Slavic Church Architecture in Scandinavia?

Early medieval exchange of architecture and possible eastern orthodox influence.

Draft
Jan Eskildsen

This is an slightly edited version of a paper presented at the conference Origines et mutationes
circa principio Mare Balticum in Faktoria, Pruszcz Gdanski, arranged by Uniwersytet Gdanski
primo September 2015.
To begin with just a few words on Peter Plau's work on socialisation, which has been an
inspiration for the conference, the second of its kind. Religion is not a prominent issue for Plau,
but since each person with whom one comes into contact, in some way is an agent of
socialisation, also religion has been discussed by others1 as an agent of socialization.
Christianization can be seen an agent for socialisation, but since this is not the main topic here, I
will just mention, that different religious preferences and religiousity over time have demanded
differences in the construction of a church, the liturgy and practices.
Limited by space I will focus on connections between Poland and Denmark. As described by
many scholars, people from Bornholm and Scandinavia in general interacted among others with
Slavic tribes, some migration took place and the Danish royal family was allied with Obodrite
royal house since the end of the 10th century, and later the Danish royal family was allied with the
Piast royal house, in the first third of the 12th century.

Rotundas in the Medieval North

In the early Middle Ages a number of circular churches, rotundas, were built in the East
Scandinavian area, many of them on Danish soil. Most of them have been dated between 1100
and 1250, but it has also been discussed whether some of them were of earlier or later origin. Parts
of Sweden were at that time part of Denmark, and the Danish king had properties in other parts of
Sweden. Several scholars2 have described and discussed these churches during the 20th century
and the beginning of 21st century, but as often is the case with serious research, this did not have
particularly strong public interest. In part because of competition from superficial articles and
books, in part because of competition from heterodoxies. In some of Scandinavia the public
debate has been plagued for several decades by writers who love and serve the "Knights Templar
Industry", as if they were part of a cult. This disorder began in these parts after 1989, when a

1
M.Cronwall; E.Okon
2
H.Frö len 1912; E.Wrangel 1933,1935; C.M.Smidt 1935,1940; C.G.Schultz 1959; F.Birkebæk, 1992; H.K. Kristensen 2001;
L.K.Møller 1987; M.Anglert 1989, J.Wienberg , W.A. Jensen 2008; Kenneth J. Conant, J.Kroesen 2000.

1
historical yearbook published an article in which the author claimed, that a church on Bornholm
could be inspired by a building in Portugal, and that 15 round churches were built by the Knights
Templar. To put it shortly, the building in Portugal was finished many years after the church it
was compared to, it was a bad comparison and at least 11 of the 15 churches were raised by
different organisations and persons unconnected with the Knights Templar, 3 of the remaining,
one of which is questionable, are not circular.3
The result of my perennial study is published in the article Killing of a Myth4, which is a
summary of a chapter of my book, in Danish, Bornholm og Østersøen 1060-1140 (Bornholm and
the Baltic). The conclusion, which is not only mine, but has also been made by others, is that
circular churches came to Medieval Denmark in the first third of the 12th century. A
historiographical study shows, that key persons may have played a decisive role, and the tracks to
their origins lead to the countries south of the Baltic Sea.
Many rotundas were built in European countries, both before and after the First Crusade, but
even if it could be called a medieval matter of fashion, it would be interesting to find the original,
or first builders of the churches in the Eastern part of Scandinavia. Several scholars have
presented their ideas, pointing to Poland and other Slavic countries as the closest sources of
inspiration. In tracing rotundas through Europe, from Italy during the Middle and
Eastern European countries to the island Bornholm, where I live, I have studied literature on
dynastic, family relationships, as I have also researched on the relations between Denmark and
Poland, and published some of the results in the forementioned books and several articles.

Christianization of Europe, Scandinavia

In Denmark you learn only about the Roman Catholic church and their missionaries Ebo and
Ansgar's mission during 9th century, and the later baptizing of Harald Bluetooth (c.958-987) in
9635. Old sources were written by Catholic writers and words like heatens and pagans were used
to describe those who were not Christians "in the right way", which could mean that they were in
some sense East Orthodox Christians, that they had misunderstood some prayers or that they
simply were pagans, maybe worshippers of the ancient Norse Gods Odin and Thor. According to
Czech and Polish history the Polish ruler Mieszko I (932-992) was baptized in 966, after having
married the Bohemian Princess Dobrawa, who was a daugther of Boleslaus I the Cruel of the
Premyslid Dynasty.
Ordinary people here never heard of the missionary brothers Cyril (Constantine) and

3
E.Lambert 1955/1978; W.Gö tz 1968. M.Untermann 1989; H. Sutter 1996/1997.
4
J.Eskildsen 2012, 2014. Summaries in English: Killing of a Myth, in German: Der Tod eines Mythos, are both available at
academia.edu – tihs is also the case for the later, original chapter from my book .
5
M.Gelting 2010.

2
Methodius, called Apostles of the Slavs, and their arrival in Czech areas as late as in 863.6
Following their mission churches were built in Moravia according to several scholars including
them also rotundas7. The Croats were the first Slavic people who accepted Christianity between
the 7th and 8th century AD. Areas of countries and also their borders were then completely
different from today. Some churches in the area called Moravia were influenced from the east,
and in the same period Christianity spread in the areas we know today as Slovakia and the Czech
Republic, as a result of the brothers Cyril and Methodius' mission work.
At that time there was no Slavic written language, and Cyril contrived therefore the
Glagolitic alphabet, which was a precursor to the Cyrillic, which is named after him, but probably
was constructed by another. Using the Glagolitic alphabet they could not only spread the religious
message, but also laid the foundation for the Slavic literature. While the Glagolitic alphabet has
almost been forgotten, the Cyrillic is today used by Bulgarians, Yugoslavs, Russians and
Ukrainians and others. The priests in Moravia were trained by people from the Byzantine Empire.
Some elements of eastern church architecture spread, such as the form of small central churches
and clover shaped churches with several apses, but also round churches with a single apse but
without a chancel. As the area became Christian, both rectangular and round churches were built,
some of the last with several apses, others with interior niches, each with four apses, so they got
the shape of a cross with round center. One of the churches in Moravia had four apses, and
measured externally little more than 15 meters at its widest point. Several of the churches showed
in their elevation striking similarities with contemporary Dalmatian and Austrian churches.8

First rotundas in the Czech areas

As a result of the mission two Bulgarians were baptized, khan Boris Michael in 864, and the first
Przemyslid duke Bořivoj I in 878 by Methodius. Levy Hradec is probably the first rotunda in
Czech areas and the place where Christianity began in Bohemia. The first known Czech Prince
Bořivoj ruled there, and shortly after he was baptized by King Svatopluk of Great Moravia,
founded the oldest local church, the pre-Romanesque Rotunda of St. Clement. This church's floor
plan was repeated in other Czech rotundas and also in Polish rotundas.
In Mikulcice in the Czech Republic a round church was built in the years 825-850. Where St.
Vitus Cathedral in Prague stands today, in the castle Hradcany, was originally built one four-leaf
clover shaped rotunda in the years 925-929. After that some lesser round churches were built in
Bohemia. In recent times, it is estimated that in 1250 there were approximately 1000 small round

6
Dvornik 1970, Vlasto 1970, Berend 2007/2009.
7
Dvornik 1970 and Vlasto 1970, Bazant 2003.
8
Eskildsen 2012.

3
churches in the Czech regions.9 The pattern of first a very big and then small round churches are
also seen in Poland, where a large rotunda with apses there was built in Poznan, before that were
built smaller rotundas as parish churches. Later, the big rotunda was extended and ended up as
Poznan's cathedral. A similar development occurred in Gniezno, where the cathedral is also built
over the remains of a rotunda. In the castle area Wawel in Krakow we still see the remains of
several round churches, the first of which was begun about 900-1000. Other Polish churches were
built in relation to smaller castles, and the local experts believe that one or more of them may
have been used as a baptistery.10 Several Polish royal homes had a small round church or chapel in
the main building, and the floor plan of Søborg castle south of Gilleleje on Zealand is a reminder
of these, especially that plant found in Ostrow Lednicki, where Mieszko I possibly was baptized.
The idea of round churches in the Czech was fueled after the young Boleslav II of Bohemia
(967-999) had asked his sister Mlada to go to Rome and persuade the Pope to establish a bishopric
in Bohemia. Mlada traveled to Rome in the company of several diplomats and came back few
years later after being given permission to found a monastery in the diocese. She later became the
monastery's first abbess. In Rome, she was captivated by the round churches and shrines which is
why she worked through her brother to get several round churches built in Bohemia, and this was
also important for the church building in Poland because of the two countries' mutual relations.

Rotundas in the North

Professor Jes Wienberg, University of Lund, has recently listed the round churches in the North11;
in his list he includes a few octagons, which have a different architectural background from the
round churches. When those are counted in total, we know in 2014 of 34 round churches in all in
the North. They are distributed this way: 19 in medieval Denmark: in Southern Schleswig Sankt
Mikael in Schleswig; in Jutland Thorsager and Malling; on Funen Horne; on Zealand Bjernede,
Farendløse, Himlingøje, Hørve, Pedersborg, All Saints in Roskilde, Selsø, Store Heddinge
(octagonal nave) and Søborg; Skåne Sankt Mikael in Helsingborg and Valleberga; Bornholm
Nykirke, Nylars, Ols and Østerlars churches. In the medieval Sweden is known 13 round
churches: in Småland Hagby and Voxtorp; Öland Borgholm; i Vastergötland Agnestad, Dimbo
and Skörstorp; in Östergötland Klosterstad, Tjärstad and Vårdsberg; in Uppland Bromma, Munsö
and Solna and on Gotland Holy Spirit (octagonal nave) in Visby. In medieval Norway two round
churches are known, namely Vestfold St. Olav in Tønsberg and the Orkney Islands Orphir.
The rotunda’s original floor plans are not always known in their entirety, because of the
changing conditions of preservation, but like churches with elongated nave could be with or
9
Bazant 2003.
10
Europas Mitte um 1000. Buko 2008.
11
Wienberg 2014.

4
without apse, round churches could also be with or without the apse as a separate part of the
building. Thus 12 round churches are known to have had the apse and chancel/choir: Thorsager,
Bjernede, Hørve, Selsø, Valleberga, Nykirke, Nylars, Ols, Østerlars, Voxtorp, Skörstorp and St.
Olav in Tønsberg. And 10 round churches are known to have had a apse-chancel (rounded
chancel): St. Michael in Schleswig, All Saints in Roskilde, Sankt Mikael in Helsingborg, Hagby,
Agnestad, Abbey city, Vårdsberg, Bromma, Munsö and Orphir. At Store Heddinge and Holy
Spirit in Visby the chancel (choir) has an inner apse, but also this phenomenon is known from
Romanesque churches with elongated nave.
In the appropriate centuries parts of the current Sweden (Skåne, Halland and Blekinge) were
included in the Danish realm. In addition to that an analysis of history, old sources and traditions,
and rune stones - based on our "near pendant" to the Domesday Book, Valdemars Jordebog (Liber
Census Daniæ) from 1231, shows which areas in Sweden, in the book called Swecia, were owned
by the Danish King, which means that some of the round churches mentioned by Wienberg could
have been built at the behest of Danes.12 The old manuscript contains a section on the King's
property in Swecia, which refers to areas outside the Medieval Denmark (or Denmark of that
time), which included Skåne, Halland and Blekinge, and the analyst has found properties, which
also show that some rotundas were built in those areas and their surroundings. It might be
surprising, but not it was not until 2009 that a comprehensive study of these areas in Swecia was
made or written.
Some writers seem do have misunderstood one thing, because Svietoslawa and Sigrid Storråda
(Haughty) were not the same person. According to Scandinavian tradition (Snorre Sturluson)
Sigrid Storråda was daughter of Skoglar Toste from West Götaland. Svietoslawa was of course
daughter of Mieszko I. The Polish ruling family, the Piasts, obviously supported the cult of St.
Lambert of Liège. That is why the son of Mieszko I's daughter Svietoslawa and Svein Forkbeard,
Canute the Great of Denmark, was baptized Lambert. Boleslaw I Chrobry's daughter was married
to King Bela of Hungary and thier son was baptized Lambert; his son Casimir was baptized
Lambert; Mieszko II Lambert, married Richiza, and also one of their sons were baptized
Lambert.13

12
Krambs 2009.
13
Canute the Great was baptized Lambert, which can be seen in these sources: a. Adam of Bremen wrote: "Chnut filius Suein
regis abiecto nomine gentilitatis in baptismo Lambertus nomen accepit. Unde scriptum est in Libro fraternitas nostrae: "Lambrecht
rex Danorum et Imma regina et Chnut filius eorum devote se commendaverunt orationibus fratrum Bremensium." (Steenstrup,
Normannerne III, p.402) (Having put away his pagan name, Cnut, the son of King Svein, received the name Lambert in baptism.
Hence it is written in our fraternity book: "Lambert, the king of Danes and Queen Emma and their son Cnut (Hardeknud) devoutly
commended themselves to the prayers of the brethren of Bremen). b. In the calendar Leofric Missal a note for 11. november tells:
"Obitus Landberti piissimi regis" (Pfaff, p.28). (= the most pious king Lambert is dead). The date of his death is uncertain, sources
have 11., 12, and 13. November.

5
 As I wrote some rotundas were rather large and most of the parish churches were smaller. The
same is true on Bornholm, where Østerlars Church has an inner diameter of 13 meter, (the same
as St.Vitus at Hradceny in Prague), Olsker (St. Olof's) is high, but narrower and Nylars and Nyker
are smaller, the last with an inner diameter of 9 meters.

With apse but without chancel

Among the churches with apse but without the chancel or choir, there is the now vanished All
Saints Church in Roskilde, Hagby Church close to Kalmar, St.Michael in Helsingborg, as well as
churches in Klosterstad, Vårdsberg, Munsö and Orphir on Mainland, Orkney. The churches do not
have a chancel, which is the norm in Western churches. In a way they might point to Byzantine
and Slavic churches, that have no chancel either. (See illustrations). Several Scandinavian
historians have mentioned Boleslaw III Krzywousty as participating in the Kalmar Crusade in
1123, and it has also been mentioned14 that he could have been a former. temporary ruler on the
island Öland.15 The crusade was initiated by the Danish King Niels and the Norwegian King
Sigurd Jorsalfar, but the details are still being discussed. King Niels' son, Magnus, was by his
mother Margrethe Fredkulla heir to west Götaland, and should have been King of Götaland,16 but
something had to be done in the Kalmar area, because, as is told in the saga, some had fallen from
the faith. Maybe they had gone back to be pagans, but if another Christian identity, such as
Orthodox Christianity was represented, that would also have been a problem. I have not been able
to trace Boleslaw III whereabouts that year, but we know, that he was allied with King Niels,
because Krzywoustys' daughter Richeza was married to Magnus some years later.
Could it be that the idea of circular churches, some of which were fortified, was brought to
Scandinavia by Boleslaw and his entourage? And could it be, that some of the rotundas, namely
those without chancels, were built by people with another Christian identity? When we look at the
ruins in Agnestad and Dimbo they look similar to excavated remains from rotundas in Gniezno,
Krakow, Lekno, Poznan as shown by Buko,17 and similar to the remains in Ducove, Pohansko and
Przemysl. They have the same floor plan without chancel, as we can still see in Cieszyn, but also
in the forementioned churches.

Literature:
• Marit Anglert: Hvem forsvarede hvad? "Bornholmske Samlinger", Rønne 1989.

14
N.Blomkvist 2006, 2008.
15
J.Lind, K.V.Jensen, N.Blomkvist, T.Nyberg.
16
Saxo, Lind 1992, Haastrup & Lind 2016.
17
A.Buko 2008.

6
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9
Reconstruction Ducove, appr. 865. St. Adalbert in Krakow, appr. 1000.

Castle Wawel, ca. 1000. Vysehrad,c.1050, Prague Castel Wawel, appr. 1000.

Stara Plzenec, 10.c. Grzegorzowiche, 1200? Cieszyn, 11. century

10
Nyker, Bornholm, (1200?). Nylars, Bornholm, (1150?).

Østerlars, Bornholm (1120 or 1160?) The church St.Vitus, Prague (930).

has the same inner diameter as the St.Vitus
rotunda (beside) in Prague originally had.

Borivoj's rotunda in Levy Hradec. Same shape can be seen in Gniezno, Lekno ,
Pohansko and Poznan; Roskilde in Denmark, and Agnestad, Dimbo and
Klosterstad, Sweden.

Hagby Church, near Kalmar.

11
 Left: Above: plan of
Skö rstad, c. 1150. Agnestad ruin.
Right: Olsker, Bornholm.
11XX?

The red dots mark churches without chancel.

Map: Jes Wienberg, KUML 2014

12