AL BUJAIRI

Heart of the Call

Al Bujairi: Heart of the Call
The High Commission for the Development of Arriyadh and the Historic ad-Dir‘iyah Development Programme

Managing Editor: Peter Harrigan

Revision and Historical Verification: Dr. Fahd bin Abdallah Al Semmari and Dr. Nasser Al Goheimy
Cartographer: Martin Lubikowski
Research and Photography: Roger Harrison
Aerial and Al Bujairi Photography: Abdullah and Mohammed Al Sayari
Picture Research: Clara Semple
Illustrations: Norman MacDonald
Design: Kitty Carruthers
Translated into Arabic by Abboud Talaat Attieh

Printed and bound by LTOOP Printing Press, Riyadh

ISBN:

www.medinapublishing.com

© Medina Publishing, 2015

A l Bujairi
Heart of the Call

HISTORICAL ADDIRIYAH
Ad-Dir‘iyah, the capital of the First Saudi State and the birthplace of the Call of Sheikh
Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab, formed the foundations of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
established and built by its founder, King Abdulaziz bin Abdulrahman bin Faisal.

The careful restoration of historic ad-Dir‘iyah has been undertaken through a

comprehensive programme of preservation and renewal to create a living heritage site
which echoes the remarkable and glorious past events of the first capital and provides a
unique and magnificent example of traditional architecture that effectively utilized God-
given resources.

In 2010 historic ad-Dir‘iyah achieved international recognition and distinction with at-
Turaif listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This national landmark is set to become
a destination welcoming Saudi and overseas visitors and proudly reveal the origins of
the modern Kingdom and the Call on which its spiritual values remain firmly rooted.
Its legacy will also enhance the awareness and education of our youth, the pillars of our
future.

The vision of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Salman bin Abdulaziz, may
God protect him, led to the formation of the successful Development Programme in which
he assembled the needed skills and resources under the Executive Committee of the High
Commission for the Development of Historic ad-Dir‘iyah giving it his care, attention and
active support.

The Programme, a declaration of national identity, represents ambitious urban heritage

and environmental development projects that reveal national, cultural and spiritual values.
It has been shaped through King Salman’s knowledge and understanding of history and
his appreciation of the role of the founders of the Saudi State and reflects his pride in his
religion and traditions. It also demonstrates awareness of the need of our young generation
to recognise the ideals of the Kingdom and become role models embodying the qualities
required for success, continued development and preservation of our sovereignty.

I pray to God to bless this Programme and the efforts of our leaders and citizens who have
helped form historic ad-Dir‘iyah into an integral component that serves the Kingdom and
its people.

Faisal bin Bandar bin Abdulaziz

Chairman of the High Commission for the Development of Arriyadh
Head of the Executive Committee for the Historic ad-Dir‘iyah Development Programme
 NORTHERN
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AD-DIR‘IYAH GOVERNORATE IN RIYADH PROVINCE N A J R A N

Contents

Part One: Origins

chapter one Ad-Dir‘iyah: Early Roots 10

chapter two Ad-Dir‘iyah and the Rise of the First Saudi State 28

chapter three The Fall of the Oasis Capital 40

chapter four Decades in the Shadows 58

Part Two: Restoration and the Future

chapter five Shaping an Ancient Land 74

chapter six Back to Earth 86

chapter seven The Al Bujairi Quarter 104

chapter eight Al Bujairi: Gateway to the Living Heritage Museum of at-Turaif 116

Picture credits 128

PART ONE
ORIGINS
Photograph taken by Harry St John Philby in 1917 of the
bed of Wadi Hanifah looking north-west, with Al Bujairi on
the right and the ruins of at-Turaif on the left.

10
chapter one
Ad-Dir‘iyah: Early Roots

F or millennia Wadi Hanifah has nurtured oasis

communities in a string of towns, villages and
hamlets threaded along its main watercourse and some
months, recharged aquifers providing precious ground
water supplies to sustain oasis crops, palm groves and
orchards. The seasonal floods also brought down and
300 tributaries. Rains, predominantly falling in winter deposited fertile silt and mud along the banks. The

11
 FOUNDING OF THE SECOND SAUDI STATE
1240H 1825G
with Riyadh as its capital by Imam
Turki bin Abdullah bin Muhammad
The invasion of Ibrahim Pasha, the destruction of 1820G
1235H
ad-Dir‘iyah and the end of the First Saudi State Execution of Imam Abdullah bin Saud
1815G The reign of Imam Abdullah bin Saud
1230H Assasination of Imam Saud bin Abdulaziz

1225H 1810G
The reign of Imam Saud bin Abdulaziz
1220H 1805G
Assasination of Imam Abdulaziz bin Mohammad
1215H 1800G

1210H 1795G
Death of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab
1205H 1790G

1200H 1785G The reign of Imam Abdulaziz bin Mohammad

1195H 1780G

1190H 1775G

1185H
1770G
The death of Imam Mohammad bin Saud
1180H
1765G

1175H
1760G

1170H
1755G
1165H
1750G
1160H
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab 1745G
FOUNDING OF THE FIRST SAUDI STATE
arrived in al-Dir‘yah 1155H
Death of Sheikh Abdulwahhab bin Sulaiman 1740G The reign of Imam Mohammad bin Saud
father of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab 1150H
1735G
Return of Sheikh Mohammad bin 1145H
Abdulwahhab to Huraymila 1730G
1140H The death of Emir Saud bin Mohammad
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab travels 1725G
1135H The reign of Emir Saud bin Mohammad
to Makkah and Madinah to study
1720G
1130H
1715G
1125H
1710G
1120H

1705G
Birth of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab 1115H

1111H 1700G

TIME LINE OF THE FIRST SAUDI STATE

12
earth formed was essential not only for flourishing bin Athal who was the Sheikh of Bani Hanifah. After
agriculture: it also provided a valuable and sustainable the death of the Prophet, Bani Hanifah refused to pay
source of building material. zakat and as a result Khalifa Abu Bakr sent his Muslim
army to force them to observe the requirements of
Wadi Hanifah is by far the largest wadi system in the Islamic tax. This culminated with the battles of Al
northern and central parts of the Tuwaiq Escarpment Yamamah and victory for the Muslim army. The
which lies to its west. It was once called Wadi Al Arid, battles were a turning point and resulted in the
the name previously given to the escarpment, and the commitment of Bani Hanifah to all five pillars of Islam
region it passes through was known as Al Yamamah. thus paving the way for further expansion throughout
Along the central part of its course it flows first Arabia. During the campaign there were heavy losses
eastwards from the arcing crest of the sedimentary among the Muslim army. Among those lost were many
limestone cliffs of Tuwaiq and then turns abruptly teachers with the title Hafiz who had memorized
south. In ancient times, around the oasis of Al Kharj, it the Holy Quran. As a result Abu Bakr ordered the
formed a confluence with a paleo river, Wadi Al Sabha, compilation of the revealed holy words of the Quran in
which flowed into the Arabian Gulf. Early trade routes its entirety.
developed along the course of this ancient river.
As communities in the region grew so too did trade
It was on Wadi Hanifah and its tributaries that and contact. Social and economic life prospered and Al
some of the earliest settled agricultural and trading Yamamah became one of the sources of soldiers for the
communities in the region emerged. Pre-eminent Islamic army that opened Iraq, eastern and southern
among them were names that were to resonate Arabia and Persia. Scholarship and governance
across the Muslim world: oasis towns that include Al developed and flourished in Najd according to Islamic
Uyaynah, ad-Dir‘iyah, Al Kharj, and Hajr, a name that precepts. But by the end of the Omayyad period in the
was later replaced with the toponym of Arriyadh. eighth century ce, Al Yamamah lost its importance
and it was not mentioned in the chronicles and events
The fertile Wadi Hanifah was named after the Bani that subsequently occurred. Probably this was due
Hanifah tribe that lived along its banks for many to droughts that recurrently affected the region. By
centuries. Along with other major tribes in the region the sixteenth century conditions began to return to
they established settlements that were to shape the normalcy and Wadi towns like Al Uyaynah, Al Kharj
history of Central Arabia. The Bani Hanifah emigrated and ad-Dir‘iyah as well as those on the plains of Al
from the heart of Najd after it came under the control Washm such as Durma and Ushayqir began to thrive
of the Ukhaidhir dynasty in 867 (252 h) and fell into again and become prosperous centres of trade and
depression and turmoil. But two centuries later the agriculture.
dynasty waned and they returned and re-established
themselves. Al Yamamah and its agricultural towns But it was ad-Dir‘iyah that was to become the town
once again thrived. It was famed for the abundant that distinguished itself in prosperity, influence and
crops it produced, many of which were exported to size. It was destined to become a strong capital on the
Makkah. Arabian Peninsula and embrace a religious reform
Call that profoundly influenced the cultural, political
At the beginning of Islam many of the inhabitants and social situation throughout Arabia and the Islamic
became Muslims following in the steps of Thumamah World.

13
14
The Rise of Ad-Dir‘iyah

Around the ninth century a branch of Bani Hanifah

known as Al Dura established a small town near Al
Qatif with the name of ad-Dir‘iyah. This occurred
after their migration towards the shores of the Arabian
Gulf from the heart of Najd following control by the
Ukhaidhir dynasty and the dispersal of many tribes
and settlers in Najd. By the middle of the fifteenth
century (850) Ibn Dura who was living in Hajr Al
Yamamah invited his cousin Mana Al Muradah
from ad-Dir‘iyah in Eastern Arabia to come to Wadi
Hanifah. He and his clan arrived and were given
fertile land at Ghasaiba and Mulaybid and these new
communities on the side of Wadi Hanifah formed the
base and nucleus of ad-Dir‘iyah which they named
after their former home near the Arabian Gulf. Ad-
Dir‘iyah grew despite occasional divisions within the
ruling clan. A faint echo to its early origins, in the
sands to the south west of Qatif there is a spot known
as ad-Dir‘iyah.

During the seventeenth century drought, locust attack

and disease ravaged Najd, forcing many nomads and
townsfolk to migrate to Iraq. They were replaced by
other tribes moving in, many of whom abandoned their
precarious nomadic existence. Such upheavals led to
renewed feuding, and the Muradah split into two rival
groups, Al Muqrin and Al Watban, contending for the
chieftaincy. This rivalry was reflected in the plan of ad-
Dir‘iyah which, as so often in Najd, became a settlement
divided into two distinct main quarters, the elevated
area of at-Turaif on the western side of Wadi Hanifah

Aerial view of ad-Dir‘iyah in 1991, looking north-west. It

shows at-Turaif and the road running along the bed of Wadi
Hanifah. Al Bujairi is connected by the old bridge to at-Turaif
and Al Muraih is immediately to the south.

15
16
The oasis of ad-Dir‘iyah centers on Wadi Hanifah and was
encircled by defensive walls with towers. The Faisal Tower
(pictured right) overlooks Wadi Hanifah and dominates the
defences of at-Turaif.

Left: Buraika Tower in the south-east corner of the site.

17
and the fertile hamlets which included Al Bujairi on Ad-Dir‘iyah Capital of the First Saudi State
the opposite side of the wadi. Ad-Dir‘iyah survived and Imam Mohammad bin Saud
until the early eighteenth century its rulers belonged
to Al Saud. Its hardy settlers faced recurrent natural Mohammad bin Saud was the last Emir of ad-Dir‘iyah
challenges of drought, locusts and disease and from all and the first Imam of the First Saudi State. During
accounts the town seems to have achieved little more his rule he effectively forged unity and put an end
prominence than the average Najdi community. to the hostilities and conflicts that had affected its
communities. He spread security and stability to
Throughout the period up to 1725, another wadi neighbouring towns and as a result of his leadership ad-
town further upstream outshone ad-Dir‘iyah in size, Dir‘iyah entered a new and important era in its history
commerce, strength and political prestige. This was and grew to occupy a powerful and influential position
Al Uyaynah, a large oasis community of some 25,000 in the region.
people governed by Al Muammar, a clan more cohesive
than the Muradah of ad-Dir‘iyah. Al Muammar The First Saudi State was established in ad-Dir‘iyah
drew strength from its protection by the Bani Khalid by Imam Mohammad bin Saud in 1744 (1157 h)
rulers of Al Hasa, who in 1670 (1080) had ejected the when he mutually recognized Sheikh Mohammad
Ottomans and taken control of the two great oases of bin Abdulwahhab and agreed to support his Call and
Al Hasa and Qatif. In order to keep the trade routes reformist teachings.
safe, the Bani Khalid fostered relations with the Najdi
settlements. Their choice of Al Uyaynah as ally was a Over the next 22 years the Imam established the
sound one, for it had become the most expansionist foundations of the State and supported Sheikh
town in southern Najd, a seat of learning with its Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab. He led military
buildings and agricultural development the wonder of campaigns to unify the wide areas of Arabia and
central Arabia. encouraged the spread of learning and the Call. Imam
Mohammad bin Saud was known as a strong and
Rivalry with ad-Dir‘iyah was inevitable and raids independent character recognized and respected for
ensued on it and other Najdi towns. At some time his well-intentioned daily life and religious beliefs,
before 1720 Saud bin Mohammad of the Muqrin branch loyalty and wisdom in dealing with issues and for his
assumed the chieftainship of ad-Dir‘iyah, so becoming fair treatment of citizens. Among his other qualities
the eponymous founder of the House of Saud. After his were generosity, justice, readily offering help to the
death in 1724 (1137), his successors were engaged in needy and spending in the field of charity and religious
renewed skirmishes with Al Uyaynah, now weakened endowments.
by an epidemic, and it was as a result of one of these
that Saud’s son Mohammad acceded to the rule in 1727 Having established the First Saudi State with ad-
(1139). Mohammad bin Saud would rule until his death Dir‘iyah as its capital, he worked tirelessly to establish
in 1765 (1179). This was a momentous period during a powerful Emirate which enjoyed peace and security.
which ad-Dir‘iyah became the capital of the First He died in ad-Dir‘iyah in 1765 (1179) after a rule, first as
Saudi State and the centre of Sheikh Mohammad bin Emir and subsequently as Imam, that stretched over 40
Abdulwahhab’s Call for religious reform. years.

18
THE SETTLEMENTS OF WADI HANIFAH
0 5 10 15 20 25 kilometers

Cultivation

Wadi
al-Uyaynah
T U W A I Q

WA D I
AN

H
I al-Jubaylah

FA
H
al-Ammariyyah

Khiyalat Abu Suwaitif

Aba al-Kibash
E S C

Sha‘ib Bukhaythah

al-Mughaydir al-Malqa

Sheikh Mohammad bin

A R

AH

Abdulwahhab’s journey
WA D I H A N I F

from al-Uyaynah to
ad-Dir‘iyah, 1157H/1744
(Ibn Bishr)
P M

Sh a’i b Sa far

AD-DIR‘IYAH
E N

at-Turaif
l - Ay san

al-Bujairi
i a
d
Wa
T

Wa d i
Wu b
ay r Arqah

Umm al-Hamman

Riyadh

19
Building the First Saudi State The Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Mosque in Al
Bujairi pictured in the early 1990s.
After the death of Mohammad bin Saud his son
Imam Abdulaziz bin Mohammad took charge the
continuation of successfully building the First Saudi
State. During the next four decades chronicles describe
how he spread its influence over an even larger area of justice. He ruled firmly and oversaw the largest
bringing stability and spreading the Call according to expansion of the First Saudi State and the growth of
the Holy Quran and the Sunnah: its strength and influence to take in much of Arabia
to its edges bordering Sham, Iraq, Oman and Yemen.
Imam Abdulaziz was devoid of pomp and Imam Saud was eloquent and had deep knowledge of
avoided self-aggrandisement. He was neither religious sciences and used to participate in discussions
extravagant in his manner of dress, nor did his of religious matters and while explaining his opinions
weapons glitter with decoration. He gave priority enthusiastically he used to let others do the same. The
to Quranic studies and cared about learning. rule of Imam Saud continued until his death in 1814
Justice and public order flourished under his rule, (1229) in a period that marked the zenith of the First
security spread and pilgrim routes became safe. Saudi State.

After his assassination in 1803 (1218) at the mosque After the death of Saud, Abdullah became Imam. His
in at-Turaif, his son Imam Saud bin Abdulaziz took father had trained him well in leadership and he was
power. Saud was already well known before the death well versed in military affairs. He could gallop his horse
of his father for his military prowess and qualities from the age of five and was known for his bravery in

20
the field, was an accomplished poet and had qualities Masterbuilder’s residence south-east of Subalat Al Mudi. The
of piety and generosity. During his rule the First house was in use until the 1950s.
Saudi State began to witness opportunistic hostilities
to eliminate its power and influence. The campaigns
of the Ottoman Empire against the First Saudi State
were waged through its Wali in Egypt, Mohammad
Ali Pasha and started during the rule of Saud bin ulama of his time, serving as qadi of Al Uyaynah until
Abdulaziz. By 1818 (1233) these had reached the Saudi 1727. The young Mohammad’s father recognized his
capital of ad-Dir‘iyah. son’s precocious talent for his studies. “I have often,” he
is reported as having said, “in forming my decisions,
been benefited by the opinions of my son Mohammad.”
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab: early
career Around 1723 (1135) Mohammad left Al Uyaynah to
further his studies in Makkah and Madinah. Later he
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab initiated and went to Basra, where he began campaigning publicly
lead the Call to abandon wayward religious practices against what he saw as polytheistic practices. He had
which was actively supported by the Imams of the also intended to study in Damascus, but abandoned
First Saudi State in ad-Dir‘iyah. He was born in 1703 thoughts of going there and instead left Basra on
(1115h) in Al Uyaynah into a prominent family of foot, and travelled via Zubayr to Al Hasa, where he
religious notables. His grandfather, Sulayman bin Ali, continued his studies. From here he rejoined his father,
had served as qadi and mufti of Al Uyaynah, while his who was by now at Huraymila, staying with him until
father Abdulwahhab was one of the most distinguished his death in 1740 (1153).

21
He began to actively propagate his views in Huraymila, and condemnation of vice in his town, but he owed
once again provoking opposition from the established his position to the Bani Khalid leader and this was a
‘ulama’. During this time he publicised his ideas of sacrifice he felt unable to make.
reform in his famous work, Kitab Al Tawhid (‘The
Book of the Oneness of God’), in which he published With great reluctance, especially in view of the marriage
the real nature of his Call: the uniqueness of God as link between the two men, in 1744 he requested Sheikh
revealed in Quran and Sunnah. He decided to appeal Mohammad to leave. Complying, the Sheikh chose
to those in authority to support him and sought out the ad-Dir‘iyah as his next destination leaving on foot,
protection and backing of Al Uyaynah’s ruler, Uthman with no more than a fan to ward off the daytime heat.
bin Hamad Al Muammar. He was welcomed, the Eventually he reached the northern edge of the wadi
ruler giving him his aunt Jawhar in marriage. He and oasis of ad-Dir‘iyah, and called at the house of Abdullah
many of the people were convinced by his Call, which bin Suwaylim who had been one of his students in Al
immediately began to cleanse Al Uyaynah and Al Uyaynah. Later he moved to the house of Hamad bin
Jubaylah of improper and wayward practices and places Suwaylim who had also been one of his students and
of veneration. Zakat (Islamic tax) and strict prayer who welcomed him despite his concern that the Emir of
times were imposed, and Sharia law applied. ad-Dir‘iyah, Mohammad bin Saud, would find out and
object to his presence in the community.
This promising start faltered once news of the Sheikh’s
doings was brought to the ears of the Banu Khalid ruler Awareness of the Sheikh’s presence in the community
of Al Hasa, Sulayman bin Ghurayr, by whose consent and its significance soon spread among some of the
Uthman bin Muammar ruled Al Uyaynah. Sulayman notables of ad-Dir‘iyah, and residents came to visit him
threatened to withhold the income due to Uthman to hear his teaching. It was not long before these people,
from his Al Hasa estates unless the new movement including two of the Emir’s brothers, decided to promote
was stifled. Uthman had been a loyal friend to the the Sheikh’s cause with Emir Mohammad bin Saud, and
Sheikh, and sincere in the commendation of virtue they considered how best to do so.

An extract from the Najdi chronicles written by

Uthman Ibn Bishr, copied in 1853. The text here
describes the historic meeting between Emir of
ad-Dir’iyah, Mohammad bin Saud and Sheikh
Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab in the house of
Ibn Suwaylim.

22
Forging the Historic Pact Arabia and into other regions of the Arab and Islamic
World.
The plan they hit on was to tell his wife, Mudi bint
Abi Wahtan. Mudi was known as a wise woman and The essence of the Call of Sheikh Mohammad bin
strong character who might be sympathetic to the Abdulwahhab is the return to the principles of the
Sheikh’s message. And so it turned out. When the Emir Islamic faith as revealed in the Quran and Sunnah.
Mohammad met his wife she encouraged him to go the No more and no less. It demands as essential the
home of Ibn Suwaylim and welcome him and support abandonment of innovation and myths that do
his Call. She informed her husband that God had placed not belong to the true religion in any way and that
a treasure at his disposal which he should take advantage contradict the basis of Islam, and it reveals the path to
of. Mohammad bin Saud was encouraged to investigate. the oneness of God.
He accepted her advice and his two brothers Thunayyan
and Meshari also supported the idea expressing their The region of Central Arabia and the rest of the Arab
readiness to help. Emir Mohammad then proceeded up and Islamic world suffered at a religious level from
the Wadi on foot to the house to welcome the Sheikh in the spread of innovations and heresies that contradict
a public mark of honour and announce to the people of the true roots of the faith. In Najd there was a spread
ad-Dir‘iyah his support for him and the Call. of places, including domed tombs, visited by people
for supplication and pleas for help of those other than
It was to be an historic encounter. Sheikh Mohammad God. Because such practices are not from the true
bin Abdulwahhab explained to Mohammad bin Saud Islam, Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab opposed
that, by going back to the first principles of Islam, them based on legal judgement according to Sharia as
he would be assured of strength and wealth in this revealed in the Holy Quran and Sunnah.
world and in the hereafter. The Sheikh was evidently
possessed of a charismatic presence, as we are told No doubt the Call of Sheikh Mohammad bin
that “God cast into the heart of Mohammad bin Saud Abdulwahhab was for some unacceptable, particularly
the love of the Sheikh”. Mohammad bin Saud bade to those who took advantage of and profited from the
the Sheikh, “Welcome to a country better than your actions of misguided people and those with a weak
country: you shall have all honour and support from religious education. This lead to opposition to both
us.” The Sheikh replied encouragingly that the future Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab and his Call.
that lay ahead through the active and pure belief in the The Sheikh’s answer was clear: he was a follower not
oneness of God as preached by all the prophets would an innovator and his faith and his religion that of the
be a successful and glorious one. Sunnah and of true believers.

Then Emir Mohammad and Sheikh Mohammad The Sheikh and his sons and students went to great
mutually recognized their respective roles. This was effort to clarify the different aspects of the Call in their
in 1744 (1157). Thus was established the First Saudi letters and books to ensure that the Ulema and the
State and the Reform Call of Sheikh Mohammad bin citizens were fully aware of the teachings. Despite the
Abdulwahhab in ad-Dir‘iyah. From here, the capital of opposition that the Call faced it found support and
the new state, the Call was destined to spread across space to spread throughout Arabia and beyond.

23
 0 25 50 75 kilometers
Sands
Jarrab
Well

al-Artawiyyah
Settlement
Cultivation
Jabal
al-Zilfi
Wadi
A
L
-D
Na

A
fu

H
N
da

Ja
al-Ghat A

ba
l -T

lM
h

Harmah Muba‘id
SU
Ar
uw

uj
Ruwaydah Hafar al-‘Atk
m
DA

az
al-Majma‘ah Tumayr ah
ai

za
ra

IR

l
JA
t

BA

Tuwaym
L

Jalajil
al-Hawtah tk
TU

al-Rawdah l-‘A
ia
Na

WA

al-Attar d
al-Dakhilah Wa
fu

al-Awdah
Q
da
l-S
i
r’r

Ushayqir

Ir
al-Baladin al-Far‘ah al-Qasab Thadiq al-Bir

q
Shaqra

Ba
A al-Qura’in al-Ruwaydah Malham

nb
Sajir L- Uthaithiyya
W

an
AS Tharmida Raghbah AL
H Huraymila M
M Marat AH
-M
Sadus AL Banban

N
af al-Uyaynah al-Jubaylah AL
ud -AR
al-Ammariyyah
Q
ID
un
ai AD-DIR‘IYAH
JA

fu
B

dh Arqah
A
L

ah Riyadh
Durma
T

Manfuhah
U
W
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Wa
IQ

Ju
iH

ba
an
if

il
ah

Dalqan al-Hair

al-Yamamah
Q ad hl ah Wadi Nisah al-Thulaima
al-Salamiyyah
A L-
al-Quwai‘iyyah Na‘jan K H A R
J
Arwa al-Dilam

al-Ruwaidah

al-Hariq
Wa

al-Hawtah
d

THE HISTORIC SETTLEMENTS OF EASTERN NAJD

ia
l-F
ar‘
Al Bujairi: Heart of the Call As in every other Najdi oasis settlement, daily life
would have been conducted to the ceaseless whining
When Sheikh Mohammad arrived at ad-Dir‘iyah there and creaking of the well wheels, as the donkeys walked
were already supporters among the people, including up and down the ramps drawing up the leather buckets
two brothers of the ruler, who had heard his Call that fed the irrigation channels flowing among the
and flocked to his side. His powers of persuasion and palms. If the village had a centre, it would have been
personal magnetism drew many more supporters formed by one of the two or three mosques, each with
to him, including members of his old circle at Al its own circles of religious scholarship and a space for
Uyaynah. This gave Uthman Al Muammar cause to gathering and a few market stalls.
regret his expulsion of the Sheikh, and he came down
from Al Uyaynah to try to persuade him to return. Here, in Al Bujairi, the Sheikh established his
But the Sheikh was true to his promise to Mohammad household. Sources give little information about his
bin Saud not to leave him and the capital. Livelihoods private life, although we know he had sons who all
were not easy for the immigrants, who often underwent became distinguished religious scholars in their father’s
hardships in order to be near the Sheikh, often plying tradition. Four of these were the ancestors of the family
their trades at night so that they could sit with him by of Al Sheikh: Abdullah, Ali, Hussain and Hassan. His
day. eldest son, Abdullah, would succeed him as chief ‘alim
of ad-Dir‘iyah, and would be one of the many clerics
From his newfound and humble homestead in Al and members of Al Saud taken prisoner by Ibrahim
Bujairi Sheikh Mohammad did all he could to help the Pasha on the fall of ad-Dir‘iyah in 1818.
rulers in the main fortified Saudi stronghold of at-
Turaif whilst also finding time to gather his followers One of the Sheikh’s first acts would have been to see to
and pupils around him. Al Bujairi was a conventional the construction of the mosque that survived, perhaps
Najdi farming community, comprising scattered mud- largely unchanged in form, until recent years. The
built homes, draw-wells situated among the palms replacement mosque, a modern concrete structure,
groves and gardens of vegetables, fruit trees and fodder. still bears his name. This was the engine-room of his

The original Sheikh Mohammad bin

Abdulwahhab Mosque in Al Bujairi. This is
the only known photograph of the historic
mosque. It was subsequently replaced
with a concrete mosque which was itself
restored and improved in 2015.

25
reforming mission and Call, where he raised an entire
generation of clerics in the orthodoxies of the faith, to
be sent out as preachers and judges to the settlements of
the expanding Saudi State.

It was from here too that he sent out his numerous

letters and missives to fellow clerics, notables and
communities in the settlements as the influence of
ad-Dir‘iyah spread. In these, as in his other writings,
he reveals himself as preacher, ideologue, teacher
and activist with his concerns being centred on the
practicalities of establishing and maintaining the
regime of godliness.

Over a period of nearly fifty years Sheikh Mohammad

bin Abdulwahhab was guide and mentor to two
Saudi Imams. He influenced their personalities,
educated them in religion, guided their actions as
both individuals and leaders of the community and
was the arbiter in deciding on early campaigns and
in managing the state treasury. In the words of the
Najdi chronicler Ibn Bishr: “No army rode out and
no opinion was issued by the Imam Mohammad and
[his successor] Abdulaziz except on his advice and
approval.”

In his daily life the Sheikh is reported to have been

a model of virtue, a man of deep piety, dedication,
kindness and humility. He was stern with men of
influence, but magnanimous in victory and avuncular
with his students. A man of frugal habits he was
unconcerned with his own status and took no interest
in worldly gain; his generosity was such that he left no
money. He died in June 1792 (Shawwal 1206) at the age
of eighty-nine and was buried in ad-Dir‘iyah.

Illustration by Norman MacDonald of a scene around Al

Dhuwayhirah mosque in Al Bujairi as it might have been
during the period of the First Saudi State. Al Dhuwayhirah
Mosque has been restored with the generous support of HRH
Prince Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz.
27
The chemin de ronde of the massive western wall protecting at-
Turaif. The wall beneath the walkway is nearly three metres thick.

28
chapter two
Ad-Dir‘iyah and the Rise of the
First Saudi State

began to flow steadily in its favour. With unity in

The Ascendancy of Ad-Dir‘iyah in Arabia, 1785–
the region, larger armies could be levied and the
1811 (1199–1226h)
tax base expanded. Raiding parties from Najd had a
speed and sense of mission that struck fear into their

B y 1785 ad-Dir‘iyah had consolidated its position

in Najd to the point where it could turn
outwards with confidence. From now on events
neighbours. The Imam Abdulaziz and his son Saud,
later to be Saud Al Kabir (Saud the Great), were
gifted leaders of men in the field.

29
 nean
Sea 0 200 400 600 kilometers
rra

I
ite

Damascus
R
ed

M A
Y R I Baghdad

A
S

Q
Tig
Karbala ris

Eu
Najaf

ph
ra
tes

A L - J AW F Basra
Sakaka
Dawmat al-Jandal al-Zubayr
IT
WA
GRE KU
AT N
Tabuk AFUD
P E
A L SHAMMAR R S I
A
Tayma JAB Qaryat al-Ulya
Hail

A
bi

ra
AL an
al-Ula -D Jubail
al-Artawiyah Thaj
A
A

al-Wajh Qatif HRAIN

Unayzah Buraydah Dammam BA Gu
L

Ras al-Khaymah
H lf
N
al-Rass al-Mudhnib
-

QATAR
AL-QASIM Dubai Sharjah
H

Wadi al-R u m a
h al-Uyaynah al-Uqayr
Shaqra Wa
Hofuf
I

di
Ha ad-Dir‘iyah
Madinah Durma
J

Riyadh Abu Dhabi

ni

NAJD
fah

Yanbu
A

Wadi al- S a h b a Muscat

al-Duwadimi
Z

al-Yamamah
Afif al-Hariq al-Dilam
AL-KHARJ
AL-AFLAJ

I
Jiddah Makkah L
Turabah A

N
Ranyah H
al-Taif K

A
al-Lidam -
L

M
Bishah A
B

O
U
- R
Red

A L
A
SI
R

al-Qunfudhah
T

Abha
S U

IH
Se
a

AM
D

Najran
AR
AH

UF
A

Jaizan
Sa‘dah DH Salalah
N

Sayun
Shibam AUT
HRAM
HAD
Sana‘a Sayhut

E N ea
Y E M nS
bia
Ara

Aden

THE INFLUENCE OF THE FIRST SAUDI STATE, 1803–14

IMAM SAUD BIN ABDULAZIZ
Source: The Historical Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, Riyadh, 2000. Published by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives.

30
The rulers of Al Hasa from Bani Khalid were not on deep decline, enfeebled by war with Russia and internal
good terms with the First Saudi State and their attitude treachery and dissent. He therefore urged Sulayman
to the Call of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Pasha, the Ottoman governor in Iraq, to stem the
was hostile. They had previously provoked bin rising tide of ad-Dir’iyah’s power. As a result Sulayman
Muammar the Emir of Al Uyaynah to resist the Call launched a well organised military campaign against
and the Sheikh and expel him and kept inciting the the First Saudi State in Al Hasa under the leadership
Najdi towns against the Imam of the Saudi State of Thuwayni bin Abdullah. This was to fail and Saudi
encouraging them to take military actions against it. forces responded by attacking parts of Southern Iraq
However the internal disputes between Bani Khalid under the command of Emir Saud bin Abdulaziz. His
were soon renewed. forces penetrated Iraq as far as the town of Umm Al
Abbas.
Imam Abdulaziz started efforts to annex the oasis of Al
Hasa in 1794 (1208) in a major campaign led by Saud
bin Abdulaziz. Thus Hofuf became a centre to promote
the reform movement throughout Eastern Arabia and
gateway to extend contact and influence and advance
the Call to the Muslim world beyond.
Shallow irrigation channels were dug to distribute water
The Ottoman Sultan in Constantinople was by now among the crops. The small tributaries leading to Wadi
alarmed by developments in Arabia. His Empire was in Hanifah provide rich alluvial soil.

31
The Ottoman response was a second campaign on Al The Beginning of the Confrontation
Hasa under the command of Katakhzah Ali Kykhia
in 1798 (1213). This was described as an organised and The Sharifs launched numerous campaigns against
powerful invasion force with various tribes of Southern the territories of the First Saudi State but all of them
Iraq including Al Muntafiq and Al Zufair and others were to fail. By 1796 (1210), Sharif Ghalib launched a
participating. However, despite the arrival of the major campaign under the command of Sharif Nasser
campaign in Al Hasa, it failed in the end to achieve its bin Yayha that targeted one of the loyal tribes to ad-
goal. Dir’iyah. But in the same year the Saudi forces under
the command of Hadi bin Karmala confronted and
Of even greater concern to the Ottomans was their defeated it in the battle of Al Jamaniya.
tenuous control of the Hijaz and the Holy Cities, and
they pressed the Sharif of Makkah, Ghalib bin Musa‘id, In 1798, the Sharif Ghalib led a large force to the oases
to take action against ad-Dir’iyah. The Sharifs (Ashraf) of south-western Najd and suffered a catastrophic
were hostile to the Call from the outset and they reverse at Al Khurmah, with loss of weapons,
banned its followers from making Hajj except during
short and specific periods. The hostility between the
Sharifs and the First Saudi State grew considerably after
Sharif Ghalib became the ruler of Hijaz and started to
fight the Saudi State shortly after the beginning of his Below: Illustration of the draw-well mechanism (sawani), and
rule. (opposite) the well in operation in gardens just south of at-
Turaif in 1994.

32
33
34
equipment, and silver coins. Ghalib could not deny the I was engaged in this campaign, carried on by
purity of the reformists’ doctrines or their valour in those who truly believe in the unity of God, when
the field and pragmatically wrote to Abdulaziz at ad- God, praised be He, graciously permitted us to
Dir’iyah, proposing peace and inviting him to permit enter Makkah, the Holy, the Exalted, at midday,
the pilgrimage to be made by his people. A truce was on the sixth day of the week, on the eighth of the
agreed and, in 1799 (1214h), a great pilgrim caravan month of Muharram, 1218.
made its way across Najd. A year later, Saud himself
with a large number of his men performed the Hajj. Saud, our leader, whom the Lord protect, gave
protection to everyone within the Holy Place,
For two years there was peace in the west, and the while we, with shaven heads and hair cut short,
truce with Baghdad held in the north-east although entered with safety, crying “Labbaika”, without
expansion continued towards the Syrian border. fear of any created being, and only of the Lord
Hostilities with Sharif Ghalib in the Hijaz however God. Now, though we were more numerous,
reignited and in 1802 Taif was taken with the better armed and disciplined than the people
collaboration of Uthman Al Mudhaifi, a brother-in- of Makkah, yet we did not cut down their trees,
law of Ghalib. Saud moved towards Makkah and after neither did we hunt, nor shed any blood.
several months of siege Ghalib abandoned the city for
Jeddah. In April 1803 the Reformists donned pilgrim When our pilgrimage was over, we gathered
garments and entered Makkah peaceably to perform the people together ... and our leader, whom the
the lesser pilgrimage in the prescribed fashion. Lord save, explained to the divines that there was
no dispute between us and them except on two
The entry into Makkah is recorded in an eye-witness points, and that one of these was a sincere belief
account by the Sheikh’s eldest son, Abdullah. The tone in the Unity of God ... The second point related to
of his report powerfully conveys the zeal and sense of actions lawful and unlawful as prohibited. ...
commitment of ad-Dir’iyah’s soldiers of reform, and the
efforts made by the reformers to convince the Makkan Then they jointly and severally admitted that
establishment of the purity of their doctrines: our belief was best, and promised the Emir to
be guided by the Quran and the Sunnat. He
Praise be to God, the Lord of the Universe, accepted their promise and pardoned them.
and blessing and peace be upon our Prophet Neither did he give any of them the least
Mohammad, the faithful, and on his people and annoyance, nor cease to treat them with the
his companions, and those who lived after them, greatest friendship, especially the divines. ...
and their successors of the next generation! Now Moreover, we explained to them what the Emir
had spoken to them publicly, and pointed out
the proofs of it in the Quran and Sunnat, and in
the conduct of our spotless ancestors, such as the
orthodox Caliphs who ruled over their followers.
... Again we pointed out to them that we were
Opposite: Two children pose on the roof of a mosque in ad- searchers after the truth wherever it might be ....
Dir’iyah. The photographer, Hassan Fathy, was a distinguished In fine, they were not able to chide us for a single
Egyptian architect and exponent of mud brick architecture thing ...
who visited ad-Dir‘iyah in the 1960s.

35

A gathering of camels outside Riyadh near ad-Dir‘iyah. Camels The account mentions that a pamphlet, composed
were vital for trade and constant raiding that took place in the by Sheikh Mohammad on the Unity of God was
region. The photograph was taken by Captain Shakespear in distributed, that the people were directed to exercise
1914. themselves in prayer, and that customs duties and taxes
were abolished. Daily life quickly returned to normal:
shops are said to have opened for business as usual the
next day.

We appointed a ruler over them, Abd Al Mu‘in, Unable to take Jeddah, which was well defended and
the Sharif, [Sharif Ghalib’s brother] and his rule easily supplied by sea, Saud returned to Najd. Ghalib
was established without shedding of blood, and subsequently re-took Makkah but was careful to adhere
without dishonouring or annoying any person. to reformist doctrines, and waived customs dues at
Praised be the Lord of the Universe! Jeddah.

36

Mohammad Ali’s expedition to the Hijaz He was ruthless, ambitious and modernising, and
1811–1815 (1226–1230h) aimed to make Egypt independent while, for the time
being, posing as the faithful servant of the Ottoman
Caliph. Sultan Selim and his successor Mahmoud II
With the loss of the Holy Cities in 1803–04, Sultan (reigned 1808–39), another reforming Sultan, saw an
Selim III’s prestige had been damaged and he inevitably Arabian campaign conducted by Mohammad Ali as a
became more than ever anxious to suppress the reform means simultaneously of restoring their prestige.
movement. By then Mohammad Ali was emerging as
the real master of the Ottoman province of Egypt. Of With a loan from the anxious Sultan, Mohammad
Albanian origin, Mohammad Ali had started out as an Ali prepared a great expedition. In 1811 he placed his
officer in the Ottoman army, and had contrived in the eighteen-year-old son Tusun in command, and sent the
chaos after Napoleon’s occupation to rise to power over fleet off across the Red Sea to Yanbu, equipped with
the Mamluk beys who were Egypt’s traditional rulers. modern weaponry obtained from the Ottoman State.

37
From Yanbu he marched to Madinah and along the Ottoman powers achieved their main goal of taking
way distributed money to the leaders of the tribes to back the two Holy Mosques.
support his invading forces and to rent their camels
to transport equipment and supplies to inner Arabia. But Ghalib was characteristically unable to make up
When he reached Wadi Al Safra the Saudi forces under his mind whether his best interests lay with ad-Dir’iyah
the leadership of Emir Abdullah bin Saud attacked or the Ottoman powers. His real opportunistic design
him from all sides. Tusun’s expeditionary troops were was to let the both invading forces and the Saudis
badly defeated and the survivors fled to Yanbu. Luckily weaken each other. Because of this he was distrusted
for Tusun, the Saudi forces did not follow the defeated by Mohammad Ali and inevitably he was soon to lose
remnant army and subsequently, while waiting at everything. In 1813, Mohammad Ali himself came
Yanbu, Tusun received more military help from Egypt to the Hijaz. He made Makkah his headquarters,
as well as large amounts of money with which to gain contrived to kidnap the temporising Ghalib and sent
local support in the areas surrounding Wadi Al Safra. him into exile. He saw success in the Hijaz as vital to
Tusun then marched to Madinah after the withdrawal his career, as his position in Cairo was still precarious
of Saudi forces from the area. Here Tusun used his siege and the Ottoman Sultan mistrusted him.
cannon and explosives and unfortunately for the Saudi
garrison in Madinah the local population collaborated
with the invasion. The garrison was besieged, disease
spread among the soldiers and they were forced to
surrender in 1812.

The number of those who joined Tusun increased as a
result of his control of Madinah and this was to pave
the way for further advances into Hijaz. Tusun wrote
to Sharif Ghalib secretly asking him the permission
disembark his forces and supplies at the port of Jeddah.
The Sharif agreed despite his renewed pledge of
loyalty to the Saudi State because he saw in the Saudi
domination of Hijaz the threat of the loss of his reign.

The invading forces landed in Jeddah and Tusun
entered the port city without resistance and then
advanced towards Makkah with the help of Sharif
Ghalib in a reversal of his promised loyalty to Al Saud.
After the retreat of the Saudi garrison in Makkah
on the orders order of Abdullah bin Saud, the forces
of Tusun entered Makkah in 1811 (1228 H). When
Abdullah bin Saud retreated to Al Khurma his
commander Uthman Al Mudhaifi also had to retreat
from his base in Taif. Subsequently Tusun’s forces easily
entered the highland city without opposition. All Hijazi
cities fell out of the control of the Saudi State, and the

38
Then, during 1813–14, Mohammad Ali suffered mountains and onto the plain by pretending to flee. The
disastrous setbacks in his attempts to capture two slaughter was great and the news of the losses sounded
important stronghold outposts of ad-Dir’iyah: the oasis the alarm in ad-Dir’iyah. Mohammad Ali’s invasion
of Turabah in south-western Najd, which was well force was now ready to mount an offensive into Najd.
placed to threaten Makkah, and the Red Sea port of Al
Qunfudhah.

However, just as things became desperate for the
invaders, Saud the Great died, in May 1814, at the age
of sixty-eight, and was succeeded by his son Abdullah.
Saud Al Kabir’s death brought a change in fortunes
for Mohammad Ali. His forces rallied, he courted Purebred Arabian horses from Najd were famous for their
tribal chiefs and called in more troops and equipment. beauty, stamina and speed. They were greatly coveted
In early January 1815 he took the field himself. Near throughout Arabia. This photograph was taken by Gerald de
Taif, he lured a large Saudi contingent down from the Gaury in the 1930s.

39
A rare view of at-Turaif from the southwest taken by Harry St John Philby
in 1917. The massive structure in background (left) is the Buraika Tower.
The tower in the foreground is no longer standing.

40
chapter three
The Fall of the Oasis Capital

Tusun’s campaign into Al Qasim, The first attempt to invade Al Qasim was by Tusun
1815 (1230 H) Pasha, Mohammad Ali’s younger son. This was
stopped at Al Rass where the two sides agreed to an
After the crushing defeat near Taif in 1815 (1230) Imam armistice. Envoys were sent to negotiate peace terms
Abdullah rightly believed that an invasion of Najd from in Cairo, where Mohammad Ali insisted on the Imam’s
Madinah, through Al Qasim, would soon follow, and he submission, including the surrender both of ad-Dir’iyah
gathered his forces there in readiness. and of the province of Al Hasa. He must have known
the Imam would reject such terms, and would thus first simply planning to rely on harassment and to wait
provide him with a pretext for a full-scale invasion of until Ibrahim’s supplies ran low, he later conceived the
Najd, the aim of which would be the destruction of ad- more imaginative strategy of sweeping round Ibrahim’s
Dir’iyah. forces, seizing Madinah, and then, with the enemy cut
off from the Hijaz, falling on him from behind. His
brother Faysal was sent south to take first Makkah and
Ibrahim Pasha’s campaign into Najd then Jeddah and Yanbu so as to isolate the invader.
1816–1818 (1231–1233 H)
However, the plan faltered as the Egyptians reinforced
The Imam assembled his chiefs and the call to arms Makkah. A more serious reverse came outside Madinah,
went out from mosques throughout Najd. Provisions where the Imam’s camel-borne warriors suffered a heavy
were collected, and 30,000 fighting men were brought defeat. When other skirmishes went against the Imam,
together under the leadership of the Imam himself and he decided instead to fall back into Al Qasim to protect
his brother Faysal. the approach to southern Najd. In May the Pasha
made the arduous advance on Al Rass and its 6,000
On 23 September 1816 (1 Dhu Al Qa‘dah 1231), after inhabitants confident that he could take it immediately.
months of preparation, Mohammad Ali’s campaign
force disembarked at Yanbu. It consisted of 10,000 In the event Al Rass proved a setback for Ibrahim.
men – perhaps a quarter of all the troops he had at his Faced by a heroic defence and the ineffectiveness of
disposal – including 3,000 North African cavalrymen cannonballs against thick mud walls, the siege dragged
able to cope with the rigours of the ferocious Najdi on for three and a half months. As it wore on in the
summer. There were North African, Turkish and summer heat, the morale of Ibrahim’s men was further
Albanian infantrymen, some European doctors and a eroded by disease and death. It was another chance for
siege engineer with a dozen or so artillery pieces. The the Imam Abdullah to seize the initiative and harass
force was under the command of Tusun’s elder brother the weakened enemy. Instead, he and Faysal withdrew
Ibrahim. Only twenty-five years old, he was to prove a further into Najd, leaving Al Qasim to its fate. Because
determined and ruthless leader. of lack of supplies the population of Al Rass asked
Imam Abdullah to attack the enemy or to allow the
With Ibrahim’s arrival the stage was set. Never in inhabitants make a truce with them. He chose the latter
history had Central Arabia submitted to foreign option. Ibrahim agreed on a truce because of the great
invasion, and an epic struggle ensued. Against the losses among his own invading forces and the spread
background of the conflict, a tale unfolds of rivalry of disease among his men. Among the agreed points
between two powerful personalities, a saga of honour, was a lifting of the siege, that the invaders stay out of
ambition, and resolve matched by triumph, despair and the town and that the people of Al Rass would lay down
bitter defeat. their weapons and remain neutral. If and when nearby
Unayza surrendered to Ibrahim, then the people of Al
In the winter of 1816–17 Ibrahim marched east from Rass would recognise and obey his authority.
Madinah, where he had collected an able cavalry
commander, Awzun Ali, and made a base at Al Ibrahim next set about besieging Unayzah, the
Hanakiyah. Here his successes against the tribes flourishing commercial centre of Al Qasim, this time
persuaded many to throw in their lot with him. As he with more success, the town surrendering after just six
awaited reinforcements from across the Red Sea, the days. Al Rass duly fell under the control of Ibrahim
Imam Abdullah moved into Al Qasim once more. At Pasha.

42
When Imam Abdullah learnt of these events he was in It is probably to this time that much of the elaborate
nearby Buraidah. He left the town and headed towards system of walls and towers along each side of Wadi
to ad-Dir’iyah. Ibrahim Pasha was then able to enter Hanifah owe their completion. He predicted the
the last remaining major centre in Al Qasim and thus invaders’ long march south through the Najdi heartland
secured his control of the region with its numerous would exhaust the invader and even if Ibrahim Pasha
towns and villages and its plentiful food supplies. were to reach ad-Dir’iyah, the hope was that the
capital’s defences would frustrate his forces. Isolated, the
Ibrahim planned to utilise Al Qasim as his base, and besiegers would then succumb to fatigue, hunger and
he spent three months at Buraidah consolidating his disease. Alas, he reckoned without Ibrahim’s resilience
position there while waiting for further reinforcements and determination.
to arrive. Meanwhile Abdullah and Faysal had
withdrawn to Shaqra, the chief town of Al Washm, half In January 1818 (Safar 1233) Ibrahim set out from Al
way to ad-Dir’iyah. From Shaqra the Imam sent orders Qasim with 4,500 men, 6,000 baggage camels, and heavy
to fortify his capital. artillery pieces which kept getting stuck in the sand.

IBRAHIM PASHA’S INVASION OF NAJD, 1816–18

Forces of the Saudi State
Forces of Ibrahim Pasha
Battle
A
L

Unayzah
al-Bukayriyyah Buraydah
-

Jabal Abanat
al-Khabra al-Zulfi
H

IM

Khaybar al-Majma‘ah
I

al-Rass A al-Mudnib
- Q Jalajil Tuwaiq Escarpment
Mawiyyah AL
J
A

Umm Lajj
Shaqra Huraymila
Z

al-Hanakiyyah
Durma ad-Dir‘iyah
Riyadh
Madinah
Yanbu al-Duwadimi

al-Quway‘iyyah
Badr N A
J D
Re

Rabigh
d S
ea

Jiddah Makkah

al-Taif 0 200 400 600 800 kilometers

Source: The Historical Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, Riyadh, 2000. Published by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives.

43
 yi

ayr
yi
ha

Qus
uq
l-M

Qari
ba
a’i
Sh
W
ad
Samhah iH
a

ni
fa
h
Qasr al-Ghiyadi

al-Salmani
Mushayri
tah
Nazrah

an
il
Ghasibah

yq

mr
ula

‘U
ri
bQ

Qa
ah

a’i
yd

Sh
la
l- Bu
ba
a’i

Wa
Sh
Samhan

di H
Sha‘ib al-Shu ‘oybah

ani
fah
Forces of the Saudi State h
Bab Samhan
tla

Forces of Ibrahim Pasha

Ka

al-B
ib

Barricades
a’

uja h
Sh

iri wa
Cannon r ay
Qu
Eid Mosque a‘i
b
Cannon strike Sh
at-T
urai
Mud-brick tower f
Wall 0 400 800 meters
Battle sites
h
ifa
THE SIEGE OF AD-DIR‘IYAH BY IBRAHIM PASHA, 1818 i Ha
n

FIRST STAGE OF THE ATTACK Sha

‘ib S
afar
W
ad al-Qurayn

Source: The Historical Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, Riyadh, 2000. Published by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives.

The siege of Shaqra was a brief affair. The oasis was suing for peace. Ibrahim disarmed its 1,400 fighting
well prepared with a moat and plentiful supplies laid men and sent them away on condition that they took
in. But a breach was opened in the oasis outer circuit no further part in the war. That done he felt confident
wall, savage fighting took place within the gardens enough to establish a forward base there, complete with
and, leaving more than a hundred dead, the defenders a field hospital. Shaqra contained supplies sufficient
retired inside the town. The town itself was then to provision his army for a month, and weapons and
bombarded. After only eight days Shaqra’s leaders were powder to distribute among his Najdi allies.

44
 THE SIEGE OF AD-DIR‘IYAH BY IBRAHIM PASHA, 1818
SECOND STAGE OF THE ATTACK

yr
usa
yi
yi

iQ
ha

Qar
uq
l-M
ba
a’i
Sh
Samhah W
ad
iH
a

ni
fa
h
Qasr al-Ghiyadi

0 400 800 meters

Mushayrit

al-Salmani
ah
Nazrah

an
il
Ghasibah

yq

mr
ula

‘U
ri
bQ

Qa
a’i
ah
yd

Sh
B ula
b al-
a’i

Wa
Sh
Samhan

di H
Sha‘ib al-Shu ‘oybah

ani
fah
h

Bab Samhan
tla
Ka

al-B
ib
a’

uja h
Sh

iri wa
Forces of the Saudi State r ay
Qu
Eid Mosque a‘i
b
Forces of Ibrahim Pasha Sh
at-T
urai
Barricades f
Cannon
Cannon strike
Mud-brick tower h
n ifa
Wall
‘ib Safa
r
i Ha
Battle sites Sha ad al-Qurayn
W

Source: The Historical Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, Riyadh, 2000. Published by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives.

On 1 March 1818, Ibrahim, approaching Durma and He decided on a rapid and brutal assault. Two days of
the Tuwaiq Escarpment, camped at Al Muzahimiyah concentrated artillery fire opened a breach, and the
nearby. Durma was an important settlement founded in troops went in.
the sixteenth century by settlers from ad-Dir’iyah. As a
loyal Saudi stronghold, its governor Saud a cousin of the The slaughter went on for several days: all males over
Imam, its resistance could be expected to be fierce. But the age of ten were butchered, and blood ran in the
Ibrahim had been led to believe that it would fall easily. corpse-choked streets. It was reported that a thousand

45
men died on the Saudi side to just 60 of the attackers. south again, to Al Ilb (where the dam across Wadi
Ibrahim himself participated in the massacre. Saud bin Hanifah stands today), having decided to set up camp
Abdullah and his men had taken refuge in the fort, and there out of reach of the defenders’ artillery. Ibrahim
Ibrahim decided to spare them the usual bombardment was driven off, but returned two or three days later with
solely because of the valuable horses, weapons and his entire force, and set up camp athwart the Wadi,
supplies they had with them. He let them go to ad- preparing defences and building offensive positions
Dir’iyah on condition that they took no further part in from which his artillery could fire on the defenders.
resisting the invasion.
Ibrahim’s force was much too small to contemplate
Imam Abdullah meanwhile was organising the defence surrounding ad-Dir’iyah. By this time the entire
of ad-Dir’iyah. All males of serving age were called up, settlement area of the oasis was fortified with walls
including the men of the clerical and educational centre and bastions lining the heights on each side of Wadi
of Al Bujairi. Preparations included converting one of Hanifah, from near Al Ilb some eight kilometres
the Salwa Palaces into a large storehouse. A Frenchman southwards to beyond Al Mulaybid. The main quarter
with the invaders reported with wonderment that the of at-Turaif was enclosed by a secondary wall extending
Saudis did not take advantage of their superior mobility from the main fortification around the bluff on which
to harass Ibrahim’s troops and disrupt their supply lines. it stood overlooking Wadi Hanifah. So a conventional
Their horses were excellent, and the toughness of the siege, cutting off supplies and contact with the outside
Najdi fighter was famed: even the Pasha’s cavalrymen world, was out of the question. Even the usual method
seemed unable to catch an enemy foot soldier on of reducing a Najdi town, by breaching a weak part of
the open plain. It should have been easy to wear the the fortifications and sending men in, was a high-risk
invader down by continual harassment. However Imam strategy at ad-Dir’iyah because of its size, complexity
Abdullah opted to rely on ad-Dir’iyah’s defences and its and number of built up areas. Instead, Ibrahim’s
large population to resist a surely depleted invader. plan was to work his way down the Wadi, taking the
defences on the heights on each side and occupying
After the end of military action in Durma and its strategic points as they fell. He therefore divided his
destruction Ibrahim Pasha was ready to move on the force into three: a central one to advance down the
Saudi capital. He approached Wadi Hanifah from the Wadi itself, with two wings to reduce the fortifications
plains of Al Washm by marching over the Tuwaiq on either side.
Escarpment through the pass of Al Haisiyya moving
through Al Uyaynah and Al Jubaylah. Then he marched The defences were in fact vulnerable at various points.
along the Wadi until he reached Al Malqah where he Wherever a tributary entered Wadi Hanifah there
halted. was valuable farmland extending up it. The tributary
could not be spanned by a wall and culvert as it would
either block the floodwaters, or else be swept away. The
The Siege of Ad-Dir’iyah, March–September fortification walls therefore stopped short at a tower
1818 on the heights on each side. Ibrahim consistently tried
to take advantage of these tributary gaps to attack the
Leaving the main body of his army at Al Malqah, front-line defenders from the rear.
Ibrahim went with 800 horsemen and a cannon to
reconnoitre a suitable camping ground. A skirmish The Imam Abdullah sent men under his brothers
ensued at the first northern fortifications of ad-Dir’iyah Faysal, Ibrahim and Fahd to confront the positions of
oasis, and he retired to Al Malqah. Next day he came the invading forces. His northern turrets were manned

46
THE SIEGE OF AD-DIR‘IYAH BY IBRAHIM PASHA, 1818
FINAL STAGE OFuqhaTHE ATTACK

yi

ayr
yi

Qus
l-M

Qari
ba
a’i
Sh
Samhah W
ad
iH
an
ifa
h

Qasr al-Ghiyadi

0 400 800 meters

al-Salmani
Mushayr

n
itah

ra
m
‘U
ri
Nazrah Qa

Ghasibah
il
yq
ula
bQ
a’i
Sh

ah
yd
ula
W

B
al-
ad

’ib
Sha
iH
an

Samhan
ifa

Bab Samhan
h

Sha‘ib al-Shu‘oybah

Sha‘ib Quraywah
h
tla
Ka

al-B
uja
ib

iri
a’
Sh

Eid Mosque

at-Turaif

Forces of the Saudi State

Forces of Ibrahim Pasha
Cannon

Cannon strike
Mud-brick tower
h
afar fa al-Qurayn
Wall ‘ib S a ni
Sha
iH
Battle sites ad
W

Source: The Historical Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, Riyadh, 2000. Published by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives.

47
48
An aerial composite image of at-Turaif and
Wadi Hanifah in the mid-1990s, showing
the site of the historic capital with Al Bujairi
and Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab
Mosque at the top edge of the picture.

49
Opposite: This photograph of lofty ruins of Bait Al Mal in at- through the gardens to the Salmani palm groves. Here
Turaif is one of several interesting pictures of ad-Dir’iyah taken they halted, threw back the pursuing enemy, and set up
by Sir George Rendel who visited Riyadh as a guest of the a new defence line across the Wadi.
Amir Saud in 1937. He was accompanied on his visit by Lady
Rendel who was the first Western woman to cross Arabia. The central section was held by the Imam’s three
brothers, Faysal, Turki and Fahd, and their uncle
Abdullah bin Abdulaziz. The west bank of the Wadi
was held by another brother, Ibrahim, while above
him, in the Ghasibah fort built by Saud Al Kabir with
strong iron gates and commanding a good view of
the Wadi, was the Imam’s son Saad with a cannon
and a strong force. Farther upstream Emir Turki bin
with cannon, and Faysal and his men dug themselves Abdullah and his son Faysal, were posted on the high
in within gunshot range of the invaders and occupied bank of the Ghubayra tributary. Downstream, Al
vantage points. A detachment under Saud bin Abdullah Bulaydah tributary, opposite Al Ghasibah, was held by
was sent to guard the southern end of the oasis, where two more of the Imam’s brothers, Umar and Hassan.
Wadi Hanifah bends. Other brothers, Abdulrahman and Mishari, held a line
between Al Bulaydah and the Eid prayer ground outside
After a period of fierce fighting, Ibrahim’s men managed the western wall of at-Turaif.
to erect two gun emplacements under cover of night
within range of one of the northern towers in the area of More dispositions were made on the east bank
the tributary Shaib Ghubayra. Cavalry under Rishwan of Wadi Hanifah, where Saad bin Saud and the
Agha were sent to infiltrate behind the defenders Dughaythir brothers held positions. The Imam himself,
once a breach was made. Ibrahim had positioned accompanied by a group from the Al Sheikh family,
men to protect the batteries and to block outflanking stationed himself near Al Ghasibah, between the
movements or flight into the desert. The bombardment Samhan and Zahra gates in a heavily fortified section of
began and, as soon as a breach was made, the defenders the wadi wall.
fled into the gardens by the Wadi, pursued by the enemy
and abandoning their cannon, ammunition, supplies In the meantime large supply caravans had laboured
and wounded. Prisoners were killed on the instant. the hundreds of kilometres across waterless wastes
But the Pasha was unable to follow this up because of from Madinah and Al Qasim with more cavalry and
shortage of supplies, and chose instead to await the artillery from across the Red Sea. Those wounded at
arrival of a supply caravan. This allowed the Saudis to Shaqra who had now recovered rejoined their units.
regroup and fortify themselves anew further down Wadi With the Saudi withdrawal down Wadi Hanifah,
Hanifah. However, the Samhah fort with its artillery Ibrahim Pasha moved his camp from Al Ilb to Qari
emplacement, on the west bank of the Wadi, soon fell to Qusayr, nowadays known in memory of his army
the invaders cavalry under Rishwan Agha and Awzun as Qurayy Al Rum, a tributary descending from the
Ali, with further loss of life. north. He deployed his troops opposite the defenders’
new line of defence. Awzun Ali was stationed on
These reverses meant that Faysal was now dangerously the west bank of Wadi Hanifah, confronting those
outflanked. He and his men, with the Imam’s brother defending the heights of Al Turaif. Morale rose,
Saad bin Saud, withdrew further down the Wadi and a Saudi assault on the invading forces’ left wing

51
52
The Faisal Tower on the north western wall of at-Turaif, seen among the invading forces mounted; sickness and
here in 1994, formed a vital part of the defences. heatstroke took their toll. Abdullah’s men kept up the
pressure, forcing the opposing soldiery to stay under
arms in the heat for five to six hours a day. Under such
conditions the misery of the soldiers’ lives was intense.

Then, on 21 June, slow attrition gave way to calamity. It

seems that a dust devil snatched sparks from a soldier’s
fire and deposited them in the middle of Ibrahim
commanded by Rishwan Agha was repelled. But Pasha’s ammunition dump. There was a cataclysmic
perhaps the enemy relaxed too much: Abdullah explosion as 200 barrels of powder went up. Tents,
continued to throw up walls and dig defensive ditches artillery ammunition, wheat and barley stores were
along the new line without harassment. Ibrahim all destroyed. The fireworks continued for about ten
became impatient with the delay and ordered an attack minutes as 240 cases of cartridges, shells and other
on the bastions of Al Ghasibah gardens. Artillery ammunition exploded. Blackened limbs and bodies lay
was positioned and a breach made. But the morale scattered about, and survivors suffered terrible burns.
of the invaders had evidently been dented, their Despite efforts to extinguish the fire, half the army’s
commander refused to order the assault, blaming the supplies were lost. The only ammunition left was what
men’s reluctance, while the men claimed that their the soldiers still had in their pouches, and about 900
commanders refused to lead them. artillery cartridges and 300 shells in the gun batteries.

The enraged Pasha took to his tent in a sulk. A despatch With the smoke hanging over the wadi, Ibrahim Pasha
sent to Mohammad Ali reporting this insubordination is reported to have declared. “All is lost, we have nothing
and requesting yet more men was sent on its precarious but our courage and our swords with which to attack
two-month journey to Cairo. In response, his father the enemy.” He stiffened his commanders’ resolve just
prepared to send Khalil Pasha with 3,000 cavalry and in time to repulse an exploratory Saudi assault on the
foot-soldiers. Ibrahim doubtless regarded this as a camp. When the Saudis saw how little daunted the
threat to his own position, and he became ever more invaders were, they fell back. The Imam summoned
anxious at his inability to deliver the knockout blow. As his counsellors, and it was decided to mount a more
Imam Abdullah had anticipated, the invading force was concerted attack next day.
too small to besiege ad-Dir’iyah effectively. The sense of
impasse and isolation intensified as the unusually cold Meanwhile Ibrahim ordered his men not to use
and wet spring gave way to the Najdi summer heat. remaining ammunition unless absolutely necessary,
telling them not to yield an inch on pain of death. Next
Saudi attacks on the enemy camp redoubled. By this day, 1,500 men of ad-Dir’iyah approached the enemy
time Ibrahim realized that as long as ad-Dir’iyah was camp, and instead of holding off in order to test whether
being supplied from the south, without opposition, his they would squander precious remaining ammunition,
hopes of a swift end to the campaign were slim. But they went straight in for the attack. Ibrahim, watching
he could do little about it. May dragged into June as from rising ground, gave orders to his men to hold fire
the fighting continued around the main points in the until the Saudis were upon them, and then to loose off a
defence such as the Salmani palm grove and the ruins last-minute fusillade. The tactic worked. The Saudis fell
of the Samhah fort, but the stalemate continued. Losses back, leaving many dead and wounded.

53
 This episode was perhaps the turning point. A second
Saudi assault might have carried the day, but the effect
was to discourage the Imam and put him back on the
defensive. Ibrahim had time to summon more supplies
and ammunition from his garrisons in the region, and
threw himself into the task of reviving his men, who
were falling prey to dysentery and ophthalmia. At last,
after 25 days, supply caravans began to arrive.

At this point, in the July heat of late Ramadan, Ibrahim

changed tactics. He seems to have satisfied himself
that unless he laid more effective siege to ad-Dir’iyah
success would elude him. By now he was receiving local
intelligence on the villages that were sending supplies
regularly to ad-Dir’iyah. On the strength of this, on the
night of 15 August, Ibrahim went with a detachment of
2,000 men round to the south of ad-Dir’iyah and took
the village of Irqah, in Wadi Hanifah. By garrisoning
Irqah he hoped to seal off ad-Dir’iyah from the south as
well as the north.

During Ibrahim’s absence Imam Abdullah, well

informed on the Pasha’s movements, attacked the enemy
camp. The fighting was fierce. In the intense heat the
Saudi womenfolk of the capital were seen braving the
gunfire to bring water to their men. But eventually they
were repulsed. Reinforcements and supplies kept coming
in and the morale of the by now replenished invading
forces was once more on the rise. Added to that, Ibrahim
received news that Khalil Pasha was on his way. Not
wishing to be upstaged, he resolved to tighten the noose

Full-figure coloured engraving of Imam Abdullah bin Saud.

A black and white version of this was published in London
in 1834. Several coloured renderings were published, one in
Histoire de l’Égypte by Félix Mengin; Paris, 1823.

54
on ad-Dir’iyah by pressing down the wadi from the people but reality meant he had to yield to the pleas of
north. the exhausted inhabitants. Hoisting the flag of peace
on 9 September, 1818 (Dhu Al Qa‘da 1233 H) he sent
Bombardment of the fortifications was redoubled. The an envoy to Ibrahim Pasha to request an armistice and
Imam’s brother Faysal, at the head of a reconnaissance conference, to which the Pasha agreed.
patrol, was picked off by a sharpshooter. Ibrahim
decided on a night attack, infiltrating 800 of his men
behind the defenders by an unguarded lane along The surrender of Ad-Dir’iyah, September 1818 /
a tributary, probably in Al Bulaydah opposite Al Dhu Al Qa‘da 1233
Ghasibah, into the Mushayrifah gardens. The defenders
were occupied by diversionary attacks on the opposite A few hours later the Imam presented himself at the
bank, and by the cavalry advancing down the middle Pasha’s tent, accompanied by 200 of his followers.
of the wadi. The Imam’s men were attacked in the rear Various tales, some of them contradictory, have
and retreated in confusion, while the invaders took up survived from this dramatic encounter. The Englishman
position before Al Ghasibah and its fort commanded by Captain G.F. Sadleir, on his official mission from the
Saad bin Abdullah. Saudi casualties were high, including Government of India to the Pasha in 1819, tells us that
men of note such as Mohammad bin Mishari, the Imam’s Ibrahim was extremely haughty. On his way across
brother-in-law, and other relatives. Arabia, Sadleir was to form a low opinion of Ibrahim,
whom he accuses of arrogance, barbarity, bad faith
Saad’s fort with its artillery and 150 men capitulated towards his victims, mistreatment of his allies and
on the third day, and he gave himself up. Ibrahim general avarice.
now ordered the bombardment of the two large
settlements of Al Ghasibah and Sahl. Confident of French sources paint a more lenient picture of Ibrahim
success, he wanted to spare his men’s lives and did than Sadleir and give fuller details of the meeting. He
not order a direct assault. The desperate people of Al is said to have offered the Imam, though this is hard to
Ghasibah and Sahl followed the example of Al Rass by believe, munitions to continue the fight. Abdullah, near
surrendering on condition that their walls would not to tears, is reported to have refused stating: “God has
be entered unless and until at-Turaif fell. Meanwhile favoured your arms. It is not your soldiers who have
Ibrahim, in occupying the Mushayrifah palm groves defeated me, it is He who has wished to humble me.”
by Al Bulaydah, had gained access to the bluff of at- When the Imam asked for peace, Ibrahim agreed but
Turaif from the heights to the west. Detachments were said that he could not leave him at ad-Dir’iyah, because
posted round at-Turaif, and Saud bin Abdullah, the ex- he was under orders to send him to Cairo; and there his
governor of Durma, was captured while trying to escape father would decide what should be done while waiting
with some of his men and put to death. for the wishes of the Sultan from Constantinople.

The Pasha was now able to train his artillery unopposed Abdullah’s response was characteristically fatalistic but
on at-Turaif. In losing Al Ghasibah the defenders had brave. He is said to have answered: “You are a great
lost control of the wadi bed, and so were hopelessly man, Ibrahim Pasha, your father is greater than you,
isolated within their walls. Artillery pounded at-Turaif and Sultan Mahmoud is greater still than your father;
while the embattled Imam tried desperately to rally his but God is much greater than all of you, and if it is not

55
destined that I should lose my head, nothing will be three days amid celebrations. Several Turkish ulama
able to remove it from my shoulders.” He then asked tried to convince him of the error of his beliefs but,
for twenty-four hours to consider Ibrahim’s terms and brave man that he was, he would not be shaken from
consult his advisers. The request was granted and, after the doctrines of tawhid. Then, in late November 1818,
coffee, the Imam departed with his son Saad restored to he was executed in public, at the gate of the gardens
him. The Pasha is said to have spent the night in a state of the Serai by impalement on a dagger. After the
of high anxiety, worrying lest the Imam should use this execution he was beheaded and his body suspended on
breathing space to flee. Guards were posted around at- a high pole.
Turaif.
Though the fall of ad-Dir’iyah and the execution of
However, the Imam had decided that by fleeing he its Imam meant the end of the First Saudi State, the
might bring down destruction upon ad-Dir’iyah and spirit of the Call was only briefly crushed in Najd. Ad-
his family. He had also formed a favourable opinion of Dir’iyah’s mantle would pass to Riyadh in 1824 (1239)
Ibrahim, and took the brave decision to give himself under a revived Saudi dynasty. The influence of the
up to be sent into exile and possible death. Once again capital of the First Saudi State remains essential to the
Ibrahim received him in his tent, where the Imam told character of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia today.
him of his decision to go into exile provided his life was
guaranteed. The Pasha replied that he could commit
neither Mohammad Ali nor the Sultan, but that he
believed both of them too big-hearted to put him to
death. The Imam requested pardon for the troops who
had remained loyal to him, and for his family, brothers
and their families. Ibrahim granted this, but made no Hand-coloured version of the inset map from opposite,
commitment to the Imam’s other request that ad- showing the area around ad-Dir’iyah. The cartographer’s
Dir’iyah should not be destroyed. orientation of the compass rose is incorrect and distance scale
is measured in hours of camel travel.
The next days were spent by the Imam putting his affairs
in order, bidding farewell to his family and, it seems,
occasionally dining with Ibrahim, who continued to
treat him with distinction. Then the Imam left with
some of his men, and was escorted by 400 of Ibrahim’s
men on the fateful two-month progress across Arabia
before the eyes of his former subjects, and across the
Red Sea. He arrived in Cairo on 17 November 1818 (18
Muharram 1234).

By all accounts Mohammad Ali received the Imam

kindly. However after only two days he sent him off
to Constantinople, with a recommendation to Sultan
Mahmoud for a pardon. Whether the Imam was
prepared for the torture to follow is not known. He was
paraded through the streets of the Ottoman capital for

56
Map of Najd by Jomard, from Mengin 1823, Atlas. The
invasion of Najd resulted in much new information about
central Arabia reaching the outside world. This map was
compiled by the famous French geographer Edme Jomard
and published by Félix Mengin in his Histoire de l’Égypte sous
le gouvernement de Mohamed-Aly, ou Récit des événements
politiques et militaires qui ont eu lieu depuis le départ des
Français jusqu’en 1823. (Paris, 1823). This work described the
invasion of Najd in great detail.

57
 By 1960 (1380h), rebuilding in at-Turaif was under way.
Mud from the ruins was recycled into new bricks and stone
for columns. Some mosques and homes were restored for
use. Picture by Hassan Fathy.

58
chapter four
Decades in the Shadows

T he capitulation of ad-Dir‘iyah in September 1818

marked the end of the First Saudi State. For a
short-lived interregnum Ibrahim Pasha was now
After the surrender, Ibrahim struck camp and his
men moved into the abandoned houses of at-Turaif.
But his position was hardly secure. He was over 1,600
master of Najd with a place in history as its only kilometres from Cairo and isolated at the end of a long
conqueror from outside Arabia. and precarious supply line. Despite the heavy rains

59
 Sea 0 200 400 600 kilometers
nean
rra

Damascus I
ite

R
ed

M A
Y R I Baghdad

A
S

Q
Tig
Karbala ris

Eup
Najaf at

hr
es

A L - J AW F
Basra
Sakaka
Dawmat al-Jandal al-Zubayr
IT
WA
GRE KU
AT N
Tabuk AFUD
P
E R
AL SHAMMAR S I A
Tayma JAB Qaryat al-Ulya
Hail

A
bi

ra
AL an
al-Ula -D Jubail
al-Artawiyah Thaj
al-Wajh A
A

Qatif HRAIN
Unayzah Buraydah Dammam BA Gu Ras al-Khaimah
L

H lf
al-Rass al-Mudhnib N
-

A Dubai

QATAR
AL-QASIM Sharjah
H

ah al-Uyaynah al-Uqayr
Wadi al-R u m
Shaqra Wa
ad-Dir‘iyah Hofuf
I

di
Madinah H al-Buraymi
Durma
J

Riyadh
an

Yanbu NAJD Abu Dhabi

ifa
A

Wadi al - S a h b a Muscat
h

al-Duwadimi
Z

al-Yamamah
Afif al-Hariq al-Dilam
AL-KHARJ
AL-AFLAJ
I
Jiddah Makkah L
Turabah A
Ranyah

N
al-Taif H
K

A
al-Lidam -
Bishah L

M
A
S U D

O
U
Red

- R
‘A

A L
SI

al-Qunfudhah
R
A N

Abha
IH
Se

AM
a

Najran
AR
AH

UF
Sa‘dah DH
Jaizan Salalah
Sayun
Shibam AUT
HRAM
HAD
Sana‘a Sayhut

E N Se
a
Y E M an
bi
Ara

Aden

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SECOND SAUDI STATE, 1824–38

IMAM TURKI BIN ABDULLAH
Source: The Historical Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, Riyadh, 2000. Published by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives.

60
during the year, agriculture in Najd had been severely did not follow the order to destroy ad-Dir‘iyah until
disrupted by the war with wholesale destruction of palm he had extorted as much money as he could from the
groves and farmland in Wadi Hanifah and Al Washm remaining inhabitants as ransom for their persons
where there had been resistance. With the removal of Al and property. His men meanwhile pillaged as much as
Diriyah’s central authority, tribe and town dissolved into they could. After this act of bad faith, he gave orders
anarchy and famine stalked the land, afflicting invaders for the demolition of the town. His men set fire to the
and occupied alike. buildings, starting with the palace of Imam Abdullah
and the mosques, without a care for the occupants of
Rather than create a province in central and eastern neighbouring buildings. Some of the time the residents
Arabia, Mohammad Ali Pasha, preferred to complete themselves were forced into the work of destruction.
the destruction of Najd and the Reform movement as The soldiers cut down all of ad-Dir‘iyah’s palms
a political and spiritual force and ensure his control of including the extensive palm groves of Al Bujairi on the
the Holy Cities. While awaiting his father’s instructions littoral of fertile soil that extended from the Wadi banks
Ibrahim organised a temporary occupation and dealt to the limestone terraces several hundred metres east
brutally with the population. Local leaders, prominent that were topped by the ruined outer walls.
clerics and other notables had their beards shaven off
and their teeth pulled out. Some were tortured and, in The invaders’ destruction of agriculture made their
extreme cases, tied to the mouths of cannons which own speedy evacuation essential. Ibn Bishr remarks
were then fired. Many Najdis fled to the Gulf, and others despairingly that they left it looking as if no one had
emigrated westwards as far afield as North Africa. lived there since ancient times with not a single person
In May 1819 orders arrived from Mohammad Ali to among the ruins, and all the date palms, vines, apricot,
evacuate Najd, restrict the occupation to the Hijaz, and fig, lemon and pomegranate trees laid low. Only a few
deport to Cairo all the remaining prominent members tamarisk trees remained. This was in contrast to Riyadh
of the House of Saud and Al Sheikh who had not and neighbouring Manfuhah where, while the walls had
escaped the net. About 400 men, women and children been razed, the palm groves were still intact and were
were assembled to make the forlorn and arduous sheltering many of ad-Dir‘iyah’s now homeless former
journey into Egyptian exile, where they were held and inhabitants.
pensioned off by the Pasha.

The message received gave the order to destroy ad- Ad-Dir‘iyah Reoccupied
Dir‘iyah. Sadlier, the unlikely figure of an officer of the
British army in India, witnessed the ensuing scene of Mohammad Ali Pasha’s target was that through the
desolation in the summer of 1819 (1234). He had been invasion campaign he would achieve removal from
sent from Bombay to establish contact with Ibrahim power of Al Saud and quash once and for all the Call of
Pasha in Arabia. He arrived just as the evacuation Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab.
of the Egyptians was making it evident that Ibrahim
was not yet nurturing any plans to colonise Najd but However the story of ad-Dir‘iyah was not to end with
rather that his goal was to extinguish the Call of Sheikh its destruction by Ibrahim Pasha. Despite the ruin
Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab. of the capital and numerous other towns left behind
by the invading forces and the spread of fear all over
Sadleir reached Manfuhah, near Riyadh, on 3 August Arabia; this campaign was unable to destroy neither the
1819 (27 Dhu Al Hijjah,1234). He tells us that Ibrahim pillars of the Saudi State nor the spirit of the Call. The

61
population remained loyal to Sheikh Mohammad bin in the capture and death of Ibn Muammar and he
Abdulwahhab’s Call and to the family of Al Saud that resumed control of Riyadh. Here he successfully
had established the first Saudi State. repulsed the Egyptians, who fell back to Tharmida
where they set up their new forward base for the
Just two years after the fall of ad-Dir‘iyah leaders from occupation of Najd.
Al Saud reappeared and made moves to restore the
Saudi State. The first such attempt involved an effort By the winter of 1820 things took a turn for the worse
to rebuild ad-Dir‘iyah. As early as September 1819, when a new Egyptian commander, the infamous
Mohammad bin Muammar, of the old ruling house Husayn Bey, known for his brutal behaviour in dealing
of Al Uyaynah, proceeded to ad-Dir‘iyah to proclaim with his enemies arrived in Tharmida. From here he
himself governor of Najd. As a relative of Al Saud on pressed the attack on Riyadh, forcing Turki to leave to
his mother’s side and a participant in the defence of Al Kharj, not to re-appear until 1824.
ad-Dir‘iyah against Ibrahim Pasha, he attracted support
of the population. By the end of the year he had already What followed was a second period of instability, more
organised the rebuilding of some of ad-Dir‘iyah. extreme even than Ibrahim Pasha’s. Husayn Bey set
Having enjoyed a small success in neutralising an about the systematic destruction of Najdi political,
attempt from Al Hasa to unseat him, he was joined by economic and intellectual life anew. In March 1821
Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud, the future Imam, who had (Jumada Al Thani 1236) he ordered all the inhabitants
escaped the Egyptian net at the fall of ad-Dir‘iyah and of ad-Dir‘iyah to leave. Those who resisted were taken
who now emerged from hiding to help restore unity. to Tharmida, where a kind of concentration camp had
been prepared for them, ostensibly till they could be
Then, in early 1820 (1235), another claimant to the rule resettled elsewhere in Najd. No fewer than 230 of the
surfaced. Mishari bin Saud, a brother of the executed men were then butchered on Husayn Bey’s orders. Their
Imam Abdullah, suddenly re-appeared in Sudayr remaining property was stolen, and the survivors were
gathering followers, and descended on the devastated kept as hostages.
capital. As a true member of the ruling house, Mishari
had a more widespread appeal than Ibn Muammar, Once again, the Egyptians demolished the rebuilt
who now accepted the inevitable and pledged his ad-Dir‘iyah, which had clearly retained its potency as
loyalty to the new ruler. Under Mishari the rebuilding a symbol of the Call. They plundered what was left of
of ad-Dir‘iyah continued with its oasis agriculture by Najd, carrying out wholesale extortions, mutilations,
now again flourishing. He occupied the palace which killings, book burnings and the cutting down of palm
still bears his name and appointed Turki as governor of trees. Proponents of reform were particularly targeted.
Riyadh, whose walls had been rebuilt.

Mohammad Ali Pasha in Cairo, alarmed by these

signs of revival, now gave orders that Najd should be
invaded and occupied once more. As his new campaign
force entered Al Qasim, Ibn Muammar decided to
collaborate with the invaders. He led a surprise march
on ad-Dir‘iyah, took the Imam Mishari prisoner, and Opposite: A typical townhouse with intricately painted
then seized Riyadh, whose governor Turki left. A door. The upper part of the building has triangular pierced
counterattack by Turki staged from Durma resulted windcatchers for ventilation.

62
63
Final Abandonment in Najd: Unayzah, Tharmida, and the third at the town
now emerging as the obvious choice as the centre for
This episode marks the close of the chapter of control of southern Najd, Riyadh. The harshness of
ad-Dir‘iyah’s story as capital. At-Turaif was now the new occupation lost the Egyptians any vestige of
abandoned for good with the palm groves and buildings local support they might once have had. When Turki
of Al Bujairi also destroyed. When Husayn Bey’s tour emerged from hiding in 1823 events flowed in his
of duty came to an end in 1821, he left three garrisons favour, and by 1824 (1239 h) he was able to force out the

64
Egyptian garrison in Riyadh. Once again Mohammad A view from the southeast of at-Turaif across Wadi Hanifah
Ali’s troops evacuated Najd and withdrew to the Hijaz. taken by Harry St John Philby c.1917-18. The seated figure
in the right foreground is probably Philby’s companion,
Ad-Dir‘iyah’s second abandonment in 1821 had clearly Sa‘d Al Yumaini, whom he describes as “a tall slim man with
rendered it an unattractive prospect for rebuilding. It long braided locks hanging down to his shoulders about a
may also have been prudent pragmatism not to provoke countenance strikingly handsome and refined”.
Mohammad Ali that helped to determine the new

65
Imam’s choice of Riyadh as the new seat of government. Above: The Palace of Umar bin Saud photographed by Hassan
Riyadh was a well-maintained garrison town. With Fathy.
Najd once more free of the invader, Turki set about
consolidating his rule. Refugees returned, and a new
era dawned in Najd, dimmed only briefly by a third Right: Aerial view of at-Turaif in 1991, looking north-west.
invasion in the years from 1837 to 1840. Subalat Mudi and Mosque are in bottom centre and
bottom right is Bayt Al Mal prior to recent archaeological
So began the Second Saudi State with its capital at investigations.
Riyadh, with its Imams determined to perpetuate the
religio-political legacy of ad-Dir‘iyah and the Call of
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab.

66
67
68
Opposite top: This remarkable photograph taken in 1937 by In the middle decades of the twentieth century an
Sir George Rendel shows the view from the ruins of Imam effort was made to resettle Al Turaif, and the mass
Mohammad bin Saud Grand Mosque in at-Turaif with the Al of courtyard houses filling the eastern end of the site
Bujairi Quarter in the background. belong to this time. When Violet Dickson, wife of
Harold Dickson with whom she had first visited ad-
Opposite bottom: Contemporary photograph from Dir‘iyah from Kuwait in 1937, revisited the site in 1962;
approximately the same vantage point. Part of the historic the building of these houses was well under way. By
Imam Mohammad bin Saud Mosque has now been restored the 1990s they were in much better condition than
for use. the eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century remains
among which they were built. There was no shortage
of building materials to hand. Mud from the ruins
was recycled into new bricks and mortar, stone for
A Century and a Half of Decay columns and foundation courses, timbers used for roof
supports and old doors utilised. Later, power lines were
The ruined city of ad-Dir‘iyah was now left to a period erected to bring electricity to buildings and there were
of slow decay, its melting mud ruins the haunt only of rudimentary modifications to many of them, such as
locals seeking a handy source of building materials. The installing metal doors and padlocks in place of the old
English visitors William Gifford Palgrave in 1862 and decorated wooden portals with traditional locks, which
Colonel Lewis Pelly in 1865 both found the old capital were to become sought after collectables.
deserted.
At-Turaif had been neglected and although many of the
Good farmland does not go uncultivated in Najd, ruined structures had crumbled over time, the original
however, and the adjacent oasis hamlets would have layout of the monumental structures, courtyard
remained settled and farmed more or less continuously buildings, streets and passageways remained, as well
through the decades. From the time of King Abdulaziz as the vestiges of the overall fabric of the settlement.
bin Abdulrahman, as Riyadh rapidly expanded, ad- Despite the reoccupation and rebuilding, there had
Dir‘iyah slowly grew in its shadows too. Local Saudi been few modern and incongruous additions to its
families and new arrivals from further afield rebuilt traditional earthen architectural pattern.
homes and developed the eastern side of Wadi Hanifah
adjacent to the palm groves of Al Bujairi and other Adjacent and to the east of the ruins of the old capital
settlements along the course of the Wadi. a modern planned town of ad-Dir‘iyah developed and
became the headquarters of ad-Dir‘iyah Governorate
In 1917, on his first visit to the region, Harry St administering other important historical towns in
John Philby (later Abdullah Philby) found at-Turaif Wadi Hanifah, such as Al Uyaynah and Al Jubaylah.
itself completely deserted still. But he estimated the In 1960, a unique experiment took root in Al Bujairi:
number of inhabitants of the oasis as a whole, living the establishment of the Social Development Centre
in their communities and gardens which included the on the northern edge of the historic Al Bujairi quarter.
settlement of Al Bujairi, at no fewer than 7,000. Sir Set up in cooperation with the ministries of Education,
George Rendel, visiting the site in 1937, likewise found Health, Agriculture, and Social Welfare, with United
the site of at-Turaif deserted. However his photographs Nations support, this project was to successfully
show the ruins in considerably better condition than pioneer the country’s first systematic and national
they were by the end of the twentieth century. development programme of its kind focusing on adult

69
education and literacy, preventative medicine, public near Al Ilb in the north to Mulaybid in the south was
health and agricultural improvement. This programme completed during the next decade. By now the priority
in ad-Dir‘iyah was such a success that it was rolled out was to consolidate the remains of the major buildings
throughout the country, with 37 centres being set up inside at-Turaif such as the Salwa Palaces, the Bait Al
over the next four decades. Mal, at-Turaif Mosque and the baths as they were, to
prevent further deterioration and borrow time to decide
how to go about preserving the historic site.
Early Restoration
As a result of the care and attention that the Custodian
In 1974 (1394) the Department of Antiquities and of the Two Holy Mosques, King Salman bin Abdulaziz
Museums became interested in preserving the remains attached to the place when he was Governor of
of ad-Dir‘iyah and UNESCO sponsored a study of Riyadh; in 1998 (1319), a Royal Decree approved
the site which was carried out by a team of specialists the Historic ad-Dir‘iyah Development Programme
in the field of archaeology and conservation. In 1976, under the supervision of the High Commission of
at-Turaif was placed under the protection of the 1972 the Development of Arriyadh. In 2010 (1431) under
Saudi Antiquities Act. By 1978 a second survey had the efforts and guidance of the Saudi Commission of
been carried out, the aim of both studies being to Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA) according to the file
recommend structures for preservation and restoration, and documents prepared by the High Commission for
and propose methods for doing so. the Development of Arriyadh; at-Turaif was listed by
UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
The then Department of Antiquities and Museums
(which became part of the Saudi Commission of The major restoration and rehabilitation project
Tourism in 2003) faced this challenge by selecting now commenced to preserve the historic legacy of
only certain buildings for restoration, the approach ad-Dir‘iyah precinct and transform the area into
recommended in the UNESCO reports. Inside at-Turaif, a sustainable heritage and cultural tourism site.
since the 1970s, the department had concentrated on Arriyadh Development Authority took responsibility
restoring first the Palace of Nasir, and then, in the late for conducting studies and implementation in
1980s, the Palace of Saad and the Faysal Tower. coordination with the Saudi Commission for Tourism
and Antiquities, the King Abdulaziz Foundation for
By 1982 (1402) the last houses in at-Turaif had been Research and Archives and ad-Dir‘iyah Municipality.
abandoned with just a few former residents nostalgically
continuing to visit their family mud brick abodes. With the completion of this ambitious restoration and
Across the Wadi, Al Bujairi still retained its tranquil- development program and its new planned museums,
oasis character, with groves of date palms and gardens, a ad-Dir‘iyah and its various quarters is set to become a
green screen fringing the remains of the former capital’s living heritage site, a bridge to the past and source of
political heart. All that remained of the once vibrant pride for the Saudi Nation and its future generations.
quarter of ad-Dir‘iyah, famed far and wide as the heart
of the Call of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab and
a centre of education and religious instruction were two
mosques and a cluster of humble dwellings.
Opposite top: the partially restored Al Dhuwayhirah mosque
Restoration of the fortification walls and towers of at- in the Al Bujairi Quarter. Photographed by the Egyptian
Turaif commenced and rebuilding the defensive wall architect Hassan Fathy who worked in ad-Dir‘iyah in the
lining the heights on either side of Wadi Hanifah from 1960s. And, below, the same mosque now fully restored.

70
71
PART TWO
RESTORATION AND
THE FUTURE
The landscaped terraces of Wadi Hanifah with
Salwa Palace in the background.

74
chapter five
Shaping an Ancient Land

E ighteenth century (twelfth century h) life for the

people of the agricultural hamlet of Al Bujairi
and its neighbors such as Al Murairah and Samhan
be. But while the desert climate was harsh and arid,
the alluvial soil that the farmers tilled was fertile.
Water – either underground and accessible via wells
was as close to the earth as human existence could or for some of the year on the surface in the wadi –

75
was in sufficient supply to sustain crops that fed both
Al Bujairi and, when combined with produce from
other farms, the population of at-Turaif.

The earth formed from the clays and silts of Wadi

Hanifah was invaluable in another way. Deposits of
adhesive alluvial clay provided the essential ingredients
for building. Along with water, chopped straw, muscle
power and a generous helping of ingenuity, Najd
craftsmen used these local and natural resources to
construct a settlement of amazing complexity which
has over more than two centuries withstood invasion,
stinging sand-filled winds, intense heat, torrential
downpours and floods.

Today much has changed in the landscape, but some

of the farms and gardens are still in evidence and
the ruins of at-Turaif still stand. The palaces, homes,
mosques, suq and other buildings of the walled
city preserve a comprehensive palette of the unique
and distinctive styles of Najdi architecture that
developed in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula. These
outstanding examples of earthen construction reflect
the extraordinary skills and traditional methods of at-
Turaif’s master builders. Such skills are evident in the
thick adobe walls, internal courtyards, numerous high
triangular and slit ventilation openings, plastered and
lime-washed limestone columns and column capitals.
Many of these features were developed to cope with
the harsh desert climate of Najd with its extremes of
diurnal and seasonal temperatures.

Landscaping Al Bujairi

Al Bujairi, centre of religious scholarship and learning A view from palm groves over the buildings of the Al Bujairi
of the Reform Movement during the late 18th and Quarter built using natural materials in the architectural style
early 19th centuries (12 and 13 centuries h), lies on the of Najd. The skyline of the historic city of at-Turaif forms the
east bank of Wadi Hanifah right opposite the fortified background.
stronghold of at-Turaif. As part of the Historic Ad-
Dir‘iyah Development Programme, the Al Bujairi
Quarter now stands as the gateway for visitors to at-
Turaif and contains gardens, a plaza, terraces along the

76
wadi, retail and restaurant facilities, art and heritage site from urban encroachment, to provide public space
galleries, mosques, and the Sheikh Mohammad bin and amenities, and to preserve agriculture in the wadi
Abdulwahhab Foundation. The Al Bujairi Quarter is area, including the extensive date palm plantations still
part of a buffer zone that covers nearly two and a half under cultivation.
kilometres of ad-Dir‘iyah and protects the 300,000
square meter core UNESCO World Heritage site of The landscaped areas also protect the views enjoyed
at-Turaif. As well as Al Bujairi this landscaped buffer from and of at-Turaif. From the extensive vantage
zone includes the adjacent stretch of Wadi Hanifah points above the landscaped wadi terraces, the gardens,
and several tributaries and is designed to protect the plaza and walkways of the Al Bujairi Quarter offer the

77
78
most spectacular and evocative vista of the old capital
and its mud buildings and palace ruins immediately
across the wadi.

Wadi Hanifah cuts a shallow course through the

plateau of sedimentary rock on which ad-Dir‘iyah
is built. The wadi both divides and unites the two
interdependent sites of at-Turaif and Al Bujairi: the
former the seat of political power, the latter the centre
of religious scholarship that inspired the Reform
Movement.

During the heyday of ad-Dir‘iyah, as well as

channelling run-off and replenishing the water table
that sustained its agriculture, the wadi bed was used as
a suq by local traders and visiting merchants from Al
Hasa, the Hijaz, Yemen and Iraq. The flat alluvial land
on the eastern (Al Bujairi) side of the wadi was also
used for cultivation.

In redeveloping the overall site, those responsible for

landscaping the wadi attempted to apply the principles
of good landscape design: unity, harmony, proportion,
focal points, sequence, rhythm, and repetition. The
objective was for the landscaping of the wadi to
complement and enhance the overall project. It aims to
reinforce the visitor experience and to retain as much of
the original as possible without an over-tidy approach
that would destroy its character.

Part of this approach is the use of repetition, the

recurring utilization of elements with similar shape,
form, texture or colour – balancing new development
of the original landscape and ecosystem without
overusing the repeating themes. Wadi Hanifah already
comprised well-used farmland, hamlets and a web

A view of water features on terracing fringing the Al Bujairi

Quarter .
of old tracks and pathways connecting settlements the fine views of at-Turaif. This hinted at the way
including Al Bujairi and at-Turaif. The landscape forward: by consolidating visitors’ established habits,
exhibited repetitive elements of texture and colour in encroachment could be minimized, thereby preserving
the sharp, horizontal fracturing of the sedimentary the area’s identity. A balance had to be struck between
Riyadh limestone. the goal of preserving the site in a sensitive and yet
visitor-friendly manner, and the needs of the expanding
The Arriyadh Development Authority’s ambitious urban population and local farmers.
Wadi Hanifah Wetlands Project, which commenced
in 2000, had already restored the 120-kilometre The team approached the problem from the outside
watercourse from its polluted condition into a beautiful by determining through the eyes of a visitor how the
natural recreational area. This gave the Authority its access roads affected the area and what infrastructure
fourth Aga Khan Award for Architecture, one of the was required. The priority was to ensure minimal
first of the awards to be given for an environmental impact on the traditional landscape which also
project. The aims of this earlier project were to reshape comprised various tributary wadis meandering into
the landscape and restore the wadi’s natural beauty, Wadi Hanifah. A comprehensive analysis of the site
enhance the environmental quality of the area, and its topography established precise boundaries
improve accessibility, and provide an extensive public for the precinct and demarcated it from what was
recreational space that passed through historic ad- clearly becoming a focus for urban development, with
Dir‘iyah. infrastructure.

The precinct of ad-Dir‘iyah might be viewed as three One temptation landscape designers have to resist is
concentric areas that centre on a one-kilometre stretch ‘gentrification’, that is, over-tidying unspoilt landscape
of Wadi Hanifah where it passes between at-Turaif with all its cultural and historic significance, and
and Al Bujairi. The outer zone encompasses the wider turning it into a manicured shadow of its former self.
area bordering on the modern town of ad-Dir‘iyah The landscapers were instructed to keep the changes
and the advancing suburbs of Riyadh. The middle area simple and understated, so as to retain as much of the
incorporated Al Bujairi and at-Turaif and a number of original character of the scenery as possible. Protecting
small farms and hamlets. The inner area embraces the the setting and age-old atmosphere and heritage of the
wadi that runs through the area of the Historic Ad- overall precinct was a priority.
Dir‘iyah Development Programme. And it is this short
section of Wadi Hanifah that runs through the precinct As with any public space, first impressions are crucial:
of ad-Dir‘iyah where landscaping has had its most visitors must be made to feel welcome, to feel that they
obvious impact. are about to enter a special – even unique – place. This
impression was fostered in various ways. For example,
The development of the precinct required a sensitive the great wooden gates forming a ceremonial entrance
approach, balancing access for visitors with the need – a symbolic portico of the bridge of King Khalid
to minimize the environmental impact on the site. In highway that spans the access road to Historic Ad-
their preliminary survey, the landscaping contractors Dir‘iyah – are made from tamarisk (athl) timber and
Bödeker were concerned about the rapid expansion of decorated in traditional Najdi blue and red motifs. They
the outer suburbs of Riyadh and possible encroachment stand open in welcome and the visitor drives on past
on ad-Dir‘iyah and its setting. The site was already verdant landscaped verges to the King Salman Square
popular with local and Riyadh residents flocking to with its majestic 100-metre-high pole from which flies
picnic on the east bank of Wadi Hanifah and enjoy the Saudi national flag.

80
 Im
am
Ad-Dir’iyah

Mo
Governorate

ha
mm
Saudi flag flying

a
oad

db
from 100 meter pole
dR
S au

in S
in Ad-Dir’iyah
ad b Municipality

aud
o hamm
in M

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oad
la
bdu Imam Mohammad
mA
Shops and I ma bin Saud Mosque
visitor Government
facilities offices
Sheikh Mohammad King Salman bin
g F bin Abdulwahhab Abdulaziz Circle

K in
Al Buja aisa Foundation
ir i Qu l
art

bi
er

nA
Wad

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Prin
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Historical Mohammad
At-Tu bin Saud Mosque

Ab
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rt

azi
er Bridge

zR
At-Turaif Visitor

oad
City Walls
Reception Centre
with towers

Outer
Walls

UNESCO
World Heritage site
0 100 200 300 400 meters

AL BUJAIRI, AT-TURAIF AND THE OUTER PRECINCT OF AD-DIR‘IYAH

Appropriate plants were selected, and local limestone The design brief particularly specified the creation of
was used to form pavements and visual boundaries a public space in Al Bujairi Quarter. This contains
across the site, so developing a cohesive ‘ad-Dir‘iyah gardens, a plaza, walkways, facilities, galleries,
style’. At-Turaif is constructed using local materials. And two mosques and the Sheikh Mohammad bin
the new Al Bujairi Quarter has also been sympathetically Abdulwahhab Foundation, and thus creates an area
built using local materials forming a subtle combination where the public can actively experience something
of Riyadh limestone, mud bricks and local athl wood. of the character of Al Bujairi as a seat of religious
The resulting tan hues and varied textures of the new learning and appreciate its connection with at-Turaif.
structures result in a homogeneous and harmonious Surveys completed, the first phase of work commenced
blend. Any landscaping would have to reflect this in 2007 starting from the perimetre of the precinct
elemental connection between the locality, the people inwards. Workers removed insignificant structures,
and their buildings. dead palm trees, rubble and undergrowth. They lifted

81
and replanted date palms in good condition into a
temporary holding nursery nearby, along with any
useable earth, which was set aside for later reuse.

Once the site was clear, work began on flood-protection

infrastructure: well-hidden drainage systems were laid,
and new wadi terracing was created. This terracing
and the retaining walls for public areas used the same
local stone as the surviving old revetment walls of
the wadi, which are built from assorted undressed
limestone blocks. The new walls use the same stone but
it is split and dressed to harmonize with the horizontal
fracturing of the local rock. The result is a new park
that is more than just a copy of the original farm walls.
The conserved earth was retrieved from storage and
returned to the new terraces to create the flat public
areas. The original date palms were replanted in
the gardens retained by the new walls. More than
sixty different varieties of palms were eventually
incorporated into the design.

Landscapers and project architects were keen to

utilize the native species traditionally found in Najd.
The Ziziphus tree, sidr, was a highly valued example.
Sometimes known as the ‘village tree’, it is widespread
in Arabia and was much prized for its small sweet-sour
fruit which was made into conserves and jams. Sidr is
one of the most drought-resistant of fruit trees, able to
grow in temperatures between 0° and 52° C and thus
perfectly adapted to the Kingdom’s climate. Essentially
an evergreen, it loses a few of its leaves yearly, and
is very inexpensive to grow because once the tree is
rooted and established no further irrigation is needed.
Interestingly, the fallen leaves are gathered and allowed
to turn yellow, when they are crushed and mixed with
fat to form a very effective soap.

Looking directly down on the South Gardens reveals rich

patterns in this green and peaceful landscaped public space.

82
83
One particularly fine sidr specimen stands next to preserves the air of the legacy of the Al Bujairi Quarter
the Al Dhuwayhirah mosque in Al Bujairi. Under its as a major and historic centre of Islamic scholarship
ancient canopy one can imagine gatherings of market and teaching without over-refinement. The lasting
traders with their wares laid out on mats taking impression is of care and respect for a site that is central
advantage of its shade and fruit, whilst students from to the history of Saudi Arabia and the heartland of
far and wide would congregate after prayer in scholarly Islam.
circles within the mosque for religious instruction.

Vision, planning and hard work at Al Bujairi have

combined to produce a landscaped site that is an
open, welcoming, communal green area. And an
underlying respect for and understanding of history Opposite: The ancient sidr tree spreads its canopy over the
and tradition have provided an entirely appropriate courtyard of the Al Dhuwayhirah mosque.
setting for the local limestone-faced buildings of the
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation and Below: A family picnic in Al Bujairi Quarter with the historic
Mosque. The setting, now nurtured and maintained, capital of the first Saudi State as a backdrop.

84
85
Tamarisk [athl] logs from farms in Wadi Hanifah are a
main component in traditional buildings of Najd. They are
seasoned before use to reduce moisture content.

86
chapter six
Working with Nature’s Gifts

Adobe

M odern construction technology has many

advantages over ancient methods. But those
ancient techniques were in many cases the direct
Unfired mud bricks have a longer history than fired
bricks and have the organic component of straw in
the mix to bind them. They also have the exceedingly
begetters of modern ones – most particularly in the practical advantage, especially in desert areas, of
area of brickwork, a skill industrialized and taken for not needing kilns to fire them. The sun-dried brick
granted today. is therefore very eco-friendly, uses easily available

87
 Historic water
UNESCO site boundary Mosque Well Tower
storage hole

0 50 100 meters
Ima
m
Mu
ha
mm
ad
bi Restored mudbrick
n Sa Mosque
A l - ud
M u Ro l bin Ab d
a
d w a Fa y s ulaz
i y dings King iz Ro
ad
il

d
y bu
a i ck Rammed earth
h br Modern Foundation
P ud Central and limestone built in Riyadh
a m
buildings
r n Plaza Limestone
er
od t e r
a r
k

Q u
M
d Imam’s
oa
R i
kt
a ba i r 46 houses

-M
a j a Mosque restored in South
u
45
Al B rendered concrete Gardens
Rammed earth walls l
A
P a r k
46

a h
i y er features
i r
‘ ith wat
D e r r aces w
- ne t
A d mesto
Li
nifah
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Wa d

ces
terra
es tone
Lim Fa
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ERY Restored part of

C EME T Grand Mosque
E T E R Y
C E M Excavated
original extent of Remains of
Salwa Treasury
Grand Mosque Palace

Faisal
Tower NOR
TH S
TRE
L
CITY WAL
ET
Farhan
bin Saud Ibrahim Fahd
A t - Palace bin Saud bin Saud
T u r Palace Palace
North-west a i f

EET
Imam
houses

ST RE ET

Q u Abdullah

EAS T STR
Tower a r bin Saud
W ES T

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built

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Turki bin
one

Saud Palace
Mushari
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CITY WALLS Nasir bin Saud

Palace
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bin Saud
5.5 meters high Palace
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SO UT H
1.5–2.5 meters thick Restored ST RE ET
om

West Bath House

red

Gate
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Restored
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Guest Palace
CITY

Ar

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WALL

Ga ext
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West e r
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along the western wall only br r m ET
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CITY WALL
Buraika Tower

Southwest Tower
i n W a d i s
l a n d
F a r m ARCHITECTURE IN HISTORIC AD-DIR‘IYAH PRECINCT

88
materials, is thermally inert and, when eventually
it decomposes into its original elements, eminently
recyclable.

When the project for the development of the Al Bujairi

Quarter was proposed, one of the principal parameters
was that the buildings should reflect the history of the
quarter and harmonize with the landscape and reflect
local culture and traditions. Al Bujairi would also offer
itself as the Gateway to the adjacent UNESCO World
Heritage Site of at-Turaif.

Thus inspired, the architects set about designing the

monumental limestone forms that we see today in Al
Bujairi. They make up the dominant structure of the
Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation
which embraces the pre-existing, now renovated,
mosque of the same name. While modern in design,
the Foundation, built from Riyadh limestone and glass,
draws heavily on the style of traditional Najdi cuboid
architecture. It also employs a distinctive architectural
approach. The walls of the structures are deliberately
battered, or slanted, as a modern expression of
rootedness to land, heritage and history. These angled,
off-vertical buildings are also orientated towards the
dominant political centre of at-Turaif across Wadi
Hanifah with the mosque orientated to the qibla. Thus,
the architecture of the Foundation – modern in design
and drawing heavily on the style of traditional Najdi
architecture and local materials – reflects the past and
pays homage to the land that gave birth to Islam, the
Reform Movement and the First Saudi State.

The techniques used by the Najdi master builders of the

eighteenth century were advanced for their day. The
people of Wadi Hanifah had ready supplies of materials

The contemporary use of mud in Al Bujairi Quarter is

illustrated with this rammed earth decorative colonnade
fronting the suq area. The architectural feature has an adobe
plaster coat covering the underlying structure.

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The preparation for brick production involves regular mixing
of mud and straw with water and allowing fermentation and
curing which forms a brown surface crust.

Main picture: immediately after mixing with a tractor driving

over the mix, the brown crust is broken and the freshly
churned mud is black

Opposite (top): water is poured into a lagoon made of the

adobe mix and left to soak in prior to mixing.

Right: moulded mud bricks after a week drying in the

open air and strong sun. The split brick reveals the fibrous
composition.
to hand and possessed the techniques to turn them into a plaster finish is applied to the surface, in which case
durable structures. The present-day use of such materials one would not know that a traditional construction
and techniques in the Al Bujairi Quarter connects method has been employed.
the visitor with the original methods used in the
construction of historic at-Turaif and other settlements Internally, by contrast, the restaurants are fitted out
of ad-Dir‘iyah, Wadi Hanifah and elsewhere in Najd. in the Najdi style with ceiling beams of local tamarisk
wood (athl) and palm-frond spines (gareed), and
Use of traditional techniques in the modern Quarter rendered with traditional stonewash gypsum plaster.
of Al Bujairi is not immediately obvious. The local
adobe takes three forms: rammed earth, adobe cob or
‘patty’ bricks, and sun-dried mud bricks. Moreover, it
is adobe made in the traditional way, with just a slight Below: Adobe bricks are made from mud and straw and are
boost from modern technology, as in the 10-ton front- black when fresh from the mould. They are laid out in rows
loader used to churn the watered fermenting adobe mix with space to allow air circulation for drying. Brown bricks are
regularly throughout the day. about three days old.

The suq and restaurant area in the plaza is almost Opposite: From top to bottom; fresh-made bricks in the
entirely built of rammed earth, but one has to look moulds; a pair of freshly-ejected black bricks; a dark three-
closely at their exteriors to discern the tell-tale signs. day-old brick; a one-week-old brick and a sun dried brick
This method involves heavily tamping down successive ready for use.
layers of damp earth mixed with sand, clay, straw with – The stamp of Arriyadh Development Authority, ADA, on the
in this case – 3 to 5 percent of cement or lime, between right, is used to mark each brick with the month and year of
stout shuttering boards. When the boards come off, manufacture. This differentiates for future archaeologists the
horizontal lines mark the join between each layer unless new 2015 bricks from the original centuries-old bricks.

92
The cob brick or cob patty is the simplest style of mud
brick. The technique of making them is to make a mix
of the usual local adobe ingredients and scoop a lump of
the material onto a wall or foundation. Simply patting
the amorphous clay blob with hands or simple wooden
paddles into a rough, but often slumped, rather long
three-dimensional rectangular brick and leaving it
to dry achieves the shape. Often sections are cut into
longish brick shapes to allow air to circulate while the
brick dries. Depending on the length of a course of
brickwork and the drying rate of the mud-mix, it might
be several days before the next course can be laid.

In Al Bujairi, the adobe cob brick was used in the

sensitive restoration of the old Al Dhuwayhirah
Mosque, which dates back to the time of the First Saudi
State when Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab lived
and taught in Al Bujairi. The mosque also incorporates
many of the traditional techniques of structural
woodwork, for example athl beams and stripped palm
frond stems for supporting the adobe and gypsum
screed waterproofing on the roof.

Cob bricks are load-bearing and have similar thermal

mass properties to rammed earth and the more
sophisticated mud bricks. Their practical advantage is
that they can be simply formed in situ and their slightly
uneven shape does not seriously hinder the application
of any finishing plaster coat.

Another more precise and more common technique

is the use of sun-dried mud brick. More than three
million such bricks have been made and used to restore
at-Turaif alone, and each of these handmade bricks
carries the stamp of the ADA (Arriyadh Development
Authority) and the year and month it was made. In Al can be pressed into brick moulds, and the bricks then
Bujairi Quarter a good example of their use is also in stacked to dry in the sun. Because they are moulded
the restoration of the old Al Dhuwayhirah Mosque. to a standard size and shape, they can be used with
Here, the bricks are concealed by a coat of mud plaster. precision in modern buildings.

Mud bricks are made from a mix of clay, sand, silt and These simple methods are still used today for around
straw, allowed to ferment while being turned over daily a quarter of the dwellings in the world. Their presence
for some weeks. Once the blackish mass is ready, it in Al Bujairi’s modern buildings is, to many, surprising

93
94
A finishing coat of fresh adobe plaster being spread on mud brick walls. The
fresh plaster is made with brick mud, but containing more finely chopped
straw. The foundation coat is pitted with holes, made by the builders’ fingers to
provide a key for the finishing coat. Freshly applied, the mud plaster is black but
within a day matches the coating on the left of the picture.

95
and thought-provoking. Thick-walled adobe buildings of its original moisture. The resulting powder is called
have a high thermal mass, making them slow to heat burnt gypsum, although its white or translucent colour
up during the day and therefore less energy-intensive to does not change. This dehydrated form is valued for
keep cool – a clear benefit in the Arabian climate. We its ability to solidify almost immediately after water is
can still learn a great deal from the past, particularly in added to it. The retail name for the product is Plaster of
the area of environmentally friendly building. Paris.

Dr Mahmoud Bendakir, architect and consultant on the Originally, the gypsum plaster (juss) that covered the
project, and a leading world expert on adobe building roofs or internal walls and columns of a building was
technology, is committed to the potential of the mud made by placing the gypsum rocks (available locally) in
brick. He feels that its use in Al Bujairi vindicates the a wood-fired kiln for a several days. Once cooled it was
approach that UNESCO now takes to recognizing crushed and stored for future use. In the restoration
architectural heritage sites. As he says: “The adobe of at-Turaif, the process is even easier, if longer. The
process and the use of simple unfired materials to make crushed rock pieces, fist-sized or smaller, are loaded
structures that millions of people could use to build into fresh-water tanks and left for some weeks. The rock
dwellings and urban landscapes is very ecologically breaks down into a white sludge which is then used in
sound and uses almost zero energy. … The key to the plaster making process.
making these structures last over time is regular
maintenance and this has to be part of the culture of
building. Given a solid foundation – stone or concrete Athl and Palm Timber
for example – and a waterproof cap in the form of a
roof, a well-maintained adobe building can last for The catchment area of Wadi Hanifah is relatively fertile,
centuries.” sustaining agriculture and providing other natural
resources too – namely, the wood of the tamarisk
(Tamarix aphylla) or athl tree, as well as the trunk,
Gypsum fronds and spines (gareed) of the date palm. These
materials were essential ingredients in the construction
Gypsum has been used as a building material for of permanent habitations catering for the settled
millennia. Gypsum is a mineral compound, calcium farming lifestyle of the local people and for the more
sulphate dihydroxide, or sulphate of lime. It is generally complex habitations and fortifications of ad-Dir‘iyah.
found underground near deposits of limestone –
plentiful in the plateau descending from the Tuwaiq Tamarix aphylla has deep roots, long, slender branches
Escarpment and in the ad-Dir‘iyah area. It is also made with numerous small, grey-green, scale-like leaves,
from other minerals formed by evaporation. One of and at times produces small pink flowers. It is a fast-
the most common forms of raw gypsum is a pure white growing, moderate-sized evergreen that can grow to
crystal, alabaster. Another unprocessed type of gypsum 18 metres tall at full maturity. It has an erect tapering
forms in desert terrain and its crystals resemble the
petals of a flower, which is why it is known as the
“desert rose.”

Because the calcium and sulphur molecules in Opposite: stacked tamarisk (athl) logs drying out ready for
gypsum are chemically bound to water, this material use. Tamarisk has a tendency to split longditudinally, as can
is routinely heated in order to remove 50 to 75 percent be seen from the sawn ends.

96
97
Tamarisk joists in the beautifully restored Al Dhuwayhirah Turaif, the tamarisk logs, sustainably sourced from farms
mosque. in Al Kharj, when viewed end on, all seem to develop a
single deep radial crack that frequently runs the length
of the log. In Najd choice was limited and the master
builders relied upon tamarisk for beams and rafters.

trunk up to 80 centimetres in diametre, with many One major challenge of using tamarisk is that it is both
smooth, stout, spreading branches. As the trees mature, a dietary and construction favourite of the voracious
the bark becomes bluish-purple, ridged and furrowed. local termites. In the wilder tropics, there is a symbiosis
Its wood is close-grained, light-coloured, fibrous and between the tamarisk and this industrious pest, as
fairly hard, with high shock resistance; it also splits the latter often build their colonies under the shade
readily when first cut and polishes well. of the tree. They bring water to make the cement for
their tunnels, and the tamarisk uses some of that
Tamarisk has been used in the construction of buildings moisture to provide for itself, thus perpetuating the
for millennia. The wood has to be dried and the shade that the termites seek. The termites frequently
moisture content reduced from 30 or 40 percent to build vertical tunnels from the ground straight up the
around 15 percent. Stacked in the holding yard near at- surfaces of walls to access the timber at the top. In

98
the reconstruction of at-Turaif and the building of Al This use of timber in construction is necessarily limited
Bujairi, tamarisk logs had to be soaked in a powerful by its availability, particularly in the arid central region.
insecticide for 24 hours to deter them. In many ancient towns below the Tuwaiq escarpment
on the plains of Washm where wood was more scarce
The main use of tamarisk in ad-Dir‘iyah has been as thin local limestone slabs were used for roofing.
roof beams and for the water spouts that project from
the sides of mud buildings to direct rainwater away That said, even though local timbers are perhaps not
from the mud walls. Traditionally, the same timber was the best construction materials by modern standards,
used for doors and shutters and some 35,000 tamarisk ingenuity and insecticide can combine to give them
trees have been used in the restoration and construction a useful life as inexpensive and environmentally
in the Historic Ad-Dir‘iyah Development Programme. low-impact ways of making perfectly habitable
dwellings. Their continued use in the restoration of
That magnificent, iconic and useful tree, the date palm, buildings at ad-Dir‘iyah is testament to how, with
has long provided two of the essential materials for minimal technology and a sound knowledge of their
construction in the region: the spear-shaped leaves, environment, the people of Najd could produce
woven as matting, and the midribs of the stripped surprisingly sophisticated buildings from very limited
fronds, used in the construction of ceilings. resources.

In the construction of the adobe buildings of the

ad-Dir‘iyah precinct, all three vegetal products Stone
combine to provide the basis for sound roofing. Athl
wood provides the strong beams that provide the The technique is not common, but it would appear that
support for the roof. Laid across the internal rooms the plentiful supply of conveniently sized rocks may
and secured to the walls, they are evenly spaced and have encouraged the builders to use the free material.
secured. Sometimes the bark is left on the trunks; if
the beams are exposed for use in an important room One notable example of the use of stone for building
(for example, in the basement prayer hall of the Al is a watchtower that stands on the edge of the site.
Dhuwayhirah Mosque), the bark might be stripped and A magnificently restored tower, it is constructed
the wood polished or varnished. almost entirely of stone and exhibits a high level of
craftsmanship. There is a decision to be made whether
Over the beams, the stems of the palm frond stripped to cover the structure in an adobe render or leave it
of its leaves and now whip-like, are laid at right angles unclad so visitors can appreciate the extent of the skills
across the beams in a mat, sometimes loosely stitched involved in building the tower.
together to avoid spreading during construction. Over
this base, to fill in the gaps and provide a substrate In Najdi earthen construction local limestone was used
for the mud screed to come, is laid a mat woven from for foundations, columns and reinforcement. Sometimes
green palm-fronds which provides a flat sealing layer. availability close to construction activity meant stone
Onto this surface the outer coating of adobe and then was preferred to mud bricks. This is seen in the higher
gypsum plaster is laid to form a waterproof roof. part of at-Turaif, where the mud has fallen away to reveal
not earth bricks but a herring-bone pattern of split rock
It is an elegant and effective method of roofing and, pieces, laid in alternate layers at about 45 degrees from
given the addition of a powerful insecticide to deter the upright, each layer facing the opposite direction of
termites, one that lasts for a considerable time. the ones above and below. The rocks are bonded with a

99
A variety of features in mud, stone and wood can be seen in the Historic ad-Dir‘iyah Development Program.
mud mortar and it must have been a fairly rapid building The watchtower on the north-western perimetre wall of at-
technique. Turaif (above left). The remains of a residence wall whose mud
outer coating has fallen away from weathering, revealing the
This ancient building technique seen in parts of at-Turaif herringbone structure of rocks, sourced from the site, that was
suggests that the plentiful supply of conveniently-sized used in place of mud bricks.
rocks may have encouraged the builders to use the free
material rather than carry large quantities of earth and
water from the wadi below.

Generally, the two main uses of rock were as

foundations and load-bearing columns. Some of
the smaller mud buildings in at-Turaif have no rock in a trench to take a plinth on which stood the column.
foundations. The column itself was made from a series of solid
stone ‘drums’ that when piled atop each other, tapered
In the Al Bujairi Quarter the old and restored Al slightly towards a capital that supported a lintel. Each of
Dhuwayhirah Mosque has exposed foundations these in Najd is known as kharaz, the Arabic word for
showing cut cuboid blocks rising two and a half courses beads.
above ground level acting as the base for the adobe
brick wall above it. These ‘beads’ of carefully cut limestone were rendered
flat and dry-fitted together or perhaps mortared. When
A major use for rock in construction was to supply the erected, the columns were rendered with gypsum to
load-bearing columns that can be seen surrounding the finish the construction. Good examples of columns
inner courtyards of many buildings in at-Turaif. The may be seen in the Al Dhuwayhirah Mosque where the
construction of columns was simple but effective, with a classic capital, in three stone slabs of increasing size,
split rock foundation (stylobate) to spread the load laid supports keel arches along an arcade.

102
On the at-Turaif site, near the main entrance there is Above: The field of pillars discovered during the restoration of
an area of recently discovered and excavated columns. Imam Mohammad bin Saud Grand Mosque of at-Turaif reveals
Some remain in situ whilst other stone ‘beads’ are the former extent of this Grand Mosque which in the heyday of
scattered. They vividly reveal not only the construction the First Saudi State had a capacity for a congregation of 3,000.
techniques of the master builders of at-Turaif but also
the hitherto unknown extent of a much larger grand Below: The restored Imam Mohammad bin Saud Mosque
mosque adjacent to the Salwa Palace: a mosque that showing the adobe-plastered walls and the stacked stone
was capable of holding a congregation of around 3,000 drum construction of the supporting pillars.
worshippers.

Thus in the Historic Ad-Dir‘iyah Development

Programme, architects, engineers and craftsmen have
come together and revitalized the age-old traditional
construction methods and techniques of Najd.

In testimony to the master craftsmen and builders

of ad-Dir‘iyah there is a centre for adobe building
technology on the living heritage site of at-Turaif, which
will encourage study and further development of these
traditional techniques. And across Wadi Hanifah, the
Al Bujairi Quarter reveals not only its own exquisitely
restored mosque incorporating earth, limestone,
limewash and the wood of athl and date palm; but
also entirely modern buildings constructed from these
sustainable local resources originating in the wadi.

103
An area of Al Bujairi Quarter with modern mud brick
buildings in the traditional architectural style of Najd.

104
chapter seven
The Al Bujairi Quarter

The central theme of the Al Bujairi Quarter is its

heritage as a great Arabian centre for religious
scholarship. Today, its layout
materials and the presence of water and quiet green
gardens, provide an air of peace and silence – social
architecture that is designed to relax and promote
and openness, along with the contemplation, a legacy of its former role during the
extensive use of local natural time of the First Saudi State.

105
However, Al Bujairi with its dominant Sheikh
Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation and
Mosque is not just for learning, research and prayer – it
is for anyone who wishes to access its public spaces, sit
in peace and learn at whatever level, be it simply to look
and wonder or walk and explore, asking questions and
retracing the footsteps of the inhabitants of yesteryear.
It is also the gateway to the UNESCO World Heritage
Site of at-Turaif, a living heritage museum rich in
history, culture and exhibitions on the founding of
the First Saudi State, military history, everyday life
two centuries ago, and the role of the famed purebred
Arabian horses of Najd.

The sympathetic landscaping of Al Bujairi’s garden

area on the south side of the Sheikh Mohammad bin
Abdulwahhab mosque, for example, is designed in
traditional Islamic style, based on a grid of squares with
each edge delineated by a channel of water, echoing
the four rivers of Paradise. Here date palms and grass
provide shade and comfort in the heart of the Quarter
where visitors can sit, relax and perhaps picnic. The
promenade that borders and overlooks Wadi Hanifah
offers dramatic views across manicured terraces,
formerly part of the cultivated areas that supplied
agricultural produce to the settlements of Al Bujairi
and at-Turaif.

In the northern part of the Al Bujairi Quarter, the plaza

and grassed areas with palm trees and a central water
feature are dominated by the beautiful Al Dhuwayhirah
Mosque, immaculately restored using only materials
that would have been available to the original builders.
The mosque’s western qibla wall overlooks the plaza,
reminding the visitor of the intimate relationship
between mosque and community.

The South Garden of Al Bujairi looking towards the Sheikh

Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation and Mosque. Part
of the gardens are laid out in a traditional square grid, formed
by intersecting water channels (qanat).

106
107
REGENERATED AL BUJAIRI, GATEWAY TO AT-TURAIF
Information centre Men’s toilet

Mosque Women’s toilet

Im
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Q u
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At-Turaif Visitor
Reception Centre
0 25 50 75 100 meters

108
Around the plaza are the modern equivalent of the and is designed by architect Dr Rasem Badran who, in
booths of the old suq. Small retail units, restaurants and 1995, received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture
traditional craft outlets echo the bustle that must have for the design of the Imam Turki bin Abdullah Grand
been commonplace in the time of the First Saudi State Mosque of Riyadh and the redevelopment of Riyadh
when the capital ad-Dir‘iyah was at its zenith in terms Historic City Centre. Above ground, the Foundation’s
of religious learning, power and influence. buildings face westwards towards the Salwa Palace in
at-Turaif, the political heart of the capital of the First
While the detail of the area is modern, the atmosphere Saudi State, and also in the direction of Makkah. Thus
of community, scholarship, trade and resourcefulness they appear to slide into the ground in a sequence that
still prevails and forms a direct link to the past and the at once grabs the observer’s attention and directs his
essential history of the Al Bujairi Quarter. attention both to the roots of the state and westwards to
the Holy City of Islam.
The people of Wadi Hanifah had ready supplies of the
materials to make lasting structures and, to emphasize The immense masonry masses of the cubes and their
the durability of both materials and techniques, some of uncompromising forms, so characteristic of Najdi
the construction in the Al Bujairi Quarter makes use of architecture, augment the design ethic and resonate
these age-old craft skills. Once again, this helps connect with the uncluttered purity of the Reform Movement’s
the visitor accustomed to modern buildings with the ideals and Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab’s
original methods used in the construction of at-Turaif teachings.
and Al Bujairi, and underlines just how advanced,
sustainable and suited to the environment they were. The entirety of the complex is constructed around
the previous Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab
The whole purpose of the Al Bujairi Quarter is to mosque, whose reconstruction in 1998 was personally
establish a permanent centre as a monument to the funded by the late King Fahad bin Abdulaziz. The
religious foundations of the modern Saudi State, original mosque had first been replaced after the
to provide a peaceful environment in which to death of King Abdulaziz by a larger concrete mosque.
contemplate the single most important aspect of the Subsequently, in the closing years of King Fahad’s reign,
political history of the Kingdom, and to accumulate this mosque was demolished and this entirely new one
archives and disseminate learning and research. erected at his behest. The separate minaret is built of
stone and stands to the side, rooted to and rising from
The Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation the Foundation’s Memorial Hall below ground level.
is an integral part of the Quarter and has been set up From the floor of the Memorial Hall, the sky is visible
as a legacy of the teachings of the Reform Movement through the core of the square tower, one side of which
inspired by Sheikh Mohammad which refocused the is angled from the vertical.
faithful on the central precepts of Islam and its essential
simplicity and purity of purpose. The Foundation is constructed from local limestone
blocks with extensive use of glass architectural
In terms of the architecture of the site, the Foundation elements. Its minimalist outline, with stainless steel
is integrated into the environment in the most striking details in the handrails and support for the stark
fashion, forming a focus that demands attention from staircase in the main entrance hall, conveys simplicity
the eye and communicates a fixity of purpose. The and transparency of purpose, as light floods into the
complex consists of four vast cubes of local limestone building from all angles.

109
The main part of the Foundation comprises a library, Clean-cut, clear-edged and with a strong visual sense
the Memorial Hall and a multi-purpose hall for of permanence and purpose, the Sheikh Mohammad
events and symposia. The library occupies a circular bin Abdulwahhab Foundation complex stands at
area inside a glass atrium and reflects the circles of the gateway of the route across the wadi leading to
learning (halaqat ‘ilm) in which scholars and students at-Turaif, thus forming the first part of the journey
traditionally gathered in mosques, outdoor spaces and towards understanding the origins of the Saudi State of
in the homes of clerics to learn the core disciplines of today.
Islamic studies.
Nearby, the restored mud-brick Al Dhuwayhirah
The library’s holdings, in book, manuscript and Mosque reveals the simple character of the original,
electronic form, focus on the Reform Movement and typical mosques of the region built in the tradition of
the teachings of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Najdi architecture: a covered prayer area supported
and are available for research and study. As well as by stone columns, a low square minaret reached by
encouraging both Saudi and international research and external steps, a well to provide water for ablutions and
scholarship, the Foundation has facilities for electronic perhaps its own date store, and even a space for visitors
and distance learning. to receive traditional hospitality and accommodation.

Below the library is the Memorial Hall. This will The outer walls, made of mud bricks and more than a
use interactive multimedia and narrative displays to metre thick at the base, taper upwards to a castellated
show, explain and reflect on the legacy of the Reform parapet. Rising rectangular and solid from the north-
Movement. The multipurpose hall can be divided into west corner, the short square minaret establishes the
three areas clad with soft, sound insulation panels. distinctive Najdi character of the mosque. Inside,
These reflect the colours of the local stone and are the basement prayer area is once again as simple as it
textured in a tight weave that echoes the warp and weft can be: pure white walls, exposed athl beam ceiling,
of local textiles. bookcases and a carpet for the worshippers. Such
basement prayer areas were used by congregations
At the very heart of the Foundation stands the Sheikh in the cold winter months or in heavy rains. The
Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Mosque. It has been lower level would also provide a cool respite from
renovated to harmonize with the surrounding new the relentless summer heat during prayer or studies.
architecture of the Foundation and rendered to match
the tan hues of the various stone buildings of the
Foundation. Work was carried out by the Arriyadh
Development Authority and started at the time of
the establishment of the Historic ad-Dir‘iyah Project.
Progress on its construction was personally directed
by the then Governor of Riyadh and now Custodian of Opposite: Angled walls and glass features the Sheikh
the Two Holy Mosques, His Majesty King Salman bin Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation. The westward-
Abdulaziz. The Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab leaning cubic structure of the Foundation are angled towards
Mosque has now been further improved and totally at-Turaif across Wadi Hanifah and echo modern roots to
renovated within the Al Bujairi Quarter project. religion, tradition and the foundation of the First Saudi State.

110
111
The west wall has a very simple mihrab or prayer
niche, and small windows and simple lanterns light
the entire space. The thickness of the walls and the
carpet combine to produce a profound silence, and
every utterance in the prayer hall becomes muted and
respectful.

In the manner of mosques of the day, it is likely that

in one corner was a courtyard with a few palm trees to
provide the dates for the mosque perhaps in exchange
for oil to light the lamps or distribute to the needy or
guests.

Mosques in Al Bujairi had circles of learning for

students after prayers. There were also schools for
instruction (madrasah) in the disciplines of Islam such
as the Arabic language, Quranic study, interpretation,
jurisprudence, Islamic science and arithmetic for the
purpose of Islamic inheritance law. The homes of
clerics would also have been places for scholarship as
Al Bujairi attracted students and visitors from far and
wide, acknowledged as it was during the zenith of the
First Saudi State as the paramount centre of learning
and religious scholarship in Najd.

The reception atrium of the Sheikh Mohammad bin

Abdulwahhab Foundation is in minimalist style with natural
light and transparency. The Foundation offers a library,
memorial hall, research and conference facilities and research.

112
113
The interior of lower prayer area of
the Al Dhuwayhirah mosque is simple,
cool and silent. Accessed through
a traditionally decorated athl wood
door, there is no ornamentation,
other than the prayer-line guides on
the plain green carpet, to distract
worshippers from the main purpose of
their devotions.
116
chapter eight
Al Bujairi: Gateway to the Living
Heritage Museum of at-Turaif

A l Bujairi enjoyed its apogee more than two

centuries ago when ad-Dir‘iyah, with its citadel
of at-Turaif, was capital of the First Saudi State and at
learning. Today the Al Bujairi Quarter is a place
to relax and enjoy the tranquil wadi oasis setting.
Visitors have plenty of choice from the moment they
the height of its power. It was a period of prosperity leave the car in the spacious underground parking
accompanied by a flowering of religious studies and lots and step out into the plaza and gardens.

117
Here they will find outlets providing food and snacks, also universally eaten as a healthy item on their own
souvenirs, traditional handicrafts and local produce. and also incorporated into well-known Najdi dishes.
The works of talented Saudi and international artists The date being the traditional Najdi staple, the cuisine
are on offer in art galleries where young visitors are surrounding this remarkable fruit is extensive and
encouraged to develop their budding artistic talent. complex. Dates are nutritious and high in calorific
Small shop un its and restaurants surround the main value, and are eminently storable. They were central to
plaza, conjuring up the atmosphere of a colourful suq. survival for settled communities and nomadic tribes
when drought and disease struck and times were lean.
Trade, bargaining, retail selling and the spirit and
skills of entrepreneurship are deeply embedded in the One particular favorite in the chill winter months
culture of Najd. During the heyday of the First Saudi of Najd is hunayni. This classic Najdi dish is a date
State, ad-Dir‘iyah and its wadi settlements became concoction traditionally prepared specially for early
an important commercial hub. The trade routes and breakfasts in the near-freezing temperatures after the
passing merchants gave it the vitality that in turn dawn prayer. Pitted, ground dates are mixed over the
attracted more settlers and supplies to Al Bujairi and fire with butter; the mixture is thickened with grain,
at-Turaif. The nineteenth-century Najdi chronicler Ibn seasoned, simmered and stirred until nearly stiff. The
Bishr writes evocatively of the thronging market scene result is a rich, sweet fruit cake-like dish sure to sustain
in the old capital along the sides of Wadi Hanifah, until suppertime.
likening the hubbub of buying and selling in the suqs to
the drone of swarms of humming bees. As well as the ubiquitous latte and caffe macchiato
on offer there are also opportunities to savor Arabic
Today Al Bujairi Plaza is a reflection of those bustling coffee and teas. During the time of the First Saudi State
suqs of long ago and their local and visiting traders who qahwah Arabiyah was imported from Yemen. Until the
became such an integral part of the settlement since it arrival of imported tea from India, traded through Al
first came to prominence. Hasa, locally grown herbs such as camomile, mint and
peppermint were popular and healthy infusions.
A surprising and little-known fact is that cotton was
one of the products of the plantations. In what quantity Grains, used to make bread, were grown in and
it was produced is not clear, but records suggest that it around the plantations and gardens of the Wadi
was sufficient to form an article of trade, and it is likely Hanifah settlements and on the plains of Al Washm
there was a local weaving industry producing garments. immediately to the west of the Tuwaiq Escarpment.
Dried bread layered with seasonal vegetables and a little
Perhaps no aspect of traditional cultural offers visitors braised meat produced qursan, a popular healthy dish
a more enjoyable experience than does the local unique to ancient Najd. Other dishes include jareesh, a
Najdi cuisine, which derives its character from the grain-based porridge mixed with vegetables and meat
environment, locally sourced ingredients and the trade and cooked with buttermilk. Salt was obtained locally
connections that the people of the high desert interior from natural evaporation pans. Rice was part of the diet
were able to establish. and imported from Al Hasa oasis where red rice was
cultivated. White rice (timn) from the wetlands of Iraq
Many of the foodstuffs current in the time of the was also favoured and imported as a luxury. Milk was
First Saudi State are still familiar, notably the use of obtained locally from camels and sheep, for drinking or
locally cultivated vegetables and fruit and dietary making into cheese, whose by-product, whey, was also
basics prepared from wheat and millet. Dates were widely used. Dried cheeses and yoghurt were brought

118
 Stairs/Lift access Multimedia sound
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VISITOR ATTRACTIONS IN HISTORIC AD-DIR‘IYAH PRECINCT

119
The main plaza in Al Bujairi Quarter offers a
range of retail outlets serving a wide range
of food and beverages. The landscaped
public spaces and architecture make this a
perfect place for families to relax and enjoy
the views over Wadi Hanifah towards the
skyline of at-Turaif.

121
122
into Wadi Hanifah by Bedouin and traded for local
staples such as dates. As well as the many varieties of
dates grown along Wadi Hanifah there was a wide
range of fruits and vegetables on offer.

Today the restaurants of Al Bujairi Quarter celebrate

this gastronomic heritage by introducing visitors to it in
the most memorable and enjoyable manner.

The two sites of Al Bujairi and at-Turaif, representing

the religious and political aspects of Saudi Arabian
history, are separated physically by just a couple of
hundred metres across Wadi Hanifah. Though dividing
them, the wadi was more a link than an obstacle,
facilitating both communication and access to the
necessities of everyday life.

Today the Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab

Bridge spans the wadi in a sweeping arc, symbolic of
that most potent symbol of Islam, the crescent. The
Saudi Arabian constitution in modern times, as stated
in the country’s Basic Law of Governance, “is the
Quran”. This, by definition, links the political and the
religious in a united whole by which the third Saudi
State runs it affairs to this day.

The bridge replaces the earlier straight concrete road

bridge, which was out of keeping with the environment.
One of the designer’s first recommendations in 2008
was that the new bridge should capture the historical
spirit of the site, offer a statement of permanence and
present Al Bujairi as the Heart of the Call and the
Gateway to the living heritage museum of at-Turaif.

In the morning sunlight the view from the terraces and

landscaped water features of Wadi Hanifah that fringe
Al Bujairi Quarter. The minaret Sheikh Mohammad bin
Abdulwahhab Mosque is prominent along with the façade of
Salwa Palace in at-Turaif.

123
The bridge takes the visitor to the visitor reception
centre at the entrance to the at-Turaif site. Part clad in
copper, this is designed to integrate smoothly with the
span. The shape of the wadi retaining walls below the
visitor centre are curved to reflect the sinuous curves of
the wadi as it wends through the landscape. These walls
make use of rough-hewn limestone blocks in the style
of the revetment walls erected by previous generations.
They are dressed to fit but not split into layers as the
more formal terraces on the opposite bank are. The
idea was to reflect the traditional landscaping style
extending up and down the banks of the wadi where
many of the farms were protected from floods by such
retaining walls.

As the pedestrian reaches the bridge down the broad,

sloping walkway along the south side of the Foundation
and past the square minaret of the mosque, the entire
vista of at-Turaif opens up. Progressing onto the bridge,
the walk sweeps across the wadi in a bold curve and
flows into the revetment walls of the visitor centre.
Gradually, the curve reveals a panorama of the wadi
in a subtle transition from the spiritual to the political
zone. The imposing palaces and defensive walls of
the old citadel infuse the visitor with a sense of the
connection between the two supporting pillars of the
Saudi State.

Once at the reception centre, the visitor enters the

UNESCO World Heritage Site of at-Turaif, the start
of a never-to-be-forgotten experience taking in a
truly magnificent living heritage site, complete with

From the Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Foundation

in Al Bujairi the main axis leads towards the Salwa Palace
of at-Turaif across Wadi Hanifah. To the right the walkway,
alongside the Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahhab Mosque
is aligned towards Makkah, the spiritual heart of Islam.

124
125
126
museums, restored mud-brick and stone architecture,
palaces, homes and mosques, all woven together in an
intricate network of narrow streets and passages. The
faithfully restored walls echo and whisper the thrilling
history of this, the founding capital of the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia.

The entire extent of Al Bujairi Quarter is seen in this view

from above at-Turaif across the Sheikh Mohammad bin
Abdulwahhab Bridge. The South Garden is on the right.

127
Picture Credits

Arriyadh Development Authority, Riyadh: front cover, 25, 46, 48-49

The King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives, Riyadh: 22

The American University in Cairo, Rare Books and Special Collections Library. Photos by Hassan Fathy:
12 (time line background), 34, 58-59, 63, 66, 71 (top)

The Middle East Centre, St Antony’s College, Oxford. Photos by Sir George Rendel: 50, 68 (top); Harry
St John Philby: 10-11, 40-41

The Royal Geographical Society, London. Photos by Captain Shakespear: 36-37; 43 (inset map); Gerald
de Gaury: 38-39; Harry St John Philby: 64-65

Abdullah Al Sayari: title page, 78-79, 82-83, 122-123, 126-127

Mohammed Al Sayari: 74, 85, 104-105, 106-107, 111, 112-113, 124-125, back cover

Peter Facey: 32

Roger Harrison: 71 (bottom), 72-3, 74-5, 76-77, 83, 88-89, 90-91, 92, 93, 94-95, 97, 98, 100-101, 103 (top
and bottom), 109, 114-115, 116-117

Philip Hawkins: 16-17 (x 3), 20, 21, 31, 33, 52

Martin Lubikowski: 68 (bottom), 82, 84, 86-87, 100 (right), 102-103 (middle) 118-119, 120-121

Norman MacDonald: endpapers, 26-27

Rupen Vosgimorukian: 14-15, 67

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