Department of Electrical an Engineering

EE316
Engineering Analysis

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ayad A. Abdulkafi

2021-2022

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 Outlines
 Introduction to Signals and Systems
 Classification of Signals: Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals, Analog and Digital Signals, Real and
Complex Signals, Deterministic and Random Signals, Even and Odd Signals, Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals,
Energy and Power Signals.
 Basic Continuous and Discrete-Time Signals: Unit Step Function: The Unit Impulse Function, The Complex
Exponential Signals, Sinusoidal Signals.
 Systems and Classification of Systems: Systems with and without Memory, Stable Systems, Causal and Non-
causal Systems, Linear and Nonlinear, Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems.
 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems: Continuous LTI System, Discrete LTI System, The Convolution Integral, the
Convolution Sum.
 LTI-System Described by Differential and Difference Equations
 Fourier Analysis
 Fourier Series: Periodic Signals, Complex Exponential Fourier Series representation, Even and Odd Signals,
Harmonic Form Fourier Series, Amplitude and Phase Spectra of a Periodic Signal, Power Content of a Periodic
Signal, Properties of Continuous –time Fourier series.
 Discrete Time Fourier Series, Properties of discrete Fourier series.
 Fourier transform, properties of Fourier transform.
 Discrete Time Fourier Transform. Properties of Discrete Time Fourier Transform.

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 References:

 Lecture Notes

 Signals and Systems by Hwei Hsu

 Linear Systems and Signals, 2nd edition, by B.P. Lathi

 Signals and Systems, 2nd edition by Alan V. Oppenheim

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 1.1. Introduction to Signals and Systems
The concept and theory of signals and systems are needed in almost all electrical engineering
fields and in many other engineering and scientific disciplines as well. In this course, the
mathematical description and representation of signals and systems and their classifications
are introduced and defined.

A signal is a set of data or information and can be defined as a function of one or more
variables that conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon. Examples
include a telephone or a television signal, monthly sales of a corporation. Signals can either
be one dimension e.g. speech or multidimensional e.g. image. For instance, in a RC circuit the
signal may represent the voltage across the capacitor or the current flowing in the resistor.
Mathematically, a signal is represented as a function of an independent variable t. Usually t
represents time. Thus, a signal is denoted by x(t).

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 1.1. Introduction to Signals and Systems
A system is defined as an entity that manipulates one or more signals to accomplish a
function, thereby yielding new signals. It is a physical device that performs an operation on
a signal and it is characterized by the type of operation that performs on the signal. Such
operations are referred to as signal processing.

For example, in communication system, the input signal could be a speech signal or
computer data, the system is made up of a transmitter, channel, and receiver, and the
output is an estimate of the information contained in the original message as illustrate
below.

Communication System

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 1.2 Classification of Signals

Signals are classified according to their characteristics

1. Continuous time and discrete time signals

2. Analog and Digital Signals:
3. Real and Complex Signals:
4. Deterministic and random signals
5. Even and odd signals
6. Periodic and non periodic signals
7. Energy and power signals

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 1.2 Classification of Signals
1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals:
A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal if t is a continuous variable. By the term
continuous signal we mean a real or complex function of time x(t), where the independent
variable t is continuous. Several particularly important continuous signals are introduced
later. These signals serve as basic building blocks from which other signals can be
constructed. Therefore, the use of these signals allows us to examine the properties of
systems.
If t is a discrete variable, that is, x(t) is defined at discrete times, then x(t) is a discrete-time
signal. Since a discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times, a discrete-time signal is
often identified as a sequence of numbers, denoted by {x,) or x[n], where n = integer.
Illustrations of a continuous-time signal x(t) and of a discrete-time signal x[n] are shown in
Fig. 1-1.

Fig. 1-1 Graphical representation of (a) continuous-time and ( b )discrete-time signals.

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 1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals:
A discrete-time signal x[n] may represent a phenomenon for which the independent variable is
inherently discrete. For example, the weekly peak value of a particular economic indicator. On the other
hand a discrete-time signal x[n] may be obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal x(t) such as

x(to), x(t1), x(t2), …… x(tn), = x[0], x[1], x[2],…. x[n]= x0, x1, x2, …… xn

xn= x[n]= x(tn)

and xn's are called samples and the time interval between them is called the sampling interval Ts. When
the sampling intervals are equal (uniform sampling), then (See Fig. 1- 2)

xn =x[n] =x(nTs )

Fig. 1-2 Discrete sampled signal

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 1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals:
A discrete-time signal x[n] can be defined in two ways:
1- We can specify a rule for calculating the nth value of the sequence. For example,

2 - We can also explicitly list the values of the sequence. For example, the sequence shown
in Figure below can be written as

The arrow denotes the n = 0 term. If no arrow is indicated, then the first term corresponds
to n = 0 and all the values of the sequence are zero for n < 0.

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 1.2.2 Analog and Digital Signals:
The concept of continuous-time is often confused with that of analog. The two are not the
same. The same is true of the concepts of discrete-time and digital. A signal whose amplitude
can take on any value in a continuous range is an analog signal. This means that an analog
signal amplitude can take on an infinite number of values. A digital signal, on the other hand,
is one whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of values. Signals associated with
typical digital devices take on only two values (binary signals). The terms “continuous-time”
and “discrete-time” qualify the nature of a signal along the time (horizontal) axis. The terms
“analog” and “digital,” on the other hand, qualify the nature of the signal amplitude (vertical
axis). Fig. 1.3 demonstrates the various differences.

Fig. 1.3
(a) Analog continuous
(b) Digital Continuous
(c) Analog discrete
(d) Digital discrete

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 1.2.3 Real and Complex Signals:

A signal x(t) is a real signal if its value is a real number, and a signal x(t) is a complex signal
if its value is a complex number. A general complex signal x( t ) is a function of the form

x(t) = x1(t) + j x2(t)

where x1(t) and x2(t) are real signals and j =√-1 . Note that x1(t) and x2(t) can represent either a
continuous or a discrete variable.

1.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals:

Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are completely specified for any given
time. Thus, a deterministic signal can be modeled by a known function of time t . Random
signals are those signals that take random values at any given time and must be characterized
statistically. Random signals cannot be characterized by a simple, well-defined mathematical
equation and their future values cannot be predicted and called non-deterministic signals.

Deterministic signal example

Random signal example noise signal
Electrocardiography (ECG) signal
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 1.2.5 Even and Odd Signals:
A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if
x(-t) = x(t)
x[-n] = x[n]

An even signal is symmetric about the origin.

A signal x(t) or x [n] is referred to as an odd signal if

x (-t) = - x(t)
x[-n] = - x[n]

An odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin. x(t) = −x(−t).

Examples of even and odd signals are shown in Fig. 1-4

Fig. 1-4 Examples of even signals(a and b ) and odd signals( c and d). 12
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 Even and Odd Signals:
Note that the product of two even signals or of two odd signals is an even signal and that the product of
an even signal and an odd signal is an odd signal.
Example :

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 Even and Odd Signals:
Example: For the following signal, determine whether it is even, odd, or neither.

(a) (b)
Solution:
a) By definition a signal is even if and only if x(t) = x(-t) or x[n] = x[-n], while a signal is odd
if and only if x(t) = -x(- t) or x[n] = -x[-n]. Hence x(t) is odd.

b)

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 1.2.6 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals:
A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be periodic with period T if there is a positive nonzero
value of T for which (See Fig. 1-5(a))

x(t + T ) = x ( t ) for all t

x(t + mT ) = x ( t ) for all t and any integer m

Fig. 1-5 Examples of CT periodic signals

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 1.2.6 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals:
Periodic discrete-time signals are defined analogously. A sequence (discrete-time signal)
x[n] is periodic with period N if there is a positive integer N for which

x[n+N] = x [n] for all n

An example of such a sequence is given in Fig. 1-5(b). Also, it follows that

x[n+mN] = x [n] for all n and any integer m

Fig. 1-5 Examples of DT periodic signals

Any continuous-time signal, which is not periodic, is called a nonperiodic (or aperiodic)
signal. Also, any sequence which is not periodic is called a nonperiodic or aperiodic
sequence. Note that a sequence obtained by uniform sampling of a periodic continuous-
time signal may not be periodic. Note also that the sum of two continuous-time periodic
signals may not be periodic but that the sum of two periodic sequences is always
periodic.
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 1.2.7 Energy and Power Signals:
Consider v(t) to be the voltage across a resistor R producing a current i(t). The instantaneous
power p(t) per ohm is defined as

Total energy E and average power P on a per-ohm basis are

For an arbitrary continuous-time signal x(t), the normalized energy content E of x(t) is
defined as

The normalized average power P of x(t) is defined as

Similarly, for a discrete-time signal x[n], the normalized energy content E of x[n] is defined
as

The normalized average power P of x[n] is defined as

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 1.2.7 Energy and Power Signals:
Based on definitions the following classes of signals are defined:
1. x(t) (or x[n]) is said to be an energy signal (or sequence) if and only if 0 < E < ∞, and so
P = 0.
2. x(t) (or x[n]) is said to be a power signal (or sequence) if and only if 0 < P < ∞, thus
implying that E = ∞.
3. Signals that satisfy neither property are referred to as neither energy signals nor power
signals.
Note that a periodic signal is a power signal if its energy content per period is finite, and
then the average power of this signal need only be calculated over a period.

Example: a sine wave of infinite length is a power signal.

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 Energy and Power Signals:
Example: Find the energies of the following signals. Comment on the effect on energy of sign
change, time shifting or doubling of the signal?

Solution

Hint:
sin2(x) = 1/2 - 1/2 cos(2x)

No effect of sign change and shifting the signal on its energy. Multiplication the signal
by a constant k increases its energy by a factor k2. 19
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 Homework
HW1- Check if the following signals are Even, Odd or Neither even nor odd.

A) x(t )  t 4  3 t 2  7

B)

HW2- 3. Show that if x[n] is even, then

HW3- Find the power of the following signal .

HW4- Find the total energy of discrete time DT signal x(n)={2, 0, 1,3,1} .

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