DESIGN OF PASSENGER JET WITH

400 SEATING CAPACITY

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT- I

Submitted by

K. RAVI KUMAR (18101175)

G.DILEEP SAI SRINIVAS(18101201)
S. KIRAN KUMAR (18101206)
A. PRANEETH SAI (18101169)
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES HINDUSTAN

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
PADUR, CHENNAI – 603103

APRIL 2021
 SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF PASSENGER JET OF 400 SEATING
CAPACITY” is the bonafide work of K. RAVI KUMAR (18101175)G.DILEEP SAI
SRINIVAS(18101201)S. KIRAN KUMAR (18101206)A. PRANEETH SAI
(18101169)” who carried out the project work under my supervision. Certified further
that to the best of my knowledge the work reported here does not form part of any other
project/research work on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.

Dr. ASOKAN R Dr. CHANDRASEKAR M

Professor & Head of the department Assistant Professor
School of Aeronautical Sciences School of Aeronautical Sciences
Hindustan Institute of Technology Hindustan Institute of Technology
and Science and Science
Chennai – 603103 Chennai – 603103

Submitted for the project viva voice Examination held on

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my extreme pleasure to thank our chairperson Dr. Elizabeth Verghese,

Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science, for providing me with a good,
pleasing and safe environment in our college which helped me a lot to carry on
with my project.

I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. S.N. SRIDHARA, Vice-

Chancellor, Hindustan Institute of Technology & Science for providing me with
an excellent study environment.

I am thankful to Dr. Asokan R, Professor & Head of the Department, School

of Aeronautical Sciences for much of his valuable support, encouragement in
carrying out this work.

I would like to thank my internal guide Dr. CHANDRASEKAR M, for

continuously guiding and actively participating in my project, giving valuable
suggestions to complete the project work.

I would like to thank all the technical and teaching staff of Aeronautical
Department, who extended their support directly or indirectly.

Last, but not the least, I am deeply indebted to my parents who have been the
greatest support while I worked day and night for the project to make it a success.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT I

LIST OF TABLES II

LIST OF FIGURES III

LIST OF GRAPHS IV

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS V

1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1

2 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANES 10

3 COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND

PERFORMANCE 14

4 PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS 18

5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND SELECTION

OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN 30

6 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 37

7 POWERPLANT SELECTION 62

8 WING, AEROFOIL & TAIL SELECTION 68

9 FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION 83

10 LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION 91

11 PERFORMANCE CALCULATION 98

12 THREE VIEWS OF BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT 105

13 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 107

14 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 112

REFERENCE 114
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

6.1 Suggested Fuel Fraction for Several Mission Phases 52

6.2 Suggested value for L/D, Cj, Cp, ηp for several

53
mission phases

6.3 Regression line constant A & B 54

7.1 From Chapter 5, Table.no-5.3 61

7.2 Comparison of different engines 63

8.1 Wing design result 71

8.2 Comparison of different airfoil 73

8.3 Aerofoil selection for root, tip and mean chord 75

8.4 High lift device lift coefficient 79

II
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Design Methodology 1

1.2 Design process 2

1.3 Conceptual design 4

1.4 Aircraft design configuration 5

4.1 BOEING 777-300ER 14

4.2 BOEING 787-10 15

4.3 BOEING 777-9 16

4.4 AIRBUS 340-600 17

4.5 AIRBUS350-1000 18

4.6 AIRBUS 350-900 19

4.7 BOEING 777-8 20

4.8 BOEING 747-8 21

4.9 BOEING 747-200 22

4.10 AIRBUS 380 23

4.11 BOEING 747-100 24

4.12 BOEING 747-400 25

4.13 BOEING 747-300 26

4.14 BOEING 747-SP 27

4.15 AIRBUS 330-900NEO 28

4.16 BOEING 777-200ER 29

III
7.1 GE 90-115B1 engine 63

8.1 Wing types 66

8.2 wing planform 68

8.3 Aerofoil 72

8.4 Geometry of BOEING BAC XXX Airfoil 75

8.5 Geometry of GOE 599 Airfoil 76

8.6 Geometry of NPL ARCCP 1372 Airfoil 76

8.7 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil GOE
77
599
8.8 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil CP1372 77
8.9 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil
78
BOEING BAC XXX
8.10 Types of flaps 79

8.11 types of tail 81

9.1 Principal structural units on Pasenger aircraft 84

9.2 Semi monocoque fuselage construction 86

9.3 Passenger Aircraft landing gear 87

9.4 landing gear sketch of a Passenger Jet 88

9.5 Landing gear schematic diagram 91

10.1 lift representation 93

10.2 skin friction drags 97

10.3 form drag 97

10.4 wave drag 98

10.5 Typical streamlining effect 98

IV
11.1 Take-Off Performance 104

11.2 Landing Performance 106

11.3 Climb Hodograph 107

11.4 Climbing Hodograph 109

11.5 Glide Hodograph 110

11.6 Gliding Hodograph 111

12.1 Front view of passenger Aircraft 112

12.2 Side view of passenger Aircraft 112

12.3 Top view of passenger Aircraft 112

12.4 Isometric view of passenger aircraft 113

V
 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH NO TITLE PAGE NO

5.1 Max Speed Vs Aspect Ratio 41

5.2 Max Speed Vs Length 41

5.3 Max Speed Vs Height 42

5.4 Max Speed Vs Wing Area 42

5.5 Max Speed Vs Wing Span 43

5.6 Max Speed Vs Wing Loading 43

5.7 Max Speed Vs Empty Weight 44

5.8 Max Speed Vs Payload weight 44

5.9 Max Speed Vs Max Take Off Weight 45

5.10 Max Speed Vs Thrust to Weight Ratio 45

5.11 Max Speed Vs Range 46

5.12 Max Speed Vs Rate of Climb 46

5.13 Max Speed Vs Service Ceiling 47

5.14 Max Speed Vs Dry Thrust 47

VI
 LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS

A.R - Aspect Ratio

b - Wing span(m)

C - Chord of the Aerofoil (m)

Croot - Chord at Root (m)

Ctip - Chord at Tip (m)

Cd - Drag Co-efficient

Cdo - Zero lift Drag co-efficient

- Specific fuel consumption (lbs /
CP
hp / hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient

D - Drag(N)

E - Endurance (hr)

e - Oswald efficiency factor

L - Lift (N)

(L/D)Loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

(L/D)Cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

M - Mach number of aircraft

Mff - Mission fuel fraction

R - Range (km)

Re - Reynolds number

s - Wing area (m2)

Sref - Reference surface area

Swet - Wetted surface area

Sa - Approach distance (m)

Sf - Flare distance (m)

Sfr - Freeroll distance (m)

S.C - Service ceiling

A.C - Absolute ceiling

VII
T - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)

Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)

(T/W)Loiter - The thrust-to-weight ratio at Loiter

(T/W)Cruise - The thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise

(T/W)Take-off - The thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off

vCruise - velocity at cruise (m/s)

vStall - velocity at stall (m/s)

vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)

WCrew - Crew weight (kg)

Wempty - Empty weight of the aircraft (kg)

WFuel - Weight of fuel (kg)

WPayload - Payload of the aircraft (kg)

W0 - Overall weight (kg)

W/S - Wing loading (kg/m2)

ρ - Density of air (kg/m3)

μ - Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

λ - Tapered ratio

R/C - Rate of Climb

η - Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

VIII
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

1.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which the
aircrafts are designed. The design process depend on many factors such as
customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic
constraints etc… For some types of aircraft, the design process is regulated by
national airworthiness authorities. Among the fundamental elements of the
design process are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis,
analysis, construction, testing and evaluation.
Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and
constraints. It accounts for the existing designs and market requirements to
produce the best aircraft. The design method to be followed from the start of the
project to the nominal end falls in three main phases. These phases are illustrated
in Figure 1.1. In some industrial organizations, this phase is referred to as the
‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a document is
produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric details
known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a document that
will be subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft. This
is known as the aircraft ‘Type Specification’.

Figure 1.1 Design Methodology

1
1.2 DESIGN PROCESS

Figure 1.2 Design process

3
1.3 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are
carried out in sequence. They are
• Conceptual design
• Preliminary design
• Detailed design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

This design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements) for a

new airplane or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement
some pioneering, innovative new ideas and technology. The first steps towards
achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, the overall
shape, size, weight and performance of the new design are determined.

During the conceptual design phase, the designer is influenced by such

qualitative factors such as the increased structural loads imposed by a high
horizontal tail location through the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with
cut-outs in the wing structure if the landing gears are to be retracted into the
wing rather than the fuselage or engine nacelle.
PRELIMINARY DESIGN

In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase,
the conceptual design process is actually flawed, to begin with. It is in the
preliminary design phase that serious structural, control system analysis and
design take place.

DETAIL DESIGN

The detail design phase is literally in great detail to the nuts and bolts
phase of airplane design. The aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance
and flight control analysis have all been finished with the preliminary design
phase. The airplane is now simply a machine to be fabricated. The pressure
design of each individual rib, spar and section of skin now take place.

The size and location of number of fasteners is determined .At the end of
this phase , aircraft is ready to be fabricated.

4
BLOCK ARRAY FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Figure 1.3 Conceptual design

6
Figure 1.4 Aircraft design configuration

7
 CHAPTER 2

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANES

The following types of aircraft are taken for the study

➢ HOMEBUILT PROPELLER DRIVEN

➢ SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
➢ TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN
➢ AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES
➢ BUSINESS JETS
➢ REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE
➢ TRANSPORT JETS
➢ MILITARY TRAINERS
➢ FIGHTERS
➢ MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES
➢ FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES
➢ SUPERSONIC CRUISE AIRPLANES
Among these one aircraft is chosen for the study on its specification
and performance

2.1 HOMEBUILT AIRCRAFT

Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are

constructed by anyone who may or may not be a professional in the aerospace
field. These aircraft may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from
assembly kits.
Homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four- seat sports planes
which employ simple methods of construction. Fabric-covered wood or metal
frames and plywood are common in the aircraft structure. Fiberglass and other
composites as well as full aluminium construction techniques are also being used.

10
 2.2 SINGLE ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Single engine propeller aircraft are well-suited for short missions

under300miles. They can easily access smaller airports with shorter runway
They are also known as light aircrafts. They are mainly used for freight transport,
sightseeing, photography and other similar roles as well as personal use.These
aircrafts are nowadays used for training of pilots for the commercial passenger
aircrafts. Using these aircrafts, pilots can acquire license after completing certain
training requirements.
2.3 TWIN ENGINE PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRCRAFT

Causal observation of twin-engine propeller aircraft reveals that most

configurations consist of a forward wing with nacelle-mounted engines on each
side and a single tail empennage. However, about a third of the aircrafts do have
various engine and airframe arrangements. Aircrafts are arranged in nine
categories, as much as possible, with similar configuration traits. Each
configuration category is identified with a sample aircraft.

2.4 AGRICULTURAL AIRPLANES

An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that was built for agricultural use

usually for the aerial application of pesticides (crop-dusting) or fertilizer in
these roles, they are referred to as "crop dusters" or "top dressers". Agricultural
aircraft are also used for hydro-seeding. Agricultural aircraft are typically small,
simple, and rugged. Most have spraying systems attached to the trailing edges
of their wings, and pumps are usually driven by wind turbines.

2.5 BUSINESS JETS

A business jet, private jet or bizjet is a jet aircraft designed for transporting
small groups of people. Business jets may be adapted for other roles, such as
evacuation of causalities or express parcel deliveries, and some are used by public
bodies, government officials or the armed forces.

11
 2.6 REGIONAL TURBO PROPELLER DRIVEN AIRPLANE
A regional airliner or a feeder liner is a small airliner that is designed to
fly up to 100 passenger . on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers'
airline hubs from small markets. This class of airliners is typically flown by the
regional airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger airlines.
Regional airliners are used for short trips between smaller towns or from a larger
city to a smaller city. Feeder line, commuter, and local service are all alternative
terms for the same class of flight operations.

2.7 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE

A transport aircraft is used for transporting the passenger and air cargo.
Such aircrafts are most often operated by airlines. An airliner is typically
defined as an airplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in
commercial service. The largest of them are wide-body jets which are called
also twin- aisle. These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline
hubs and major cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-
body or single- aisle used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer
passengers than their wide-body counterparts.
2.8 COMMERCIAL TRANSPORT AIRPLANE

A transport aircraft is used for transporting the passenger and air cargo.
Such aircrafts are most often operated by airlines. An airliner is typically
defined as an airplane intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in
commercial service. The largest of them are wide-body jets which are called
also twin-aisle. These are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs
and major cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is the narrow-body
or single- aisle used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers
than their wide-body counterparts.

12
2.9 MILITARY TRAINER
A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight
training of pilot and aircrew. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with
additional safety features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight
characteristics and a simplified cockpit arrangement—allows pilots-in-training to
safely advance their real-time piloting, navigation and warfighting skills without
the danger of overextending their abilities alone in a fully featured aircraft.

3.0 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air

combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose
main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed,
maneuverability, and small size relative to other combat aircraft.

3.1 MILITARY PATROL BOMB AND TRANSPORT AIRPLANES

Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are typically fixed wing
and rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to airlift troops, weapons and other
military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations
around the surface of the planet, usually outside the commercial flight routes in
uncontrolled airspace.

Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for
delivering airborne forces during World War II and towing military gliders. Some
military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role duties such as aerial
re-fuelling and, rescue missions, tactical, operational and strategic airlifts onto
unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers.

11
3.2 FLYING BOATS, AMPHIBIANS AND FLOAT AIRPLANES

A flying boat is a fixed-winged seaplane with a hull, allowing it to land on

water, that usually has no type of landing gear to allow operation on land. It
differs from a floatplane as it uses a purpose-designed fuselage which can float,
granting the aircraft buoyancy. Flying boats may be stabilized by under wing
floats or by wing-like projections (called sponsons) from the fuselage. Their
advantage lay in using water instead of expensive land-based runways, making
them the basis for international airlines in the interwar period. They were also
commonly used for maritime patrol and air-sea rescue.

3.3 SUPER CRUISE AIRCRAFT

Supercruise is sustained supersonic flight of a supersonic aircraft with a

useful cargo, passenger, or weapons load performed efficiently, which typically
precludes the use of highly inefficient afterburners or "reheat". Many well-known
supersonic military aircraft not capable of supercruise must maintain supersonic
flight in short bursts typically with afterburners. Aircraft such as the SR-71
Blackbird is designed to cruise at supersonic speed with afterburners enabled.

13
 CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATIONS AND

PERFORMANCE

CREW
A group of people who works during the flight mission and operate an aircraft.

PASSENGERS

They are travellers on a public or private conveyance other than the pilot and crew.

EMPTY WEIGHT

The empty weight of an aircraft is the weight of the aircraft without including
passengers, baggage, or fuel.

PAYLOAD

The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport – passengers, baggage,

freight etc.

TAKE OFF WEIGHT

It is the maximum weight at which the pilot is allowed to attempt to take off due
to structural or other limits.

LANDING WEIGHT

It is the maximum aircraft gross weight due to design or operational limitations

at which an aircraft is permitted to land.

WING LOADING

It is the total weight of an aircraft divided by the area of its wing.

14
WING AREA

It is the projected area of the wing planform and is bounded by the leading trailing
edges and the wing tips.

WING SPAN

The maximum distance between the two wing tips is wing span and is denoted by b.

THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

It is a dimensionless ratio of thrust to weight or a vehicle propelled by such an

engine that indicates the performance of the engine or vehicle.

WINGSWEEP BACK ANGLE

The angle at which a wing is either swept backward or occasionally forward from
its root.

ASPECT RATIO

It is the ratio of wing span to its mean chord. It is also equal to the square of the
wing span divided by the wing area.
Aspect ratio = b2/s

THRUST

It is the force exerted by the engines on the airframe to overcome drag and is
measured in Newton (N).

POWER

It is the rate at which work is done.

WET THRUST

It is the augmented thrust with the usage of afterburners or liquid injection.

CRUISE SPEED

The speed at which combustion engines have an optimum efficiency level for fuel
consumption and power output.

15
RATE OF ASCENT (CLIMB)

The rate of positive altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

RATE OF DESCENT (SINK)

The rate of negative altitude changes with respect to time or distance.

ABSOLUTE CEILING

It is the altitude where maximum rate of climb is zero is the highest altitude
achievable in steady, level flight.

SERVICE CEILING

It is the altitude where the maximum rate of climb is 100 ft/min and it’s
represented the practical upper limit for steady, level flight.

RANGE

It is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between take-off and landing, as
limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft.

ENDURANCE

It is the maximum length of time that an aircraft can spend in cruising flight as
long as the fuel is available.

STALLING VELOCITY

It is the velocity below which an aircraft will descend, or ‘stall’, regardless of its
angle of attack.

TAKEOFF DISTANCE
It consists of two parts, the ground run and the distance from where the vehicle
leaves the ground until it reaches 50 ft or 15 m. The sum of these two distances
is considered the take-off distance.
LANDING DISTANCE
It is the distance required to bring the aircraft to a stop under ideal conditions,
assumingtheaircraft crosses the runway threshold at a height of 50 ft, at the
correct speed

16
 CHAPTER 4

PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

It’s the collection of data of various airplanes related to the concept taken.
Around 10 to 15 aircraft data with their design parameters are compared.

4.2 AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE

1.B777-300ER
2.B787-10
3.B777-9
4.A340-600
5.A350-1000
6.A350-900
7.B777-8
8.B747-8
9.B747-200
10.A380
11.B747-100
12.B747-400
13.B747-300
14.B747-SP
15 A330-900NEO
16.B777-200ER

18
 INSERT AIRCRAFT NAME – SPECIFICATION

B777-300ER

PARAMETER Values
Crew 396
Length (m) 73.9 m
Height (m) 18.5 m
Wing Area (m²) 436.80 m2
Wing Span (m) 64.8 m
Aspect Ratio 9.6131
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 351530 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 167800 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 73500 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.99
Max Speed (Km/h) 905 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13140 m
Range (Km) 13649 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 25.4 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 804.7161 Kg/ m2
Dry Thrust (KN) 512 KN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type GE90-115B1

19
 INSERT AIRCRAFT NAME – SPECIFICATION

B787-10
PARAMETER Values
Crew 390
Length (m) 68.3 m
Height (m) 17.02 m
Wing Area (m²) 377 m2
Wing Span (m) 60.1 m
Aspect Ratio 9.58
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 245011 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 135500Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 202000Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.72
Max Speed (Km/h) 954 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13000 m
Range (Km) 11910Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 28.9 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 649.8965 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 340 KN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type General Electric GEnx-1B or Rolls-Royce
Trent 1000

20
Gccv

INSERT AIRCRAFT NAME – SPECIFICATION

B777-9
PARAMETER Values
Crew 414
Length (m) 76.7 m
Height (m) 19.7 m
Wing Area (m²) 516.7 m²
Wing Span (m) 71.8 m
Aspect Ratio 9.96
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 351500 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 184600 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 73500 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.76
Max Speed (Km/h) 950 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13100 m
Range (Km) 14000 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 25.4 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 680.2786 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 470kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type 2 x GE Aviation (General Electric) GE9X-
105B1A

21
 A340-600
PARAMETER Values
Crew 440
Length (m) 75.30 m
Height (m) 17.30 m
Wing Area (m²) 439.4 m²
Wing Span (m) 63.45 m
Aspect Ratio 9.3
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 368000 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 177800Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 67200 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.99
Max Speed (Km/h) 915 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 12634 m
Range (Km) 14599 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 30 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 404.64 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 275.35kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Rolls Royce Trent 556-61

22
 A350-1000
PARAMETER Values
Crew 440
Length (m) 73.79 m
Height (m) 17.08 m
Wing Area (m²) 464.3 m²
Wing Span (m) 64.75 m
Aspect Ratio 9.03
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 308000 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 65535 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 65535 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.85
Max Speed (Km/h) 945 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 12630 m
Range (Km) 16100 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 15.24 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 665.9 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 431.5kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type RR Trent XWB

23
 A350-900
PARAMETER Values
Crew 410
Length (m) 66.80 m
Height (m) 17.05 m
Wing Area (m²) 442 m²
Wing Span (m) 64.75 m
Aspect Ratio 9.25
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 280000 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 115700 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 65000 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.726
Max Speed (Km/h) 945 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13106.4 m
Range (Km) 15000 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 15.24 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 261.76 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 374.5kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Rolls Royce Trent XWB

24
 B777-8
PARAMETER Values
Crew 384
Length (m) 69.8 m
Height (m) 19.5 m
Wing Area (m²) 516.70 m²
Wing Span (m) 64.8 m
Aspect Ratio 9.96
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 351500 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 169400 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 73000 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.826
Max Speed (Km/h) 950 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13100 m
Range (Km) 16170 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 25.4 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 680.25 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 470kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type General Electric GE9X-105B1A

25
 B747-8
PARAMETER Values
Crew 605
Length (m) 76.25 m
Height (m) 19.35 m
Wing Area (m²) 554 m²
Wing Span (m) 68.45 m
Aspect Ratio 8.45
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 448000 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 220128 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 140000 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.694
Max Speed (Km/h) 988 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13000 m
Range (Km) 14800 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 12.7 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 808.6642 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 295.80 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type GEnx-2B67

26
 B747-200
PARAMETER Values
Crew 452
Length (m) 70.31 m
Height (m) 19.3 m
Wing Area (m²) 511 m²
Wing Span (m) 59.60 m
Aspect Ratio 6.951
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 374850 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 172570 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 100000 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.306
Max Speed (Km/h) 969 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13747 m
Range (Km) 12700 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 10.16 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 733.56 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 216.4 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4G2

27
 A380
APARAMETER Values
Crew 555
Length (m) 73 m
Height (m) 24.1 m
Wing Area (m²) 843 m²
Wing Span (m) 79.8 m
Aspect Ratio 7.55
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 560000 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 277000 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 127000 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.671
Max Speed (Km/h) 990 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13100 m
Range (Km) 15000 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 12.7 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 664.29 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 374 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Rolls-Royce Trent 900

28
 B747-100
PARAMETER Values
Crew 452
Length (m) 70.6 m
Height (m) 19.3 m
Wing Area (m²) 510.9 m²
Wing Span (m) 59.6 m
Aspect Ratio 6.952
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 333400 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 162000 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 76800 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.6534
Max Speed (Km/h) 895 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13700 Km
Range (Km) 9800 Km
Rate of Climb (m/s) 7.62 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 652.5738 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 221.166 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Rolls-Royce RB211-524B2

29
 B747-400
PARAMETER Values
Crew 524
Length (m) 70.6 m
Height (m) 19.4 m
Wing Area (m²) 541.2 m²
Wing Span (m) 64.4 m
Aspect Ratio 7.6632
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 396890 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 181120 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 70620 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.8377
Max Speed (Km/h) 910 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13750 m
Range (Km) 13450 m
Rate of Climb (m/s) 15.24 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 733.3518
Dry Thrust (KN) 281.57 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Pratt & WhitneyPW4062

30
 B747-300
PARAMETER
Crew 496
Length (m) 70.6 m
Height (m) 19.3 m
Wing Area (m²) 511 m²
Wing Span (m) 59.6 m
Aspect Ratio 6.9513
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 340100 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 17330 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 68600 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.8423
Max Speed (Km/h) 910 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13747 m
Range (Km) 12400 m
Rate of Climb (m/s) 10.16 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 665.5577 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 241.669 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4G2

31
 B747-SP
PARAMETER
Crew 400
Length (m) 56.31 m
Height (m) 20.06 m
Wing Area (m²) 511 m²
Wing Span (m) 59.64 m
Aspect Ratio 6.9607
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 304000 Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 152780 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 129200 Kg
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.7210
Max Speed (Km/h) 975 Km/h
Service Ceiling (m) 13750 m
Range (Km) 12320 m
Rate of Climb (m/s) 15.24 m/s
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 594.9119 Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 206.8 kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4W

32
 A330-900neo
PARAMETER
Crew 440
Length (m) 63.39
Height (m) 16.8
Wing Area (m²) 465
Wing Span (m) 64
Aspect Ratio 8.8086
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 250836
Empty weight (Kg) 126000
Payload Weight (Kg) 45000
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.3920
Max Speed (Km/h) 919
Service Ceiling (m) 12633.96
Range (Km) 13300
Rate of Climb (m/s) 10.16
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 539.4322
Dry Thrust (KN) 300
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type Rolls Royce Trent 7000

33
 B777-200ER
PARAMETER
Crew 440
Length (m) 63.7
Height (m) 18.5
Wing Area (m²) 427.80
Wing Span (m) 60.93
Aspect Ratio 8.6780
Max Take Off Weight (Kg) 297550
Empty weight (Kg) 138100
Payload Weight (Kg) 51500
Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.8028
Max Speed (Km/h) 950
Service Ceiling (m) 13140
Range (Km) 13080
Rate of Climb (m/s) 15.24
Wing loading (Kg/m²) 695.5352
Dry Thrust (KN) 417
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0
Engine Type GE90-94B

34
 CHAPTER 5

COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION AND SELECTION

OF MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

5.1 CONSOLIDATION OF DATA

Consolidation of data is the comparison of collected data. We have made the

comparison of three aircrafts each with 20 selected aircraft in the following table

PARAMETER B777-300ER B787-10 B777-9

Crew 396 390 414

Length (m) 73.9 m 68.3 m 76.7 m

Height (m) 18.5 m 17.02 m 19.7 m

Wing Area (m²) 436.80 m2 377 m2 516.7 m²

Wing Span (m) 64.8 m 60.1 m 71.8 m

Aspect Ratio 9.6131 9.58 9.96

Max Take Off Weight 351530 245011 Kg 351500 Kg
(Kg) Kg
Empty weight (Kg) 167800 Kg 135500Kg 184600 Kg
Payload Weight (Kg) 73500 Kg 202000Kg 73500 Kg

Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.913 2.77 2.674

Max Speed (Km/h) 905 Km/h 954 Km/h 950 Km/h

Service Ceiling (m) 13140 m 13000 m 13100 m

Range (km) 13649 Km 11910Km 14000 Km

Rate of Climb (m/s) 25.4 m/s 28.9 m/s 25.4 m/s

Wing loading (Kg/m²) 804.7161 649.8965 680.2786
Kg/ m2 Kg/m² Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 512 KN 340 KN 470kN
Afterburner Thrust (KN) 0 0 0

GE90-115B1 General Electric 2 x GE

Engine Type
GEnx-1B or Aviation
Rolls-Royce (General
Trent 1000 Electric)
GE9X-105B1A

35
PARAMETER A340-600 A350-1000 A350-900

Crew 440 440 410

Length (m) 75.30 m 73.79 m 66.80 m

Height (m) 17.30 m 17.08 m 17.05 m

Wing Area (m²) 439.4 m² 464.3 m² 442 m²

Wing Span (m) 63.45 m 64.75 m 64.75 m

Aspect Ratio 9.3 9.03 9.25

Max Take 368000 Kg 308000 Kg 280000 Kg
Off Weight
(Kg)
Empty weight (Kg) 177800Kg 65535 Kg 115700 Kg
Payload 67200 Kg 65535 Kg 65000 Kg
Weight (Kg)
Thrust to 2.99 2.85 2.726
Weight Ratio
Max Speed (Km/h) 915 Km/h 945 Km/h 945 Km/h

Service Ceiling (m) 12634 m 12630 m 13106.4 m

Range (km) 14599 Km 16100 Km 15000 Km

Rate of Climb (m/s) 30 m/s 15.24 m/s 15.24 m/s

Wing 838.268Kg/m² 665.9 633.76
loading Kg/m² Kg/m²
(Kg/m²)
Dry Thrust (KN) 275.35kN 431.5kN 374.5kN
Afterburner 0 0 0
Thrust (KN)
Engine Type Rolls Royce Trent RR Trent XWB Rolls Royce Trent
556-61 XWB

23
PARAMETER B777-8 B747-8 B747-200

Crew 384 605 452

Length (m) 69.8 m 76.25 m 70.31 m

Height (m) 19.5 m 19.35 m 19.3 m

Wing Area (m²) 516.70 m² 554 m² 511 m²

Wing Span (m) 64.8 m 68.45 m 59.60 m

Aspect Ratio 9.96 8.45 6.951

Max Take Off 351500 Kg 448000 Kg 374850 Kg
Weight (Kg)
Empty weight (Kg) 169400 Kg 220128 Kg 172570 Kg
Payload Weight 73000 Kg 140000 Kg 100000 Kg
(Kg)
Thrust to Weight 2.726 2.694 2.306
Ratio
Max Speed (Km/h) 950 Km/h 988 Km/h 969 Km/h

Service Ceiling (m) 13100 m 13000 m 13747 m

Range (km) 16170 Km 14800 Km 12700 Km

Rate of Climb (m/s) 25.4 m/s 12.7 m/s 10.16 m/s

Wing loading 680.25 Kg/m² 808.6642 733.56 Kg/m²
(Kg/m²) Kg/m²
Dry Thrust (KN) 470kN 295.80 kN 216.4 kN
Afterburner Thrust 0 0 0
(KN)
Engine Type General Electric GEnx-2B67 Pratt & Whitney
GE9X-105B1A JT9D-7R4G2

24
PARAMETER A380 B747-100 B747-400

Crew 555 452 524

Length (m) 73 m 70.6 m 70.6 m

Height (m) 24.1 m 19.3 m 19.4 m

Wing Area (m²) 843 m² 510.9 m² 541.2 m²

Wing Span (m) 79.8 m 59.6 m 64.4 m

Aspect Ratio 7.55 6.952 7.6632

Max Take 560000 Kg 333400 Kg 396890 Kg
Off Weight
(Kg)
Empty weight (Kg) 277000 Kg 162000 Kg 181120 Kg
Payload 127000 Kg 76800 Kg 70620 Kg
Weight (Kg)
Thrust to 2.671 2.6534 2.8377
Weight Ratio
Max Speed (Km/h) 990 Km/h 895 Km/h 910 Km/h

Service Ceiling (m) 13100 m 13700 Km 13750 Km/h

Range (km) 15000 Km 9800 Km 13450 m

Rate of Climb (m/s) 12.7 m/s 7.62 m/s 15.24 m/s

Wing 664.29 652.5738 733.3518
loading Kg/m² Kg/m²
(Kg/m²)
Dry Thrust (KN) 374 kN 221.166 kN 281.57 kN
Afterburner 0 0 0
Thrust (KN)
Engine Type Rolls-Royce Trent Rolls-Royce Pratt &
900 RB211-524B2 WhitneyPW4062

25
PARAMETER B747-300 B747-SP A330-900neo B777-200ER

Crew 496 400 440 440

Length (m) 70.6 m 56.31 m 63.39 63.7

Height (m) 19.3 m 20.06 m 16.8 18.5

Wing Area (m²) 511 m² 511 m² 465 427.80

Wing Span (m) 59.6 m 59.64 m 64 60.93

Aspect Ratio 6.9513 6.9607 8.8086 8.6780

Max Take Off 340100 304000 Kg 250836
Weight (Kg) Kg 297550
Empty weight (Kg) 173300 Kg 152780 Kg 126000 138100
Payload Weight 68600 Kg 129200 Kg 45000
(Kg) 51500
Thrust to Weight 2.8423 2.7210 2.3920
Ratio 2.8280
Max Speed (Km/h) 910 Km/h 975 Km/h 919 950

Service Ceiling (m) 13747 m 13750 m 12633.96 13140

Range (km) 12400 m 12320 m 13300 13080

Rate of Climb (m/s) 10.16 m/s 15.24 m/s 10.16 15.24

Wing loading 665.5577 594.9119 539.4322
(Kg/m²) Kg/m² Kg/m² 696.5352
Dry Thrust (KN) 241.669 kN 206.8 kN 300 417
Afterburner Thrust 0 0 00
(KN) 0

Engine Type Pratt & Pratt & Whitney Rolls Royce GE90-94B
Whitney JT9D- JT9D-7R4W
Trent 7000
7R4G2

27
5.2 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS PREPARATION

MAX SPEED vs ASPECT RATIO

Graph 5.1 Max Speed Vs Aspect Ratio

Max speed vs Aspect Ratio

12

10

8
Aspect ratio

Series1
4

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
Max speed

Aspect ratio -7.8

MAX SPEED vs LENGTH

Graph 5.2 Max Speed Vs Length

Max speed vs Length

90

80

70

60
Lemgth

50

40
Series1
30

20

10

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
Max speed

Length – 69.8 m
30
 MAX SPEED vs HEIGHT

Graph 5.3 Max Speed Vs Height

Max speed vs Height

30

25

20
Heighgt

15
Series1
10

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
Max speed

Height – 19 m
MAX SPEED vs WING AREA
Graph 5.4 max speed vs wing area

Max speed vs Wing area

900

800

700

600
Wing Area

500

400
Series1
300

200

100

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
Max Speed

Wing Area – 500

sq m
31
 MAX SPEED vs WING SPAN

Graph 5.5 Max Speed Vs Wing Span

Max speed vs Wing span

90

80

70

60
Wing span

50

40
Series1
30

20

10

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
Max speed

Wing span – 60 m
MAX SPEED vs WING LOADING
Graph 5.6 Max Speed Vs Wing Loading

max speed vs wing loading

900
800
700
600
wing loading

500
400
wing loading
300
200
100
0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
max speed

Wing Loading 649.764 Kg/sq m

32
5.2.7 MAX SPEED vs EMPTY WEIGHT

MAX SPEED VS EMPTY WEIGHT

300000

250000

200000
EMPTY WEIGHT

150000

100000

50000

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

Empty weight : 150000 Kg

5.2.8 MAX SPEED VS PAYLOAD WEIGHT

MAX SPEED VS PAYLOAD WEIGHT

160000

140000

120000
PAYLOAD WEIGHT

100000

80000
Series1
60000

40000

20000

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

PAYLOAD WEIGHT: 73500Kg

33
5.2.9 MAX SPEED vs MAX TAKEOFF WEIGHT

MAX SPEED VS MAX TAKEOFF WEIGHT

600000

500000
MAX TAKEOFFF WEIGHT

400000

300000
Series1

200000

100000

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

MAX TAKEOFF WEIGHT: 351530 Kg

5.2.10 MAX SPEED vs THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

MAX SPEED VS THRUST WEIGHT RATIO

3.5

3
THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

2.5

1.5
Series1

0.5

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

THRUST TO WIGHT RATIO:2.838

34
5.2.11 MAX SPEED vs RANGE

MAX SPEED VS RANGE

18000

16000

14000

12000
RANGE

10000

8000 Series1

6000

4000

2000

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

RANGE:14000 Km

5.2.12 MAX SPEED VS RATE OF CLIMB

MAX SPEED VS RATE OF CLIMB
35

30

25
RATE OF CLIMB

20

15 Series1

10

0
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

RATE OF CLIMB : 10.16 M/S

35
5.2.13 MAX SPEED VS SERVICE CEILING

MAX SPEED VS SERVICE CEILING

14000

13800

13600
SERVICE CELING

13400

13200
Series1
13000

12800

12600

12400
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000
MAX SPEED

SERVICE CELING: 13106.4m

5.2.14 MAX SPEED VS DRY THRUST

MAX SPEED VS DRY THRUST

600

500

400
DRY THRUST

300
Series1

200

100

0
880 900 920 940
MAX SPEED 960 980 1000

DRY THRUST:374.5Kn
36
5.3 DESIGN PARAMETERS FROM GRAPH

FLIGHT SI UNIT VALUE IMPEREAL VALUE

PARAMETER UNIT
Length m 69.8 ft 229.00

Height m 19 ft 62.33

Wing Area m² 500 ft² 5381.96

Wing Span (m) m 60 ft 196.85

Aspect Ratio 7.8 9.3

Max Take Off Kg 351530 lb 774990.99

Weight
Empty weight Kg 150000 lb 330693.39

Max Speed Km/h 950 Mile/hr 590.30

Service Ceiling m 13106.4 Miles 8.14

Range Km 14000 Miles 8699.19

Rate of Climb m/s 10.16 Miles/hr 22.72

Wing loading Kg/m² 649.764 lb/ft² 133.08

Thrust KN 374.5 lbf 84190.94

Afterburner Thrust KN NILL lbf NILL

37
 CHAPTER 6

WEIGHT ESTIMATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

To find the weight of the following parameters of an aircraft.

• Takeoff Weight (WTO)
• Fuel Weight (WF)
• Empty Weight (WE)
The following are the data which is obtained from the graph to proceed for the
Weight estimation.
• Max Speed = 590.303 miles/hr
• Takeoff weight = 774990.90 lbs
• Service ceiling (S.C) = 8.143 miles
• Range = 8699.196 miles
• Takeoff Distance (T.D) = 1.979 miles
• Landing Distance (L.D) =1.310 miles
• Payload = 162039.760 lbs

RCR = R – [T.D + L.D + 2 x (S.C)]

Rcr = [8699.196 – (1.979+ 1.310+ (2 X 8.143))]

Where,
R – total range = 7559.394 nm
T.D – Take off distance = 1.719 nm
L.D – Landing distance = 1.138 nm
Service ceiling = 7.706 nm

Rcr = 8679.618 nm

38
6.2 MISSION PROFILE

4 5

0 1 2 3 7 8

Description:
0-1 - Engine Start & Warm up 6-7 - Descent
1-2 - Taxing 7-8 - Landing, Taxi, Shutdown
2-3 - Take off
3-4 - Climb
4-5 - Cruise out
5-6 - Loitering

51
6.3 MISSION FUEL FRACTION:

The following tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 will be used for getting the values for the specified aircraft types.
Table 6.1 Suggested Fuel Fraction for Several Mission Phases

52
Table 6.2 Suggested value for L/D, Cj, Cp, ηp for several mission phases

53
Table 6.3 Regression line constant A & B

54
 6.4 CALCULATION

Phase 1: Engine start and Warm-up

𝑊0
Begin weight is W0. End weight is W1 . The ratio =0.990
𝑊1

Phase 2: Taxi
Begin weight is W1. End weight is W2. The ratio 𝑊2 = 0.990
𝑊1

Phase 3: Take-off
Begin weight is W2. End weight is W3. The ratio 𝑊3 = 0.995
𝑊2

Phase 4: Climb
Begin weight is W3. End weight is W4. The ratio 𝑊4 = 0.980
𝑊3

Phase 5: Cruise - out

Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5. The amount of fuel used during
cruise can be found from Brequet’s range equation mentioned below.
Rcr = [ v ]cr [𝐿]cr ln [𝑊4]
𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊5

Rcr = [ R – (T + L + (2 X service ceiling))] = 8679.618 nm

Rcr = [ v ]cr [𝐿]cr ln [𝑊4]

𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊5
8679.618= [652.13][15]ln [𝑊4]
0.7 𝑊5
Where,
V – speed (from graph) = 652.13 mph
𝐶𝑗 = 0.5
𝐿
= 15
𝐷

= 0.71

55
Phase 6: Loitering
Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6. The ratio W6/W5 can be estimate
from the Brequet’s endurance equation which is mentioned below.

Elt= [ 1 ]lt [𝐿]lt ln [𝑊5]

𝐶𝑗 𝐷 𝑊6

0.5 = [ 1 ] [16] ln [𝑊5]

0.5 𝑊6

Where,
Elt = 30 mins of loitering = 0.5 hrs

The mission profile assumes no range credit during loiter. Loiter time is 30
minutes.
𝐶𝑗 = 0.5
𝐿
= 16
𝐷

= 0.984

Phase 7: Descent
Begin Weight is W6. End Weight is W7. No credit is taken for range.
However, a penalty for fuel used during descents from high altitudes needs
to be assessed. Typically, the ratio
𝑊7
= 0.990
𝑊6

Phase 8: Landing, Taxi and Shutdown

Begin Weight is W14. End Weight is W15. Typically, the ratio
𝑊8
= 0.992
𝑊7

Mission Fuel – Fraction (𝑴𝒇𝒇)

The Overall mission fuel-fraction, Mff can now be computed as

𝑊0 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7 𝑊8
𝑀 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑊1 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 𝑊5 𝑊6 𝑊7 𝑊8
56
 𝑴𝒇𝒇 = 0.701

= (0.990) (0.990) (0.995) (0.980) (0.479) (0.980) (0.990)(0.992)

57
Maximum Take-off Weight ( WTO)

WTO = 774990.90 lbs

Payload Weight (WPayload)

WPayload = Weight of Number of Passengers + other loads

= (400 * 220.4) + 28219.76

WPayload = 116379.76 lbs

Crew Weight (WCrew)

WCrew = (551.15 ) *2+(1036.17) * 4

WCrew = 5246.98lbs

Weight of Fuel (Wf)

Wf = Wf used + Wres
Wf used:
Wf used = (1 - 𝑀𝑓𝑓) * WTO
Where, 𝑀𝑓𝑓 = 0.701
WTO = 774990.90 lbs
Wf used = (1 - 0.701) * 774990.90

Wf used =263496.2791 lbs

lbs
Weight of Fuel Reserve (Wres)

Wres = 10-15 % of fuel used

= 10 % of fuel used

Wres =26349.62lbs

58
Wf = Wfused + Wres
= 263496.2791 +
26349.62

Wf = 2,89,846.52 lbs

Weight of Trapped Fuel Oil (WTFO)

WTFO = 0.5 % of WTO

WTFO = 1449.23 lbs

Weight of Operative Empty (WOE Tent)

WOE Tent = WTO - Wf – WPayload
= 774990.9 – 289846.52 – 116379.76

WOE Tent = 388731.229 lbs

Weight of Empty (WE Tent)

WE Tent = WOE Tent – WTFO – WCrew
= 388731.229 – 1449.23 – 5246.98
\
WE Tent = 382035.019 lbs

Weight of Actual (WE Actual)

𝑔10 𝑊𝑇𝑂 − A
WE Actual = inv log10 [ ]
𝐵
A = 0.0833; B = 1.0383
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 774990.9 − 0.0833
= inv log10 [ ]
1.0383

WE Actual = 389045.986 lbs

Difference Between WE Actual and WE Tent

WE Actual - WE Tent = 389045.986–382035.019

WE Actual - WE Tent =7010.967 lbs

59
Percentage of Error
− 𝑊𝐸 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑡
% Error = [ W 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ] * 100
𝑊𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

389045.986−382035.19/
=[ ] * 100
389045.986

% Error = 1.8 %

RESULT

PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (lbs)

Take-off Weight (WTO ) 351529.959 774990.90

Fuel Weight (WF ) 131472.169 2,89,846.52
Empty Weight (WE ) 173288.169 382035.019
Payload Weight (Wpayload ) 52788.971 116379.76

60
 CHAPTER 7

POWERPLANT SELECTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION
An airplane, an object which is Airborne. It is the multidisciplinary
area where Aerodynamics, Structures, Propulsion, control & stability place
a major role in the formation of an aircraft. Unlike automobile engines, these
engines are Air-breathing engines which use atmospheric air as the medium
for airborne. There is a different kind of engines equipped with an aircraft,

7.2 TYPES OF ENGINES

1. Piston engine 2. Turbofan

3. Turboprop 4. Turbojet
5. Ramjet 6. Scramjet

7.3 THRUST REQUIRED CALCULATION

𝑻𝑹
=𝒂(𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝑪
𝑾𝟎

Table 7.1 From Chapter 5, Table.no-5.3

𝑻𝑹
= 𝒂(𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙)𝑪 𝒂 𝒄
𝑾𝟎
Jet trainer 0.488 0.728
Jet fighter (dogfighter) 0.648 0.594
Jet fighter (other) 0.514 0.141
Military cargo/ bomber 0.244 0.341
Jet transport 0.267 0.363

From above table for Jet Transport,

a =0.267 ; c =0.363

From Result of Weight Estimation, W0 = 3447.33 𝐾𝑁

From Graph, umax = 258.33 m/s

62
 T@13106m = 216𝐾
W.K.T,
umax
Mmax =
√γRT@13106

258.33
=
√1.4×287×216

= 0.87

TR
⇒ = 0.267×0.870.363
W0

𝐓𝐑 =875.06 𝐊𝐍

T/W CALCULATION
T
TR = W𝑇0 (W)

T 𝑇𝑅
⇒ =
W W0
T 875.06 × 103
⇒ =
W 3447330

T = 𝟎. 25

The thrust produced should be 10% more than the required thrust.
Hence, Thrust required is TR= 962.56 KN
Therefore, Thrust required for single engine is 481.28 KN.

7.4 SELECTION OF ENGINE

Choice of the engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as higher
operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.

A list of engines with weight and thrust matching our requirements

are chosen and are tabulated below

63
 Table 7.2 Comparison of different engines

S.NO Name of the Engine type Dry Weight SFC Total Thrust
Engine (kg) ( mg/N.s) (kN)
1 GE90-115B1 Turbofan 8283 8.3 513

2 RR Trent Turbofan 7550 13.5 430

XWB-97
3 Rolls-Royce Turbofan 6120 15.5 350
Trent 1000
4 Pratt & Turbofan 7330 10.1 281.5
WhitneyPW406
2
Pratt &
5 Whitney Turbofan 4159 17 270
JT9D-7R4G2
6 General Turbofan 9630 10.1 490
Electric GE9X-
105B1A

7.5 DETAILS ABOUT THE ENGINE

Figure 7.1General Electric GE90-115B1

64
Built by General Electric in conjunction with SNECMA of France, IHI of Japan and
Fiat Avio of Italy, and first commissioned by the British Airways for its new fleet of
Boeing 777s recently (September 1995), it is the most powerful commercial aircraft
engine today

As of May 2005, the GE90-115B engine has been selected to power the Boeing 777-
300ER (2004), the Boeing 777-200LR World liner (2006) and the Boeing 777
Freighter airplane scheduled to enter service in 2008.

The GE90-115B 115,000-lb class engine was developed to meet the requirements of
longer range Boeing 777-200LR and Boeing 777-300ER aircraft. It is considered as
the world's most powerful jet engine and has set many world aviation records. It
entered service in April 2004 powering Air France's Boeing 777-300ER.

In April 2005, Air Canada selected the GE90 engine to power its 18 firm order Boeing
777s plus another 18 airplanes as options. The firm order engines were valued at more
than $600 million. Finally, Air Canada selected General Electric GEnx and GE90
engines to power a new order for 787 and 777 aircraft on November 9, 2005. GE90-
115B engines were ordered to power a mixture of Boeing 777-200LR Worldliner, 777
Freighters and the 777-300ERs totaling 18 aircraft. GE90 contract was valued more
than $900 million with engine deliveries beginning in 2007.

ENGINE DATA
Intake efficiency = 0.980
Fan polytropic efficiency = 0.930
Compressor polytropic efficiency = 0.910
Turbine polytropic efficiency = 0.930
Isentropic nozzle efficiency = 0.950
Mechanical efficiency = 0.990
Combustion pressure loss (ratio) = 0.050
Fuel combustion efficiency = 0.990
Area of hot nozzle = 1.0111 m 2
Area of cold nozzle = 3.5935 m 2

65
66
 7.6 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

• Type: TurboFan
• Length: 4.775 m (15 ft 6 in)
• Diameter: 3.124 m (10ft 5 in)
• Dry weight: 8283 kg (18260.88 lb)
• Compressor: Axial-flow, 3-stage low-pressure, 10-stage high-pressure
• Combustors: Nickel alloy construction,CMC, dual dome annular
combustion chamber, 16 vapourising burners, twin annual pre mixing
swirler
• Turbine: 2 High-pressure stage, 6 low-pressure stage
• Fuel type: Jet A1
• Maximum thrust: dry: 513 kN (115326.9 lbf)
• Overall pressure ratio: 40.4:1

• Air mass flow: 576 kg/s (1269.86 lb/s)

• Specific fuel consumption: (15.6 g/(kN⋅s)) cruise / 1.3lb/(8.3g/(kN⋅s))
SL (sea level)
• Thrust-to-weight ratio: 61.93:1

7.7 CONCLUSION

The preferable choice of engine, from the above, would be General Electric
GE90-115B engine since the engine thrust is 513 KN.It is a turbofan engine
equipped in two for passenger jet and also it meets our thrust required
calculation 875.06 KN which also suits our demand of weight and power.

67
 CHAPTER 8

WING, AEROFOIL & TAIL SELECTION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter explain the selection of wing, types of wing and calculation
of wing design parameter

8.1.1 WING SELECTION

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component
of the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting
capabilities are in general, a function of the thickness of the aerofoil section
that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards designing the wing is
the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn, depends on the
critical Mach number of the aerofoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach
number corresponding to the wing section.

8.1.2 TYPES OF WING

Wings are differentiated from there wing configuration by the following
• Swept back wing
• Delta wing
• Tapered wing
• Based on the aspect ratio and Based upon position

Figure 8.1 Wing types

63
8.1.3 THE POSITION OF WING
The location of the wing in the fuselage (along with the vertical axis) is
very important. Each configuration (Low, High and mid) has its own
advantages but in this design, the Low-wing offers significant advantages such
as
• Uninterrupted Passenger’s cabin.
• Placement of Landing gear in the wing structure itself.
• Location of the engine on a low-wing makes Engine-overhaul easier.
• Permits usage of the Wing carries through the box which alone can
admit the amount of fuel that we require to carry.
• Landing gear usually becomes high in such wing configurations and
therefore, provides greater ground clearance and reduces the amount of
fuselage upsweep that is to be provided.
• Low wing affects the flow over the horizontal tail to a minimum extent.
• The low-wing requires that some amount of dihedral angle is provided
for lateral stability. As of now, the dihedral angle is assumed to be 5
degrees, but it may be subject to change in the stability analysis.
8.1.4 WING GEOMETRY DESIGN

• The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the

Wing loading (W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the
Sweepback angle at quarter chord (Λqc).

• The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used
to find the Wing Area S (from W/S). The value of S also enables us to
calculate the Wingspan b (using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can now
be found using the equation.

Croot
The tip chord is given by,

𝐂𝐭𝐢𝐩 = 𝛌 ∗ 𝐂𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭

64
 • Wing planform

Figure 8.2 wing planform

the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above - deals with airflow in
three dimensions and is very important to understanding wing performance
and aeroplane flight characteristics. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback
are factors in planform design that are very important to the overall
aerodynamic characteristic of a wing

8.2 WING DESIGN CALCULATION

8.2.1 WING AREA (S)

𝑊𝑇𝑂 351530
Area, S = =
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 649.764

S=541.018 𝒎𝟐

Where,
𝑊𝑇𝑂 = 351530 kg (From Chapter 6 Weight estimation)

Wing loading = 648.764 kg/m2 (From Graph 5.6)

65
8.2.2 ASPECT RATIO (A.R)

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛2
A.R = = 8.25 (From Graph 5.1)
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Wing span, b = √𝐴. 𝑅 ∗ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = √7.8 ∗ 541.018

b= 64.96 m
Where,
Wing Area, S = 541.018 m2

8.2.3 ROOT CHORD (CR)

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 64.96
CR = =
𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 7.8

CR = 8.32 m

8.2.4 TAPER RATIO (𝝀)

𝑇𝑖𝑝 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝐶𝑡)

𝜆=
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝐶𝑅)
Where,
Taper ratio, 𝜆 = 0.3
𝑐
0.3 = 𝑡
8.32

Ct = 2.49 m

8.2.5 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD – MAC( 𝑪⌃ )

1+ 𝜆 + 𝜆2
MAC,𝑪 = 2
x CR x ( )
3 1+𝜆
Where,
CR = 8.32 m
𝜆 = 0.3

MAC, 𝑪 = 5.93 m

66
 8.2.6 VOLUME OF FUEL WEIGHT

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Volume of fuel weight = 131472.169
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
=
804
3
Volume of fuel weight = 163.52 m
Where,
Weight of fuel = 131472.169 kg
Density of fuel = 804 kg/m3

8.2.7 THICKNESS OF ROOT CHORD (CR) AND TIP CHORD (Ct)

𝑡
20 % of Volume of fuel weight =
𝑐
x 𝐶 2 x 0.375 x b
Where,
20 % of Volume of fuel weight = 32.70 m3
𝐶= 5.93 m
b = 64.96 m
= 0.0388

Thickness of Root chord (TR): TR = 0.0388 x CR

= 0.0388 x 8.32

TR = 0.322 m

Thickness of Tip chord (Tt): Tt = 0.0388 x Ct

= 0.0388 x 2.49

Tt = 0.0966 m

Table 8.1 Wing design result

S.NO DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS VALUES

1 Wing loading (Kg/m2) 648.764
2 Wing Area S (m2) 541.018
3 Aspect Ratio 7.8
4 Span b (m) 64.96
5 Taper ratio (λ) 0.3
6 Root Chord (m) 8.32
7 Tip chord (m) 2.49
8 Mean chord (m) 5.93

67
8.3 AIRFOIL SELECTION

8.3.1 AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

The aerofoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the aeroplane. The
aerofoil affects the cruise speed, landing distance and take off distance, stall
speed and handling qualities and aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of
flight.

Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio,
lift curve slope, characteristic
curves.

The following are the aerofoil

geometry and definition:

Chord line: It is the straight line

connecting leading edge (LE)
and trailing edge (TE).

Chord (c): It is the length of

chord line. Figure 8.3 Aerofoil

Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic

typically 12%).
Camber (d): It is the curvature of the section, perpendicular distance of section
mid-points from chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).

The angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between the chord line and
airflow direction.

The following are aerofoil categories:

1. Early it was based on trial & error.

2. NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
3. NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for
increased CLmax.

68
 4. NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar
flow.
5. Modern it is mainly based on the need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below the speed of sound.

Table 8.2 Comparison of different airfoil

Lift-
Lift Stall TE LE
Thickness Camber to-
S.No Name Coefficient Angle Angle Radius
(%) (%) Drag
(CL) (deg) (deg) (%)
(L/D)
1 BOEING BAC 11.3 1.4 1.2 75.2 9.5 15 0.8
XXX
NASA
2 10 1.8 1.17 65.9 11 15.3 0.9
SC(2)-0610
3 NPL ARC CP 10.7 1.1 1.01 55.4 10 14.5 0.9
1372
RAE 5215
4 9.7 1.5 1.2 68.5 9 14.8 1
GOE 599
5 10 1.5 1.1 72.8 11 15.2 0.8

NACA 4 Digit

▪ 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).

▪ 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

▪ 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit

▪ 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.

▪ 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord
from LE).
▪ 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord)

69
 NACA 6 Digit

▪ 1st digit: identifies the series type.

▪ 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

▪ 3rd digit: indicates an acceptable range of CL above/below design value

for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

▪ 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

▪ 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

From the above list of aerofoils, the one chosen is the BOEING BAC
XXX AIRFOIL which have the suitable lift coefficient for the current
design.

In order to obtain better span-wise distribution of lift and to have better

stalling characteristics (the root should stall before the tip so that the pilot may
realize and avoid a stall by sensing the vibrations on his control stick), it is
usually necessary to provide a lower t/c to the tip section and a higher t/c to
the root section.
Hence,
Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord- BOEING BAC XXX AIRFOIL
The section used at the tip -GOE 599
The section used at the root - NPL ARC CP1372

70
 Table 8.3 Aerofoil selection for root, tip and mean chord

CHORD AIRFOIL CLmax

ROOT NPL ARC CP1372 1.01

MEAN BOEING BAC XXX 1.2

TIP GOE 599 1.1

CLmax = 1.2+1.1+1.01/ 3= 1.1

CLmaxAvailable = 0.9 ∗ CLmax = 0.993

8.3.2 AEROFOIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

8.3.2.1 BOEING BAC XXX:

Figure 8.4 Geometry of BOEING BAC XXX Airfoil

71
8.3.2.2 GOE 599 AIRFOIL

Figure 8.5 Geometry of GOE 599 Airfoil

8.3.2.3 NPL ARC CP 1372

Figure 8.6 Geometry of NPL ARC CP1372 Airfoil

72
8.3.3 Performance curves for the chosen BOEING BAC XXX aerofoil

Figure 8.7 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil BOEING BAC XXX

8.3.4 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil GOE 599

Figure 8.8 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil GOE 599

73
8.3.5 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil NPL ARC CP1372

Figure 8.9 Performance curves for the chosen aerofoil NPL

ARC CP1372

8.4 HIGH LIFTING DEVICES

In aircraft design and aerospace engineering, a high-lift device is a

component or mechanism on an aircraft's wing that increases the amount of
lift produced by the wing. The device may be a fixed component or a movable
mechanism which is deployed when required. Common movable high-lift
devices include wing flaps and slats. Fixed devices include leading-edge root
extensions and boundary layer control systems, which are less commonly
used.
8.4.1 TYPES OF DEVICES
Flaps
• Slots & Slats
• Boundary layer control and blown flaps • Leading edge root extension.

For the current design, the slotted flap is selected. ∆ of the slotted flap for

74
different configurations is given in the table below:

Table 8.4 High lift device lift coefficient

S.No HIGH LIFT DEVICE ∆𝑪𝑳

1 Plain flap 0.7 - 0.9
2 Split flap 0.7 - 0.9
3 Fowler flap 1 - 1.3
4 Slotted flap 1.3 Cf/C
5 Double slotted flap 1.6 Cf/C
6 Triple slotted flap 1.9 Cf/C
7 Leading edge flap 0.2 - 0.3
8 Leading edge slat 0.3 - 0.4
9 kruger flap 0.3 - 0.4
Note: Cf/C – Flap chord

CALCULATIONS

CLmaxRequired (takeoff) = 0.99 + 1.99= 2.98

CLmaxRequired (landing) = 0.99 + 2.6 = 3.59

Figure 8.10 Types of flap

75
8.5 TAIL SELECTION

8.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The tail of an aeroplane is called by various names, such as
“empennage” and “stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,”
because it is at least partially descriptive of the component’s function.
However, the stabilizer provides not only stability but also some of the
aeroplane’s control. The tail of an aeroplane is designed to provide both
stability and control of the aeroplane in pitch and yaw. There are many
different forms an aircraft tail can take in meeting these dual
requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a horizontal
winglike structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical structures.
Whenever practical, these structures are identified as the horizontal and
vertical stabilizers, although some designs do not conveniently fit such
a description. The many types of aeroplane tail design include, but are
by no means limited to, the conventional, T-tail, cruciform-tail, dual-
tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted Vtail, inverted Y-tail, twin-tail, boom-
tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-plane tail designs.

8.5.2 CONVENTIONAL TAIL DESIGN

The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one
vertical stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and
one horizontal stabilizer divided into two parts, one on each side of the
vertical stabilizer. For many aeroplanes, the conventional arrangement
provides adequate stability and control with the lowest structural
weight. About three-quarters of the aeroplanes in operation today,
including the Airbus A300, the Boeing 777 and 747, and the Beech
Bonanza A-36, use this arrangement.

8.5.3 T-TAIL DESIGN

In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail,
the horizontal stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical stabilizer.
The horizontal stabilizer is then above the propeller flow, or prop wash,
and the wing wake. Because the horizontal stabilizer is more efficient,
it can, therefore, be made both smaller and lighter. The placement of the
horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer can also make the
vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient. By making the

76
vertical stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced. However, the
horizontal stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and twisting
load on the vertical stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and therefore, a
heavier, structure. These loads are avoided in the conventional design.
There is also the possibility that at the high pitch angle usually
associated with landing the aeroplane, the horizontal stabilizer of the
Ttail will be immersed in the slower and more turbulent flow of the wing
wake.

8.5.4 DUAL-TAIL DESIGN

The dual-Tail design, in which the two vertical stabilizers are
placed at the ends of the horizontal stabilizers, was at one time fairly
common on large flying boats and twin-engine propeller-driven
bombers such as the North American-25. In some cases, this
arrangement is attractive, because it places the vertical stabilizers in the
prop wash of wing-mounted propellers. The result is the maintenance of
good directional control during low-speed operations. The positioning
of the two vertical stabilizers at the ends of the horizontal stabilizers
allows for a smaller, lighter, and more aerodynamically efficient
horizontal stabilizer. However, the overall weight of a plane with a dual-
tail design is greater than that of a plane with the single conventional-
tail design. The dual tail is part of the design of the Republic Fairchild
A-10 ground-attack aeroplane, in which the plane’s two jet engines are
mounted to the rear of the fuselage. When this aeroplane is viewed from

Figure 8.11 types of tail

77
 the rear and slightly to either side, the engine exhausts, blocked
by the vertical stabilizer, are not easily visible.

8.5.5 TRIPLE-TAIL DESIGN

The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the
ends of the horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is
attractive when the height of the vertical stabilizer must meet certain
restrictions, such as hangar-door height. Certainly, this was the
important consideration in the design of the Lockheed Constellation,
one of the most significant passenger aeroplanes of the late 1940′s.
Another well-known example of the triple-tail design is the Grumman
E-2 Hawkeye.

8.5.6 V-TAIL DESIGN

The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had limited
application in aeroplane design, the most significant of which has been
by the Beech Company in the Beech-craft Bonanza V-35. Clearly, the
usual definition of horizontal and vertical stabilizers has no application
to the V tail. The intended advantage of the V-tail design is that two
surfaces might serve the same function as the three required in the
conventional tail and its variants. Removal of one surface then would
reduce the drag of the tail surfaces as well as the weight of the tail
region. However, wind tunnel studies by the National Advisory
Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) have shown that for the V tail to
achieve the same degree of stability as a conventional tail, the area of
the V tail would have to be about the same size as that of the
conventional tail.

8.5.7 INVERTED Y-TAIL DESIGN

The inverted Y tail is actually a conventional tail with a noticeable droop
to the horizontal stabilizers. In other words, the outer ends of the
horizontal stabilizers are lower than the ends attached to the fuselage.
The F-4 Phantom, originally a mainstay of the McDonnell Company,
used the inverted Y tail to keep the horizontal surfaces out of the wing
wake at high angles of attack. It is interesting to note that the tips of the
horizontal stabilizers on the first McDonnell Navy fighter, the F-2H
Banshee, were bent decidedly upward.

78
8.5.8 TWIN-TAIL DESIGN
The twin tail is a feature of various air superiority fighters used by both
the U.S. Navy (the F-14 Tomcat) and the U.S Marine Corps (the F/A-
18 Hornet). Although both the F-14 and F/A-18 designs have a
superficial resemblance, they also have important differences. The tilt
angle of the vertical stabilizer of the F14 is more pronounced than that
of the F-18, so much so that it approaches that of the V tail on the
Beech Model V-35 Bonanza. With two vertical stabilizers, the twin tail
is more effective than the conventional single tail of the same height.

BOOM-TAIL DESIGN
Boom tails are used when an aircraft’s fuselage does not extend
entirely back to the horizontal stabilizer. In both the Lockheed P-38
Lightning fighter of World War II and the Fairchild C-119 cargo
plane, engines were mounted on the booms. In the case of the C-119,
the twin boom allowed easy access to the rear of the fuselage for
loading and removing cargo. The twin boom has also been used for
an aeroplane with engines mounted in the fuselage, with one engine,
known as the tractor, in the nose of the aeroplane and one engine,
known as the pusher, in the rear of the aeroplane. Because the thrust
of both engines is along the centreline of the aeroplane, it is much
easier in this arrangement to compensate for the loss of one engine
than it is in the wing-mounted engine installation. Both the Cessna
Sky master and the new Adam 309 have fuselage-mounted engines.
In the case of the Adam 309, the horizontal stabilizer is raised to
avoid propeller wake from the pusher, or rear-mounted, engine.

Volume Coefficient’s:

Horizontal tail volume coefficient for fighter aircraft is = 𝑣ℎ =1.1

Vertical tail volume coefficient for fighter aircraft is = 𝑣𝑣 = 0.09

79
SELECTION: (CONVENTIONAL TAIL)

➢ Reason for selection of Conventional Tail

➢ The conventional tail or inverted T-shape configuration (see

figure 6.10-1) is the simplest configuration and the most
convenient to perform all tail functions (i.e. trim, stability, and
control).

➢ The analysis and evaluation of the performance of a

conventional tail is straight forward. This configuration
includes one horizontal tail (two left and right sections);
located on the aft fuselage; and one vertical tail (one section);
located on top of the aft fuselage. Both horizontal and vertical
tails are located and mounted to the aft of fuselage.

➢ The horizontal tail is mainly employed to satisfy the

longitudinal trim and stability requirements, while vertical tail
is mainly used to satisfy the directional trim and stability
requirements. If the designer has low experience, it is
recommended to initially select the conventional tail
configuration.

It has light weight, efficient, and performs at regular flight

conditions. GA aircraft such Cessna 172,Cessna 560 Citation, Beech
King Air C90B, Learjet 60, Embraer EMB-314 Super Tucano,
Socata TBM 700, and Pilatus PC-9; large transport aircraft such as
Fokker 60, Boeing 747, Boring 777, Airbus 340 , and fighter aircraft
such as F-16 Eagle Harrier GR. Mk 7 ,and Panavia Tornado F. Mk3
all have conventional tail. Figure 6.8-2 illustrates the aircraft Aero
Designs Pulsar with a conventional tail configuration.

80
AIRFOIL SELECTION:

NACA0009 Symmetrical Aerofoil is selected due to Good stall

characteristics, small centre of pressure movement across large
speed range, and High pitching moment.

81
8.6 CONCLUSION
82
 The airfoil which I have selected for root, mean, tip chords are
all with 11% thickness to chord ratio. The Double slotted flaps taken
for high lifting device, will provide stability for the fighter.
In my Design Project aircraft are equipped with conventional
Tail Design. As mentioned above the conventional tail design will
give better stability performance to the aircraft.

CHAPTER 9
FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR SELECTION
9.1 FUSELAGE SELECTION
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the
aircraft. It provides space for personnel, cargo, controls, and most of
the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers, and landing gear
are attached to it.

83
 figure 9.1 Principal structural units on passenger aircraft

There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel truss and
monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is
still being used in some helicopters.

The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering,
to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into three classes—
84
monocoque, semi-monocoque, and reinforced shell.

• The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads
to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin Figure 9.1 Principal structural units on
F- 14 aircraft84 carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing members are present,
the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.

• Semi-monocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of

monocoque construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and
bulkheads, the semi-monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal
members.

• The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of

structural members. Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of
the three classes. Most are considered to be of semi monocoque-type construction.

• The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminium alloy,

although steel and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending
loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of
support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as
stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons.

The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers.
The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads.
These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units,
such as the wings and stabilizers.

The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They
have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin.
The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and
formers hold the stringers. All of these joins together
85 to form a rigid fuselage
framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from
bending the fuselage.

There are a number of advantages in using the semi-monocoque fuselage.

• The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of the
structure.

• The main advantage of the semi-monocoque construction is that it depends on

many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of 85 its stressed skin
construction, a semi-monocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still be strong
enough to hold together.

Figure 9.2 Semi monocoque fuselage construction

Points on the fuselage are located by station numbers. Station 0 is usually located at or
near the nose of the aircraft. The other stations are located at measured distances (in
inches) aft of station 0. A typical station diagram is shown. On this particular aircraft,
fuselage station (FS) 0 is located 93.0 inches forward of the nose.

9.2 LANDING GEAR

86
 In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is the structure (usually
wheels) that supports an aircraft and allows it to move across the surface of the earth
when it is not in flying. So, more importance is to be given as it carries the entire load
on the ground.

Figure 9.3 A380 main landing gear

9.2.1 OVERVIEW

The design and positioning of the landing gear are determined by the unique
characteristics associated with each aircraft, i.e., geometry, weight, and mission
requirements. Given the weight and CG range of the aircraft, suitable configurations
are identified and reviewed to determine how well they match the airframe structure,
flotation, and operational requirements.

The essential features, e.g., the number and size of tires and wheels, brakes,
and shock absorption mechanism, must be selected in accordance with industry and
federal standards discussed in the following chapters before an aircraft design
progresses past the concept formulation phase, after which it is often very difficult and
expensive to change the design.

The purpose of Landing Gears is to move the aircraft on the ground. After
take-off, the landing gear is retracted, before landing it is extended and locked into
position.

Liebherr provides a system architecture for gear actuation control, steering

control, wheel and brake integration and position and status control, as well as system
integration, series production and of course product support.

87
 Figure 9.4 landing gear sketch of a passenger jet
Liebherr acquired knowledge and experience based on the realization of
different landing gear programs. The integration of various technologies and use of
new material for individual landing gear concepts lead to competitive products:

• Landing Gear Systems

•Nose Landing Gear Subsystem
• Main Landing Gear Subsystem
• Brake and Brake Control Subsystem
• Research and Development Technology

9.2.2 LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENTS

Landing Gear Arrangement Three basic arrangements of the landing gear

are used:
• Tail wheel type landing gear (also known as conventional gear)
• Tandem landing gear
• Tricycle-type landing gear.
9.2.3 TAIL WHEEL-TYPE LANDING GEAR

Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear because

many early aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main gear is located forward of
the center of gravity, causing the tail to require support from a third wheel assembly. A
few early aircraft designs use a skid rather than a tail wheel. This helps slow the
aircraft upon landing and provides directional stability. The resulting angle of the
aircraft fuselage, when fitted with conventional gear, allows the use of a long propeller
that compensates for older, underpowered engine design. The increased clearance of
the forward fuselage offered by tail wheeltype landing gear is also advantageous when
operating in and out of non-paved runways. Today, aircraft are manufactured with
88
conventional gear for this reason and for the weight savings accompanying the
relatively light tail wheel assembly.
9.2.4 TANDEM LANDING GEAR

Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the name implies,
this type of landing gear has the main gear and tail gear aligned on the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft. Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although many only have
one actual gear forward on the fuselage with a skid under the tail. A few military
bombers, such as the B-47 and the B-52, have tandem gear, as does the U2 spy plane.
The VTOL Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear under the wings for
support. Generally, placing the gear only under the fuselage facilitates the use of very
flexible wings.

9.2.5 TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle type
landing gear. It is comprised of the main gear and nose gear.

Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and small aircraft with the
following benefits:
• Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when
braking, which enables higher landing speeds.
• Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and
ground manoeuvring.
• Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft centre of gravity is
forward of the main gear, forces acting on the centre of gravity tend to keep the
aircraft moving forward rather than looping, such as with a tailwheel-type landing
gear.

9.2.6 STEERING

The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing gear
varies by aircraft, but there are several types of steering.
• RUDDER STEERING
• DIRECT STEERING
• TILLER STEERING

89
9.2.7 CONFIGURATION SELECTION

The nose wheel tricycle undercarriage has long been the preferred
configuration for passenger transports. It leads to a nearly level fuselage and
consequently the cabin floor when the aircraft is on the ground. The most attractive
feature of this type of undercarriages is the improved stability during braking and
ground manoeuvres. Under normal landing attitude, the relative location of the main
assembly to the aircraft CG produces a nose-down pitching moment upon touchdown.

Figure 9.5 Landing gear schematic diagram

This moment helps to reduce the angle of attack of the aircraft and thus the
lift generated by the wing. In addition, the braking forces, which act behind the aircraft
CG, have a stabilizing effect and thus enable the pilot to make full use of 90 the
brakes. These factors all contribute to a shorter landing field length requirement.

The primary drawback of the nose wheel tricycle configuration is the

restriction placed upon the location where the main landing gear can be attached. With
the steady increase in the aircraft Take off weight, the number of main assembly struts
has grown from two to four to accommodate the number of tires required to distribute
the weight over a greater area.
90
9.2.8 LANDING GEAR DISPOSITION

The positioning of the landing gear is based primarily on stability

considerations during taxiing, lift-off and touchdown, i.e., the aircraft should be in no
danger of turning over on its side once it is on the ground.

Compliance with this requirement can be determined by examining the

Takeoff/landing performance characteristics and the relationships between the
locations of the landing gear and the aircraft CG.

9.2.9 STABILITY AT TOUCHDOWN AND DURING TAXING

Static stability of an aircraft at touchdown and during taxiing can be

determined by examining the location of the applied forces and the triangle formed by
connecting the attachment locations of the nose and main assemblies.

Whenever the resultant of air and mass forces intersects the

ground at a point outside this triangle, the ground will not be able to exert a reaction
force which prevents the aircraft from falling over. As a result, the aircraft will can’t
over about the side of the triangle that is closest to the resultant force/ground intersect.

9.2.10 BRAKING AND STEERING QUALITIES

The nose assembly is located as far forward as possible to maximize

the flotation and stability characteristics of the aircraft. However, a proper balance in
terms of load distribution between the nose and main assembly must be maintained.

When the load on the nose wheel is less than about eight percent of the maximum
Takeoff weight (MTOW), controllability on the ground will become marginal,
particularly in cross-wind 21 conditions. This value also allows for fuselage length
increase with aircraft growth.

9.3 CONCLUSION
91
Semi-monocoque and Tri-cycle type landing gear has been selected for my fighter
aircraft

CHAPTER 10
LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

10.1 LIFT ESTIMATION

Component of aerodynamic force generated on aircraft perpendicular to the flight

direction.

Figure 10.1 lift representation

LIFT COEFFICIENT (CL)

• Amount of lift generated depends on:

– Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V), lift
coefficient(CL)

• CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:

– Section shape, planform geometry, the angle of attack (𝛼),
compressibility effects, (Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

GENERATION OF LIFT

• Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:

92
 – Variable pressure distribution.
– Shear stress distribution.
• Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.
• Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting surfaces, i.e. wing.
• Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher pressure on the lower
surface.
• Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or inclined to flow
direction.
• Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio.
10.1.1 LIFT AT TAKE-OFF
1
L= 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/𝑚3

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = stalling speed = 64.64 m/s
V = 0.7* 1.3 *𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 58.82 m/s

2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V =√
ρs𝐶𝐿

2∗3448508.81
49.63 =√
1.225∗541.018∗𝐶 𝐿

S = wing area = 541.018 𝑚2

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Lift Co-efficient = 2.98

1
L= *1.225*53.772 *541.018*2.49
2
L= 3416521.13 N
L = 3416.52 kN

10.1.2 LIFT AT CRUISE

1 2
L= 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

ρ = Density at 13 Km = 0.267 Kg/𝑚3

𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = Cruising speed = 257 m/s
S = wing area = 541.018 𝑚2

2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V =√
ρs𝐶𝐿
93
 2∗3448508.81
257 =√
0.267∗541.018∗𝐶 𝐿

Cruising Lift Co-efficient = 0.73

1
L= *0.267*2572 *541.018*0.73
2
L= 3482427.52 N
L = 3482.42kN

10.1.3 LIFT AT LANDING

1
L= 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

ρ = Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/𝑚3

𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = stalling speed = 53.84 m/s
V = 1.2*𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 64.6 m/s
S = wing area = 541.018 𝑚2

2𝑊𝑇𝑂
V =√
ρs𝐶𝐿

2∗3448508.81
64.6 =√
1.225∗541.018∗𝐶 𝐿

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Lift Co-efficient = 2.49

1
L= *1.225*64.62 *541.018*2.49
2
L= 3582562.022 N
L = 3582.56 kN

10.2 DRAG ESTIMATION

DRAG:

• Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which

is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
• It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
• It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while the lift is
the desired component. 94
 DRAG CO-EFFICIENT (𝐶𝐷 )

• Amount of drag generated depends on:

1.Planform area (S), air density (𝜌), flight speed (V), drag coefficient
(CD)
2.CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
i. Section shape, planform geometry, the angle of attack,
compressibility effects (Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

DRAG COMPONENTS

• SKIN FRICTION

1.Due to shear stresses produced in the boundary layer.

2.Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary
layers.

• FORM (PRESSURE) DRAG

1. Due to static pressure distribution around the body - component

resolved in direction of motion.
2. Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear (base) drag
components.
95
WAVE DRAG

1. Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.

2. The result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves
on the boundary layer.

96
 16ℎ 2
( )
𝑏
∅= 16ℎ 2
1+( )
𝑏
h = service ceiling = 13000 m
b = Wing span = 64.96 m
16∗13000 2
( )
64.96
∅= 16∗13000 2
1+( )
64.96
∅=0.99

10.2.1 DRAG AT TAKE-OFF

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
D= 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 S [𝐶𝐷0 + ]
2 πe(AR)

ρ Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/𝑚3

=
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
stalling speed = 64.64 m/s
V =
0.7*1.2*𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 54.29 m/s
S =
wing area = 541.018 𝑚2
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =Lift Co-efficient = 2.98
𝐶𝐷0 = 0.02
∅ = 0.99
e = Oswald efficiency factor = 0.85
AR = Aspect Ratio = 7.8

1 0.99∗2.98 2
D = *1.225*72.672 ∗541.018 [0.02 + ]
2 π∗0.85∗(7.8)
97
 D = 431784.92 N
D = 431.78kN

10.2.2 DRAG AT CRUISE

1 2 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
D= 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 S [𝐶𝐷0 + ]
2 πe(AR)

ρ Density at 13km = 0.267 Kg/𝑚3

=
𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 =
cruising speed = 257 m/s
S =
wing area = 541.018 𝑚2
𝐶𝐿 =
Cruise Lift Co-efficient = 0.72
𝐶𝐷0 = 0.02
∅ = 0.99
e = Oswald efficiency factor = 0.85
AR = Aspect Ratio = 7.8

1 0.99∗0.73 2
D = *0.267*2572 ∗541.018 [0.02 + ]
2 π∗0.85∗(7.8)
D = 212951.76 N
D = 212.95 kN

10.2.3 DRAG AT LANDING

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
D= 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 S [𝐶𝐷0 + ]
2 πe(AR)

ρ Density at sea level = 1.225 Kg/𝑚3

=
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
stalling speed = 50.67 m/s
V =
0.7* 1.2*𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 60.8 m/s
S =
wing area = 541.018 𝑚2
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =Lift Co-efficient = 3.59
𝐶𝐷0 = 0.02
∅ = 0.99
e = Oswald efficiency factor = 0.85
AR = Aspect Ratio = 7.8

98
 1 0.99∗3.59 2
D = *1.225*60.82 ∗541.018 [0.02 + ]
2 π∗0.85∗(7.8)
D = 489204.99N
D= 489.2kN

RESULT

CONDITION LIFT(N) DRAG(N)

TAKE-OFF 3416521.36 431785.585

CRUISE 3482427.52 212951.76

LANDING 3582562.022 489204.9

CHAPTER 11
PERFORMANCE CALCULATION

INTRODUCTION

Our study of static performance (no acceleration) answered a number of questions

about the capabilities of a given airplane-how fast it can fly, how far it can go, etc.
However, there are more questions to be asked: How fast can it turn? How high can it
"zoom"? What ground distances are covered during takeoff and landing? The answers
to these questions ,involve accelerated flight, the subject of this chapter.
11.1 THRUST AND POWER

THRUST
By definition, the thrust available, denoted
99 by TA, is the thrust the power plant
of the airplane. The various propulsion devices are described at length. The single
purpose of these propulsion devices is to reliably provide thrust in order to propel the
aircraft. Unlike the thrust TR, which has almost everything to do with the airframe of
the airplane and virtually nothing to do with the power plant, the thrust available TA
has almost everything to do with the power plant and virtually nothing to do with the
airframe.
➢ Thrust Available
𝑇𝐴 = 875 KN
➢ Thrust required
𝜌 0.267 1.14
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐴 × ( )𝑚 = 91.25 𝑋 ( )
𝜌∞ 1.225
𝑇𝑅 = 154.04 KN
POWER

By definition, the power available, denoted by PA, is the power provided by the
powerplant of the airplane. The maximum power available compared with the power
required allows the calculation of the maximum velocity of the airplane.
➢ Power Available 𝑃𝐴 =𝑇𝐴 × 𝑉∞ = 875000 ∗ 257
𝑃𝐴 = 224875 KW
➢ Power Required 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅 ∗ 𝑉∞ = 154080 ∗ 257
𝑃𝑅 =39598.5 KW

11.2 RATE OF CLIMB AND RATE OF SINK

𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅
➢ Rate of Climb R/C =
𝑊𝑇𝑂
R/C = 224875000−39598000 /351530*9.81
R/C = 53.72 m/s

➢ Rate of Sink
1 3
2𝑤 2 𝐶 2
𝑅⁄𝑆 = (𝜌 ) × ( 𝐶𝐷 )
∞ 𝐿

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2 = 0.02 + 0.048∗ (0.993)^2= 0.067

R⁄𝑆 = ( 2 𝑋 351530*9.81 /1.225 )^0.5 𝑋 (0.067)^3/2
R/S = 40.33 m/s

11.3 TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

100
Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually considered in two
parts:

• Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)

• Airborne distance - lift-off to specified height (35 ft FAR, 50 ft others).

The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (Vlo = about 1.2 x VStall) when it will
then be rotated.

A first-order approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made from:
2
144𝑤−
𝑠𝐿𝑂 =
𝑔×𝜌×𝑠×𝑐𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗𝑇

This shows its sensitivity to W (W2 ) and 𝜌 (1/ 𝜌2 since T also varies with 𝜌). Slo may
reduce by increasing T, S or Cl, max (high lift devices relate to latter two).

An improved approximation for ground roll take-off distance may be made by

including drag, rolling resistance and ground effect terms.

𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒘𝟐
𝒔𝑳𝑶 =
𝒈×𝝆×𝑺×𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∗{𝑻−[𝑫+𝝁𝒓 (𝑾−𝑳)]}𝒂𝒗

The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may be made by using
an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x Vlo In the above equation:

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
D= 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 S [𝐶𝐷0 + ]
2 πe(AR)
Where ∅ accounts for drag reduction when in ground effect:

101
 16ℎ 2
( )
𝑏
∅= 16ℎ 2
1+( )
𝑏
Where h = height above ground, b = wingspan. 𝜇𝑟 = 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.

CALCULATION

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
D= 𝜌𝑉 2 S [𝐶𝐷0 + ] = 431785.585 N
2 𝑠 πe(AR)
𝟏𝟒𝟒∗𝟑𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟖.𝟖𝟏𝟐
𝒔𝑳𝑶 =
𝟗.𝟖𝟏×𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓×𝟓𝟒𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟖∗𝟐.𝟗𝟖∗{𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎−[𝟒𝟑𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟓.𝟓𝟖𝟓+ 𝟎.𝟎𝟑(𝟑𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟖.𝟖𝟏−𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟏.𝟔𝟑)]}𝒂𝒗

𝒔𝑳𝑶 = 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒎

11.4 LANDING PERFORMANCE

APPROACH & LANDING

➢ Consists of three phases:
• Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30 ) and constant speed.

• Flare - transitional manoeuver with airspeed reduced from about 1.3 VStall
down to touch-down speed.
• Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.

➢ Ground roll landing distance (s3 or s1) estimated from: Where Vav may be taken as
0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2) and Vt is assumed as 1.3 x Vstall

𝟏.𝟔𝟗𝒘𝟐
𝒔𝑳 =
𝒈×𝝆×𝑺×𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∗{[𝑫+𝝁𝒓 (𝑾−𝑳)]}
102 𝒂𝒗
➢ 𝜇𝑟 is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use 𝜇𝑟 = 0.4 for the paved
surface.
➢ If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:
𝟏.𝟔𝟗𝒘𝟐
𝒔𝑳 =
𝒈×𝝆×𝑺×𝑪𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∗{[𝑫+𝝁𝒓 (𝑾−𝑳)]}𝒂𝒗

CALCULATION

1 ∅𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
D= 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 S [𝐶𝐷0 + ] = 489.2kN
2 πe(AR)
𝟏.𝟔𝟗∗𝟑𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟖.𝟖𝟏𝟐
𝒔𝑳 =
𝟗.𝟖𝟏×𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓×𝟓𝟒𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟖×𝟑.𝟓𝟗∗{[𝟒𝟖𝟗𝟐𝟎𝟎+ 𝟎.𝟎𝟑(𝟑𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟖.𝟖𝟏−𝟑𝟓𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟒.𝟑𝟔)]}𝒂𝒗
𝒔𝑳 = 2680 m

11.5 CLIMB HODOGRAPH

From the diagram, it is observed that in a climb, the vertical velocity is the rate of
climb VC and the horizontal velocity is VH. From the discussion in the diagram it is
observed that for a chosen altitude, the vertical velocity VC and the horizontal velocity
VH change with the flight speed V. A plot of the values of VC and VH at a particular
altitude, in which VC is plotted on y-axis and VH is plotted on the x axis is called
‘Climb hodograph’. The diagram shows a hodograph, based on the sea level climb
performance of a jet aeroplane.

In a hodograph the line, joining the origin to a point on the curve, has the length
proportional to the flight velocity (V) and the angle this line makes to the horizontal
axis (VH- axis) is the angle of climb (γ). This becomes evident when it is noted that
VC and VH are the components of the flight velocity (V).

A line from the origin which is tangent to the hodograph gives the value of γ max and
also the velocity corresponding to the diagram. Actually, a climb hodograph gives
complete information about the climb performance
103 at the chosen altitude especially γ
max, Vγ max, (R/C) γ max, (R/C) max, V(R/C) max, γ(R/C) max and Vmax

CALCULATION

𝟏
𝟐
𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟎
𝑽(𝑹)max = ( ×√ × )
𝑪 𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟑∗𝟎.𝟎𝟐 𝟓𝟒𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟖

𝑽(𝑹)max = 29.12m/s
𝑪

𝟏/𝟐
𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ( ×√ × ) × 𝟎. 𝟒
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟎.𝟎𝟐 𝟓𝟒𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟖

𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟏𝟎

11.5.1 PERFORMANCE GRAPH FOR CLIMBING HODOGRAPH

11.6 GLIDE HODOGRAPH

In this section, the climb hodograph was discussed. Similarly, a glide hodograph is
obtained when horizontal velocity Vh is plotted on the x-axis and the rate of sink Vd is
plotted on the y-axis. A typical diagram is shown. Such a the diagram gives complete
information about glide performance at an altitude especially, γmin, Vγmin, (R/S) min,
V(R/S) min, γ(R/S) min 104
CALCULATION

(R/S)min = 40.33 m/s

𝟐𝑾 𝟐∗𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √ =√
𝝆𝒔𝑪 𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓∗𝟓𝟒𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟖∗𝟐.𝟗𝟖

𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟖𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

𝟐𝑾 𝟐∗𝟑𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √ =√
𝝆𝒔𝑪 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟓∗𝟓𝟒𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝟖∗𝟎.𝟔𝟒

𝑽𝜽𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟎

11.6.1 PERFORMANCE GRAPH FOR GLIDING HODOGRAPH

105
RESULT

PARAMETER VALUE

THRUST REQUIRED 875 kN

THRUST AVAILABLE 154.08 kN

POWER REQUIRED 224875 KW

POWER AVAILABLE 39598.5 KW

RATE OF CLIMB 53.22 m/s

RATE OF SINK 40.33 m/s

TAKE OFF DISTANCE 3280.54 m

LANDING DISTANCE 2680 m

106
 CHAPTER 11
THREE VIEWS OF PASSENGER JET

Figure 12.1 Three views of airbus a380

107
Figure 12.2 Isometric view of airbus a380

108
 CHAPTER 12
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

WEIGHT

PARAMETERS SI UNIT (Kg) IMPERIAL UNIT (lbs)

Take-off Weight (WTO ) 351529.959 774990.90

Fuel Weight (WF ) 131472.169 2,89,846.52
Empty Weight (WE ) 173288.169 382035.019
Payload Weight (Wpayload ) 52788.971 116379.76

ENGINE TYPE

The preferable choice of engine, from the above, would be General

Electric GE90-115B engine since the engine thrust is 513 KN.

WING TYPE

Tapered wing with dihedral monoplane configuration mounted as a low

wing.

AIRFOIL CHOSEN

Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord-BOEING BAC XXX

AIRFOIL
The section used at the tip -GOE 599
The section used at the root - NPL ARC CP1372

FUSELAGE TYPE

A semi-monocoque fuselage has been constructed.

EMPENNAGE TYPE

Conventional tail plane configuration with vertical stabilizer is mounted.

109
LANDING GEAR

Retractable Tri-cyclic landing gears is constructed.

LIFT AND DRAG CALCULATION

CONDITION LIFT(N) DRAG(N)

TAKE-OFF 3416521.36 431785.585

CRUISE 3482427.52 212951.76

LANDING 3582562.022 489204.9

PERFORMANCE CALCULATION

PARAMETER VALUE

THRUST REQUIRED 875 kN

THRUST AVAILABLE 154.08 kN

POWER REQUIRED 224875 KW

POWER AVAILABLE 39598.5 KW

RATE OF CLIMB 53.22 m/s

RATE OF SINK 40.33 m/s

TAKE OFF DISTANCE 3280.54 m

LANDING DISTANCE 2680 m

110
DISCUSSION

The Takeoff Weight estimated as 351530 Kg which most efficient

for passenger aircraft. Monoplane design was selected since it can
carry payload below wing without any disturbance. Tapered wing
design configuration was selected since it reduce drag and lift
distribution increases. Low wing configuration was selected to carry
more payloads. Conventional tail configuration was selected with
vertical stabilizer mounted. GE90-115B1 engine was selected since
the engine thrust is 513 KN. It is a High By-pass turbojet engine
equipped.

The lift at takeoff was evaluated as 3416521.36 N which is most

required for takeoff among other conditions such as cruise and
landing. Drag at takeoff was evaluated as 431785.585 N which
should be less than landing condition. The performance of aircraft
was evaluated and compared with the optimum value found. The
takeoff distance was 3280.52 m and landing distance was 2680 m.

111
 CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of a 400 seater passenger aircraft is done and

the various design considerations and performance parameters
required are calculated and found out. The obtained design values
are not necessarily a definite reflection of the aeroplane's true and
conceptualized design, but the basic outlay of development has been
obtained. The final design stays true to the desired considerations of
a long-range aircraft that can provide high fuel efficiency as well.
There is no ideal design as such and continuous changes,
improvements and innovations serve to make the design as ideal as
possible, while always looking to achieve optimum performance.

The design is a fine blend of science, creativity, the presence of mind

and the application of each one of them at the appropriate time.
Design of anything needs experience and an optimistic progress
towards the ideal system. The scientific society always looks for the
best product design. This involves the strong fundamentals of
science and mathematics and their skillful applications, which is a
tough job endowed upon the designer.

We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never
gets completed in a fluttering sense but it is one step further towards
the ideal system. But during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot
about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft
design.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear

the fact that experience plays a vital role in the successful design of
any aircraft or aircraft component. A lot of effort has been put into
this project and as much as we have worked, we have learnt in turn.
112
FUTURE WORK

The above work will enhance the knowledge in continuation of the

design given in Aircraft Design project-I

In Design Project – II will be studied for the design with Gust and
manoeuvrability envelopes. Performance of Critical loading and the
final calculation of V-n graph. A theoretical approach to Study of
structural design will be undertaken. To estimate loads of wings, to
estimate loads of fuselage. Balancing and manoeuvring loads on the
tailplane, Aileron and Rudder load are started. Designing the
structural layout of the aeroplane. Even some of the components like
wings, the fuselage is designed. Finally, detailed design report will
be prepared with sketches or drawings.

113
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