full vacuum.

Differential pressure transducers measure the pressure differ-

ence between two locations directly instead of using two pressure transducers
and taking their difference.
The emergence of an electric potential in a crystalline substance when sub-
jected to mechanical pressure is called the piezoelectric (or press-electric) ef-
fect. This phenomenon, first discovered by brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie
in 1880, forms the basis for the widely used strain-gage pressure transducers.
The sensors of such transducers are made of thin metal wires or foil whose
electrical resistance changes when strained under the influence of fluid pres-
sure. The change in the resistance is determined by supplying electric current
to the sensor and measuring the corresponding change in voltage drop that is
proportional to the applied pressure.

The atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus,

the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
As Torricelli discovered a few centuries ago, the atmospheric pressure can
be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube into a mercury container that C
is open to the atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 2–52. The pressure at point B is
equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at C can be taken to be
zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure it exerts A
h h
is negligible. Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives
= ghA
Patm gh

where is the density of mercury, g is the local gravitational acceleration, and B

h is the height of the mercury column above the free surface. Note that the Mercury
length and the cross-sectional area of the tube have no effect on the height of Patm
the fluid column of a barometer (Fig. 2–53).
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is de- The basic barometer.
fined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at
0 C ( Hg 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g
2
9.807 m/s ). If water instead of mercury were used to measure the standard at-
mospheric pressure, a water column of about 10.3 m would be needed. Pres-
sure is sometimes expressed (especially by weather forecasters) in terms of
the height of the mercury column. The standard atmospheric pressure, for ex-
ample, is 760 mmHg (29.92 inHg) at 0 C. The unit mmHg is also called the
torr in honor of Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), who invented the barom-
eter. Therefore, 1 atm 760 torr, and 1 torr 133.3 Pa. A1 A2 A3
The standard atmospheric pressure Patm changes from 101.325 kPa at sea
level to 89.88, 79.50, 54.05, 26.5, and 5.53 kPa at altitudes of 1000, 2000,
5000, 10,000, and 20,000 meters, respectively. The standard atmospheric
pressure in Denver (elevation 1610 m), for example, is 83.4 kPa.
Remember that the atmospheric pressure at a location is simply the weight
of the air above that location per unit surface area. Therefore, it changes not
only with elevation but also with weather conditions.
The decline of atmospheric pressure with elevation has far-reaching rami- The length or the cross-sectional area
fications in daily life. For example, cooking takes longer at high altitudes of the tube has no effect on the height
since water boils at a lower temperature at lower atmospheric pressures. of the fluid column of a barometer.
 Experiencing nose bleeding is a common occurrence at high altitudes since
the difference between the blood pressure and the atmospheric pressure is
larger in this case, and the delicate walls of veins in the nose are often unable
Lungs to withstand this extra stress.
For a given temperature, the density of air is lower at high altitudes, and
Engine thus a given volume contains less air and less oxygen. So it is no surprise that
we tire more easily and experience breathing problems at high altitudes. To
compensate for this effect, people living at higher altitudes develop larger
lungs and thus larger chests. Similarly, a 2.0-L car engine will act like a 1.7-L
car engine at 1500 m altitude (unless it is turbocharged) because of the 15 per-
At high altitudes, a car engine cent drop in pressure and thus 15 percent drop in the density of air (Fig. 2–54).
generates less power and a person gets A fan or compressor will displace 15 percent less air at that altitude for the
less oxygen because of the lower same volume displacement rate. Therefore, larger cooling fans may need to be
density of air. selected for operation at high altitudes to ensure the specified mass flow rate.
The lower pressure and thus lower density also affects lift and drag: airplanes
need a longer runway at high altitudes to develop the required lift, and they
climb to very high altitudes for cruising for reduced drag and thus better fuel
efficiency.

Patm gh
1N 1 kPa
(13,570 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (0.74 m)
1 kg · m/s2 1000 N/m2
98.5 kPa

Patm = 0.97 bar Patm

m = 60 kg

A = 0.04 m2

P=?
P
W = mg

Schematic for Example 2–9, and the

free-body diagram of the piston.