 116, 154, 159, 181-183, 216-217, 219
185-186, 189-190, 209, 213-216, 219, 222, 230
classroom observation 141, 181, 188, 209, 231 K
Collaborative Action Research 176-178, 189-190,
194 K-12 STEM Education 74-77, 80, 84
Common Core 94, 138-139
conceptual understanding 93-94, 142 L
Content Knowledge 74, 76-77, 80, 84-85, 90, 93, Learner-Centered Professional Development 34,
106, 110, 116, 124, 139, 141, 145, 151 137-139, 143-144, 146

D M
Dilemma 126, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 194 Mathematics 22, 32-39, 43-44, 47-48, 53, 60, 73,
Doctorate 1-2, 4-14, 16, 21, 134 75-76, 83, 91-99, 101, 103, 105-106, 112, 137-
142, 144, 146, 150-152, 154, 171, 212
E Mathematics Education 103, 105, 137
Educational Technology 115-116, 118-119, 126- Mathematics Professional Development 32-34, 91,
127, 129, 134-136 94, 96, 98, 101, 106, 137, 139
EFL 179, 190, 195-196, 198, 200, 205-206, 208, Mentor 17-18, 21-22, 24-25, 28-29, 96, 176-180,
212, 219-222, 224-225, 228-232, 236 182-184, 186, 189, 194, 229
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) 195 metaphors 220, 224-232
Index

N S
Needs Analysis 130, 149-150, 152-157, 170 Scaffolding 63, 77, 81, 90
Non-Native 149-150, 154, 158, 167, 170, 232 science education 17-18, 22, 26, 29, 56, 60
Number Sense 34, 36, 45, 47, 141-143 self-awareness 209
Self-efficacy Beliefs 78, 81, 85
P Social Constructivist Theory 90
Staff Development 10, 92, 128, 135
Partners@Work 128-136 Stakeholders 34, 66, 132-134, 149, 151, 155-157,
pedagogical change 57 159, 167-168, 170, 178, 196, 216, 221, 229
Pedagogical Content Knowledge 74, 76, 116, 124, STEM Content Knowledge 74, 76-77, 80, 84-85
139 STEM teacher 73-75
Pedagogy 17, 27, 33-35, 57-59, 63, 65, 76, 78, 84, Student-centered pedagogies 141
94, 105, 112, 116-117, 137, 139, 150, 153 Subject Teachers 149-168, 170-171
personal transformation 14
Practice Teaching 198, 205, 211, 217, 221, 223-225, T
227-230, 232, 236-237
Practicum 176-183, 185-186, 188-190, 194, 210, Target Needs 149, 153, 157-158, 167-168, 170-171
212-213, 217, 220-222, 230 Teacher Education 54, 150-151, 154, 171, 176-179,
Pre-Service Teacher Education 217, 219 184, 188-191, 194-200, 205-206, 209-213, 216-
Productive Language Skills 149, 170 217, 219-223, 230-232
Professional Development 5, 32-38, 40-48, 52-58, Teacher Knowledge 94, 116
61, 63, 66, 73-82, 84-85, 90-99, 101-106, 109, Teacher Leaders 91, 96-101, 103-106, 109-110,
111-113, 115-118, 120, 122, 126-129, 133-146, 112-113
165, 176-178, 180-181, 189-190, 194, 198, Teacher Learning 34, 61, 94-95, 106, 139, 144-146,
211-212, 216, 229-231 176
Professional Development (PD) 37, 105-106, 142 Teacher Training 55-56, 61, 63, 103, 117, 122-123,
Professional development programme 57-58, 61, 150, 154, 168, 170-171, 177, 197-198, 205,
128-129, 136, 176, 178, 180 208, 223, 230-231
Professional Doctorate 1-2, 4-10, 12-14, 16 Teaching Activities 136, 213-216, 219
professional learning 34-35, 48, 113, 139, 145, 180, Teaching Materials 219
190, 196, 205, 220-221, 223-232 Teaching Self 237
Prospective EFL Teacher 220, 224, 236 Technology 6, 19, 37, 53, 55, 57, 59-60, 73, 76, 83,
Prospective EFL Teachers 195-196, 200, 205-206, 115-119, 121-123, 126-130, 132-136, 139, 149-
208, 220-221, 225, 228-230, 232 150, 176, 196-199, 201-206, 208-209, 215
Technology Resources 202, 208
R thinking skills 52, 59-61, 63-65, 210, 216-217
Trainee Teacher 176-178, 180, 186, 190, 194
Receptive Language Skills 170
Reflection 1, 8-13, 16, 24, 33-34, 36, 38-39, 41, 43, U
45, 48, 56, 63, 132, 178, 180-181, 183, 185,
187, 189-190, 194, 205, 210-213, 216-217, use of materials 209, 214
219, 231, 237
reflective practice 2-4, 7, 12-14, 84, 210-212, 216-
217

311