A M C PA M P H LET A M CP 706-188

ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
MILITARY PYROTECHNICS SERIES

PA R T FO U R

DESIGN OF AMMUNITION FOR

PYROTECHNIC EFFECTS

HEADQUARTERS, US ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND MARCH 1974

CORRECTED
COPY
 AMCP 7 0 6 -1 8 8
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY •
HEADQUARTERS UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
5 0 0 1 E i s e n h o w e r A v s } A l e x a n d r i a YA 2 2 2 0 4

AMC PAMPHLET
NO. 706-188 March 1974

ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK

MILITARY PYROTECHNICS SERIES
PART FOUR, DESIGN OF AMMUNITION FOR
PYROTECHNIC EFFECTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page

LIST OE 1LLUSTRATIONS .......................... . xii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................... . xvii
LIST OF SYMBOl S ......................................... . xix
PREFACE ........................................................ . xxvi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

l-l Scope .............................................................. i-i

1-2 Purpose.............................................................. . i-i
1-3 Role of Pyrotechnic Am m unition................... . i -i

CHAPTER 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES

SECTION 1. VISIBLE AND NONV1SIBLE RADIATION

2 I Illumination Properties........................................ 2 1
2—1.1 In te n sity ......................................................... 2—1
2—1.2 Brightness......................................................... 2 -2
2 1.3 Surface Illum ination..................................... 2 •2
2' 1.4 Contrast ............................................................ 2-2
2 -2 Spectral Distribution............................................ 2—4
2—2 .1 Discrete Spectra .............................................. 2—4
2 2.2 Continuous Spectra.................. ....................... 7 5
2—2.3 Color Effect:..................................................... 2—5
2—3 Infrared and Ultraviolet Radiation ...................... 2—7
2—4 Transmission of L ig h t.......................................... 2 -9
2-4.1 R eflection........................... 2 -9
2 -4 .2 Absorption ....................................................... 2 -9
2—4.3 A ttenuation.................................................. 2—10

SECTION II. HEAT

2—5 Thermal Properties . . . 2-10

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2—5.[ Quantity of H e a t.............................................. 2—10

2 5.2 T em perature..................................................... 2 -1 0
2 5.3 Heat C apacity ................................... 2-11
2-5.4 Phase Changes................................................... 2-11
2—5.5 Heats of Reaction ............................................ 2—11
2—6 Transfer of HeatEnergy ....................................... 2—11
2 -6 . i C onduction...................................................... 2—IE
2—6.2 Convection ....................................................... 2—12
2—6.3 Radiation ......................................................... 2-13

SECTION HI. SOUND

2—7 In ten sity ............... ............................ ................... 2-14

2 -8 Wavelength ........................ 2—14
2—9 Effect of theMedium ........................................... 2—15
References ................ 2—17

CHAPTER 3 PYROTECHNIC TERMINAL EFFECTS

SECTION 1. VISIBLE LIGHT

3 I Illumination........................................................... 3—I
3- l.l Requirements ................................................... 3 —1
3—1.2 Effect of Field Conditions ............................. 3-1
3 1.3 Effect of Flare Height and Intensity .............. 3 -5
3 1.4 Multiple SourceIllumination ........................ 3—7
3 1.5 Flare Location................................................... 3 -9
3 1,6 Estimates of Flare Size...................................... 3 9
3 1.7Typical Illuminating Candles ....................................... 3-11
3 -2 Signaling, Marking, and W arning............................. 3—12
3-2.1 Types of Device .............................................. 3-12
3 -2.2 Visibility Considerations.................................. 3—14
3-2.3 Height Considerations..................................... 3-15
3—2.4 Typical Devices................................................ 3-16
3 3 Tracking .................................................... 3—17
3 4 Photography .............................................................. 3—18
3—4.1 G eneral.......................................................... . 3—18
3—4.2 Sensitive Films ................................................. 3—18
3 -4.3 Light Source Requirements.......... .................. 3-19
3-4.4 Synchronization ............................................... 3 -2 0
3—5 Simulation 3—21

SECTION II. NONV1SIBLE LIGHT

3 -6 IR R adiation......................................................... 3-21
3 -6.) G eneral................................................ 3-21
3 6.2 Considerations for IR Pyrotechnic Devices . . 3-22
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3-6.3 1R T argets.............................................■ . 3-22

3 -7 Tracking ........................................................... . 3 -22
3 -8 Photography ..................................................... . . 3-23
3-8.1 General .......................................................... . 3 -23
3-8.2 |R Films ....................................................... .. 3 -23
3-8.3 Light Sources ............................................... . 3-23

SECTION III. SMOKE

3—9 Marking, Signaling, and W arning................... 3-24

3—9 .1 Physical Characteristics of S m o k e .............. 3-24
3 -9 .) .1 Particle Size............................................. 3-24
3-9.1.2 V isibility...................................... ! ____ 3-25
3-9.1.3 Colored Smokes .................................... 3-27
3 9.1.4 Total Obscuring Power .......................... 3-28
3 9.2 Typical Devices........................................... 3-28
3 -1 0 Tracking .......................................................... 3 3)
3—10.1 Use and Characteristics............................... 3-31
3 10.2 Tracking Devices......................................... 3-32
3 1I Screening............................................ . ... 3-33
3-11.1 Properties of Screening Smokes ............... 3- 33
3—11.2 Smoke Generation .................................... 3—35
3 -1 1.2.1 Oil Smokes ............................................. 3-35
3-11.2.2 Zinc Chloride Sm okes............................. 3 -36
3 - 1 1.2.3 White Phosphorus Smokes ............... 3-36
3—11.2.4 Liquid Smoke Agents ............................ 3-38
3 - t 1.2.5 New Developments in Screening Smokes 3 -40
3 12 Simulation ...................................................... 3 -4 0
3 13 Riot C o n tro l................................................... 3-41
3—13.1 Smoke Generation .......................... 3 41
3 - I 3.2 Formation of Dispersed Phase......... 3-41
3-13.2.1 Condensation Process .................. 3-41
3 -13.2.2 Dispersion Process ............... 3-41
3-13.2.3 Combined Process ...................... 3-41
3-13.3 Devices ............................................. 3-42

SECTION JV. HEAT AND GAS

3-14 Igniters and Primers............... . . . . 3-43

3— i 4.1 Initiation ..................................... 3-43
3 14.1.1 The Initiation Process........... 3-43
3—14.1.2 Electric Initiators .................. 3-43
3—14.1.3 Mechanical Initiation ........... 3-44
3— 14.1.4 Input Requirements................ 3-44
3—14.2 Initiation of Pyrotechnic Delays 3-44
3-14.2.1 Vented Delays........................ 3—44

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3—14.2.2 Obturated Delays. .............................. 3-43

3-14.3 Igniters .................................................... 3 45
3-14.4 Ignition of Pyrotechnics Compared With
That of Solid Propellants................... 3-45
3-15 Incendiaries................................................... 3 -4 6
3-15.1 Small Arms Incendiaries......................... 3 -46
3-15.2 Incendiaries for Ground Application .. 3- 47
3-15.3 Special Incendiary Devices ..................... 3-48
3 -1 6 Batteries .................................................. 3-50
3-16.1 Battery Types and Requirements............ 3 -5 0
3-16.2 Thermal battery .................................. 3 -5 !
3 —17 Gas Actuated Devices . ............................ 3 -52
3—17.1 Typical Devices.......................... ............ 3 -52
3—17.2 Method of Operation ............................. 3-S3
3—18 Gas Producing Devices................................ 3 -53

SECTION V. FUZING AND TIMING

3 19 Fuzes ................................... .......... 3-56

3-19.1 Purpose of a F u z e ........................ 3 -56
3—19.2 Timers for F u z e s................. . . 3 -56
3-19.3 Environmental S e n so rs............. 3-57
3—19.3.1 The Arming Environment . . . 3-57
3 19.3.2 The Functioning Environment ■■ -57
3-19.4 Input and O u t p u t ........................ 5-57
3 -2 0 Fuses ............................................... 3-58
3 21 D elays.............................................. 3 -60
3—21.1 Space L im itations........................ 3 -60
3 21.2 Vented Delays.......................... 3 60
3 21.3 Obturated Delays.......................... 3 61
3 21.4 Delay Compositions...................... 3 -6 2
3—21.4.1 Black Powder .......................... 3 -6 2
3—21.4.2 Gasiess Compositions .............. 3 62
3 21.5 System Design and Performance 3-63

SECTION VI. OTHER EFFECTS

3 -2 2 Sound .............................................................. 3 -64

3-22.1 Use of Sound-producing Pyrotechnics .. . . 3 - 65
3-22.1.1 Training of Troops and O bservers......... 3-65
3 22.1 2 Decoy and Deception of Enemy Troops 3 -66
3-22.1.3 Warning and Signaling............................ 3 -67
3 22.1.4 Military P rotocol............... ..................... 3 57
3 - 2 2 .1.5 Sounding.................................................. 3-67
3 22.2 Blast E ffe c t.................................................. 3 67
3—22.3 Whistle Effect ............................................. 3 - 67

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3-23 Luminescence .................................................... 3-68

3-24 Ionization............................................................ 3-6 9
3-24.1 Creation of Artificial Comet T a il................... 3-6<?
3-24.2 Study of Interplanetary Magnetic Field
L ines............................................................ 3-69
3-24.3 Production of Artificial Electron Clouds . . . . 3-70
3-24.4 Removal of Electrons from the Normal
Ionosphere .......................................... . . . 3-70
3-24.5 Production of Vaporized Metals .................... 3-70
3 -2 5 Deslrucl Elements ............................................. 3-71
3—26 Weather Modification ......................................... 3 71
3-26.1 Techniques of Producing Nuclei ........ .......... 3-71
3 ib .: Burning Agl Complex With a Fuel ............... 3-72
3-2h.3 Impregnated Wick Generator ........................ 3-73
3-26.4 Pyrotechnic Type Agl Generators ............. 3-73
3-27 Combination of Effects .................................... 3-74
References ........................................................ 3 74

CHAPTER 4. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4- -I Introduction........................................................ 4 1
4-1.1 G eneral......................................... .. ............. 4- 1
4 1.2 Ballistic Matching ......................................... 4- 2

SECTION I. DELIVERY MODES AND

DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

4- 2 Delivery M odes............... .................................... 4 2

4-2.1 1 ubes .............................................................. 4 2
4-2.1.1 M ortar.......................................................... 4 2
4 2.1.2 Recoilless Rifle ........................................... 4 2
4 - 2 . 1.3 Gun and Howitzer ..................................... 4 3
4- 2.1.4 Small A rm s ................................................. 4 4
4-2.2 Launchers........................................................ 4-4
4 - 2.2.1 Rocket.......................................................... 4-4
4—2.2.2 Other .......................................................... 4 4
4-2.3 Aircraft Launched .......................... ... ■! o
4-2.3 .1 Bomb R elease............................................. 4- (>
4-2.3.2 Aerodynamic Heating .............................. 4 7
4 2.3.3 Characteristics of Pyrotechnic Devices . . 4 -8
4-2.4 Other Delivery Modes . . .............................. 4 -8
4-2.4.1 Ejector.......................................................... 4 8
4 2.4.2 Submarine Launched ................................ 4-8
4 - 2.4.3 Manual........................................................ 4 9
4- 3 Design Constraints ............................................. 4 9
4-3.1 Performance Requirements............................ 4 9

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4—3.1,1 Target and Terminal Ballistic Needs..................... 4—9

4—3.1.2 Environmental A spects............................. 4—10
4—3.1.3 Acceleration ............................... ................ 4-11
4-3.1.4 Timing and Sequencing ............................. 4-12
4 -3.2 Payload Configuration.................................... 4 -1 3
4-3.2.1 W eight........................................................... 4 -1 3
4-3.2.2 S iz e ............................................................... 4 13
4 3.2.3 Geometry ..................................................... 4 13
4 -3 .3 Material Choices ............................................. 4 -1 3
4-3.3.1 Compatibility .............................................. 4 -1 3
4 -3 3 .2 Sealants ....................................................... 4-15

SECTION II. IGNITION AND BALLISTIC

CONSIDERATIONS

4—4 Ignition................................................................. 4 -1 6
4-4.1 Ignition Train ................................................. 4 -16
4—4.2 Methods of Initiation ..................................... 4 —16
4 -5 Interior Ballistics.................................................. 4—17
4-5.1 G en eral............................................................. 4 -1 7
4 -5 ,2 Setback Forces ............................... ................. 4 -18
4 - 5.2.1 Setback in the Weapon ................................ 4 18
4-5.2.2 Effects of Acceleration on Delay
Elem ents.................................................. 4 -1 9
4 -5.3 Spin Forces ...................................................... 4 -1 9
4-5 .4 Combined Setback and Spin ........................... 4 -2 0
4 -5 .5 Example of Design Procedures......................... 4-21
4—5.5.1 Bearing Stress Between Base Plug and
Projectile B o d y ....................................... 4 -2 2
4-5.5.2 Combined Stress in the Projectile Body . . 4-23
4-5.5.3 Force Required of the Ejection System
To Release theBase Plug . ....................... 4 24
4—5.6 Hydrodynamic F orces...................................... 4—25
4 5.7 Propellant Characteristics ............................... 4-25
4-5.7.1 Grain C om position..................... 4—26
4 -5.7 2 Grain Size .......................................... 4 26
4-5.7.3 Grain Configuration................................... 4 -2 6
4-5.7.4 Density of L oading...................................... 4 -2 6
4 -6 Exterior Ballistics ................................................ 4 —27
4—6.1 G eneral. 4 -2 7
4 -6 .2 Trajectories....................................................... -r-27
4 -6.3 Stability 4—29
4 -6.4 Subprojectile Deployment .............................. 4 -3 0
4 -7 Terminal Ballistic Considerations......................... 4-31
4-7.1 Payload Deployment ................................. 4-31
4-7.1.1 Light Producing Payloads .............................. 4-31
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4—7.1.2 Smoke Producing Payloads......................... 4—33

4 —7.1.3 Chemical Agent and Smoke Producing
Payloads ........................................... 4—33
4—7.2 F lotation........................................................... 4 —33
4—8 Parachutes and Other Decelerators .................... 4—34
4—8.1 Parachutes ...................... 4—34
4—8.1.1 Parachute Types and Nomenclature............ 4 —34
4-8.1.2 Drag................................................................ 4 -36
4—8.1.3 Canopy Loading ........................................... 4—37
4—8.1.4 Canopy Size.................. 4—37
4—8.1.5 Variable Payload Weight .............................. 4—39
4-8.1.6 Stability ....................................................... 4 -39
4 —8.1.7 Peak Force Lim itations................................ 4—40
4-8.1.8 R eefing.......................................................... 4—40
4—8.1.9 Deployment Techniques.............................. 4—40
4—8.1.10 Bulk and Weight ........................................... 4—42
4—8.1.1 I Typical Applications .................................. 4—42
4—8.2 Balloons ........................................................... 4—43
4—8.3 Rjgid Decelerators ........................................... 4 -43
4— 8.4 Dynamic Decelerators...................................... 4-43
References , _ ...................................................... 4—45

CHAPTER 5. INSTRUMENTATION

5— 1 G en eral...................... .......................................... 5 —1
5 -2 Transducers and Detectors ................................. 5—1
5—2.1 General ............................................................. 5-1
5—2.2 Piezoelectric Transducers ............................... 5 —1
5-2.3 Magnetoelectric Transducers ............. .. . 5—2
S-2.4 Photovoltaic Transducers................................. 5—2
5—2.5 Thermal Electric Transducers ......................... 5 -2
5—2.6 Resistive Transducers ...................................... 5—2
5—2.6.1 Thermoresistive Transducers ..................... 5—3
5—2.6.2 Mechanovariable Resistive Transducers . . . 5—3
5—2.6.3 Electrolytic C ells.......................................... 5—3
5—2.6.4 Photoresistive C e lls ...................................... 5—3
5—2.7 Variable Capacitance ...................................... 5 -3
5—2.8 Variable Inductance.......................................... 5—4
5—2.9 Photoemission.................................................. 5 -4
5-2.10 Photographic Techniques................................. 5—4
5—3 Light Detectors .................................................. 5—4
5—3.1 General Detectors of Light ................ 5—4
5—3.2 Thermal Detectors .......................................... 5—5
5—3.3 Photon Detectors.............................................. 5—6
5—3.4 Cell Construction.............................................. 5—7
5—3.5 Calibration ....................................................... 5 _g

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5—4 Smoke D etectors.................................................. 5—8

5 -5 Heat Detectors....................................................... 5-10
5 -6 Pressure Transducers ........... .............................. 5—It
5—7 Sound Detectors .................................................. 5 II
5 -8 Signal Conditioning and Recording.................... 5 -1 3
5- 8.1 General Conditioning and Recording
Equipment ................................................. 5-13
5 -8.2 linage Converters.............................................. 5 -1 6
5 -8.3 M eters............................................................... 5 -lf)
5 -8 .4 Chart Recorders and Oscillographs................. 5 16
5 -8 .4 .1 Light Beam Galvanometer and Photo­
sensitive Paper (Oscillograph) ............... 5 —17
5—8.4.2 Electrodynamic Pen Motor Using Ink on
Ordinary ChartPaper .............................. 517
5 8.4.3 Electrodynamic Pen Motor Using
Temperature Sensitive Paper ............... 5—17
5 -8.4.4 Potentiometer Recorder ............................. 5-17
5-8.4.5 Sampling Recorder Using Electrosensitive
Paper ...................................................... 5-17
5 8.4.6 Magnetic Tape R ecorder............................. 5 -1 7
5 8.4.7 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope ......................... 5-18
5-8.5 Time Measurement and R eco rd in g ................. 5 18
5 -9 Systems ................. 5 19
5 - 9 .1 General Aspects of Systems............................. 5—19
5-9.2 Field Systems ................................................... 5 -1 9
5 - 9.3 Laboratory and RangeSystems ...................... 5—20
References .......................................................... 5—20

CHAPTER 6. TESTING

6 I General Discussion .................. 6—1

6 - 1.1 The Testing Program ..................................... 6 —1
6 -1.2 Kinds of T e s ts ................................................... 6—1
6 1.2.1 Development T e s ts ...................................... 6-1
0 - 1 .2.2 Evaluation Tests .......................................... 6 -4
6—1.2.3 Service T e s ts ................................................. 6 -4
6 - 1 .2.4 Surveillance Tests ...................... 6 -4
6-1.2.5 Malfunction T e s ts ...................................... 6 -4
6 1.2.6 NATO Tests................................................... 6 -5
6—2 L ig h t...................................................................... 6 -5
6-2.1 G eneral...................................................... 6 -5
6 -2.2 Laboratory T e sts............................. ................. 6 5
6 -2.3 Field Tests .................................................... 6 -7
6 -2.4 Color Measurement.......................................... 6—8
6 -3 Sm oke.................................................................. 6—9
6—3.1 General ........................ 6 -9
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6- 3.2 Laboratory T e sts.............................................. 6—9

6—3-3 Field Tests ...................................................... 6 - 1I
6—3,4 Photographic Techniques............................... 6-12
6 -4 Meat............................................ ......................... 6-12
6—S Gas-operated Devices .......................................... 6 13
6—6 Chemical A gents................................................... 6 -1 4
6 -7 General Sensitivity T e s ts ............................. .. 0-15
6 7.1 Test L im itations.............................................. 6—IS
6—7.2 Im pact............................................................... 6 -1 6
6—7.3 Electrostatic Sensitivity ................................. 6 16
6 -7 .4 Explosion Temperature ............................... 6 -1 6
6-7.5 Stability ........................................................... 6-17
6—7.6 R eactivity......................................................... 6-17
References .......................................................... 6—18

CHAPTER 7. HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING

7 -1 V isio n ................................... ................................ 7 1

7—1.1 The Human Eye ........................................... 7-1
7 -1.2 Illumination ............ ........................................ 7 -2
7 - 1.2.1 Contrast ....................................................... 7 -2
7 -1 .2.2 Visual Acuity ............................................. 7 -2
7—1.3 Color Perception.................................... . . . 7 3
7-1.4 Factors in Response.......................................... 7-5
7- 1 .4 .1 A d ap tation................................................... 7 5
7-1.4.2 Flash and Flicker.......................................... 7 -5
7 -1.4.3 Other VisualPhenomena............................... 7 -6
7 -2 H earing................................................................. 7 -7
7—2.1 Use of Sound ................................................... 7—7
7-2.2 Threshold of Hearing ...................................... 7—8
7—2.3 Frequency Effects ......................................... 7 -9
7—2.4 Sound Localization.......................................... 7 9
7—2.5 Variations in Hearing Ability ......................... 7 -9
7—3 Physical Measurements .................................... 7 9
7-3.1 Male Human Body Measurements . . . . • .......... 7 9
7—3.2 Strength ........................................................... 7—9
7- -4 Identification Codes and Operating
Instructions...................................................... 7—12
7-4.1 Identification ................................................... 7-12
7—4.2 Instructions............................. ......................... 7 —14
References .......................................................... 7 15

CHAPTER 8. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

8- I General Properties of M aterials.......................... 8 1

8-1.1 Gas Law s........................................................... 8-1
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8-1.2 Strength of Materials .................................... 8 -3

8 -1 .2 .1 Properties of S ections................................ 8 -4
8-1.2.2 Load A nalysis............................................. 8 -5
8-1.2.3 Safety Factors............................................. 8 -7
8-1.2.4 Load Factors ....................... , ................. 8-8
8-1.2.5 Margin of S a fe ty ......................................... 8-8
8-1.2.6 Allowable Stress ......................................... 8 -8
8-1.2.7 Thin-wall Cylinder .................................... 8 -8
8-1.2.8 Plastics................... ...................................... 8 -9
8-1.3 Chemical Compatibility ................................ 8-10
8-1.3.1 Corrosion of Metallic Components ........... 8 -10
8-1.3.1.1 Corrosion Processes................................ 8 -13
8-1.3.1.2 Types of C orrosion................................ 8 -1 4
8-1.3.1.3 Methods of Protection............................ 8 -1 6
8-1.3.2 Deterioration of Nonmetallic
Components ........................................... 8 -1 9
8 - 1.3.2.1 Plastics .................................... ............. 8 -1 9
8-1.3.2.2 Natural and Synthetic R ubbers............. 8 -1 9
8-1.3.2.3 C eram ics..................... ............................ 8 -23
8-1.3.3 Degradation and Sensitization of
Pyrotechnic Materials ............................ 8-23
8 -2 Safety ........... ...................................................... 8 -2 3
8- 2.1 Hazard Classification ............................... . . . 8 -2 4
8- 2.2 H andling.......................................................... S-25
8-2.3 Storing.............................................................. 8-26
8-2.4 Shipping .......................................................... 8-27
8 -3 Reliability .......................................................... 8-27
8-3.1 Considerations During Research and
Development ............................................. 8-28
8-3.2 Considerations for the S tockpile................... 8 -3 0
8 -4 Maintenance ........................................................ 8 -3 0
8-S Manufacturing...................................................... 8 -3 0
8-5.1 Control of Raw Materials................................ 8-31
8-5.2 Controlling Processes ..................................... 8-31
8-5.3 Loading .......................................................... 8 -3 )
8-5.4 Assembly .................................... ................... 8 -32
8 -6 Packaging ............................................................ 8 -32
References ................... ...................................... 8 -33

APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A. FLARE DESIGN INFORMATION
References .......................................................... A—3
APPENDIX B. PYROTECHNIC COMPOSITIONS
References ............................ B -9

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APPENDIX C. METHODS FOR INTERIOR

BALLISTIC CALCULATIONS FOR SMALL ARMS

C -l Empirical Method ................................................. C—I

C—2 Graphical Method ................................................ C—3
References .....................................- .................. C—6

INDEX ................................................................ 1-1 ■

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 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Title Page

1 I Pholoflash Cartridge, M I 12 ...................................... ! 2

2 I Relationship of Surface Illumination Variables . . . 2 -3
2 -2 Thresholds of Brightness Contrast for Five
Angular Fields...................................................... 2-4
2 3 Planck's Law: Radiance as a Function of
Wavelength for Various Temperatures............... 2-6
2—4 Dimensions of the Psychological Color Solid . . . . 2-6
2—5 Additive Mixture of Primary Colors ..................... 2-6
2 -6 Tristimulus Values of the Spectrum Colors
According to the 1931 I.C.I. Standard
Observer .............................................................. 2 -7
2 7 I.C.I. Chromalicity Diagram ................................ .. 2- 7
2 .x A Complete Spectrum o f Electromagnetic
Radiation ...........' ............................................... 2 8
2 -9 Comparison of Temperature Scales........................ 2 1I
2—10 Concept of Thermal Conductivity in a Slab........... 2 12
2 - 11 Concept of Sound Wavelength, Pitch, and
In ten sity .............................................................. 2- 15
2 12 Attentuation of Sound in Air in Decibels per
Meter as a Function of Frequency ................... 2-16
2- 13 Molecular Attenuation in Air as a Function of
Relative Humidity ............................................. 2-16
3 -1 Visibility Nomograph .............................................. 3 2
3 -2 Target Illumination Variables ................................ j 6
3 -3 Relationship of Flare Height and Radius (Rangej
of Illumination for Various Values of 1 / E ......... 3- 6
3 -4 Linear, Symmetrically Distributed Source
Geometry ............................................................ 3- 8
3 -5 Flare, Aircraft, Parachute, Mk 5 ............................ 3- 10
3 6 Illuminating Artillery Load, Mk 7 ...................... 3-11
3 7 Illuminating Hand Grenade, Mk I Mods l and 2 . 3 12
3- 8 Visibility of Signals................................................... 3 -14
3 -9 Aircraft Illumination Signal, Mk 6 ........................ 3 -1 6
3 -1 0 Marine Location Marker. AN-Mk 1 ....................... 3 16
3—1 I Marine Location Marker, Mk 2 ............................ 3 17
3— I 2 Typical Characteristics of Black and White
Negative Material ............................................... 3 - 19
3- 13 Diagram of Bomb Burst and Trail A n g le ............ . . 3 -1 9
3- 14 The Photographic Active Regions of the
Electromagnetic Spectrum ................................ 3 23
3 15 105 mm Colored Smoke Projectile, M 84............... 3 29
3 -1 6 4.2-in. Colored Marker Projectile, Colored
Smoke. E 7 5 ................................ ........................ 3- 29
3-17 Signal. Smoke. Ground: Red, M 6 2 ........................ 3 -3 0
3 18 Signal. Smoke, Ground: While. XM 1 6 6 ............... 3-31
3 19 Smoke Tracking Device. Mk I Mod 0 ................... 3 - 32

XII
 L IS T O F IL L U S T R A T IO N S (Con't.)

Figure Title Page

3 20 Type 47 Tracking Flare .......................................... 3 -32

3 -21 Typical Venturi Thermal Generator ...................... 3 -3 4
3 -2 2 Typical Oil Smoke Pot (F loating)............... .. . . . . 3 -3 4
3 -2 3 Typical Oil Smoke Pot (T raining)......................... 3 -34
3- 24 HC Smoke I land Grenade, A N -M 8........................ 3-35
3 25 HC Smoke Pot, Mk 3 Mod 0 ................................... 3 -35
3 26 WP Smoke Hand Grenade, M 15 ............................ 3-37
3—27 Piston Smoke Grenade ........................... 3—40
3 -2 8 Cartridge. 2-W R D ..................................................... 3 -4 2
3 -2 9 CN Riot Hand Grenade. M25A 1 ............................. 3-42
3 - 30 Charge Holders ................................. ...................... 3 44
3 -31 Typical Cal .50 Incendiary Bullet . ............... 3—46
3—32 Typical 20 mm High Explosive Incendiary
Projectile.............................................................. 3 46
3-33 100-lb Smoke or Incendiary Bomb. AN-M47A4 .. 3—47
3 34 Typical Incendiary Grenade .................................... 3 50
3 35 TH1 Safe Destroying Incendiary, M1A 2 ................ 3 50
3—36 Till Equipment Destroying Incendiary,M2AI . . . 3 -5 0
3—37 File Destroyer Incendiary. M 4............ ................... 3—51
3-38 Dimple Motor, M4 ................................................... 3-52
3 -3 9 Thruster, M3 A l ....................................................... 3 52
3 -4 0 Put Puller.............. ..................................................... 3-53
3-41 Mechanically Operated Initiator, Mk 9 Mod 0 . . . . 3 54
3 -42 Gas Operated Initiator, Mk 10 Mod 0 ..................... 54
3-43 Gas G enerator............................................................ 3—55
3—44 Types of Safety Fuse .............................................. 3-59
3-45 Fuse Lighter, M2 ..................................................... 3-59
3 -4 6 Fuse Lighter, M60 ................................................... 3 59
3-47 Sealing of Vented Delay Element ..................... 3-61
3-48 Typical Baffled Delay Column ............................... 3-61
3 -4 9 Delay Element, Obturated, M 9 ................................ 3 -6 2
3 SO Projectile Air Burst Simulator, M74A I ................... 3-65
3 —51 Firecracker, M80 ..................................................... 3 -65
3 52 Whistling Booby Trap Simulator. MI 1° ................ 3-66
3 -5 3 Projectile Ground Burst Simulator, M115 ........... 3 -6 6
3—54 Effect of Tube Length on Frequency of Burning
Whistle Compositions ......................................... 3-68
3-55 20 mm Charged Body Projectile. HEIT-SD.
X M 246E5..................... 3 -7 0
3—56 Area of Effectiveness-temperature Relationship
for Fuel-supported Agl G enerators................... 3—72
3 -57 Area of Effectiveness-temperature Relationship
for Pyrotechnic Agl Generators ........................ 3 -7 2
3 - 58 Marine Smoke and Illumination Signal, Mk 13 . . . 3 73
4— 1 Candidate Projectile Configurations for
Ballistic M atching................................ 4—2

xiii
 L IS T O F IL L U S T R A T IO N S (Con't.)

Figure Title Page

4—2 Bomb Trajectories .................................................. 4—7

4—3 Pressure-travel (solid lines) and Velocitydravc)
(dotted lines) Curves ........................................ 4—17
4 -4 Typical Acceleration Functions vs Time
(Artillery Projectile) ........................................... 4—)8
4—5 Uniform and Increasing Rifling Twist Rates.......... 4—20
4—6 Nomogram for Determining Spin Velocity of a
Projectile.............................................................. 4—21
4—7 Internal Restoring Forces on Particle Within a
Projectile.............................................................. 4-22
4 -8 Forces on Base Plate of IlluminatingRound ........... 4—24
4—9 Effects of Varying Grain Size for Equal Charge
Weights ............................................................. . 4—26
4 -1 0 Typical Shapes of Propellant Grains ...................... 4 -2 6
4— 1 I Effects of Grain Configuration on Pressure-travel
Curves for Equal Charge Weights........................ 4 -2 6
4 - 12 Relative Areas of Burning as a Function of
Percent of Individual Grain Consumed for
Several Typical Grain Shapes ............................ 4—27
4—13 Effects of Projectile Velocity on D rag.................... 4—28
4—14 Range Chart for Subsonic Projectiles .................... 4 -2 9
4 -1 5 Center of Pressure Trails Center of Gravity -
Fin-stabilized Projectile ..................................... 4 -3 0
4— 16 Center of Pressure Leads Center of Gravity —
Spin-stabilized Projectile.................................... 4—30
4—17 Signal, Illuminating Marine, AN-M75 .................... 4—32
4— 18 Conditions of Stability and Instability of a
Floating Object ............................ 4 -3 4
4—19 Solid, Flat, Circular Parachute................................. 4-35
4—20 Parasheet.................................................................... 4—36
4—21 Shaped Parachute ..................................................... 4 -3 6
4—22 Variation in Drag Coefficient With Vertical
Descent Rate for Solid Flat Circular Canopy . . . 4—37
4—23 Parachute Descent C h a rt.......................................... 4 -3 8
4—24 Parachute Suspension System Showing Effects
of Force, Velocity, and Diameter at Various
Stages of Development ...................................... 4 —41
4—25 Typical Reef-disreef Sequence................................. 4 -4 2
4—26 Other Reefing Methods ........................................... 4 -4 2
4—27 Free Type and Full Bag Deployment Techniques. . 4—43
4—28 Operation of Typical Aircraft Parachute Flare . . . . 4 —44
4—29 Spherical Decelerator .......................................... . 4—45
4— 30 Relative Wind Drift Stability of Aircraft Flare
Suspensions.......................................................... 4—46
5— 1 Typical Thermocouple Circuit................................. 5—5
5—2 Basic Operating Circuit of a Bolom eter................... 5 -6
 A M C P 706-188

L IS T O F IL L U S T R A T IO N S (Con't.)

Figure Title Page

5-3 Generator Equivalents of Bolometers ................... 5 -6

5 -4 Golay C e ll................... ............................................ 5 -6
5-5 Typical Photometer for Obscuration
Measurements..................................................... 5 -9
5 -6 Test Setup for Obscuration Measurements .......... 5- 9
5 -7 Typical Signal Conditioning C ircuits..................... 5-12
5 -8 Simplified Strain Gage Circuits ............................ 5-15
5 -9 Counter Chronograph Block Diagram ................. . 5-18
5- 10Functioning Time Measurement ............................ 5 - 18
6- 1 Typical Range Tunnels for Flare Testing............... 6- 6
6-2 Typical Outdoor Flare Test Facility....................... 6 -7
6 -3 Photocell Layout at MAPI Test Site ..................... 6 -7
6 -4 Chamber for Preliminary Observation of Smoke
Producers ............................................................ 6 -9
6 -5 Laboratory TOP Measurement C ham ber............... 6- 9
6—6 Factors for Long Time Exposures (Panatomic X
Film) .................................................................. 6- 11
6 -7 Diagram of Cascade Im p acto r............................... 6-14
6 -8 Efficiency Curves for Four Stages of a Cascade
Im pactor............................ .................................. 6 15
6- 9 Schematic Drawing of Electrostatic Sensitivity
Tester ................................................................... 6-16
7- 1 Horizontal Section of the Right Human Eye . . . . 7- 1
7 -2 Distribution of Rods and Cones in the Human
Retina (Right Eye) ............................................. 7-1
7 -3 Range of Response of the Human Eye to Various
Levels of Lum inance........................................... 7 -3
7 -4 Relationship Between Visual Acuity and
Brightness Contrast for Various Levels of
Brightness............................................................ 7 -3
7 -5 Thresholds of Radiant Flux for Vision ................. 7 -4
7 -6 Adaptation to Backgrounds of Different
Luminances.......................................................... 7 -5
7 -7 Time Factors in Viewing a Stimulus of Medium
Intensity and Duration ...................................... 7 -6
7 -8 Threshold of Hearing as a Function of Frequency . 7 -8
7 -9 Relationship Among Frequency, Intensity, and
Loudness.............................................................. 7 -8
7 -1 0 Loss in Hearing Ability for Men of Various Ages . . 7- 9
7-11 Key for Male Human Body Dimensions in
Table 7 -3 .............................................................. 7-10
7- 12Arm Reach Envelopes............................................. 7-11
8- 1 Typical Tensile-test Diagrams ................................ 8- 3
8-2 A Three-dimensional Right-hand System of
Coordinate A x e s .................................... ............. 8 -5
8 -3 Free Body Diagram of Container.............„ ............ 8 -6

xv
 L IS T O F IL L U S T R A T IO N S (Con't.)

Figure Title Page

8 4 The Container of Fig. S-3 in Orthogonal Form

for Equation Derivation ..................................... 8—6
8 -5 Curve Indicating a Relationship Between
Allowable Stress and Load C ycles............... 8 -7
8 -6 Thin-wall Cylinder .................................................. 8—9
8 7 Critical Buckling Stress as a Function of r/i . . . . 8 —10
8 -8 Factors Affecting Choice of an Engineering
Material .................................................................. 8-13
8—9 Case Cracking Due to Dezincification.................... 8-16
8 - 10 Example of Several Mixes In One Device................ 8-23
8—1 I Fault Tree: Accidental Ignition of Decoy Flare,
EX 48 Mod 0 ........................................................... 8-29
8 —12 Distress Signal Packaging tor Level A Protection . . 8-33
A I Nomogram - Burning Rate of Mg/NaN03 Flares
With Laminae Binder and Paper Cases............... A 1
A-2 Nomogram Candlcpower of Mg/NaN03 Flares
With Laminae Binder and Paper Cases............... A -2
C I Empirical Curves for Small Arm Design ................ I -2
C 2 Chart for Interior Ballistic Calculations by the
Scheme of S trittm ater......................................... C 5
 A M C P 706188

LIST OF TABLES

Tabic Tick Page

1 I Typical Pyrotechnic Devices.................................. 1 3

\ 1 Methods of Classifying Pyroteeluiics..................... 1 3
2 -I Noise Levels from Common Sources................... 2- 14
3 ! Total Diffuse Luminous Reflectance of Various
Natural Objects ............................................... 3 -3
3 2 Sky Brightness.......................................................... 3 -4
J■
> i
—O Visibility, Meteorological Range, and Attenuation
Coefficient for Typical Weather Conditions. . . . 3 4
3 -4 Types and Examples of Illuminating F lares........ 3- 13
3 -5 Increase in Illumination Required for Positive
Recognition.......................................................... 3 -1 5
3 -6 Some Dyes Which Have Been Used in Burning-
type Colored Smoke Munitions ....................... 3 25
3 -7 Typical Smoke Compositions ................................ 3 -2 6
3 -8 Total Obscuring Power of White Smokes............. 3 -2 8
3 -9 Weight of Smoke Agents Required To Produce
1,000 ft3 of Standard Smoke ......................... 3 -2 8
3 -1 0 Weight of Smoke Produced Per Unit Weight of
Smoke Agent at 75% Relative H um idity........... 1 2£ >
J-l I Characteristics of Typical Ejection-type Colored
Smoke Devices..................................................... 3-30
3- I2 Characteristics of Typical Oil Smoke Pots ........... 5-33
3-1 1 Variation of Burning Time of Tvpe-C HC Smoke
Mixture With Aluminum Content ..................... 5—3t>
3-14 Characteristics of Typical Devices Using HC'
M ixture............................................. ...................
3 15 Characteristics of Typical Devices Using
Phosphorus Filling ............................................. 3 -3 7
3—16 Screening Devices Summary .................................. 3 -3 8
3 -1 7 Properties of Smoke Agents ............................ . . 3-39
3 -1 8 Simulator Summary’ ................................................. 3 -40
3 -1 9 Typical Small Arms Incendiary Mixtures............. 3-48
3 -2 0 Composition of PT Incendiary M ixtures............... 3 -4 9
3 -2 ! Composition of IM Incendiary M ixtures............... 3 ■49
3 -2 2 Typical Incendiary Bombs .................................... 3 -49
3 23 Comparative Data for Initiators ............................ 3-55
3 -2 4 Comparative Data lor Gas G enerators................... 3 55
3 25 General Characteristics of Timers .......................... 3-58
3 -2 6 Gasless Delay Compositions in Current U se........... 3 -63
3-27 Sound Producing Compositions .......................... 3 b?
3 - 28 Compositions Producing a Whistle Effect ............. 3-68
5 -2 9 Typical Pyrotechnic Seeding Mixtures................... 3-73
4-1 Summary of Mortar Characteristics........................ 4 -3
4 -2 Summary of Rccoilless Rifle Characteristics .. . . 4 -3
4 -3 Summary of Gun and Howitzer Characteristics . . . 4 -3
4 4 Summary of Small Arms Characteristics............... -1 4

XV)j
 LIST OF TABLES (Con't.)

Table Title Page

4 -5 Summary of Rocket Characteristics......................... 4-5

4 —6 Summary oT Hand-manipulated Pyrotechnic
Device Characteristics......................................... 4—5
4 -7 Summary of Pyrotechnic Bomb Characteristics .. . 4 -8
4—8 Summary of Submarine-launched Pyrotechnic
Device Characteristics......................................... 4—9
4—9 Summary of Manual Pyrotechnic Device
Characteristics...................................................... 4—10
4—10 Values of Acceleration in Am m unition.................. 4 —11
4-11 Compatibility of Common Explosives and Metals . 4—14
4 - 12 Characteristics of Some Parachute Supported
Flares (Aircraft R eleased).................................. 4—43
5 -1 Main Classes of Transducers. . . ........... ................. 5—)
5—2 Transmission Characteristics of Common Optical
Materials for infrared Instruments ................... 5—8
5—3 Characteristics of Common Pressure Transducers. . 5 -1 0
5— 4 Signal Conditioning Required for Various
Transducer Types ............................................... 5-13
6— 1 Tests Utilized in the Development of Pyrotechnic
Items ................................................................... 6 -2
6- 2 Summary of Tests for Stability of Explosive
M aterials.............................................................. 6 -1 7
7—1 Threshold illuminance Values for White and
Colored Lights at Night ..................................... 7—4
7—2 Duration of Saccadic Eye Movements.................... 7 -7
7— 3 Male Human Body Dim ensions............................... 7—13
8- I Constants of the Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of
State ..................................................................... 8 -2
8—2 Properties of Plastics................................................ 8-11
8—3 Electromotive S eries.............................................. 8-13
8—4 Galvanic Couples ............................................. .. 8 —15
8—5 Prevention of Dissimilar Metal Corrosion................ 8—17
8—6 Specifications for Metallic Coatings........................ 8—18
8—7 Organic Materials........... ........................................... 8—20
8 -8 Property Comparisons —Natural and Synthetic
Rubbers .............................................................. 8-21
8—9 Minimum Test Criteria Tor Determining Hazard
Classification of Pyrotechnics............................ 8 -2 4
8 -1 0 Storage Categories of Typical Pyrotechnic
Items and M aterials............................................. 8—25
8-11 Excerpt from Quantity-distance Tables ................ 8—26
A—1 Comparison of Efficiencies of Various Light
S ources................................................................. A--2
 AM CP 706-188

LIST OF SYMBOLS*

A - bore area, in.2

A = surface area, m2 or in.2

A a = Bealtie-Bridgeman constant

a = acceleration, ft sec 2

a = factor, dimensionless

ar - radial acceleration, ft sec'2

B = object brightness, c-rrf2

BQ = Beattie-Bridgeman constant

BR - burning rate, in. sec'1

BT - burning time, sec

B' = backgroundbrighfness, c-m'2

b = distance from center of gravity to center of pressure, ft

b - excluded volume of molecules, in.3

b - Wien displacementconstant, 2897 ju-°K

C = capacitance, F

C - concentration of smoke, lb ft’3

Cb - brightness contrast, dimensionless

Cc - color contrast, dimensionless

C0 = overall contrast, dimensionless

Cy = vertical smoke dispersion coefficient, dimensionless

CP = candlepower

C - deceleration factor, ft'1

■Symbols that bear units or subscripts other than those shown here are defined in their
immediate context.
A M C P 706-188

L IS T O F S Y M B O L S (Con't.)

= factor, dimensionless

= speed of light. 3 X 10‘ 0 cm sec'1

d = diameter, in.

dl = constructed diameter of parachute, ft

d„i> = groove diameter, in.

= calculated diameter of parachute, ft

dP - projected diameter of inflated parachute, ft

E = energy. J

E = energy level of an atom or a molecule, erg

E = illumination, 1m m'2

E = Young’s modulus, dyn cm'! or psi

= energy fraction lost by reflection, dimensionless

= energy fraction lost by transmission, dimensionless

£ x = energy distribution. W (sr-m/a) 1

e = thermodynamic efficiency, dimensionless

F = factor, dimensionless

F - force, lb

F - luminous flux, 1m

= axial force, lb

= crosswind force, lb

E, = drag force, lb

= gage factor, dimensionless

= centrifugal force, lb

F = shear force, lb

xx
 AM CP 706-188

L IS T O F S Y M B O L S (Con't.)

Ff = total force, lb

/ - f-stop number of camera, dimensionless

/ = frequency of light emitted, Hz

G = glare scattered and reflected in the same direction as light

from the object by particles. Ini m'2

g - acceleration due to gravity, ft sec 2

h = constant, dimensionless

h - height, ft

h - Planck constant, 6.63 X l O'2 7 erg-sec

h - heat transfer coefficient, cal cm'2-0C 1

1 - current, A

I = intensity, c

/ - moment of inertia, lb-scc2-ft

Ia = axial moment of inertia, lb-sec2-ft

L = initial intensity without smoke, c

IQ = intensity normal to the source, c

= transmitted light intensity, c

Ai = luminous efficiency, dimensionless

Kd - normalized drag, dimensionless

k ~ Boltzmann constant, 1.38 X 10'16 crg0K''

k = coefficient of thermal conductivity, ca! (cm2-°C-sec-cm)'1

k = factor, dimensionless

L - inductance. H

L = lcngtl'i, in

M = Mach number, dimensionless

XX)
AM CP 706-188

LIST OF SYMBOLS (Con't.)

M ~-= overturning moment, ft-lb

M ~-= projectile mass, slug

MP -= mass of part, slug

N == rate of spin, rad sec"1

n =■ factor, dimensionless

n =: number of moles of gas

n -: number of sources

n “; rifling twist, cal rev'1

n =: Sutton's stability parameter, dimensionless

0SR =; optical slant range

P =■ pressure, dyn cm'2 orpsi

Pf =: pressure when the projectile is at the muzzle, psi

pm =: peak pressure, psi

Q =: quantity of heat, cal

R =: resistance, ohm

R =; universal gas constant, 1543 Ft-lb (°R-)b mole)'1

R -= vector distance from muzzle to projectile, ft

«c == calibrating resistance, ohm

/?F =- range factor

r -= energy ratio, dimensionless

7" “1 output, dimensionless

r -= radius, m or ft

5 == stress, psi

= bearing stress, psi

xxii
 AM CP 706-188

L IS T O F S Y M B O L S (Con't.)

Sb = buckling stress, psi

S = combined stress, psi

Sh = hoop stress, psi

= longitudinal stress, psi

T - temperature, °C; or absolute, °K

T = stagnation temperature, “K

TO?= total obscuring power, lb ft’2

t - thickness, in.

/ = time, sec

/ = time to consume pyrotechnic, sec

u - projectile travel, in.

V- - film exposure, m-c-sec

V - meteorological range, mi

V = volume, in.3

V = voltage, volt

Vb - battery voltage, V

V„ = initial free volume, in.3

Vs = signal voltage, V

VF = visibility factor

= visibility function, dimensionless

v = velocity,cm sec'1 o r fts e c '1

vm = muzzle velocity, ft sec'1

v = equilibrium parachute descent rate, ft sec'1

W - rate of emission, W m'2

xxiii
A M C P 706-188

LIST OF SYMBOLS (Con't.)

W = radiated power, erg sec'1

W = weight, mg or lb

W = parachute canopy weight, lb

W = effective projectile weight, lb

Wp = weight of pyrotechnic, lb

Wx = monochromatic emissive power, erg (sec-cm2-cm)'1

Wx = radiant flux emitted per unit area per unit increment of

wavelength, W (cm2-/a)'1

x = distance, m or ft

x = magnesium content, %

x = volume expansion ratio, dimensionless

x m = maximum plume width, m

x m = travel to muzzle, in.

Y = smoke yield ratio, dimensionless

y = height, m or ft

y - pressure ratio, dimensionless

y = maximum plume length, m

Z = impedance, ohm

z = piezometric efficiency,dimensionless

A = deflection, in.

6 = angle of yaw, rad

rjo = actual response quantum efficiency, dimensionless

rjs = effective response quantum efficiency, dimensionless

e = emissivity of the surface, dimensionless

e = scattering or extinction coefficient, ft2 lb '1

x x iv
 A M C P 706-188

LIST OF SYMBOLS (Con't.)

e = strain, in. in.'1

9 = angle, rad

X = slant range, m

X = wavelength, cm

Xm = wavelength at the point of maximum emission, cm

p = density, g cm'3 or slug ft'3

p = radius of gyration, in.

po = density of gas at equilibrium pressure, g cm'3

a = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 X 10'5 erg (cm2-sec-°K4)"1

a = scattering coefficient, m '1

<t> = angle of elevation, rad

<
jJ = angular velocity, rad sec'1 or rev se c 1

xxv
AMCP 706-iaa

PREFACE

The Engineering Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command

is a coordinated senes of handbooks containing basic information and
fundamental data useful in the design and development of Army materiel
and systems The handbooks are authoritative reference books of practical
information and quantitative facts helpful in the design and developm ent of
Army materiel so that it will meet the tactical and technical needs of the
Armed Forces.

I his handbook. Design o f Ammunition fo r Pyrotechnic Effects, is Part

Four of the Military Pyrotechnics Senes which includes:

Part One, Theory and Application. AMCP 706 I 85

Part Two. Safety, Procedures and Glossary. AMCP 706-186

Part Three, Properties o f Materials Used in Pyrotechnic Compositions

AMCP 706-187

Pan Four, Design o f Am munition fo r Pyrotechnic Effects. AMCP 706-188

Pan Five, Bibliography, AMCP 706-189.

I b is handbook was written by The Franklin Institute Research Labora­

tories, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania. All material was prepared for the
Engineering Handbook Office of Duke University. Technical guidance was
provided by an interservice committee with representation from Pieatinny
Arsenal, Edgewood Arsenal, and Krankford Arsenal of the Army Materiel
Command, and Eglin Air Force base, Naval Ammunition Depot {Crane) and
Naval Weapons Center (China Lake) Mr Leo Frey of Pieatinny Arsenal
served as committee chairman.

I he 1 ngineering Design Handbooks fall into two b;:dc categories, those

approved for release and sale, and those classified for security reasons. The
US Army Materiel Command policy is to release these Engineering Design
Handbooks to other DOD activities and their contractors and other
Government agencies in accordance with current Army Regulation 7U-3),
dated 9 September 1966. It will be noted that the majority of these
Handbooks can be obtained Horn the National Technical Information
Service (NT1S). Procedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow

a. Activities within AMC, DOD agencies, and Government agencies other

than DOD having need for the Handbooks should direct their request on an
official form to

XXVI
 A M C P 706-188

Commander
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLF.-ATD
Chambersburg, PA 17201

b. Contractors and universities must forward their requests to:

National Technical Information Service

Department of Commerce
Springfield, VA 22151

(Requests for classified documents must be sent, with appropriate "Need to

Know” justification, to Letterkenny Army Depot.)

Comments and suggestions on this Handbook are welcome and should be

addressed to:

Commander
CS Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
Alexandria, VA 22304

(DA Forms 2028, Recommended Changes to Publications, which are

available through normal publications supply channels, may be used for
comments/suggestions.)

x x vji/x x viii
 AM CP 706 188

DESI3N OF AMMUNITION FOR PYROTECHNIC EFFECTS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION*

1-1 SCOPE thermal, mechanical, or physiological as re­

quired in offensive or defensive military
This handbook embraces the areas to be tactics and during military training. The com­
considered in the design of pyrotechnic plexity of military operations demands close
ammunition with emphasis on the engineering coordination among aircraft, vehicles, ships
aspects o f the terminal effects. Associated and troops under all environmental condi­
topics to be considered during the design - tions; and reliable pyrotechnic devices are
such as light, sound, heat, ignition, and often the most appropriate means of creating
ballistic considerations-are covered briefly the necessary effect. A wide variety of pyro­
with the expectation that the reader will use technic devices is in use ranging from simple
pertinent references in this and the related candles to sophisticated munitions. Typical
handbook scries for detailed information. applications are shown in Table l-l A ty pical
Consideration is given not only to design with device is illustrated in fig. 1-1 that shows
respect to performance but also to produci- Photoflash Cartridge, Ml 12. used for night
bility, reliability, maintainability, cost,safety, photography. Pyrotechnics may be classified
and human factors. in several different ways as shown in Table
1- 2.
1-2 PURPOSE

The purpose of this handbook is to provide Trom the applications listed in Table 1-1
a reference of fundamental design informa­ one can imagine the variety of compositions
tion to facilitate generation and evaluation of and devices that fall into the pyrotechnic
new designs. Approaches arc presented that classification. Under conditions of high con­
have been used In the past and which are finement, or initiation by shock, some pyro­
likely to result in successful conclusions and technics such as pholoflash compositions
thereby conserve time, materials, anti money. can react very rapidly and explode; however,
The subject matter should serve as a refresher pyrotechnic compositions as a rule will react
for lhe more experienced designer and as a cxolhcrmally at relatively slow rates upon
basic guide for those not familial with this ignition fas compared with explosives) in a
type of ammunition. self-sustaining manner to produce various
forms of energy or products. Although it may
1-3 ROLE OF PYROTECHNIC AMMUNI­ appear that there is considerable overlapping
TION in the areas of pyrotechnics, propellants, and
explosives, there arc distinctions to be noted.
Pyrotechnic munitions are used u> produce Explosives and propellants may consist of one
terminal effects that arc audible, visible, homogeneous substance, pyrotechnics are
normally heterogeneous, self-sufficient mix­
■Prepared by Raymond t . Amiconc; majot coniiibuiors were tures of at least two finely divided solid
i m other i.'ohn, Chatle* T Have), and Michael C. Kelly materials. Pyrotechnic mixtures contain
A M C P 70&-188

Figure 1-1. Photo ft ash Cartridge, M l 12

1-2
 AM CP 706-188

TABLE 1-1

TYPICAL PYROTECHNIC DEVICES

General Function
Devices (Effective Time Period) Applications

Flares Illuminate targetsor areas (minutes) Reconnaissance, bombardment, identification

of targets, parachute operations, prevention of
enemy infiltration

Flares Serve asvisible location marker (minutes) Target location, bomb release lines, missile
location, decoys

Signals Provide visual communications with light Used by ground troops and aircraft,search and
(seconds to minutes) and smoke (minutes rescue operations
to hours)

Photoflash bombs, Provide high-intensity light (milliseconds) Aerial night photography

cartridges

Tracers Mark projectile flight (seconds) Missile tracking, firecontrol

Incendiaries Generate intense heat (minutes) Destroy targets,documents, equipment

Gas generators Produce gas to perform mechanical work Mechanical motions, cut reefing lines

TABLE 1-2 powdered fuel and oxidizer, which, upon

ignition will interact at a relatively slower rate
METHODS OF CLASSIFYING PYROTECHNICS than the rapid decomposition of propellants
or explosives. Also, ammunition designated as
Classification Types the pyrotechnic type is normally intended to
produce the terminal effects died in Table
Tactical use Ground, aircraft
1-1 rather than purely propulsive or shattering
Effect produced llluminants, smokes, etc., actions that fall within the province of pro­
see Table 1-1 pellant and explosive classifications, re­
spectively.
Device Flares, signals, cartridges,
bombs, etc.,see Table 1-1

Method of projection Hand-launched, projectors,

pistols, mortars, guns

Speed of descent Free falling, parachute

1-3/I -4
 AM CP 706-188

CHAPTER 2

BASIC PRINCIPLES

SECTION I VISIBLE AND NONVISIBLE RADIATION

2-1 ILLUMINATION PROPERTIES wavelength of 555 m/i. EK = dX is the radiant

flux emitted in the wavelength interval dX
2-1.1 INTENSITY containing the wavelength X.

Light is a form of radiant energy that The total radiated power (per steradian) W
extends from the ultraviolet to the infrared in watts is
range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
intensity of a point source is determined by
W- J £ x dX, watt sr'1 (2-2)
measuring the radiant flux emitted from the
direction of the source per unit solid angle in
watts per steradian.
and the luminous efficiency K is
Visible light is that portion of the radiant
energy that is capable of producing visual 658 J Vx Ex dX
sensation. The human eye cannot perceive the 0
ultraviolet at the short wave side of the
spectrum nor the infrared at the long wave­ K ^ = w (2‘3)
lengths. Human perception of light is dis­ J ~ E X dX
cussed more fully in par. 7-1.

Since visual sensation varies with wave­ where

length, a measurement unit of luminous flux F - luminous flux, Im
designated as the lumen is used to take into
account tiie limitation of the response of a = energy distribution, W sr' 1 mxi'’
standard observer to radiant flux. One lumen
is defined as the luminous or visible flux ^x - visibility function, dimensionless
emitted within a unit solid angle (one
steradian) by a point source having a uniform X = wavelength, m/J
luminous intensity of one candle 1 *. If the
source has an energy distribution £ x = /(X), VJ = total radiated power, W sr"1
and the visibility function is Vx - g(X), then
the luminous flux, F (lumens) may be ex­ K - luminous efficiency, dimensionless
pressed as follows
Recent definitions of luminous intensity,
F = 685 f Vx Ex dX, Im (2-1) based on the radiation from a blackbody at
the solidification temperature of molten
Kx has a maximum value of unity at a platinum has resulted in a larger coefficient
''Superscript numbers refer lo References listed ai the end of (given in Eq. 2-3) and a redefinition of the
each chapter. candle (c)2. The term candela (cd) often is

2-1
A M C P 706-188

used instead of candle to distinguish it from 2-1.3 SURFACE ILLUMINATION

the older definition based on a series of
carbon filament lamps1. For a spherical surface concentric about a
point source of light, the illumination E of
The intensity of a point source is the inside surface of the sphere is

(2-4) _ _ 4rr/
, Im m '2 ( 2- 6 )
A 47m2
where
I - intensity, c where
E - illumination, 1m m‘ 2
F = luminous flux, 1m
F = luminous flux, Im
co = unit solid angle, sr
! = intensity, c
Sources which have a Finite area are some­
times given an intensity value by the use of A = surface area, m2
Lambert's Law which stated mathematically
is r = radius of the sphere, m

/ = / cosa, c (2-5) If a point source of intensity / candles

illuminates a plane surface at a distance x
where meters from the source and the angle between
/ = intensity at angle a, c the ray from the source and a normal to the
surface is 0 radians, then the illumination of
a angle subtended between a normal to the surface is
the radiating surface and a ray from
the source center to the point of ob­
E = cos 6 (2-7)
servation, rad x

I = intensity normal to the source, c This equation is normally applied to

objects that are small compared with the
Eq. 2-5 must be used to correct for the distance of the object from the light source as
reduction in intensity at angles other than shown in Fig. 2-1. If the object $i2e (width) is
normal. Point sources are considered to have approximately equal to the distance of the
uniform intensity. source, as could be the case with large
illuminated surfaces, then the surface will not
2-1.2 BRIGHTNESS be illuminated uniformly. Under these condi­
tions it is necessary to take into account the
Brightness is a term applied to describe the differences in the source to object distance
magnitude of a light source of a finite size in and the angle between the ray from the
terms of intensity per unit area. A light source source and the surface. This is true for flares
may be considered either as a self-luminous at various altitudes as discussed in par. 3-1.3.
object or an object which diffuses light by
reflection or transmission. 2-1.4 CONTRAST

The unit for brightness is the lamberi Optical contrast between two or more
which is l/( 47r) c-cm'2 which is equivalent materials is the result of differences in either
to 1 Im cm'2. brightness or color. Contrast is most often the
 A M C P 706-188

primarily dependent upon brightness contrast.

Normally color contrast is not considered in
the design of illuminating devices.

The angle that an object subtends from the

eye is important in terms of brightness con­
trast. The larger the object, the lower the least
perceptible brightness contrast. Fig. 2-2 is a
plot of brightness and least perceptible con­
trast for five values of subtended viewing
angle. Note that an object subtending an angle
of 121 minutes of arc requires approximately
four orders of magnitude less brightness than
an object subtending 3.6 minutes of arc for
the same threshold of brightness contrast.
Figure 2- 1. Relationship of Surface
Illumination Variables Visual acuity is often expressed as the
reciprocal of the angle in minutes of arc for
result of differences in reflected light. The which an object can be distinguished under
brightness contrast Ch of an object may be norma) (daylight) lighting conditions. An
expressed as accepted value for normal acuity is one. Thai
is to say, an object that subtends one minute
of arc can be distinguished by the average
C6 a-3 )
human observer. This permits one to express-
the height y of an object that can be seen as a
where function of distance under average conditions
Cb - brightness contrast, dimensionless
y = -v tan 6 . m ( 2 - 1 Of
B - object brightness, c-m'2
where
B' = background brightness, c-m'2 y = height of the object, m

It has been found that brightness contrast x = distance from the observer to the ob­
plays a more important role in the ability to ject, m
distinguish an object than color contrast3
Overall contrast CQ is given by 6 - angle, rad

= (C2 + C j )1/2 (2-9) For angles as small as one minute, the tan­
gent of the angle is equal to the angle in
where radians which in this case is 0.00029 Thus
C0 - overall contrast, dimensionless
y = 0.00029*, m (2-11)
Ch = brightne < contrast, dimensionless

Cc = color contra i dimensionless At a distance x of 1000 m an object 0.29 m in

diameter and with average contrast (0 .1 to
Color contrast contributes let . than 0.25 in 0 .2 ) should be visible under daylight condi­
most instances; and where color contributions tions (10s cd/m2). Objects subtending less
are this large, brightness contrast is usually than I minute of arc may be visible under
over 0.25. Visibility under field conditions is ideal conditions.

2-3
AM CP 706-188

Figure 2-2. Thresholds o f Brightness Contrast fo r Five A ngular Fields

2-2 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION absorption spectra. Thus isolated atoms ab­

sorb radiation as well as emit it, at discrete
2-2.1 DISCRETE SPECTRA wavelengths.

Discrete spectra are those radiant energies

which divide light in distinct, separate Band spectra appear wider m frequency
patterns of wavelength or color. Discrete range than line spectra and are most generally
spectra are generally further divided into line produced from molecules tn a gaseous state.
spectra and band spectra4 . A line spectrum is The band spectrum of a compound is in
characteristically produced from atoms that reality made up of closely spaced line spectra
are in a gaseous state. When gases are excited that appear as groups. The lines comprising
to a state of producing light, the spectral lines bands in a band spectrum become more
are bright against a darker background when crowded toward one end of the spectrum.
viewed spectroscopically. If the gas is in the
path of a light comprised of many fre­ Line and band spectra occur because of the
quencies, and this light is examined spectro- distinct energy levels that exist in the atom-ic
graphically then the lines appear dark. The and molecular structure. Excitation of the
atoms of the gas have extracted energy atoms and molecules result in the release of
selectively from the source light, resulting in energy as described by the equation

2-4
 A M C P 706-188

A / = £ ‘1 - £ , , e rg ( 2 - 12 ) A = area of emitting surface, cm3

where 7' = absolute temperature. °K

£ , = higher energy level of an atom or
molecule, erg The intensity of radiation from a black­
body at a given temperature varies with the
£, = lower engrey level of an atom or wavelength according to Planck’s equation
molecule, erg
= ----- rvri m —,] .(ergsec '1 cm-3) cm’ 1
h - Planck constant, 6.63 X I0'21 x 5 [eAC/<AA7). ’
erg-sec
(2-14)
/ = frequency of light emitted, Hz
where
Since the- structure of the atoms of a = monochromatic emissive power,
specific element are the same, then the energy (erg sec’ 1 cm'3 ) cm' 1
levels of a specific element are the same and
identification of the element may be made by c = speed oflight,3X I0 10 cm sec' 1
examination of its spectrum.
k = Botzmann constant, 1.38 X I0 ' 1 6
2-2.2 CONTINUOUS SPECTRA erg 0K’ 1

Continuous spectra occur when solids are \ = wavelength, cm

heated to incandescence. They have no ob­
servable line or band structure .and are con­ This equation is plotted in Fig. 2-33 for
sidered to contain all possible frequencies. temperatures from I 500* through 3000°K in
500 deg K increments5. Observe that the
The continuous visible spectrum from a wavelength of maximum incident flux density
solid begins with a red glow as the solid is decreases (the Frequency increases) as the
heated; and as heating is continued, changes temperature is increased.
from red through orange, yellow, and finally
white as the temperature is increased3. 2-2.3 COLOR EFFECTS

Predictions of the spectral distribution and Spectral characteristics are related with
intensity of radiation produced front a heated color effects, and predominance of a parti­
solid body are based on a “blackbody" cular color may be of importance in the
radiator. A blackbody is defined as one that application of light. Physically, colors are
will absorb all of the radiation incident upon associated with particular wavelengths.
it and is, therefore, a theoretically idealized Physiological concepts of color involve the
object. The radiation emitted by a perfect human as a receiver of these wavelengths3.
blackbody radiator at any temperature is Color is comprised of hue, saturation or
given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law purity, and brightness—all of which influence
color perception. One concept of the relation­
W - oAT* , erg sec'1 (2-13) ship oT these properties is preseiv-.ed in Fig.
2 ^ 3. Hue refers to the color itself, i.e.. blue,
where green, or red, represented by points along the
W - radiated power, erg sec 1 circumference of the hue circle. Brightness is
associated with objects from black to while
o = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67X along a line perpendicular to the circular
I0's erg (cm 3-sec-0 K4)’ 1 surface of the hue circle and through its

2-5
 AM CP 706-188

While

O
e
D E N S IT Y , w / c m 2
TLUX
r a d ia n t

WAVELENGTH, micron Figure 2-4. Dimensions o f the Psychological

C olor Solid
Figure 2-3. Planck's Law: Radiance as a
Function o f Wavelength fo r
Various Temperatures

center. Saturation depends upon the extent to

which a hue differs from a gray value of the
color and is represented by the length of the
radius extending perpendicularly from the
brightness tine. Note that saturation involves
essentially monochromatic light. Colors may
be added to produce any desired hue by the
addition of primary colors green, blue-violet,
and red as indicated by the additive color
circles of Fig. 2-53. Proper mixtures of blue
and red produce magenta; red and green
produce yellow; and blue and green, cyan.
Complementary colors, e.g., red and cyan,
when added produce white.

The subtraction quality of color comes into Figure 2-5. A d d itiv e M ix tu re o f

play in transmission, absorption, and reflec­ Primary Colors
tion. in transmission, the light transmitted
will be the complement of the color if the The trichromatic color matching theory
incident light is white. A red transmitting states that over a wide range of conditions
filter will strongly absorb cyan. Similarly, almost any color may be matched by additive
opaque reflecting bodies absorb the com­ mixtures of three fixed primary colors. The
plement of the color that is actually seen relative light intensity of the three primary
(reflected) from incident white light. colors (usually
v ^ Xrca, - 700.0 nm, Xaicen =

2-6
 A M C P 706-188

Since only two of these arc required, x and

y are plotted to form a diagram of the type
TRISTIMULUS VALUES illustrated in Fig. 2-73.

Figure 2-6. Tristim ulus Values o f the Figure 2-7. I.C.I. C h ro m a tid ty Diagram
Spectrum Colors According to the 1931 I.C.I.
Standard Observer
The “purple line” forming the base of the
triangle extends from 380 to 700 nm. No
546.) nm, X,, blue
= 435.8 nra) needed to readily perceptible colors exist along this line.
match almost any wavelength in the visible All other points on the triangle are the loci of
spectrum is shown in Fig. 2-63. The relation­ monochromatic colors. The center C of the
ship in this Figure is that adopted in 193) by triangle is the white point designated by the
the Internationa) Commission on [lluminatiori I.FT as the light produced by “ llluminant C”
(I.C.I.) Tor a “standard observer” . coi responding closely to average daylight.
Complementary colors fall on the periphery
This standard permits a direct comparison of the color triangle at points where a straight
of color observations and permits more simple line intercepts llluminant C. Amy color, say G.
compulations. A chromatic diagram may be failing on a straight line from C to a point on
drawn using the tristimulus values X, Y, and Z the triangle, say D. may be considered a
from Fig. 2-6 as primary standards. The X, Y. mixture of illuminant C and the light at the
and Z values are the amounts of the three wavelength D. This wavelength at D is called
l.C.l. primaries required to match a unit the dominant wavelength. A mixture of two
amount of energy having the indicated wave­ colors represented by points located any­
length. The coordinates for the chromaticily where on the diagram will result in a color
diagramed are defined by located on a straight line connecting the two
points (colors).
X Y
x = 2-3 INFRARED AND ULTRAVIOLET
X + Y + Z y X + Y + Z ’
RADIATION
Z
(2-15)
X + Y + Z In par. 2-1.! the term luminous efficiency

2-7
AW1CP 706-188

cm

from oscillating v- from

electric circuits from light x-ray tubes from radioactivity
sources and cosmic rays

Reprimed with permission from R. D. Rusk, In tr o d u c tio n to C ollege P h y s ic s , AppIeton'Century-Crofts, New York.

Figure 2-3. A Complete Spectrum o f Electromagnetic Radiation

is defined, comparing the energy radiated in spectrum is often subdivided into three re­
the visible spectrum to the total radiated gions: ( 1 ) the photoelectric infrared covering
energy. Normally incandescent light sources a range from 0.72 to 1.5 microns, (2) the near
arc not very efficient, a majority oT the infrared covering a range from 1.5 to 20
radiated energy being outside the visible microns, and (3) the far infrared that extends
limits, in the infrared'1. Wavelengths longer from 20 microns to I mm.
than 0.75 micron and shorter than 0.4 micron
are not visible but they play an important role
in natural phenomena as well as providing Tire photoelectric infrared region is amena­
“illumination’'. Their spectral regions are ble to the use of most of the same in­
shown in Fig. 2-8*. Infrared systems are struments used in the visible range with the
covered in another handbook5. exception of human vision. Photographic
emulsions can respond to wavelengths up to
1.2 microns and photoelectric cells can be
Infrared (1R) radiation is emitted by an made that are responsive up to 10 or 15
incandescent object at a temperature far
microns.
lower than that at which radiation is seen by
the human observer. While the unaided eye In the near infrared transparent materials
cannot perceive 1R radiation, many electronic are readily available and are used jn optical
devices are capable of detecting differences in
instruments to provide prisms and lenses. In
the magnitude of radiation. More detailed
this region as well as in the far infrared,
information is given about these detectors in radiation must be detected by the heating
par. 5 -2 . IK is generated by heating a source. effect on a detector element.
If IR alone is to be produced, then the
temperature of the body must be kept low There are very few solid materials that
enough so that no appreciable visible light is readily transmit energy in the far infrared
emitted. An alternative is to heat the object region. Optical systems using the far infrared
to a temperature higher than that producing generally rely upon reflection techniques
IR alone and to filter the radiation that is not made possible by appropriate choices of
desired. gratings and optical components.

Yhe wavelengths included in the infrared The photometry of the IR and UV regions
spectrum extend from 0.75 micron to about 1 is the same as that for visible light in that
mm. The longer wavelength overlaps the source power i$ normally expressed in watts
Spectral range of microwave energy in an area and reception of radiation is normally stated
that is not clearly defined. The- infrared in watts per unit of area.

2-8
 AM CP 706-188

Ultraviolet radiation begins at a wavelength given to the ability of a material to transmit

of approximately 0.4 micron and extends into light, and it is defined ;is the ratio of the
the region of shorter wavelengths overlapping intensity 7; of the transmitted light to the
longwavelength X rays at around 0.09 micron. intensity f of the incident light, hence the
The solar spectrum is cut off below 0.29 transparency is always less than unily in
micron due to absorption by ozone in the practice, i.e.,
outer atmosphere. Oxygen and water vapor in j
the air strongly absorb wavelengths below 0.2
transparency - ~j < 1 (2-16)
micron and those wavelengths are known as f
the vacuum ultraviolet, because their trans­
mission requires a vacuum. For wavelengths in Opacity is the reciprocal of transparency
the vacuum UV shorter than 0.1 micron, and optical density is the log, 0 the
there is no known transparent solid. opacity, i.e.,

2-4 TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT I.I

opacity = (2-17)
transparency
2-4.1 REFLECTION
optica] density = log, 0 (2-18)
Light travels in straight lines in space at a
speed of 3 X I08 m sec' 1 and, in the absence
of any inhomogeneity or particulate matter, is The atmospheric scattering is of mam interest
relatively unatlenuated. The illumination is to the designer of pyrotechnic devices.
reduced only by spreading of the light from Absorption however becomes important in
its source as shown by Eqs. 2-6 and 2-7. When parts of the ultraviolet and infrared portion of
light strikes a surface appreciably different the spectrum. Light passing through a dis­
from ihe one in which it is traveling, it may tance of atmosphere is attenuated by art
be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted, or all amount dependent on the scattering coef­
three of these may occur to some degree at ficient o
the same time. The interface between dif­
ferent media through wliich light is passing F = Foe °x , lm (2-19)
usually results in reflection, the amount and
type of which is dependent upon the condi­ where
tion of the interface6. F - observed luminous flux, lm

Specular surfaces are considered ideally flat FQ = initial luminous flux, lm

and free of irregularities; these, of covirse, are
not normally found in practice. A glossy o = scattering coefficient, in'1
surface approaches the specular surface. Mane
surfaces tend to be more diffuse reflectors * = length of path through atmosphere,
and either semi-gloss or semi-nmne arc some­ m
where between glossy and matte. Diffuse
surfaces tend to reflect light equally in all Small droplets preferentially scatter the
directions because the surface is rough and shorter wavelengths and, as a consequence,
causes light to scatter. the transmitted light under these circum­
stances is red. Larger particle sizes selectively
2-4.2 ABSORPTION scatter the red light, if the particles are
slightly larger than the longest red wave­
Absorption occurs as light passes through length, with the result that the transmitted
any real medium. Transparency is a term light is blue or green.

2-9
AM C P 706-188

2-4.3 ATTENUATION object when viewed at a distance of x meters

is given by
Scattering is a part of the attenuation of
light that arrives at an object, and therefore CB - B ' y ox
iias an effect on the ability of a human to see C ( 2- 20 )
B‘c ox + G
an object. Tontrast is also attenuated because
of the effects these factors have in light where
interaction between the object and an ob­ Cx = brightness contrast at distance w
server. As would be expected, the apparent
contrast of an object when viewed through a B - brightness ol the object. Im in
medium which absorbs and scatters Jight is
reduced. The reduction in contrast is brought B' = brightness of the background,
about by an imbalance in the attenuation of 1m m'2
light reflected from the object and the back­
ground and by additional light supplied from o - scattering coefficient, nV’
scatieiing in the atmosphere between the
object and the observer. G = glare scattered and reflected in the
same direction as light from the ob­
The apparent brightness contrast C of an ject by paiticles, Iiri m ‘2

SECTION II HEAT
2-5 THERMAL PROPERTIES quantity in heat measurement, the first being
quantity of heat. Increase in heat energy does
2-5.1 QUANTITY OF HEAT not necessarily call for an increase in tempera­
ture, c.g., increased application of heat to an
Heat is a form of energy and conversion ice-water mixture does not necessarily change
factors are available to permit expressing the the temperature.
quantity in equivalent mechanical or electrical
terms. Units of heat currently in use are Temperature lias been defined as that
calorie (cal), kiln* ah me (kcal), and British quantity which determines whether a body is
thermal un/7'fBUt), in thermal equilibrium with one or more
ofiler bodies. Temperature difference deter­
The gram-calorie is the amount of heat mines the direction of heat flow. Heat will
required to raise the tempera lure of a mass of always flow from a body with a higher
one gram of water one degree centigrade. The temperature to one with a lower temperature
specific temperature range of 14.5" to 15.5°C when the bodies are in contact. If the bodies
is often specified because specific heat of are al the same temperature, then there is no
water is not completely uniform over the heat flow and the bodies are said to be at
entire temperature range'. This measure of thermal equilibrium.
heat energy is sometimes referred i<j as the
I 5-degree calorie. The Ihu is the heal energy Historically, several temperature scales have
required to raise the temperature of one been used jn temperature measurements.
pound of water one degree on the Fahrenheit These are illustrated in Fig. 2-9. While the
scale. I; is sometimes specified as the average centigrade or Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
value in the interval from ice to steam to establish their zero near oi at the freezing
introduce more precision point of water, the Kelvin and Rankine scales
base their zero point on absolute zero in
2-5.2 TEMPERATURE temperature. Recently an international scale
of temperature was established based on the
Temperature is a second fundamental triple point of water that has been sealed in a

2-10
 A M C P 706-188

glass tube at a low pressure (4.579 mm Hg)2. substance to change from one state to
Water vapor, water, and ice can coexist in another. The transition from the solid state to
equilibrium at a temperature of 0 .0 100°C and the liquid state in crystalline matter is accom­
this triple point can be reproduced within panied by a change in energy in the form of
0.0001 cleg C or better. The international heat. At constant pressure, the amount of
scale defines the triple point as 273.I6°K heat energy absorbed or liberated per unit
which makes a difference of (1.01 deg C muss without a change in temperature at the
between the currently used centigrade scale transition point is constant for any given
and the one defined in this international material. In going from the liquid to the
standard. crystalline state or vice versa there is an
energy interchange from thermal to potential
energy or the reverse of this.

The heat o f fusion of a substance is the

quantity of heat required to change a unit
mass of the substance at constant pressure
from the solid to the liquid phase without a
temperature change. The heat o f vaporization
is the quantity of heat required to change a
unit mass of a substance at constant pressure
from the liquid to the vapor phase without a
change in temperature.

The heat of fusion is the same numerically

as the hear of liquefaction and the heat of
vaporization is the same as the heat of
Figure 2-9. Comparison of Temperature condensation. Only the direction of the heat
Scales flow- changes.

2-5.3 HEAT CAPACITY 2-5.5 HEATS OF REACTION

In effect, heat capacity is a measure ol the When a substance burns, it liberates an

ability of a body to absorb and store heat amount of beat in the reaction process. This
energy. The heat capacity of a substance per reaction is a chemical one in which fuel is
unit mass, which is the specific heat, may be oxidized. The heat oj explosion rather than
defined as the quantity of heat required to the heat of combustion is often used to
raise the temperature of a unit mass of the describe the heal liberated front explosives*.
substance one degree. The units of specific The heat of explosion is determined either in
heal may be calories per gram per degree an atmosphere of nitrogen or in an atmo­
centigrade or Bin per pound per degree sphere ol air. The heat of explosion is usually
Fahrenheit The heal rapacity of a body is the less than that of combustion for the same
heat required to raise the temperature of the material.
body one degree. It may be found by taking
the product of the mass and the specific heat. 2-6 TRANSFER OF HEAT ENERGY

2-5.4 PHASE CHANGES 2-6.1 CONDUCTION

Matter may exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous A heat source applied to a conducting
states. By a change in ambient temperature, medium causes agitation of the atomic struc­
pressure, or both, it is possible to cause the ture near the heat source that is passed along
AM CP 706-188

to adjacent atoms or molecules without the 0 .00 01 ; concrete, 0 .002 ; and rock wool,
atoms or molecules changing their average 0. 0001 .
position7. This transfer of heat from one part
of a body to another or to other bodies in Compound walls, comprised of slabs of
physical contact is called conduction. Tree more than one material, have a heat flow Q in
electrons that are detached from their parent time I that may be computed by
atoms contribute to heat conduction and
determine to a large degree the excellent _ A ( l \ - T, )/
conduction properties of metals. Fourier's law Q ------------------,caJ (2-23)
states Z

(17 where
, cal sec' 1 ( 2- 21)
dt dx x. - thickness of the /th wall, cm

where k = thermal conductivity of the /th wall,

Q = quantity of heat, cal (cal sec'1 cm'7 )(°C/cm )'1

/ = time, sec For some configurations the expression of

the heat flow becomes complicated and
k - coefficient of thermal conductivity, geometry dependent. Such configurations
(cai sec' 1 cm 1 )(&C/cm )‘ 1 may require the use of elemental sections of
materials comprising a particular heat flow
A = area, cm1 problem. These situations may require the use
of calculus for solution.
T = temperature, °C
2-6.2 CONVECTION
x = distance, cm
Heat transfer in fluids may be produced by
This is the fundamental relationship for heat the physical mixing of hot and cool material.
transfer by conduction. The equation may be Convection may be forced or naturally pro­
simplified under steady-state conditions of duced by motion resulting from differences in
heat flow. density of the hot and cool fluids.

Fig. 2-10 shows a slab of area A and

thickness x. The left of the slab is kept at
temperature T2 and the right at temperatures.
T |. After thermal equilibrium has been
reached, the quantity of heat flow Q through
the slab in time i may be determined by

Q = ( 2- 22)

The coefficient k, often called the con­

ductivity, determines how well a material
conducts heat. Typical values for metals
(normally considered good conductors of
heat) are 0.49 for aluminum, 0.92 for
copper, and 0.12 for steel. The values Figure 2-10. Concepr o f Thermal
of k for insulators are low — e.g., cork. Conductivity in a Slab

2-12
 AM C P 706 188

Convcclive transfer3 of heat is expressed Boltzmann law* which is expressed by the

by relation
W = eaT4, watt m' 2 (2-25)
Q - h'AAT, cal (214)
where
where W = rate of emission, watt m'2
Q = quantity of heat transferred, cal
e = emissivity of the surface, dependent
h = heat transfer coefficient, cal cm'2 upon material and temperature,
°C l dimensionless

,4 = area, cm2 a - Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.670 X

10'8 W m'2 °K'4
A T = temperature difference, °C
T = absolute temperature, °K
The coefficient h( in Eq. 2-24 is com­
plicated by a number of factors and must The value of the emissivity varies from 0 to
usually be obtained experimentally under ), depending upon the nature of Ihe surface
conditions closely approximating those of the of the radiating material. A perfect radiator
desired configuration. For this reason con­ would have an emissivity of one. Generally,
vective processes are seldom analyzed in great rough surfaces have a higher emissivity than
detail on a strictly theoretical basis. smooth surfaces.

2-6.3 RADIATION Wien discovered that the maximum radia­

tion from a blackbody occurred at a given
Radiation differs from either conduction or specific wavelength for a given temperature,
convection in that heat is transmitted by
and Wjen's displacement law relates the wave­
electromagnetic waves, requiring no medium length in terms of the temperature and a
for transfer7. Radiation of heat is like that of constant
light, radio waves, and X rays, differing only
in the wavelength of frequency. Xm = b/T. ju (2-26)
When radiant heat energy reacts with a where
surface that is not transparent, the energy is \ m = wavelength at a point of maximum
absorbed and the surface becomes wanned. emission, p
The nature of the surface, mainly the color
and the roughness, determine haw efficiently b = Wien displacement constant, 2897
the radiant energy is transformed into heat.
P°K
Similarly, the radiator is affected by the
color, roughness, and temperature. The T - absolute temperature of the source,
energy radiated per unit urea and per unit °K
time is determined by these factors.
Planck’s theoretical equation determines
At lower temperatures of the radiator, the the flux emitted per unit area and per unit
rate of emission per unit area ami per unit wavelength by a blackbody. In this sense
lime is small and the wavelength of the Planck’s equation provides a most versatile
radiant energy is relatively long. Fig. 2-3
shows the distribution of emission” for various
•Both the Stefan-Boltzmann and Planck equations are
temperatures for a blackbody radiator. As the presented in par 2-2.2 in a slightly different form. The
temperature is increased, the rate of emission equal [-.ms and constants presented lien; ate more amenable
to radiation work and for lhal reason are repealed in this
W increases very rapidly following the Slefan- form.

2-13
A M C P 706-188

means of determining the radiation produced c = speed of light, 3 X 10,U cm sec'1

from a source that may be considered a
blackbody. Planck’s equation is h - Planck constant, 6.625 X 1O'34 W
sec2
c
----- -----!-------- , watt cm'2 p l (2-27)
W, = ■
* Xs k C2 ( x r ) _ M’ H k ; C2 , = hc/k ■= 1.438 cm°K

where k = Boltzmann constant, 1.38054X

= radiant flux emitted per unit area I0 '23 W sec °K''
per unit increment of wavelength,
watt cm’2 p '1 X = radiation wavelength, p

C, = 2nc2h = 3.741 X 10' 12 W cm 2 T = absolute temperature, “K

SECTION III SOUND

2-7 INTENSITY The reference intensity level is chosen

because this level is 2 lso the threshold level of
The intensity of a traveling sound wave is human hearing. This sound level is that which
defined as the time average rate at which the average human being can just begin to
energy is transported by the wave per unit hear. As a matter of interest, some typical dB
area through a surface perpendicular to the intensities of noise levels were collected by
direction of propagation7 . Mathematically the the N.Y, City Nojse Abatement Commission
intensity is given by that provide some idea of the meaning of the
term dB as shown in Table 2-17.
r j°2 X I 0-7
f -------------- . W c m ' (2-28)
1Pov TABLE 2-1

where NOISE LEVELS FROM COMMON SOURCES

/ = intensity. W cm"2
Source or Description of Noise Noise Level,
dB
P = pressure, dyn cm'2
Threshold of pain 120
p0 = density of the gas at equilibrium Riveter 95
pressure, g cm'3 Elevated train 90
Busy streettraffic 70
v = speed of propagation, cm sec'1 Ordinary conversation 65
Quiet automobile 50
Since for air. pQ and i' are often considered Quiet radio in home 40
constant, / « P- and hence a measurement of Average whisper 20
pressure is also a measure of intensity. Inten­ Rustle of leaves 10
sity is usually expressed in decibels (dB). The Threshold of hearing 0
dB sound level is the logarithm of the ratio of
Repnr>ied with permission from U n iv e r s it y P h y s ic s , Third Edi­
the ambient sound intensity / to some refer­ tion, Sears and Zamansky, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co,,
ence intensity 10 that is generally accepted as Reading, Mass,

10 6 W cm'2 . The intensity corresponds to a

pressure of 0.0002 dyn cm"2. The intensity 2-8 WAVELENGTH
level, dl3 of sound, may be determined by
One of the basic concepts of sound is
dB = 10 log , 0 ( 7 ) (2-29) wavelength. The product of the wavelength

2-14
 A M C P 706-188

and the frequency is the propagation velocity.

In a single, uniform medium and under , cm sec' 1 (2-30)
identical conditions, sound velocity is a con­
stant. Since the velocity is constant, then
where
wavelength varies inversely as frequency;
v = speed of sound, cm sec'1
accordingly high-frequency sounds have
shorter wavelengths than low-frequency
£ - Young’s modulus of the medium,
sounds. dyn cm'2
Concepts of wavelength, pitch, and inten­ p = density of the medium, gem '3
sity are illustrated in Fig. 2-I l 9 . In this figure,
pitch is used in place of frequency; they are For a gas such as air, the speed of sound is
related. The sound source is shown as a given by
cantilever beam that has been plucked and is
vibrating. The shorter beam of the same cross IA P
section and niaterial results in a higher fre­ (2-31)
quency, and Lhis is a generally true condition
in structures that are subject to vibration.
where
v = velocity of sound, m sec' 1
2-9 EFFECT OF THE MEDIUM
P - pressure, N rrf2
Sound conducting media determine how
far a sound may be conducted with enough p = density, kg m"3
energy content to still be heard or detected.
In addition, some media have different values The attenuation in air may be computed by
of aitenuation throughout the spectral range. classical methods, and the result is the atten­
uation characteristic plotted in Fig. 2-1210.
Curve C shows the theoretical value of atten­
The speed of sound v in a solid medium is uation for dry air. Measurements in dry air
given by yield the results shown in curve B. Note that

x - wavelength

(A) NORMAL (B) HI GHER I N T E N S I T Y ( C) HI GHER PI TCH

Figure 2■ 11. Concept o f Found Wavelength, Pitch, and Intensity

2-1 S
AM C P 706-188

Reprinted with permission from Kinsler & Frey, Fundamen­

tals o f Acousocs. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962.
FREQUENCY, kHz

Figure 2 13. M olecular A nenuation in A ir as

Reprirned wiih permission from Kinsler & Frey, Fundamen­
tals o f Acoustics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962. a Function o f Relative H u m id ity

Figure 2-12. A tte n u a tio n o f Sound in A ir in

Decibels per M eter as a Sound is also refracted in air by layers of
Function o f Frequency air that are of different temperature or
pressure—i.e., of different densify-so that
determination of the sound transmission char­
acteristics under practical conditions is dif­
the measured attenuation is larger than would ficult if exact conditions are to be met. Under
have been anticipated from theory, When practical conditions, computations are based
water vapor appears in the air, a different on dry air, corrections for relative humidity
type of attenuation occurs due to the kinetics and frequency are applied, and the worst-case
of the water molecule. The effect of water attenuation is taken into account. Theory is
vapor is shown in curve A. In dry air, the checked by measurement in the development
norma] relaxation time for the oxygen mole­ process.
cule is about 2 seconds, hence the molecule is
not excited. The presence of the water vapor
molecule changes the characteristics so that The transmission of blast pressures presents
the oxygen molecule is excited by sound with a slightly different problem from that of the
the result that more energy is extracted. sounds of explosions11. The front end of this
progressing wave operates in air that is com­
[excess attenuation, greater than that pressed, hence the velocity of the front of lhe
described in Fig. 2-12. occurs as a result of wave tends to increase. The trailing portion of
the presence of water vapor in the manner (he wave, on lhe other hand, operates in a
illustrated in Fig. 2-131 The excess attenua­ region of reduced pressure. The net result is
tion peaks at some value of relative humidity, that the trailing end slows, and the physical
and this peak shifts to the right as frequency length of the wave increases as the wave
is increased. propagates.

2-16
 AM CP 706-188

REFERENCES

1. RCA Phototubes and Photocells. Radio 7. F. W. Sears and M. VC Zemansky, Univer­

Corporation of America, Technical sity Physics. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Manual PT-60, 1963. Co., Inc., Reading, MA, 1964.

2. Rogers D. Rusk, Introduction to College 8 . AMCP 706-177, Engineering Design

Physics, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., Handbook, Properties o f Explosives o f
New York, 1960. Military Interest.
«
3. AMCP 706-185. Engineering Design
10. L. E. Kinsler and A. R. Frey,
Handbook. Military Pyrotechnics Scries. Fundamentals o f Acoustics, John Wiley
Part One, Theory and Application.
and Sons, Inc., New York, 1962.
4. G. R. Harrison, R. C. Lord, and i. R.
9. Robert Markgraf, A Portable Sound
Loofbourow, Practical Spectroscopy.
Analysis Laboratory for Small Arms
Prenttce-Hall, Inc., New York, I 948.
Weapons. Report R-1878, Frankford
Arsenal. Philadelphia PA. Nov. 1967.
5. AMCP 706-127, Engineering Design
Handbook, Infrared Military Systems,
Pan One. 11. J. G. Pruitt, Grenade Explosions in the
Upper Atmosphere. IVoc. of the Second
6. Arthur C. Hardy and Fred IT. Perrin, The National Conierence on Atmospheric
Principles o f Optics, McGraw-Hill Book Acoustic Propagation, 1964 (AD-451
Co., Inc., New York, 1932. 446).

2-17/2-18
 AM CP 706-188

CHAPTER 3

PYROTECHNIC TERMINAL EFFECTS

SECTION I VISIBLE LIGHT

3-1 ILLUMINATION mental conditions including haze, glare, and

battle conditions; and the ability and physical
3-1.1 REQUIREMENTS condition of the observer. It is generally
conceded that illumination levels between 0.1
A large and important class of pyrotechnic and 10 footcandles will satisfy most visibility
devices are those which are used for illumina­ requirements provided that the target contrast
tion1'1. Artificial illumination may be needed exceeds 0.1 footcandle and that target size
to observe enemy troops, weapons, or vehi­ subtends a visual angle of 5 min of arc or
cles, to aid in the accomplishment of a search greater. For comparison a full moon provides
or rescue task; for night photography; and 0.02 footcandle, a clear, moonless night sky
other similar tasks. Visual inspection depen­ provides about 0.0001 footcandle of illumina­
dent on artificial illumination for military tion, and a heavy overcast daytime sky about
purposes may be roughly divided into three 10 footcandles.
categories.
The illumination levels recommended for
1. Detection consists of merely recognizing detection, recognition, and identification are
the presence of an object or target within the merely guidelines for average field condi­
Field of the observer’s vision. Detection of tions—i.e., normal visibility (5 or 6 miles),
targets of relatively high contrast may be average contrast targets (at 0.1 footcandle),
accomplished with, illumination levels of 0.1 average size target (subtends 5 min of arc),
footcandle or less. Since target motion and and no excessive battle fatigue. If unusual
the use of peripheral vision enhance target Field conditions are encountered, the recom­
detectability, this level of illumination is not mended illumination levels may have to be
absolute. increased by an order of magnitude or more.
Colored targets and moving targets will aid in
2. Recognition generally requires between detection and thus require slightly less illumi­
0.1 and l footcandle and involves the ability nation.
of the observer to identify the shape or size of
a target after it has been detected.
3-1.2 EFFECT OF FIELD CONDITIONS
3. Identification requires illumination
levels high enough to allow the observer to The visibility nomograph in Fig. 3-11 serves
distinguish enough details to make a “friend as an aid in estimating the necessary light
or foe” type of decision. levels for various field conditions. To use this
nomograph the designer must know or esti­
. Actually, the illumination levels needed for mate the target contrast, the size of the
detection, recognition, or identification will target, the sky-ground ratio, the meteoro­
vary considerably—depending on the size, logical visibility, and the liminal optical slant
range, and contrast of the target; environ­ range of the target.

3-1
A M CP 706-188

diffuse reflectances- Table 3-12 lists values of The negative sign indicates only that the tank
diffuse reflectances (in the luminous or visible is darker than the sand and probably will
radiant energy range), for various natural appear as a silhouette. The nomograph (Fig.
objects. As an example, the brightness con­ 3-1) will normally predict the illumination
trast Ch of a tank painted olive drab located level required for liininal (just barely percep­
on a background of dry sand would be tible) visibility of the target. To estimate the
illumination required for more positive
r - B-B' (3-1) sighting of the target, it is customary to divide
S S' the calculated target contrast in half before
where . entry into the nomograph. For easy visibility,
B ~ brightness (reflectance) of object, % the contrast should be divided by a factor of
four.
S' = brightness (reflectance) of background,
% 2. Estimation o f the Sky-ground Ratio—

3-2
 AM CP 706-188

TABLE 3-1

TOTAL DIFFUSE LUMINOUS REFLECTANCE OF VARIOUS NATURAL OBJECTS

% %

Class A. Water Surfaces 5. Dark hedges 1

1. Bay 3-4 6. Coniferous forest, summer, from
2. Bay and river 6-10 airplane 3
3. Inland water 5-10 7. Meadow, dry grass 3-6
4. Ocean 3-7 8. Grass, lush 15-25
5. Ocean, deep 3-5 9. Meadow, low grass,from airplane 8
10. Field crops, ripe 10
Class B. Bare Areas and Soils
1. Snow, fresh fallen 70-86 ClassD. Roads and Buildings
2. Snow, covered with ice 75 1. Earth roads 3
3. Limestone, clay 63 2. Black top roads 8
4. Calcareous rocks 30 3. Concrete road, smooth, dry 35
5. Granite 12 4. Concrete road, smooth, wet 15
6. Mountain tops, bare 24 5. Concrete road, rough, dry 35
7. Sand, dry 25 6. Concrete road, rough, wet 25
8. Sand, wet 18 7. Buildings 9
9. Clay soil, dry 15 8. Limestone tiles 25
10. Clay soil, wet 7:5
11. Ground, bare, rich soil,dry 10-20 Class E. Miscellaneous
12. Ground, bare, rich soil,wet 5.5 1. Black velvet 1
13. Ground, black earth, sand loam 3 2. Newspaper 50
14. Field, plowed, dry 20-25 3. Aluminum 53-85
4. Aluminum paint 75
Class C. Vegetative Formations 5. Gray paint 70
!. Coniferous forest,winter 3 5. Olive drab paint 8
2. Coniferous forest, summer 3-10 7. Russian vehicles 5-35
3. Deciduous forest,summer 10 8. Nylon fabric,olivedrab 10
4. Deciduous forest, fall 15 9. Human skin.Caucasian 45

The sky-grnnnd ratio is the ratio of the sky expected illumination level must be used to
brightness to the ground brightness. This estimate background brightness, in the sand
factor is of importance if the visual field in and tank example, Ihe background brightness
which the tank appears is composed of both of dry sand (reflectance = 0.25) under 0.1
sky and “ nonsky” background. If the visual footcandle of expected illumination would be
field is composed only of sky or only of some
other background (the ground as viewed 0.25 X 0.1 = 0.025 footcandle
beneath an aircraft, for instance), then lire
sky-ground ratio will be I. Table 3-21 will be If there is a full moon then the sky brightness
helpful for estimating the sky brightness when would be 0.01 footcandle and the sky ground
it is applicable. The background brightness ratio would be
can be estimated by knowing the brightness
of the illuminating source and multiplying it
by the reflectance of the background. Since
the visibility nomograph (Fig. 3-1) will often
be employed to determine the illumination, 3. Estimation of the Visibility Factor-Tnz
(i.e., it will not be known previously), the visibility factor VF is expressed as

3-3
A M CP 706-188

TABLE 3-2 TABLE 3-3

SKY BRIGHTNESS VISIBILITY, METEOROLOGICAL RANGE, AND

ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT FOR TYPICAL
Ambient Brightness,T WEATHER CONDITIONS
Condition millilamberts
Visible Meteoro- Attenuation
Hazy' 10.000 Range, logical Coefficient,
Clear 1,000 Weather yd Range, yd per mile
Light Overcast 100
Heavy Overcast 10 Dense Fog 50 67 136
Twilight 1 Thick Fog 200 267 34
Deep Twilight 0.1 Moderate Fog 500 667 13.6
Full Moon 0.01 Light Fog 1.000 1,330 6.8
Quarter Moon 0.001 Thin Fog 2,027 2,700 3.4
Starlight 0.0001 Ha2e 4,050 5,400 1.7
Overcast Starlight*
V 0.00001 Light Haze 6,080 8,100 1.13
8,110 10,800 0.85
•The maximum brightness condition which is likely Clear 10,100 13,500 0.68
to be encountered is that of the sky on a slightly 12,200 16,300 0.57
hazy day at noon.
T1 footcandle L t mrllilambert 14,200 18,900 0.49
16,200 21,600 0.42
18,300 24,400 0.38
100 Very Clear 20,300 27,100 0.34
VF = V/ (3-2)
A 22,300 29,700 0.31
24,300 32,400 0.28
where 28,400 37,900 0.26
V = meteorological range, mi 32,400 43,200 0.21
Exceptionally 36,500 48,700 0,19
A - target area, ft1 Clear 40,500 54,000 0.17
48,900 65,200 0.14
75,200 100,000 0.09
As an example, if it is a dear night with a
146,000 195,000 0.04
meteorological range of 6 mi and the target Theoretically 339,000 452,000 0.02
area is 125 ft^ (the approximate area of a Pure Air
small tank) then the visibility factor would be
“ liminal” is not applicable.) The range factor
- 5.38 RF is found as follows:

(3-3)
It should be noted that visibility as normal­
ly reported in weather forecasts is about 3/4 where
of the meteorological range. Meteorological (OSR)lim (liminal) optical slant range of
range for various weather conditions is listed the target, yd
in Table 3-31.
With the foregoing example, if the target is
4. Esiiihution o f the Range Factor-Vets at an optjeal slant range of 4400 yd then the
range factor is dependent upon the liminal range factor would be
optical slant range and the area of the target.
(If the contrast value found in Step 1 was
4400 100 = 3950
divided by a factor of 2 or 4 to give a margin
of reliability in sigh ting then the term

3-4
 AM CP 706-188

It is possible to estimate the (0 S R )lim if the confidence is found by dividing the contrast
illumination level is known by simply revets- by two before entry into the nomograph. For
ing this procedure. Thus easy vis'bi'ity the contrast should be divided
by at least four.

vHI ■ A
w 3-1.3 EFFECT OF FLARE HEIGHT AMD
INTENSITY

5. Estimation o f the lUumimlion Level— Now that the designer has been given a
Ail necessary values have been derived, and it method of estimating the illumination level
is now possible to enter the nomograph of necessary to observe a given target under
Fig. 3-1 and make an estimate of the illumina­ given conditions, it becomes necessary to
tion level. For clarity, the previously derived determine in a practical manner the intensity
values are summarized: and/or the height over the target of the
illuminant flare which is to provide the
(1) An olive drab tank on drv sand has desired illumination. The most genera! de­
been estimated to have a target brightness scription of the relationship among ground
contrast of —0 .68. illumination, flare intensity, and flare height
is expressed by
(2) Tire sky-ground ratio has been esti­
mated as 0.4.
+/ri = -L cos6 ft2 (3-5)
t
(3) The visibility factor was computed to
be Vh' - 5.38. where
r = range (radius) or distance of the target
(4) The range factor was computed as R F from a point directly beneath the flare,
= 3950. ft

To use the nomograph, Fig. 3-1, a straight h = height or altitude of the flare, ft
line (T) is drawn from the sky-ground ratio
through the value of target contrast and / = intensity of the flare, c
extended to intersect the right-most vertical
line at (T) (zero range factor). From tbs E = illumination level measured at the tar­
point of intersection a second straight line get, footcandle*
is extended back (to lef: ordinate) to
intersect the computed v.Ability factor. A $ - angle included between the line from
vertical line (7 ) is now drawn from the the illuminating source to the h rget
computed range factor so that it intersects the (considered as a point) and the normal
second (drawn) line at (T) . This inter­ to the target surface at this point, deg
section will fall on or near the illumination
level curves and will thus give the designer an Fig. 3-2 illustrates these parameters. In Fig,
estimate of the illumination level necessary to 3-32 several possible solutions to Lq. 3-5 are
observe the target. The resulting illumination plotted for various values of r, h, /. and E.
required to detect the tank under the stated Many practical problems which the designer is
conditions falls between 0.01 and 0.1 foot- akely to encounter can be quickly solved with
candle. the aid of Fig. 3-3.

Fig. 3-1 predicts or uses the liminal range

of visibility. The sighting range or distance at
*Sce JBq. 2-6 for (he relationship of illumination and intensity.
which tire target may be seen with some A footcandle h In units of ft*3.

3-5
AM CP 706-188

Figure 3-2. Target Illum ina tion Variables

The designer may have calculated (as pre­

viously described) or been given a desired
SANGE OF ILLUMINATION , (I
illumination level. In addition, it is usually i

specified that this illumination level be main­

tained at a given range or radius from the Figure 3-3. Relationship o f Flare H eight and
point beneath the flare and fora given length Radius lRange) o f Illum ina tion fo r Various
of time. A descent rate for the tlare may also Values o f f/E
be given. With these factors, it is usually the
job of the designer to estimate the intensity ft - (10 ft sec'1 X 120 sec) = 3800 ft. A
(in candles) of the flare which can best vertical line is drawn at 3000 ft on the radius
accomplish the job. Ideally, the designer will of illumination scale of Fig. 3-3 and extended
be given some freedom of choice with regard up to intersect the horizontal Lines drawn
to the height at which the flare begins to hum from S000 and 3800 ft on the height scale. It
so that the Hare Intensity vaiue will he as is seen that an ljE ratio of about 40 X 106
small as possible. The following examples will will yield the desired illumination level be­
illustrate the usefulness of Fig. 3-3 in the tween 5000 and 3800 ft. This corresponds to
determination of flare parameters. a flare intensity of

Example I: Tt is desired to illuminate a (0.1 footcandle) X (40 X 10* f t'1) =

radius of 3000 Tt to a level of at least 0.1 4X 106 c
footcandle for a period of 120 see. What
intensity flare should be used if the initial Note that a 4 X 106 candle flare is rather large
burning height is 5000 ft? Assume that the but also that the most effective or efficient
flare descends at an equilibrium rate of 10 ft drop height/flare intensity combination has
sec 1. not. been chosen. If no restriction were placed
upon the drop height then a 2.5 X J 0 6 candle
Solution: If the initial height of the burn­ flare initiated at about 2800 ft would be the
ing flare is 5000 ft, then at a descent rate of most efficient combination—efficient because
10 ft sec'1, the burnout height would be 5000 the desired 0.1 footcandle illumination level

3-6
 A M CP 706-188

out to the 3000-ft radius would be main­ launch at relatively low altitudes if the air­
tained with the smallest possible intensity or craft ground speed is of the order of 500 kt.
flare size. At 2000-ft altitude, the desired 200-ft separa­
tion would necessitate launching every 0.25
Example 2: What is the maximum radius sec, This short interval is difficult to obtain
of illumination which can be maintained at with large flares which suggests that simulta­
0.1 footcandlc with, a 2 X I06 candle flare neous launch (or a single larger flare) should
which is suspended in a relatively stationary be used only if point source illumination is
position from a helicopter? Also, what is the essential. IF it is not important to simulate a
best height for the Hare to be suspended? single source but it is required to increase the
illuminance over an area, much larger dis­
Solution: The l/E ratio is tances between sources can be accepted.

2 X I0 6 candle/0.1 footcandle = Two situations are commonly encountered

20 X 106 f f with respect to the pattern in which the
sources arc distributed, "i iiese two conditions
Referring to the curves of Fig. 3-3, it is seen will now be discussed in some detail.
that the maximum radius of illumination is
about 2800 ft if the flare is suspended at If a long, narrow path is to be illuminated,
1900 ft. the number and spacing of the flares is
calculated from
Additional information on flare brightness
is contained in Appendix A. (Ft cosM i + F 2 cos3 /42
EP = —
IF
3-1.4 MULTIPLE SOURCE ILLUMINA­ + F3coF A 3 + . . . . Fncos 3/f(i) (3-6)
TION
where
The use of multiple sources may be desir­ = illuminance at point F, footcandle
able as a means of reducing the high contrast
between light and shadow areas which char­ 7 = intensity of flare, c
acterizes a single source, a$ a method of
increasing the illuminance when single sources h = source height, ft
of adequate intensity are unavailable, and as a
way to increase the duration of illumination2. = factor, dimensionless
Fi
The last case can be considered as a special
instance of the single source if the overlap in A.1 = angle between vertical at the so u rce
duration is not too great. The use of multiple S.l and the -D o in t P.>rad
sources to increase the illuminance requires as
high a degree of simultaneity in functioning as The point P{ for which Ep is computed is
possible. A multiple launch is to be preferred directly below one of the sources. The value
because sequential launching not only de­ of F will be 0, 1, or 2 depending on the
stroys the simultaneity of functioning but position of P with respect to the first and last
also distributes the units over an area. If the source S ( and S . respectively, as shown in
space separation is controlled by circling the Fig. 3-42.
launch vehicle, this may be minimized. The
effect of space separation is not too severe if When two sources S 2 and are located
the distance between the units and the center symmetrically with respect Lo a source
of mass of the group does not exceed 10 above the point P, the value of F is 2. If only
percent of the source height. This separation one source exists, as 51, , the value of F is !,
may be difficult to achieve by sequential When no source exists the value of F is zero

3-7
 Aft/)CP 70fi J88

Figure 3-4. Linear, Symmetrically Distributed Source Geometry

Illumination is maximum directly below a An increase in the number to nine flares

flare and minimum hall" way between the increases the coefficient from 4.12 to 4.42.
flares. From a consideration of the vaJues The increase of almost 30 percent in the
taken by cos3/l, as A increases it is evident number of flares used will increase the maxi­
that four terms of the series are sufficient for mum illumination by only 7.5 percent.
many practical problems, and corresponds to
selecting a point located midway of a seven- If a circular path is followed and the
source string. The minimum value of Ep may sources are again uniformly distributed, the
be estimated as 80 percent of Ep for illuminance at a point on the ground below
reasonable values of height and separation. the center of the circular path will depend on
While individual cases may arise in which a the number of sources. In the general case,
detailed calculation is required, in many cases the relation is
a separation equal to 40 percent of the source
altitude will be found quite useful. For this
separation, the value of Ep is the following £ = }n , footcandle
P (fri + r J ) ' (3-7)
at the center of a 7-flare string (in this
particular configuration. A f = 0,4 h(i — l)//i) where
E = illuminance at point A the center of
P
En (1 + 2(0.83) + 2(0.47) circle on ground, footcandle

2(0.26)] = 4.12 . footcandle n - number of sources

3-8
 AM CP 706-1S8

/ = intensity of Dare, c 3-1.6 ESTIMATES OF FLARE SIZE

h - source height on circumference of cir­ In the design of a flare, the diameter and
cle, ft length of the illuminant composition neces­
sary to meet the required candlepower and
r ~ radius of circle, ft burning time must be established. One ap­
proach to this problem is as follows:
b = slant range (/r2 + r2) ' /2 , ft
(1) Multiply the product of the candle-
For a radiusr ~ 0.4/j , the relation becomes E power and burning time by 1.3. (The factor
= 0 S n //h 2. provides 30% excess of integrated illumina­
tion to allow for variations in candlepower
3-1.5 FLARE LOCATION and burning rates in individual illuminants.)

Not only the level of the illumination but (2) Assume a cross-sectional area for the
its direction has a strong influence on vis­ illuminant composition and divide the prod­
ibility of a target2. This arises from the degree uct of 1.2 times the candlepov.v- by this
to which long, confusing, deep shadows, or assumed area. (This step gives the canchc-
metallic glints from semispecular surfaces are power requirement, with a 20% excess, of one
produced by changes jn the azimuth and square inch of burning surface.)
elevation of the source with respect to the
target-observer axis. Typically, studies of the (3) From the compilation of data on vari­
optimum location of the source have shown ous compositions, pick the composition pro­
that it should be either in front of or behind ducing the closest candlepower per square
the target. An advantage of the order of 3x inch and determine the volume using the
can result from source positioning in either following formula:
location, which is of enough value to justify
some effort to secure it. Volume (illuminant composition) -
In order to utilize this advantage, an ! {CF){RT){BR) . 3 (3' 8)
observer will most often find it desirable to ' (cp) ,in
locate the source somewhere near, and be­
hind, himself. If it cannot be placed behind where
the observer, the source must be thoroughly CP = candlepower required
shielded on the observer's side to minimize
the interference produced by glare. The change BT = burning time required, sec
in the state of adaptation of the eye will
occur in about 0 .1 sec. It is, therefore, BR = burning rate of composition,
important to avoid even momentary expo­ in. sec'1
sures of the observer to the unshielded source.
The need for this caution is further empha­ cp - candlepower of candidate composi­
sized when it is recalled that the discrimina­ tion from ) in.2 of burning area,
tion of brightness contrast is a function of the in.'2
background luminance to which the eye is
adapted. When the luminance level is below This equation is not exact , a difference of 30
O.l footcandle, the ability to discriminate percent may result.
brightness differences decreases very rapidly.
A level below 0.) footcandle would be com­ (4) Length (illuminant composition) =
monly encountered in night reconnaissance. volume./area, in.

3-9
 AM CP 706-188

?A#ACHi>T£
parachute ti'SE
retention cable

IRiSGCV SNAP

QLilC* MATCH

( IRJNG
MECHANISM
humbvCkC

Figure 3-5. Flare, Aircraft, Parachute, Mk 5

3-10
 A M CP 706-188

PARACHUTE LOWER SPLIT ILLOMINANT CONTAINER UPPER -BAFFLE GASKET

ASSEMBLY SUPPORT WASHER ASSEMBLY SUPPORT
8AFFLE PLATE
BAFFLE SPACING
WASHER

EXPELLING
CHARGE 8AG
EXPELLING
CHARGE
IGNITION
COMPOSITION
COMPOSITION “A”
PARACHUTE / SW^ eP'N CENTER
TUBE
PAD PLATE SHROUD RELEASE SLEEVE
ATTACHMENT AND CENTER WIRE
ASSEMBLY

Figure 3-6. Illum ina ting A rtille ry Load, M k 7

(5) if the length is not compatible with the opposed to photoflash and tracer pyro­
overall flare size repeat steps (2), (3), and (4). technics), white or near white ligi.L is
obtained with mixtures oT a fuel which are
The weight of the illuminant composition usually magnesium and oxidizer such as
is then obtained by multiplying the volume sodium nitrate, potassium perchlorate, or
by the density. potassium nitrate.

Representative examples of illuminating A binder is usually added to ihe fuel-

flares are listed in Table 3-43'4 and illustrated oxidizer mixture to prevent segregation of
in Figs. 3-53, 3 -6 \ and 3-74. particles when blending and loading, and to
increase the mechanical strength of the fin­
3-1.7 TYPICAL ILLUMINATING CANDLES ished candle. The bindei may also, in some
cases, enhance the burning efficiency, do
In genera), a pyrotechnic illuminating flare crease friction and static sensitivity of the
must provide from 0.05 to 10 footcandles of mixture, and provide additional control of
essentially white light for a time of at least 30 burning rate. But probably the mosl impor­
sec and in some instances 2 to 3 min’ . Some tant added feature the binder can give is good
of the air dropped flares may provide up to 2 bonding to the case, which helps to promote
million candlepower whereas a small hand- laminar burning of the surface of the candle
launched grenade may provide less than and avoid erratic burning along the side or
55,000 candlepower to illuminate a nearby breakup of the candle.
area (Table 3-4).
Resins, waxes, plastics, and oils have been
Although white, light is often difficult to used for binding agents. The most frequently
produce, it provides the best illumination for used combination (see Appendix B for others!
the greatest range of possible field conditions. is magnesium/sodium nitrate/binder which
For long burning flares (i.e., long burning as produces a yellow-tinted white light of

3-11
AM CP 706-188

relatively high efficiency and intensity. By flares of 3,000,000 CP or more. Case lengths
proper choice of ingredient composition, par­ vary from 5 to 36 in. with loaded weight
ticle size, and binder type, this class of ranging from 0.75 to over 40 lb. Further
illuminant composition yields illumination physical details may be obtained from Techni­
values between 10,000 and 40,000 in.'2, cal Manuals3,4.
intensities between 50,000 and 800,000 in.'2
of burning surface, and burning rates between 3-2 SIGNALING, MARKING, AND WARN-
2 and 40 in./min. Further details concerning ING
composition are found in Refs. I and 5.
3-2.1 TYPES OF DEVICE
The illuminating compositions are loaded
into paper, aluminum, steel, or phenolic tubes According to MIL.-STD-4446 , a marker is a
and consolidated at 2.000 to 25,000 psi, The sign for labeling a location on land or water,
inside of the case is usually lined or coated to whereas a signal is a device designed to
facilitate loading and provide moisture proof­ produce a sign for identification, location, or
ing. Metal liners also prevent erratic disinte­ warning. Note that there is a certain overlap
gration of the case, rapid heat conduction, or in these definitions; authorities disagree on
voids that could disrupt the laminar type of the proper nomenclature in some applica­
burning. The case diameters of existing types tions. 'The discussion which follows will make
vary from about 1.5 in. for small surface clear some of the distinguishing features.
flares of 40.000 CP to 8 in. for large aircraft Whereas signals and markers can take many

PULL RING-
SAFETY PIN

SAFETY DELAY
PIN COMPOSITION

QUICK
MATCH
BLACK
POWDER

LEVER

FIRECRACKER
FUSE
BOTTOM SHELL'
ILLUMINATING COMPOSITION'
MOO 1 MOD 2

Figure 3-7. Illum inating Hand Grenade, M k 1 Mods 1 and 2

3-12
 AM CP 706-188

forms, we are concerned in this handbook generally have a lunger burning time than
only with pyrotechnic devjces, and in this signals. One type of marine marker uses water
paragraph specifically with devices that pro­ for activation to produce acetylene and
duce visible tight. phosphine gases in a self-igniting mixture.
This device burns for 45 min. producing a
Markers are used to identify a location, 9-in. flame. Railroad flares, called fusees, may
perhaps as a warning or to facilitate rescue. be considered either marking or warning
Markers can be active or passive, i.e., they are devices. These are made to bum tor relatively
a direct source of light or are merely observ­ long periods of rime (20 min or longer) and
able in reflected light. Signals are generally with intensities of several thousand candle-
active. They convey some form of intelligence power.
in accordance with a prearranged code. For
example, a red star might mean to hold Light sources used as signals are generally
position whereas a green star might mean to smaller than flares in size, intensity, and
advance. duration of burning3. The star, a common
signal, is like a miniature flare except that the
Both signals and markers have simitar de­ burning front is uniformly distributed about
sign features. Their visibility criteria are the the star rather than linearly as with flares.
same. The outstanding difference between Stars are ejected singly or in multiples of two
them is the length of burning time. Markers to five from aircraft or from the ground.

TABLE 3-4

TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF ILLUMINATING FLARES

Launched Burn Time,

Type From Example(s) Approx. CP sec Primary Use

Aircraft. Parachute Aircraft Ml 38 1,500,000 360 Target Illumination

Suspended Mk 45. Mod 0 2,000,000 210 Target Illumination
M8AI 350,000 165 to 195 Emergency Night Landing

Airport, Surface N.A. M76 600,000 300 to 420 Illumination for Emergency
Landing

Artillery Load, 6 in./47 gun Wlk 7,Mod 0 600,000 50 Target Illumination

Parachute Suspended 155 mm M485 Series 1,000,000 1200 Target Illumination
Howitzer

Cartridge. 60 mm M83A2 145,000 25 Target Illumination

Parachute Mortar
Suspended 4.2 in. M30 500,000 70 Target Illumination
Mortar

Surface Trip, Ground M48 110,000 20 Illumination of Infiltrating

Parachute Suspended Troops

Surface Trip. Fixed to M49 40,000 55 Illumination of Infiltrating

Stationary Tree or Stake Troops

Grenade Hand Mk 1 55,000 25 Illumination of Nearby

Areas

3-13
AM CP 706-188

LIMINAL TARGET DISTANCE, yd

•%&. <A>.

INTENSITY
LIMINAL TARGET DISTANCE, yd

Figure 3-8. V isib ility o f Signals

Ground signals arc usually shot upward and rological range on liminal (threshold) visibility
designed to operate at heights of from 600 to of light sources have been summarized in the
2000 ft. Most of the stars are free-fall devices form of a visibility nomograph shown in Tig.
that are ejected as snhmissiles and burn for 3-81. Effective use of this nomograph requires
about 2.5 to lOsec. The total weight of the considerations of the following factors:
star mixture seldom exceeds 0.5 lb. A few
stars are parachute-supported or rocket- (1) The light sources are assumed to be
propelled. point sources. Most of the currently used stars
fulfill this condition when viewed from the
3-2.2 VISIBILITY CONSIDERATIONS liminal distance.

Visibility considerations are used both to (2) The background brightness must be
determine the limits of already-designed pyro­ taken into account because it contributes to
technic devices and to establish the character­ the liminal distance. Determination of back­
istics that to-be-designed devices must have to ground brightness in advance is admittedly
operate effectively. The effects of source inaccurate by most technical standards. Con­
brightness, background brightness, and meteo­ siderable judgment is necessary to select a

3-14
 A M C P 706-188

TAeLE 3-5
conditions. Once again some judgment is
INCREASE IN ILLUlViINATION REQUIRED FOR necessary in the selection of the applicable
POSITIVE RECOGNITION weather conditions.
Field Factor
Applied to At this point we have all of the inputs
Threshold Detectability of required to determine liminal target distance
Candlepower Light Source in terms of intensity of the light source. The
nomograph of Fig- 3-8 may now be used.
1 Light source difficult to find even if However, one more consideration is required
location isknown. to make the information thus obtained useful.'

2.5-5 Light source moderately difficult to A field factor must be applied to these data
find iflocation isapproximately to allow for positive detectability of the
known and observer ison steady signal. Tibs factor, when multiplied by the
platform and has long time for
intensity of the light source determined for
search.
liminal conditions, permits use of the infor­
5-10 Light source easy to find under cir­ mation for field applications with more cer­
cumstances above. tainly. Table 3-513* lists the field factors
needed for various conditions. It can be seen
20-30 Light source easy to find under rea­ that if liminal conditions are used (field factor
sonable circumstances at night, for of 1), the light source will be difficult to find
example, search field no greater than even if the location is known. If the approxi­
)00 deg, observer can give hisfull mate location is known and the observer is
attention. Difficult to find inday­ stationary, a field factor of 5 to 10 permits
time unless observer knows where positive recognition of the signal. A Held
to look. factor of 100 to 150 makes the liminal signal
detectable at night even under adverse condi­
100-150 Light source can be found under
strenuous circumstances at night, tions and also under most circumstances in
and under most circumstances in the daytime.
the daytime ifthe search field isnot
too large. A number of basic signal colors is available.
These include red, green, and yellow in
addition to white. Flare color is important
proper value. Table 3-2 lists values of typical
when conveying a message but color also
ambient condition for sky brightness. Note
plays a role in the transmission of Light7- The
that the units in this table arc millilamburt
human eye is more responsive to the green
while the nniis for sky brightness in the
portion of the spectrum than to the other
nomograph are ft-lambert. To convert milli-
colors. However, red tight is more easily
lambert to ft-lambert, the millilamberts are
transmitted through the aLmosphere. This is
multiplied by 0N29. However, because of the
true to the extent that red emitting devices, at
inherent inaccuracy, nothing is gained by
the same emitting power, are more readily
making (his convulsion. We may consider
discerned that most other colors and under
miliiUmberts and ft-lamberts equal.
most circumstances.
(3) The meteorological range that is re­
quired is readily obtained from weather fore­ 3-2.3 HEIGHT CONSIDERATIONS
casts. The usual forecast reports visibility
values; they are three-fourth of the meteoro­ For signals that are projected from the
logical range. Table 3-3 lists visibility and ground or for those ejected from aircraft and
meteorological ranges for different weather observed from the ground, it is important to

3-15
A M C R 705-188

determine the height at which the Hare ignites h in g e p in

and to consider how far the observer can see COTTER PIN
Oris flare. To accommodate for the curvature p r im e r

ol the earth, both the height of the observer ' STRIKER

and the height of the light source must be RELEASE
LEVER
considered1. Assuming no obstructions, as
would be the case on the ocean or on a ELEMENT
prairie, the limiting range for direct line of
si gh t is EJECTIO N CHARGE

-v = 1.325 (!I + h), mi (3-91

he re QUICKMATCH
x = limiting range for direct line of STAR
sight, mi

H = height of the signals, ft CASE

h = height of the observer, ft

SUSPENSION CABLE
Applying this equation to a star 100 ft in . parachute’
the air observed by a man with his eyes 5 ft
off the ground results in a limiting direct line CLOSING CAP
of view distance of 139 mi. This value
represents a limiting condition, but does not Figure 3-9. Aircraft Illumination Signal, iVfk 6
imply that a man could actually see a flare
from this distance nor that signals are de­ ignites the 3-sec delay element. At the end of
signed for this criterion. this delay, the ejection charge fires, propelling
Lhe lower portions of the signal skyward and
In most instances there are obstructions to igniting Lhe quickmatch leading to the star
line of sight. Trees, buildings, hills, and other composition. A! operational altitude, the
obstructions limit the range of vision. For this parachute opens and (he signal burns for
reason, it is desirable to plan on projection approximately 25 sec. The stars may be red,
heights greater than those allowed for flat, green, or while having the respective candle-
level ground. power of 2400, 1500, and 27,000.

3-2.4 TYPICAL DEVICES Pyrotechnic devices utilizing a dye are

effective for marking locations on water. The
A typical aircraft illumination signal is Marine Location Marker, AN-MARK 1 (Fig.
illustrated in Fig. 3-9*. This ground-launched 3-1Q4) is typical of this group. The device is
signal for attracting aircraft is designed to be ‘ v-*v % ut« iiAio
f msct ' ; ccwuunc
na*ci
ignited by hand, whereupon it is immediately
thrown into the water, where it will right
itself; or it can be placed upright on the
ground. To operate, the hand is placed around
the signal in such a way as to hold the release
lever against the body of the signal. The
DELAY FUZE
safety C O t t e i pin is pulled and the signal is --------------- -- IMC.r ■ H
then thrown or placed. Ignition is accom­
plished by activation of the primer, that Fig. 3-10. Marine Location Marker, AN-Mk 1

3-16
 AiViCP 70C 188

TEAR STRIP

Figure 3-11. Marine Location Marker, Mk 2

fired from a pyrotechnic pistol and produces for 45 to 55 min. and will reignite if
a green dye on the water surface. The primer extinguished by wave action.
ignites the propelling charge that projects the
inner case and ignites a 10-scc delay fuze. The 3-3 TRACKING
inner case floats on the water and the delay
fuze ignites the expelling charge, bursting the Tracking applications of light-genera ting
inner case, and spreading a bright green pyrotechnic devices vary widely thus re­
fluorescent dye over the surface of the water. quiring devices of different sizes and light
outputs. One of the most widely known
applications of tracking is in tracer ammuni­
The Marine Location Marker, MARK 1 tion. Ammunition employing tracers permits
operates on a different principle. Fig. 3-114 tlie gunner to follow the flight of projectiles
shows this device. When the tear strip is and determine proper aiming to inflict maxi­
removed, and the device placed in water, the mum damage to the target. Pyrotechnic light
water reacts with'the acetylene and phosphine sources arc also used to track missiles and
filler. The tiller ignites spontaneously in abou, rockets visually or by camera.
90 sec and then ignites the acetylene as it
escapes from the upper hole in the can. The Common small arm tracers are produced by
Hame produced is about 9 in. long, persists packing pyrotechnic mixtures into a cavity in

3-17
AIWCP 706-188

Die base of a bullet. The tracer composition duccd on sensitized material by some form of
allows tracking of the projectile because the radiant energy8. Photographs are associated
light emitted provides a sharp contrast to with pyrotechnics in (wo main functions —
background light. Determination of the light (1) pyrotechnics provide a light source for
intensity required for visibility may be made taking photographs, and (2) photographs pro­
using the criteria presented in the nomograph vide a means of evaluating pyrotechnic de­
for light signals (Fig. 3-8). The visibility of vices and systems using such devices.
tracer ammunition is generally better than
that of other types of signals because the Nondaylight photography began with flash
gunner knows where the light will appear and powders, which are in reality pyrotechnic
because he has repeated opportunities to mixes. Currently there are a number of
observe the light path. These considerations applications of photuflash cartridges and
permit use of a smaller field factor. bombs in aerial reconnaissance and a number
of applications in which photography is used
The necessary burning time for a (racer in evaluating pyrotechnic devices. Par. 5-2.10
composition is determined mainly by the discusses the aspects of photography that
range and velocity of the ammunition. Few relate to instrumentation and par. 3-3 de­
tracers are required to bum longer than the scribes some applications of pyrotechnic
maximum flight time anticipated for the photography for tracking purposes.
projectile unless they are also intended to
provide incendiary effects, an additional fea­ The general subject of photography, of
ture of many tracer projectiles (see par. 3-27 course, covers a much broader field than that
on combination effects). within the scope of tliis handbook. Ref. 8, for
example, treats the subject over a broad
The preferred color for tracer charges is red range, provides details on many general as­
because of the good transmission qualities of pects, and furnishes information on specific
red light but other colors and white also have processes and special equipment such as aerial
been used. At times more than one color may cameras.
be desirable, e.g., when a number of weapons
arc being fired at a single target. 3-4.2 SENSITIVE FILMS

Tracking flares are used for tracing the Essential to the process of photography are
paths of bombs or missiles. In this applica­ sensitive materials that convert light or other
tion, several approaches are used for visual radiant energy into tire permanent image
indications. The light output of the tracking desired. Film sensitivity may be learned from
flare may also be applied to instrumentation manufacturers or from military documents
including photography. that the photographer commonly uses.

The intensity and time needs for the fix tensive tests have been carried out to
illuminating charges vary' »n eacli application. arrive at a means for expressing the sensitivity
Intensities for most ot the tracking pyro­ of films in such a way that photographers
technics. in terms of visibility, may be derived may .use the film effectively knowing only the
from the signal visibility criteria presented in characteristics of the light source and the
Fig. 3-8. values of reflected light from the object being
photographed9. These studies resulted in ex­
3-4 PHOTOGRAPHY pressions for the speed of a film known as the
ASA (after the former American Standards
3-4.1 GENERAL .Association) speed. To arrive at the expres­
sion, a point was selected on the density-
Photography is the record of images pro- exposure curve where the slope is 0.3 times

3-18
 AM CP 706-188

✓
✓

/
,A X“ OlA to X

im /

r - o o o i

s » VQO
FOG LTV asa e r w m i t ix o rx * !?S

L _

«_C6 {m j w iu -«**«,»•*

Q = T R A IL ANGLE H = F L IG H T A L T IT U D E

Figure 3■12. Typical Characteristics o f Black 0 - CAMERA HALF-ANGLE h- 60MB BURST A L T IT U D E

and Whits Negative Materia!

Figure 3-13. Diagram o f Bomb Burst and
the average slope of a subject having a range Trail Angle
of log luminosities of 1.5. Tire process of
determining the ASA speed from this curve is The exposure index is one-fourth of the fdrn
quite simple. Refer to Fig. 3-121 representing speed.
a typical black and wiiite negative material.
T ie meaning of the curve will become clear 3-4.3 LIGHT SOURCE REQUIREMENTS
when considering the following facts, The
density of the developed negative varies with In order to provide a light source for
the exposure. The greater the light intensity­ photography, some facts must be known
time product striking the film, the darker about the subject, the camera, and the film.
(more dense) the negative. The main, S- In normal flash photography Lhe reverse is
shaped curve for this example has an area usually true; i.e., the characteristics of the
where only fog level is produced at exposures light source, the ASA li'-n speed, and the
of less than 0.001 meter candle-seconds (-3 distance from the camera to the subject are
log units) whereas on the upper exposure known and govern (lie f-stop setting of the
area, the density becomes greatly increased to camera to gain proper exposure of the Rim.
the point where there is little differentiation.
The shoulder is where this begins lo happen. In aerial photography, where pyrotechnic
light sources are predominantly in use, two
The ASA speed is now determined in the important conditions must be mel - (1) the
following manner. An average slope is deter­ bght source should be out of the Held of view
mined for the sensitivity curve, in this case a of the camera, and (2) the burst height of the
slope of 1 was considered lo be average. A pyrotechnic light source should be 0.6 of the
line with 0.3 of this slope is then fitted to the flight altitude. These parameters are depicted
sensitivity curve. The so-called sensitivity in Fig. 3-131.
point is that point at which the 0.3 slope line
becomes tangent to the sensitivity curve. The The intensity / required of a light source is
reciprocal of the exposure at this point IS the determined by
film speed. In the example of Fig. 3-12 the
exposure E is 0.002 m-c-sec, the film speed S , _ 6.4 Uf (X/)2
is 500, and the ASA exposure index is 125. 1 ~ -----:--------- * (3-10)

3-19
AM CP 706-188

where 175-lb photoflasli bomb in Table 4-8 with art

I - intensity of the light source, c intensity of 1.300 X 106 c. The light source
chosen could be more intense than that
Uj~ film exposure, m-c-sec desired. This will require a computation of
the f-stop of the shutter, using Ea. 3-10 with
X = slant distance from camera to target, the intensity of the chosen source substituted
in for /.

/ = I'-stop number of the camera, It should be pointed out that the success of
dimensionless the photographic mission depends largely
upon having the camera shutter open during
I = exposure lime, sec the time that the pyrotechnic fiaslt peaks in
intensity. This deals with the next subject,
The U. value in this equation is best i.e„ synchronization.
determined experimentally. However, it may
be chosen from characteristic curves of the
films available (see Fig. 3-12). The center 3-4.4 SYNCHRONIZATION
exposure value of the straight portion of the
curve is usually selected as the value for U-. In Synchronization is provided in a number of
this curve, the exposure level there is about ways. Modern devices allow for electronic
0.03 m-c-sec. control of synchronization. A double flash is
used in some instances where the first Hash
The main use for photographic pyrotechnic signals a photocell in (lie aircraft that the
light sources is for nighttime aerial photog­ main flash is about to ignite. The shutter
raphy. Let us determine the light required for opening and the light intensity of the main
a hypothetical mission. Suppose that an air­ flash charge thereby occur nearly simulta­
craft is Hying at an altitude of 500 m (1640 neously, allowing for optimum use of light
ft). A photoflash bomb is required that will from the main flash charge
provide the light source for photographing
objects on the surface of the earth from the A second method of aerial photography
aircraft within a camera angle of 30 deg. The allows for self-synchronization. This tech­
camera Juts an f/4.5 lens, and the required nique, known as open-shutter, provides for
exposure for the film is 0.03 m-c-sec. The opening the shutter prior to the actuation of
exposure time needed is 0.01 sec. Lhe photoflash bomb or cartridge. The open-
shutter technique is Limited to events having
Substituting these parameters into \q 3-10 tow levels of background light.
the required light intensity is
To reduce this method to a mathematical
_ 6.4 X 0.03 X (500 X see 30° X 4,5)2 expression, .q. 3-10 can be rearranged as
1 U.0! Follows

= 130 X 106 c
J I(t)dt = 6.4 U‘ H)
Examining the characteristics of photoflash
bombs from any one of a number of possible The difference is that the left-hand term
sources (e.g.. Ref. 1), we see that a number of includes the intensiry-time function as art
devices have the required peak intensity. AH integral. Often this integrated value is tabu­
six types of the T9E7, for example, have the lated for pyrotechnic light producers in terms
required light output, the least intense being of integral light in (he units of millions of
550 X 106 c. Note also the example of the candiepowerseconds' (see Eq. 2-6).

3-20
 A M C P 706-188

3-5 SIMULATION (4) Adequate delay of burst to achieve

proper altitude.
Simulation is the act of producing the
effects of an event without duplicating the Other simulators employing light as a part
event. In the case of military weapons, simula­ of their action include those for ground burst
tion may be brought about for two main (Like the Ml 15 that is similar to the air-burst
purposes, for training and for psychological simulator), booby trap flash simulators (like,
purposes. Normally, simulators do not make the Ml IT), booby trap illuminating simu­
use of the full battlefield effects of a weapon lators (like the Ml 18), and gunflash simu­
nor is their cost generally as great as that of lators (like the M110).
the item for which the effect is being pro­
duced, although cost is not the primary Target effects on light producing simulators
consideration3. depend to a large extent upon timing con­
ditions desired.
Most often simulators mimic battlefield
sounds, flashes, and lights produced by service Each type of simulator requires consider­
ammunition. In training use, they condition
able study of the effects that are to be
troops for battle without the exposure to the
reproduced. For Light producers, the influence
hazard of handling live ammunition.
is mainly that of vision along with association
Air-burst simulators provide a flash of light of what is seen with the circumstances sur­
to simulate the airburst of artillery rounds. rounding the vision. If, for example, troops
The light is accompanied by a sound report, know they have no artillery in the area but
Air-burst simulators may be fired from pyro­ suddenly see and bear air bursts in the
technic pistols or from hand projectors. Gen­ vicinity, the troops will believe that enemy
erally, a minimum firing angle is specified for activity includes artillery after aJ). The tide of
the launcher so that functioning will occur at battle could be changed merely by simulation
an altitude sufficient to prevent injury to of artillery air bursts, perhaps by a very
troops. Their main target effects are'.123 limited force.

(1) Simulation of an air-bursting projectile Target effects on light producing simulators

by light and sound production depend to a large extent upon the timing
conditions desired. Visibility criteria of sim­
(2) Minimum production of fragments ulators are nearly the same as those for light
sources in general. These criteria are discussed
(3) Convenient means of projection in par. 3-2. See also Ref. 1.

SECTION II I SIBLE LIGHT

3-6 IR RADIATION manifold in specific situations but may be

summed up as follows:
3-6.1 GENERAL
(1) Radiation occurs in portions of the
Infrared (IR) radiation has become in­ electromagnetic spectrum not visible to the
creasingly important in recent years for such unaided eye.
applications as signaling and decoying. The
real advantages of infrared radiation are (2) Temperatures normally associated with

3-21
 A M CP 706-188

radiation in the IK spectrum are lower than 3-6.3 IR T A R G E T S

simitar sources producing visible light.
The characteristics of many targets pro­
(3) Radiation is capable of greater penetra­ ducing IR radiation are described in Ref. I I.
tion of fog, smoke, and small particulates. Re-entry vehicles cause fR in the shock-
heated air in front of the body, the vehicle
Some advantages are immediately seen in surface, ablation product, and the wake. The
pyrotechnic applications, perhaps many of body and its ablation are primary sources, Jet
them not yet fully utilized. Signals, markers, aircraft radiate IR from engine components
and warning devices show promise when (the turbine and exhaust), exhaust gases,
operated in the inlrured region of the spec­ aerodynamicajly heated surfaces, and from
trum. These would be detectable only to reflected sunlight.
persons properly equipped to receive energy
at the proper wavelength. Many targets exhibit differences in day-to­
night conditions that are of interest to ob­
Another important military use of infrared servers. Tanks, trucks, and industrial centers
radiation rests in the detection of objects have [R hoi spots that can be detected.
higher in temperature and/or emissivity than
(heir surroundings. Advances have been made Simulation of these targets by pyrotechnic
in techniques to accomplish this task to the measures in the event of attack could intro­
point where human beings have been observed duce confusion to the attacking force.
in a forest background10. This detection
capability has nothing to do with pyro­ 3-7 TRACKING
technics, however, pyrotechnic sources when
properly designed and used, can effectively In tracking applications, an IR scanner may
mimic the radiation produced by military be used to depict the position of a target
targets11. emanating an IR signal. The signal may be
implanted to provide intentional radiation in
3-6.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR IR PYRO­ the IR spectrum or it may be inherent in the
TECHNIC DEVICES object being observed.

It is generally believed that sources pro­ IR scanners of various types have been
ducing white light from high temperature developed to yield a relative position of a
flames or incandescent sources are good target. Scanner type, requirements, and sensi­
sources of IR energy' 1. This is not necessarily tivity are discussed in another handbook11.
true. Radiation does not depend exclusively Passive scanners for thermal imaging frequent­
upon temperature, but" also upon emissivity. ly use mechanical scanners operating in wave­
One example indicative of high temperature lengths around 10 microns but wavelengths in
and low emissivity are pyrotechnic reactions the 3- to 5-micron region are also used.
producing metal or metal oxide particles at
high temperatures which often produce, less Most scanning devices operate in such a
radiation in the IR than lower temperature way that a field is dissected by mechanical
reactions. Similarly, some gaseous reactions searching of specific sections in much the
are poor IR radiators even when the reactions same manner as a television camera searches
proceed at high temperature. an area. Some arrangement provides for a
sweep horizontally and vertically with a single
Recently, the most efficient IR flare pro­ sensor receiving radiation from one portion ol
duces solid exhaust particles that have high the entire field of view of the scanner at a
emissivity throughout the spectrum. time. The display is synchronized with the

3-22
 A M C P 706-188

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FRO M A C O PY R IG H T E D KOOAK P U B LIC A T IO N

Figure 3-14. The Photographic Active Regions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum

area observed by the sensor; and the observa­ about 1350 mp. However, with most IR
tion of an IR source in the field of view photography the range is from 700 to 900
causes a difference in the display. The system mp. Emulsions for IR photographs extending
is normally passive, i.e., it radiates no energy to longer wavelength would need to be
but merely receives whatever IR signals are continually cooled and even camera tempera­
present. ture and body temperature would fog the
film. Alternative schemes for IR photography
Scanners are used most frequently to ob­ are made possible by the use of converters
serve objects unintentionally producing IR that convert IR energy into the active area of
radiation. However, simply installing an IR the Film.
radiator on a target to be tracked constitutes
a tracking capability for the scanner. This 3-8.2 IR FILMS
phenomenon is of particular advantage where
clutter on radar or visible light make the latter Films sensitive to IR light may be obtained
means of tracking undesirable. in either black and white or color. The ASA
ratings on color and on black and white films
3-8 PHOTOGRAPHY serve only as a guide to film sensitivity
because much of the radiation being used is
3-8.7 GENERAL neither visible to the photographer nor to the
exposure meter12
IR photography encompasses many of the
fundamental aspects of producing photo­ Since IR films are sensitive to other than
graphic images that are discussed in par. 3-4 IR radiation, it is important to provide some
and in Ref. 11. The difference between IR form of Filtering to minimize the effects of
and conventional photography rests in the radiation in other regions of the spectrum.
fact that IR photographs reach into longer Each film has specific character!sties and is
wavelengths for responsiveness of the camera covered by recommendations concerning ex­
and film. posure conditions, including the filters to be
used.
Fig. 3 -1 4 '2 indicates the regions of the
active spectrum for photographic purposes. 3-8,3 LIGHT SOURCES
Photosensitive materials do not cover the
entire infrared spectral region. The longest Outdoor light is rich in IR. Haze elimina­
wavelength recorded photographically is tion is accomplished by using IR Film with

3-23
A M CP 706-188

daylight as a source. Ruby lasers have been Electronic flash units provide an !R output
used to photograph moving projectiles with a that may be used for IR photography. Their
light duration of 0.2 /usee. IR efficiency compared with their visible light
is about the same as that of photoflash bulbs
and they have the advantage of relative
coolness, small size, and short exposure time,
Photoflash lamps make good IR sources for
photography because they produce more IR all important attributes.
light in the active range of wavelengths than Ambient illumination poses littie problem
do service lamps or heat lamps. Photoflash if synchronized photoflash bulbs or electronic
lamps are occasionally coated with an IR flash units are equipped with filters to pass IR
transmitting, dark red filter. These lamps are in the active range. Information on filters is
designated R and arc useful when bright, available from manufacturers of which Ref.
visible light must be restrained. 13 is typical.

SECTION III SMOKE

3-9 MARKING, SIGNALING, AND WARN­ (4) Volume—quantity of smoke emitted.

ING

Smoke devices are used in much the same 3-9.1 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
manner as light devices for marking, signaling, SMOKE
and warning except that smoke devjces are
more efficient in daytime operations. For a
discussion of the differences among marking, 3-9.1.1 PARTICLE SIZE
signaling, and warning devices, see par. 3-2 l.
The value of a military smoke, regardless of
Smokes for signaling or marking must be its use, is related to the scattering reflection
clearly distinguishable from other smokes and absorption of incident radiation by small
(and other clouds) produced for different suspended particles. The number, size, and
uses. Hence, colored smokes are usually em­ nature of these particles depend upon the
ployed for this purpose because white, gray, smoke agent, the particular ammunition, and
and blanket smokes are very limited as signals. the method of release. Meteorological con-
In addition, the use of several different colors ditions-such as humidity, wind speed, wind
allows more information to be sent and direction, and air stability-affect the density,
results in a clearer distinction between the persistency, and subsequent behavior of the
smoke signals and a varying background. smoke cloud.
Important characteristics of a colored smoke
include1: A smoke is a suspension in a gaseous
medium-such as the atmosphere—of small
(1) Visibility—condition under which the particles that have a relatively low vapor
smoke cloud can be seen and the color pressure and that settle slowly in a gravity
recognized. field. Particle sizes ranging from 0.01 to
perhaps 5.0 microns in diameter in a gaseous
(2) Duration—time period over which suspension are classified as smokes. Colored
smoke is produced by pyrotechnic ammuni­ smokes are composed of extremely small,
tion. primary particles of approximately 0.2
micron in diameter which coagulate into
(3) Persistence-total time during which a irregular filaments that may reach :> length of
smoke cloud is visible. several microns1.

3-24
 AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 3-6

SOME DYES WHICH HAVE BEEN USED IN BURNING-TYPE COLORED SMOKE MUNITIONS

Dye(s) Dye(s)___________
Red Smoke: Orange Red Smoke:
9-diethylamino-7-phenyl-5-benzo (a) phenazinene. 1-(4-nitrophenyla2o)-2-naphthol
Also known as 9-diethylamino rosindone
t methylam inoamhraquinone Yellow Smoke:
1- (2-methoxyphenylazo)-2-naphthol Auramine hydrochloride
2- quinolyl-2-indandione 1.3 (Rhodamine B) plus l-(4-dlmethytaminophenylazo)-2-naphihol
1-(4-phenylazo)-2-naphthol l-(4-phenylazo)-2-naphthol (Sudan I)pluseither
2-aminoanthraquinone plus 1-methylaminoantbra- auramine hydrochloride or quinophthalone
quinone (quinoline yellow)
0 tolylazo o tolylazo/i-naphthol (Sudan IV); plus N,N-dimethylp-phenylazoaniline
2quinotyl-2-'rndandione-t,3 (Rhodamine B);
plus auramine hydrochloride Slue Smoke:
T(tolylazoxylylazo)-2-naphthol l-hydroxy-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
Indigo
Green Smoke: 1-amino-2-bromo-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
1.8-di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone 1-amrno-2-methyl-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
1.4- di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone (Alizarin Sapphire, Blue R. Base)
1■methylamino-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone plus 1.4- dimethylaminoanthraquinone
auramine hydrochloride l-hydroxy-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
1.4- di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone plus 1-methylamino-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
dimethylaminoazobenzene N-(p-dimethylaminophenyl)-1,4-
1.4- di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone plus naphtholquinonimine
auramine hydrochloride
1.4- di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone with Violet Smoke:
quinophthalone (quinoline yellow) 1.4- diaminoanthraquinone
1.4- diamino-2,3-dihydroanthraquinone
Orange Smoke: 1.5- di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
1-ammoanthraquinone l-methylamino-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone plus
1-amino-8 chloroanthraquinone plusquinizarin 2 qumolyl-2-indandione-1,3 (Rhodamine B)
1(4 phenylazo)-2-napbthol 1-methylamino-4-p-toluidinoanthraquinone plus
9.10 dianilinoanthracene plus phthaloperinone 1,5-di-p-toluidinoanthraquinone
1-(4-phenylazo)-2-naphthol plus, 9,10-
dtanilinoanthracene

3-9.1.2 VISIBILITY server or if the cloud is dilute or of too small

particle size.
The visibility of smoke clouds depends
upon the light scattering ability of the smoke
clouds and upon reflection in the direction of
the observer. The illumination of the cloud Contrast requirements for smoke clouds are
and its contrast against a background are of about the same as those for other illuminated
primary importance in visibility. With respect targets as discussed in par. 3-1.2. High winds
to colored smokes used for signaling, the use have a definite adverse effect on the visibility
of color can be deceptive. At low levels of of smoke clouds because they disperse the
illumination, there is a shift in the color cloud rapidly. For more detailed information
observed if the cloud and the light source are about the travel and persistence of smoke
viewed in the same direction from the ob- clouds, see Ref. I.

3-25
AMCP 706-188

TABLE 3-7

TYPICAL SMOKE COMPOSITIONS

Typical
Type Com position, % A pplication Devices

W HITE:
HC-Type C Hexachloroethane 45.5 Screening Smoke pots
Zinz Oxide 47.5 and Smoke bombs
A lu m inu m (grained) 7.0 Signaling Grenades
M odified HC Hexarhlorobenzene 34.4 Screening Smokes
Zinc Oxide 27.6 and projectiles
N H 4 CIO 4 24.0 Signaling
Zinc Dust 6 .2

Laminae w/catalyst 7.8

M odified HC Dechlorane 33.9 Screening Smoke
Zinc Oxide 37.4 and projectiles
NH 4 CIO 4 20.5 Signaling
Laminae w/catalyst 8 .2

Plasticized White W hite Phosphorus 65.0 Screening Chemical

Phosphorus (PWP) Plasticizer 35.0 (antipersonnel) m ortar projectiles
(Neoprene 100 parts)
(Carbon 75 parts)
(Zylene 44 parts)
(Litharge 15 parts)

B LA C K:
KCIO 3 (200 mesh) 52.0 Screening Grenades, etc
Anthrancene (40 mesh) 48.0

COLORED:
Red D ye-M IL D-3718 40.0 Signaling Navy floating
KCIO 3 24.0 d r ift signal
N aH C 0 3 17.0
Sulfur 5.0
Polyester resin 14.0
Red 1-methylamino (A Q )* 45.0 Signaling Rocket type
1,4-di-p-toluidino (A Q )* 3.0 parachute
KCIO 3 (23p) 35.0 ground
Sugar, fine (11 m ) 17.0 signals
Red l-(m ethoxyphenylazo)- A ir marker 90 mm Red
2 -naphthol 80.0 Marking marker
NaCI 2 0 .0 ground targets projectile
Red Dye (R) 40.0
KCIO 3 28.0 Signaling Improved
(plastic) N aHC0 3 23.0 grenade
Sulfur 5.0 fillings

P olyvinyl acetate in
ethyl acetate 3.0

* (A Q )—A nthraquinone

3-26
 AMCP 706-188

TABLE 3-7 (Cont'd)

Typical
Type Composition, % Application Devices

Yellow Benzanthrene 32.0 Signaling Rocket type

Indanthrene GK 15.0 parachute
K C I0 3 (23 m ) 30.0 ground
Sugar, fine (1 1m) 2 0 .0 signals
NaHC0 3 (20 m) 3.0
Yellow Auramine Hydrochloride 40.0 A ir marker, etc. 90 mm yellow
NaCI 60.0 marker projectile
Yellow D ye (Y ) 40.0 Signaling Improved
(plastic) KCIO 3 29.8 grenade
NaHC0 3 23.2 fillings
Polyvinyl acetate in
ethyl acetate 7.0
Green 1,4-di-p-toluidino (AQ )# 28.0 Signaling Rocket type
Indanthrene GK parachute
(golden yellow) 1 2 .0 ground
K C I0 3 (23m ) 35.0 signals
Sugar, fine (1 1m) 23.0
NaHC0 3 (20m ) 2 .0

Green Dye (G) 40.0 Signaling Improved

(plastic) KCIO 3 26.0 grenade
NaHC0 3 24.0 fillings
Sulfur 6 .0

Polyvinyl acetate
w /ethyl acetate 4.0
V iolet V iolet dye. Signaling Rocket type
Ml L-D-3691 47.5 parachute
KCIO 3 (25 m ) 28.0 ground
Sugar, fine (10 m) 18.0 signals
NaHC0 3 (20 m ) 4.5,
Asbestos 2 .0

Orange 8-chloro-1-amino (A Q )# 39.0 Signaling Grenades

Auramine 6 .0

KCIO 3 22.3
Sulfur 8.7
NaHC0 3 24.0

*(AQ) - Anthraquinone

3-9.1.3 COLORED SMOKES (4) Volatilization and condensation

colored material
There are four basic methods of producing
colored smokes14 :

(1) Dispersion of finely powdered, colored The first two methods are not satisfactory
materials because they give smokes of small volume and
dull color. The last two methods are feasible
(2) Chemical reactions resulting in the only if the coloring material is an organic dye.
formation of colored particles In general the anthraquinone dyes have
proved to be superior in producing colored
(3) Detonation of an explosive, thereby smoke clouds1. Table 3-61 lists some of the
scattering colored material more satisfactory dyes.

3-27
 The colors that are the most perceptible TABLE 3-8
against the various backgrounds and display
optimum visibility at a considerable distance TOTAL OBSCURING POWER OF
are red, green, yellow, and violet. Methods to WHITE SMOKES
measure the quality of a colored smoke
include mere observation or comparison to Chemical TOP, ft3/lb
color charts and colorimeters. Typical smoke 4600
While Phosphorus
mixtures, including some white and black TiCU rNHj 3030
smokes, are shown in Table 3-7'. Most of the so, 3000
colored smoke mixtures that have been FS 2550
used-with the exception of the yellow smoke HCI + NH, 2500
mixture containing auramine—are satisfactori­ • HC Mixture 2100
ly insensitive to friction and impact under SICL + NH, 1960
normal loading conditions. Yellow smoke FM 1900
mixtures containing auramine are impact- Oleum 1890
sensitive and require more care in handling SnCU I860
and loading. PCI, + NH, 1600
PCI, + NH, 1800
HCISO, + NH, 1600
Colored smoke mixtures are non toxic
SiCI4 1500
under ordinary field concentrations. In gener­ HCISO, 1400
al. toxic materials should not be employed as BM Mixture 1400
ingredients in signaling devices. Therefore, 8erger Mixture 1250
before experimentation with a particular dye FM i-1,2-Dichloroethane 1235
is undertaken, it is important to gain all SO,C[2 1200
available information pertaining to the poten­ Cl, + NH, 750
tial hazards involved in its use. AsCl3 460
Type-S Mixture 460
Crude Oil 200
3-9.1.4 TOTAL OBSCURING POWER
3-9.2 TYPICAL DEVICES
The total obsctmng power (TOP) (ft2 lb'1)
of a smoke is oljiained by multiplying Lhe Ammunition such as hand grenades, mortar
volume (ft3) of smoke produced per pound of and artillery projectiles, float signals, rockets,
material and i he reciprocal of the smoke layer and bombs are used with colored smoke
(ft) necessary to obscure the filament of a
40-W Mazda lamp1s . The TOP for some white TABLE 3-9
smokes, at low altitudes where atmospheric
constituents are plentiful, is shown in Table WEIGHT OF SMOKE AGENTS REQUIRED
3-8’ . TO PROOUCE 1.000 (t3 OF
STANDARD SMOKE
The so-called “standard smoke” is a smoke
of such a density that a 25-candIepower light Compound oz
is just invisible when observed through a layer
100 ft’ . Table 3-9’ compares some white Phosphorus 0.060
smoke agents at low altitude in terms of the FM + NH, 0.090
SO, 0.094
weight of smoke agent required to produce
FS 0.110
1000 ft3 of standard smoke. The importance HC Mixture 0.120
of atmospheric constituents is illustrated in FM 0.150
Table 3-101 where the weight of smoke per Oleum 0.151
unit weight of smoke agent is tabulated. Crude Oil 2.000

3-28
 AMCP 706-188

T A B L E 3-10
mixtures for signaling purposes. Fig. 3-1S1
illustrates a canister containing the smoke
WEIGHT OF SMOKE PRODUCED PER UNIT
WEIGHT OF SMOKE AGENT AT composition that is ejected from the pro­
75% RELATIVE HUMIDITY jectile when the fuze functions. Table 3-1 l 1
outlines the characteristics of typical colored
Ageni Amount smoke devices of the ejection-type. Fig. 3-16'
is an illustration of a colored marker pro­
Fog Oil 1.0 (does not produce jectile.
aqueous solutionl
Zinc Chloride 2.5 (water vapor absorbed) Five different colored smoke compositions
Ferric Chloride 3 t(water vapor absorbed) with burning rates of 2-3 in. mm'1 were
Aluminum Chloride 5.0 (water vapor absorbed) developed and tested for the 2.75-in. low-spin
Phosphorus 7 1I
folding-fin aircraft rocket (LSFFAR)16. The
- SMOKE c a n is t e r s

EJECTION CHARGE

- EU2E

BASE
PLUG

Figure 3-15. 105 mm Colored Smoke Projecrile, M84

SMOKE MIX
pressed AT 1 8 . 0 0 0 PSl

EJECTION Ch a r g e
2 5 G GRADE A 4 B L A C K POW OER
JSG IN FA LLIB LE p o w d e r

- S T R a Wb o a A d washer

■PRESSURE P L A ft

■CELT PAD

F I 8 f K W A S nf h

SUN1ir VIr
Figure 3-16. 4.2-in. Colored Marker Projectile, Colored Smoke, E75

3-29
A M C P 706-188

TABLE 3-11

C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S OF T Y P IC A L EJECTIO N -TYPE C O L O R E D S M O K E D E V IC E S

4.2-in. Colored M18 Colored Smoke

Characteristic Smoke Projectile Hand Grenade

Dimensions, in. Overall—4.2 in. dia by 20 in. long 2.5 in. dia by 4.5 in. high
(approx.)
Canister—3.7 in. dia by 9.3 in. long Six smoke emission holes
(approx.)
Weight P rojectile-23 to 24.5 lb 11.5 oz make m ixture
Ejection charge—25 g Grade
A black powder 35 g infallible powder
Fuie M54 Time and SQ M 201A)
1.2 to 2 secdelay
Propellant MS
Loading Pressure 18000 lb /in 7
Smoke Duration 50-90 sec
Applications Time-fuzed for air-burst signaling Grenade is thrown or launched from a rifle
and/or base-ejected fo r marking ground or carbine by using a M 2 A ) Grenada Pro­
positions. Uses red, yellow, green or jection Adapter. Uses red, yellow , green, or
violet colored smoke for signaling, violet colored smoke for signaling
spotting, or outlining a position
V isibility Very good Easily identified at altitude o f 10,000 ft
against background of green and brown;
clearly seen at a distance of 3 mi.

smoke cloud was to be detected and identi­ generally produces a smoke cloud of 3-min
fied at a short range of 6000 m. Colors were duration.
red, yellow, green, violet, and blue.
The Signal, Smoke, Ground; Red, M62
The Land Warfare Laboratory (LWL) (Fig. 3-173) produces six red smoke streamers
Target-Marker consists of three AN-M8 White of about 250 ft in length down from the
Smoke Grenades in two concentric cylinders height of the signal’s trajectory. It is fired
with an airspace between the cylinders pro­ from a Rifle Grenade Launcher of the M7
viding a flotation capability17. It was used series attached to the MI4 Rifle. These smoke
primarily as a landing zone marker Tor air streamers may be seen up to 5 mi on a clear
mobile operations in Vietnam. The marker day. They may be expected to persist for

•cujsino re» Manx*

rj*

- Z CC.CHU6
WAP VMO»l I ‘■mini

Figure 3-17. Signal,Smoke, Ground: Red, M62

3-30
 AM CP 706-188

Figure 3-18. Signal, Smoke, Ground: White, XM166

about 20 sec in a wind of 5 mph. and improved color definition of smoke com­
ponents18. Maximum altitude of functioning
The Signal, Smoke, Ground: White, Xm 166 is 750 ft with 60-sec smoke Juration of
is a self-contained unit used by ground troops Smoke Parachute, XMI 50, and a burning time
to signal aircraft or to convey information to of 7 to 8 sec for the Smoke Streamer,
each other (see Fig. 3-18*). Tire fuze is X1V1153'8. Colors of smoke include green,
ignited by either rubbing the fuze match head red, yellow, and violet.
with the striker ring or holding a flame close
to it. Within 3 to 5 sec, the smoke pellet is 3-10 TRACKING
ignited, emitting a white smoke cloud that
lasts for 13 to 30 sec. The smoke cloud is 3-10.1 USE AND CHARACTERISTICS
visible at a slant range of 3280 ft from aircraft
flying at an altitude of 1000 ft. Optical tracking of projectiles, high speed
aircraft, and missiles both at sea level and liigh
The XM144 Hand-held Ground Signal altitudes is aided by the use of smoke
series was developer to eliminate major defi­ producing devices such as generators or
ciencies of the standard M l25 and T133 tracers. The ability to locate and track vehi­
Signal series. Improvements include flight cles along the flight path is optimized by
stablity, increased height of burst, elimina­ these devices, and the loss of significant data
tion of smoke and luminous trails at launch, is minimized. Because of the wide range of

3-31
A M C P 706-188

ALUMINUM CASE SAFETY COTTER PIN

TIRING PIN SPRING
BLOW OUT CAP
pla st ic n o se

WING NUT
/

Figure 3-19. Smoke Tracking Device, Mk 1 Mod 0

conditions encountered in the tracking of test Fig. 3-1 illustrates the Smoke Tracking
vehicles operating over a range of altitudes Device Mk 1 Mod 0 that is attached in pairs
and speeds, the requirements for optical by specially designed clamps to 250-lb Mk 86,
Cracking aids vary considerably. 500-lb 'Mk 87, and 1000-lb Mk 88 low-drag
bombs. It provides a violet colored smoke
There is no single smoke agent or gener­ display for a minimum of 25 sec and a
ating system that will satisfy all requirements. maximum of 52 sec. The aggregate weight of
Hence, numerous smoke producing methods the principal pyrotechnic components of this
are necessary. Each one is designed for a device is approximately 17.5 oz.
particular application and emphasizes certain
ideal characteristics. The ideal tracking smoke The red smoke tracking flare, Type 47,
should have the following characteristics1: (Fig. 3-2019) was developed at Picatinny
(!) Be efficient on a weight and volume Arsenal to provide _a_smoke-producing device
basis to aid in visual tracking during test flights of
high velocity missiles. The technical require­
(2) Must function at altitudes where pres­ ments were19 :
sure is low, and water vapor and oxygen
concentrations are small (1) Disseminate a copious red smoke for
90 ± 10 sec to permit tracking of a missile
(3) Must function over the military tem­ with a velocity of approximately 3000 fps
perature range and from ground to high
altitude (2) Be easily attached to the missile and be
streamlined
(4) Require little power for generation and
dispersion (3) Be capable of being ignited by the
missile launching circuitry
(5) Be as nontoxic, nonexplosive, and non­
corrosive as possible with regard to smoke
chemicalsund products.

3-10.2 TRACKING DEVICES

The pyrotechnic devices used for tracking
are designed to provide visual displays to
assist ground observers in tracking the flight
paths of missiles and bombs. Figure 3-20. Type 47 Tracking Flare

3-32
 AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 1-12

CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL OIL SMOKE POTS

Typw Device

Floating Training

Size. in. 13 high by 13 dia 5.7 high (including fuze)

by 2.5 dia
Venturi Orifice
Diameter, in. 0.0890 0.076
Weight, lb 14.5 (oil) 0.24 (oil)
12.0 (fuel) 0.22 (fuel)
Oil Agent SGF Wo. 1or 2 SGF No. 1or 2
Fuel Block Composition Fast-Burning Top M ix tu re
86% NH^NCfi 82% NH„ NO}
11% Charcoal 11% Charcoal
3% Linseed Oil 4% KNOj
3% Linseed Oil
Stove B u rn in g Base M ix tu re
82% WH„NOj
8% NH.,CI
7% Charcoal
3% Linseed Oil
Ignition Bouchon Fuze (M208) Bouchon Fuze (M201A1)
"spits" through venturi (similar to
ignitingquickmatch and floating type)
starter
Burning Time, min 12 ± 1.5 1.2 ± 0.25
Application Screening, used singly Grenade type.
or in multiple on land used for training purposes
or water
Obscuring Power Single pot fillsa 13,000­
ft' room and totally
obscures objects4-6 ft
away.

(4) Pass environmental and vibration tests. is obtained by the largest possible number of
the smallest effective particles10. Optimum
3-11 SCREENING size of the particles in a smoke cloud should
be 0.5 micron. Screening smokes are usually
3-11.1 PROPERTIES OF SCREENING white and can be used to 1:
SMOKES
(1) Conceal movements, equipment, and
A screening smoke is an aerosol consisting installations of friendly forces from ground
of very small solid or liquid particles sus­ observation
pended in the atmosphere. Individual particles
of the aerosol obstruct light rays by either (2) Blanket installations and friendly airc­
reflection or refraction. Maximum efficiency raft from attack

3-33
VAPOA GAS EXrT (1) Blanket screen—formed by the merging
of individual smoke screens

(2) Smoke haze—formed much the same as

blanket bul less uniformly dense

(3) Smoke curtain—a dense, vertical de­

ployment to conceal objects at ground level.

It is important that the maximum effect be

obtained per unit weight of smoke producing
material because of the large amount of
smoke required. Total weight required de­
pends upon the weight of the material avail­
able to form smoke particles and the effi­
ciency of conversion of the smoke producing
material into smoke particles having optimum
light scattering and obscuring capability. For

(3) Establish dummy screens for deception

(4) Communicate

(5) Form a thermal radiation attenuation

screen.

There are three types of smoke screen:

PACS5UAE
Tu6E

WOOO'S
wCTa u
PLUG

wooes
Oisx

Figure 3-22. Typical Oil Smoke Pot (Floating) Figure 3-23. Typical Oil Smoke Pot (Training)

3-34
 AM CP 706-188

Env Elopi
CONTAININC
MATCH
STARTER
MIXTURE

SMOKE
MIXTURE

Figure 3-25. HC Smoke Pot, Mk 3 Mod 0

(1) Availability of large quantities at low

cost

(2) Easy dissemination by inexpensive

equipment

(3) Persistence

(4) Effectiveness at low concentrations

Figure 3-24. HC Smoke Hand Grenade, AN-M8 (5) Non toxicity; i.e., noncorrosive to
equipment, nonirritating to eyes, throat, and
military screening purposes, the formation of skin
smoke particles by condensation is the only
practical way. The hot vapor is usually pro­ (6) Suilabibty for large-scale manufacture.
duced by volatilization or by chemical reac­
tions in which one reactant is normally a 3-11.2 SMOKE GENERATION
component of the atmosphere. Examples of
the three most widely used screening smokes 3-11.2.1 O IL SMOKES
are1:
The operation of a venturi-type thermal
(1) Oil smoke-generated by volatilization generator to produce oil smoke involves the
and condensation of oil atomization of the liquid, the vaporization of
the droplets produced, and the dispersion of
(2) Zinc chloride smoke-genera ted by the vapor in a stream of hot gases. A
combination of volatilization and chemical schematic illustration of a typical unit is
reaction shown in Fig. 3-211. It contains a fuel block
that, on burning, produces the hot gases, a
(3) White phosphorus smoke—generated chamber containing the liquid to be vaporized
by chemical reaction with the atmosphere. and dispersed, and a high-velocity vaporizer
tube in the form of a venturi. Characteristics
Specific properties of military smoke ma­ of typical venturi-type thermal generators are
terials used for screening include1: given in Table 3-121. Figs. 3-221 and 3-231

3-35
A M CP 708-188

T A B L E 3-13 T A B L E 3-14

VARIATION OF BURNING TIME OF CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL DEVICES

TYPE-C HC SMOKE MIXTURE USING HC MIXTURE
WITH ALUMINUM CONTENT
Characteristic Device
Aluminum Come nr. Burning Time,
% sec HC Floating
HC Smoke Hand Smoke Pot
9.0 55 Grenade (AN-M8I (M4A2)
8.4 64
8.0 65 Size, in. 5.7 high 13 high
7.5 71 2.5 dia 12 dia
70 84 Four smoke Three vent
6.5 96 emission holes holes in top
6.0 107 in top
5.5 147 Charge HC Mixture HC Mixture
5.5 200 Weight 19 oz Type-C 23.5 to 27.5 lb
Ignition M2D1A1 Fu2e M2G7A1 Fuze
plus ignition plus firstfire
mix and starter charge and
are examples of a floating smoke pot and a mix delay charge
training smoke pot, respectively. For informa­ Burning 105-150 sec 10 15 min
tion regarding total obscuring power and Time
volume of white smokes produced from oil, Application Thrown, 1.2-2 Screening
see Tables 3-8, 3-9, and 3-10. sec delay—may
be launched from
3-11.2.2 ZINC CHLORIDE SMOKES MJ4 Rifle or
carbine for
Zinc chloride is one of the most reactive screening or
markingT
agents used for generating smoke. Although
toxic, zinc chloride produced as a result of a
pyrotechnic reaction is widely used for the AN-M8 Crenade shown in Fig. 3-24. It
screening purposes2 1 was found that by the addition of a plastic
binder Laminae 41 )0 (American Cyanamid).
The smoke mixture, HC, made available the processing and stability were improved
during the early part of World War II, now but corrosion was still evident22.
consists of approximately equal amounts by
weight of zinc oxide and a chlorinating agent
such as he xachlo roe thane or carbon tetra­ 13-11.2.3 WHITE PHOSPHORUS SMOKES
chloride and a few percent of alumjnum. See
Ref. I for the chemistry of zinc chloride White smoke consisting of small droplets of
smoke production. Table 3-13' lists the varia­ phosphoric acid h;is been used widely for
tion of burning time of type-C HC smoke military purposes. Methods employed to form
mixture with aluminum content. Figs. 3-241 phosphorus pentoxide for military smokes
and 3-25' show typical devices using HC type include' :
smoke mixtures. Details and specifications for
these devices are given in Table 3-141. (1) Burning in air of white phosphorus

An investigation was undertaken to elimi­ (2) Burning in air of phosphorus vapor

nate some of the difficulties encountered in
manufacturing, storing, and functioning of (3) Burning in air of phosphine.

3-36
 AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 3-15 reducing the fragmentation of the phospho­

rus.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL DEVICES
USING PHOSPHORUS FILLING
Various methods for controlling the frag­
Characteristic Device
mentation of phosphorus have been tried
including the addition of steel wool, plastic
Projectile tubes, and wire screens. Alteration of the
WP Smoke Hand (T91 HE Water physical properties so as to produce a plastic
Grenade (M15J Marker) mass with low shattering characteristics is the
most promising. Plasticized white phosphorus
Size, in. 4-1/2 high 12-3/4 long (PWP) was developed for controlling the
2-3/8 dia 1-3/4 dia fragmentation and the pillaring of the
Charge 15 oz PWP 2.6 lbComp B. smoke2 3. The characteristics of typical smoke
Weight 0.661b
producing devices are summarized in Table
Stabilized Red
Phosphorus 3-15'. Table 3-16'* summarizes typical screen­
Ignition M206A1 Fuze M500A1 Fuze ing devices most of which use WP as the filler
HE burster Comp. B material. Refer to Tables 3-8, 3-9, and 3-10
Screening ScattersWP Explodes on for total obscuring power, smoke volume, and
Capability over a 20 yd impact—50 ft rate of smoke production per unit weight of
radius high; 50 ftdia; phosphorus compounds.
cloud duration
3 min—25 mph
wind
Application Thrown, bursting Used in 90 min
charge explodes, munliton
4-5 sec delay (white marker)

Phosphorus vapor is extremely toxic and

causes bone decay; however, it is not present
after the smoke is formed. There is little
effect on metals by phosphorus smokes.

White phosphorus is used mainly in burst­

ing type ammunition to produce smoke
screens. It is the most efficient smoke pro­
ducer on a weight basis, but screening effec­
tiveness in bursting type munitions is slight.
Smoke concentration many times that re­
quired for effective screening results because
most of the charge burns within seconds
following the burst. There is also a tempera­
ture rise in the cloud surrounding the burst
that makes the cloud tend to pillar. Two ways
to improve smoke producing effectiveness
are1:

(1) Reduce the heat of combustion

(2) Control the rate of combustion by Figure 3-26. WP Smoke Hand Grenade, M l5

3-37
 T A B L E 3-16

SCREENING DEVICES SUMMARY

Filler Delay, Length, Diam, Weight,

Item Filler Weight sec in. in. lb
Smoke Pot, HC Mk 3
ModO HC 32 lb None 9.5 8.5 34
Smoke Pot, SGF2, AN-M7
and AN-M7A1 SGF oil 10.5 lb 8-20 13.75 12.5 37
Grenade, Hand, Smoke,
HC, AN M8 HC 19 oz 2 4.5 2.5 1.80
Grenade, Hand, Smoke,
WP, M15 WP 16 oz 4-5 4.5 2.38 1.90
Grenade, Rifle,Smoke,
WP, M19A1 WP 8.48 oz None 11.25 2.0 1.49
Grenade, Hand or Rifle,
Smoke, WP, M34 WP 15 oz 4-5 .5.5 2.37 1.50
Smoke Pot, M6 (Formerly
SGF2 Oil Smoke
Candle M6) SGF oil 0.22 lb 2 5.5 2.5 1.82
Projectile,5 in./38-cal,
WP, Mk 30 Mods WP 7.1 lb NA1 20 5 54.4
Projectile, 5 in./38-cal,
WP, Mk44 Mod 1 WP 7.1 lb NA 20 5 54.4
Cartridge, 81-mm,
Smoke, WP.M57 and
M57A1 WP 4.06 lb NA 23 3.19 11.4
Cartridge, 81-mm,
Smoke, WP, M370 WP 1.6 lb NA 20.76 3.18 9.34
Rocket, Smoke, 3.5-in.,
WP, M30 WP 2.33 lb NA 23.55 3.5 8.90
Warhead, 5-in. Rocket,
Smoke, PWP, Mk 4 PWP 19.65 lb NA 36.67 5 50.84

1NA = nor applicable

Fig. 3-264 illustrates WP Smoke Hand oxjaes, or from mixing with atmospheric
Grenade, M l5. Operation is as follows. The moisture. It is often disseminated from air­
4-5 sec delay element is ignited when the craft spray tanks. Liquid FM is very corrosive
striker hits the primer. The delay element to metal if moisture is present1.
ignites the burster charge that bursts the
grenade body and scatters WP over a radius of
20 yd. It produces white dense smoke for FS smoke agent consists of a mixture of
about 60 sec. 45% chlorosulfonic acid and 55% sulphur
trioxide, and is slightly more reactive with
3-11.2.4 LIQUID SMOKE AGENTS water than FM smoke agent. It is also
disseminated from aircraft spray tanks. This
FM smoke agent TiCl4 is extremely reac­ smoke is corrosive and very irritating to nose
tive resulting from formation of hydrated and lungs1.

3-38
 T A B L E 3-17

PROPERTIES OF SMOKE AGENTS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
COLOR
OF o b s c u r a t io n PHYSICAL EFFECT ON
CODE SMOKE TOP DENSITY STATE TOXICITY MATERIALS DISADVANTAGES USES

Crude Oil - Black 2 5 0 -4 0 0 0.8 Liquid Nonirrilatmg. Noncorrosive Low TOP; clogs flues Naval Engines
non hazardous technique not appli­
cable to grenades.

Whice Phosphorus WP While 4600 1.8 Solid WP p art'd as cause severe Incendiary - Antipersonnel; Pil­ Grenades,
burns which heal very Acidic vapors laring; poor storage Projectiles
slowly. Smoke is non­
hazardous, nonirritating

Titanium FM White 1900 1.7 Liquid Irritates eyes and respira­ Attacks metals Corrosive, irritant; Aircraft Spray
Tetrachloride tory senses; liquid burns certain plastics liquid burns; clogs Tanks, Projectiles
like strong acid. and fabric. dispensing nozzles.

Sulfur Trioxide - FS Whiia 2500 1.9 Liquid Irritates eyes, skm end Attacks metals, Corrosive, irritant, Aircraft Spray
Chiorosulfonic respiratory iract. Liquid certain plastics liquid burns on Tanks, Projectiles
Acid burns like strong acid. and fabrics. exposed skin.

HC Smokes HC Gray-While 2100 - Sohd ZnClj is toxic. Mask Noncorrosive Slow rata of cloud G ren ad a,
should be worn in pro­ form ation, some Projectiles
longed exposures. hazard in prolonged Smoke Pots
explosure.

Red Phosphorus RP White 1000 - Solid Nonirritaiing, non­ Slightly corrosive Low TOP; slow cloud Navy Floet Sig­
Smokes hazardous formation nals; Projectiles

Oye/Pyro *- Red,Green - - Solid Nonirritating, non­ Noncorrosive Not a screening Signal Grenades
Signal Smokes Yellow, hazardous smoke; poor Navy Distress
Violet obscuration Signals

Oil Droplet SGF White " 0.85 Liquid Nonirn lating. non* Noncorrosive Generating equipm ent Field Generator
Smokes hazardous required. Technique Helicopter
not applicable to Aircraft Spray
grenades. Tanks

LWL Organo - White 3000 0.9 Liquid Nonirritaiing, non Noncorrosive Liquid blisters $k>n Grenades;
metallic Smoke leviimatedl hazardous Projectiles

AMCP 70&-188
Act:.'!'. Aircraft Spray
Tanks
6£~e
 been developed to dispense the LWL liquid
smoke agent that provides improved perfor­
M 2 0 I FUZE
mance over devices presently being used.
Table 3-1725 compares the new smoke agent
with the more common agents.

3-12 SIMULATION

O' RING SfflL Pyrotechnic devices that produce effects

PROPELLANT designed to simulate the appearance of com­
bat weaponry are used in training exercises to
LWL SMOKE
AGENT
familiarize troops with battle conditions with­
out exposing them to the dangers of lethal
ammunition. In addition, some devices are
used in actual combat to mislead or confuse
the enemy. There are a number of these
devices whose primary effects arc sound and
RUPTURE O'SC flash but they also emit smoke.

Those devices which emit smoke include

N O ZZ LE a n d detonation simulators, flash artillery simu­
ENO CLOSU RE
lators, projectile air burst simulators, and
atomic explosion simulators. See par. 3-22.1
r SMOKE
rviT
for more detailed information about these
devices.

Care should be exercized in selecting the

smoke mixture so that the smoke cloud is
nontoxic and nonirritating to personnel. Par.
3-11.2 lists the smoke mixtures that could be

TABLE 3-13

SIMULATOR SUMMARY
Figure 3-27. Piston Smoke Grenade
Length, Diameter, Weight,
3-11.2.5 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN Item Display in. in. oz
SCREENING SMOKES
Simulator, Flash, 2 0.6 0.4
A new orga no metallic smoke agent has Detonation, Smoke.
been developed by the Army Land Warfare Explosive, Sound
Laboratory (LWL) for use from both heli­ Mk 2
copters and fixed-wing aircraft24. This agent
Simulator, Flash, 7.8 1.9 10.7
is superior to present liquid smoke agents (FM Flash Artil­ Smoke,
and FS) in the generation of high obscuration lery,Ml 10 Sound
smoke screens. The smoke cloud is also
nonirritating, nontoxjc, noncorrosive, stable, Simulator, Flash, 8.9 1.9 9.3
and less dependent on humidity and tempera­ Projectile, Smoke,
ture than either FM or FS liquid smoke Air Burst, Report
agents. A smoke grenade, Fig. 3-272S, has M27A1B1

3-40
 A M C P 706-188

used for this purpose. Desirable features of clouds (smoke) is produced by condensation
the devices include long shelf life, mass from the vapor phase and involves the uniting
producibility, minimum cost, and optimum of vapor molecules to form large particles1.
effect. Table 3-18' summarizes several of The two steps involved in the formation of a
these devices. dispersed phase by this method are:

3-13 RIOT CONTROL (1) Production of the vapor in a super­

saturated state
3-13.1 SMOKE GENERATION
(2) Condensation of the supersaturated
In riot control, agent smokes are produced vapor.
in much the same manner as in signaling. In
many cases, a vaporization process is followed The supersaturated vapor usually results
by a condensation process in which the agent from the cooling of a warm vapor or a
condenses to form the disperse phase of the chemical reaction. In either event, the excess
smoke. Agent smokes may be disseminated by vapor will condense to form the particles of
a vapor condensation process, a dispersion the dispersed phase. Condensation of a vapor
process, or a combined process. For smoke is facilitated by the presence of foreign
that is disseminated as a particulate cloud the particles. Ln many cases of military interest,
process usually involves the formation of the evaporation of the substance produces the
small particles of the dispersed phase and the supersaturated vapor followed by the mixing
distribution of these particles in the air. The with cooler air of the relatively warm vapors
physiological effectiveness of materials dis­ produced.
seminated depends strongly on the particle
size. While visibility of the smoke may or may 3-13.2.2 DISPERSION PROCESS
not be important, the volume of smoke and
its duration is important. It is also necessary The dispersion process involves the sub­
that the vaporization and condensation pro­ division of a solid or liquid into line particles.
cesses be efficient and produce a minimum of In the case of a solid substance, it may be
undesired changes in the agent dispersed. disrupted and dispersed into Fine particles by
application of energy, or the solid may be
3-13.2 FORMATION OF DISPERSED preground to the desired size and then dis­
PHASE persed into the suspending medium. In the
case of a liquid, energy applied to it causes
The dispersed phase can be formed in three the liquid to break up into small droplets. See
ways’ : Ref. 1 for more details.

(1) Condensation processes in which mole­ 3-13.2.3 COMBINED PROCESS

cules of the vapor unite to form the particles
of the dispersed phase In many instances, the dispersed phase of
smokes is obtained by condensation of a
(2) Dispersion processes in which the parti­ vapor phase that is formed by evaporation of
cles are formed by the breaking up of a solid the smoke producing agent. To facilitate the
or liquid material transfer of heat to and the removal of the
vapor from the surface of the agent, the
(3) Combined processes. smoke producing agent is often atomized.
Particulate clouds can be developed by the
3-13.2.1 CONDENSATION PROCESS atomization of a solution containing a non­
volatile or slightly volatile solute of a volatile
The dispersed phase of most particulate solvent.

3-41
 Figure 3-28. Cartridge, 2-WRD

3-13.3 DEVICES The M25A1 Riot Hand Grenade (Fig.

3-2917) is spherical in shape and slightly less
The "Handy Andy" 2-WRD Cartridge (E24 than 3 in. in diameter. The filling consists of
Riot-control, 40 mm, CS cartridge), see Fig. 3.5 oz of a mixture of magnesium oxide and
3-2826, is a pyrotechnic smoke projectiJe finely pulverized CN, An integral fuze with a
containing CS (o-chlorobenzylamalononitrile) 1.4- to 3-sec delay is installed in the fuze well.
that was developed to extend the range For functioning details, see Ref. 27. The
beyond that of hand-thrown CS grenades for radius of effectiveness of the g^s cloud is
use in riot-control situations. Of simple approximately 5 yd from the point of burst.
design, it has nonletha) characteristics, and is Tire gas from this grenade will cause tear
easy to use. 11 fund ions essentially as a formation.
hand-held or pyrotechnic-pistoHaunched rub­
bery projectile that disseminates CS on reach­
ing the target area. Tests performed from a
fixed installation al an elevation of 45 deg
showed a range potential of 189 to 353 ft.

The average CS vaporization efficiency of

the unit whenloaded with L I mixture was
90% and the average burning time 17 sec.
Optimum results were obtained on mixing,
handling, tilling, and Tiring the CS cartridge
with pyrotechnic mixtures containing CS in
formulation LI as follows16:
Components Parts by Weight
CS 42
Lactose,technical grade 20
Potassium chlorate, technical
grade 26
Kaolin 12
Nitrocellulose 3.6 Figure 3-29. CN R iot Hand Grenade, M25A 1

3-42
 AM CP 706-188

SECTION IV HEAT AND GAS

3-14 IGNITERS AND PRIMERS should be applied only to compare the per­
formance of initiators of the same type.
3-14.1 INITIATIO N
3-14.1.2 ELECTRIC INITIATORS
3-14.1.1 THE INITIATIO N PROCESS
Hot bridgewire electric initiators are the
Explosive materials are initiated when ener­ simplest and most direct illustrations of initia­
gy of an externally applied stimulus is trans­ tion by heat. Since a bridgewire can be
formed into heat. The view that nonuniformi­ measured, its volume, heat capacify, and
ty of heat distribution is essential to the usual resistance can be calculated. Since it is further
initiation process has been called the “hot possible to generate electrical pulses and
spot’’ theory of initiation. In explosive initi­ currents of accurately known characteristics,
ators, the energy available is concentrated by these can be combined with the bridgewire
the use of small-diameter firing pins and, in characteristics to obtain accurate estimates of
electrical devices, by dissipating the energy in power, energy, and temperature.
short and highly constricted paths. The addi­
tion of grit to primer mixes serves a similar A large number of experiments has been
function. Not only is nonuniformity of ener­ carried out in which the interrelationships of
gy distribution essential to most initiation the variables that affect the operation of
processes, but it is an important Factor in the bridgewire initiators have been investigated.
growth and propagation of practically all These investigations have verified the follow­
initiation processes in military devices. ing principles2 8 :

The reaction rate inevitably reaches a level (1) The energy required to fire a hot-wire
such that heat is generated faster than it can electric initiator is roughly proportional to
be lost. From this point on the reaction is the volume of the bridgewire if the energy is
self-accelerating and quite rapidly becomes delivered in a short enough time.
explosive.
(2) Qoser analysis shows that the thresh­
Although a general equation that includes old temperature increases with reduced wire
consideration of all of the complicating fac­ diameter. This trend is less marked when the
tors would be completely intractable, the use explosive has a high activation energy (like
of simplified models makes possible solutions lead styphnate).
that contribute to the understanding of the
initiation process. However, simplification (3) The energy required per unit volume
must be used cautiously. For example, it also increases somewhat with decreasing
frequently appears that each explosive has a bridgewire length, End losses probably ac­
critical initiation temperature that is indepen­ count for tliis.
dent of dimensions. More detailed analyses
have shown this to be an approximation that (4) For a specific initiator design, tne
applies only to a specific class of initiators. energy requirement approaches a minimum as
Perhaps the most important implication of voltage, current, or power is increased. It
the foregoing is that the minimum energy increases indefinitely as power is reduced to a
required to initiate an explosive device is minimum.
nearly proportional to the volume of material
that is heated by the input energy pulse. It (5) The relationship stated in (4) refers to
must be stressed that (his approximation the average power of a firing pulse. Pulse

3-43
shape has a secondary effect that is not easDy
measured.

(6) The current requirement varies approx­

imately as the 3/2 power of the wire diameter
and inversely as the resistivity of the bridge-
wire metal.

3-14.1.3 MECHANICAL INITIATIO N

Mechanical initiation is accomplished by Figure 3-30. Charge Holders

means of a stab or percussion firing pin.
Mechanical initiation is more difficult to
analyze than electrical initiation. The most
important function of the firing pin is to but also for different models of tbe same
convert another form of energy into highly type. Initiation values are established in input
concentrated heat. As in electrical devices, the sensitivity tests28. For mechanical initiators,
energy necessary is nearly proportional to the ball weight and drop height are specified; for
amount of heated material. It has been electric initiators, applicable electrical pa­
inferred from experimental data that stab and rameters — such as capacitance, voltage, cur­
percussion initiation occur by different mech­ rent, or pulse width — are given. Input
anisms. Kinetic energy appears to be the specifications for specific initiators are listed
determining magnitude for stab initiation, in Ref. 29.
momentum for percussion.
3-14.2 INITIATIO N OF PYROTECHNIC
The standard firing pin for stab initiation is DELAYS
a truncated cone. Maximum flat diameter at
the tip is 0.01 5 in. In general, the higher the Pyrotechnic delays are ignited by an initi­
density of the explosive, the more sensitive ating assembly. Its purpose, whether it is
tire stab initiator. Because the denser explo­ mechanically or electrically activated, is to
sive offers more resistance to the penetration produce hot gases and particles that will
of the firing pin, the kinetic energy of the impinge on the delay column. Delays are
moving mass is dissipated over a shorter easily ignited by the flame of a primer;
distance so that a smaller quantity of explo­ however, slow-burning delays require an ig­
sive is heated to a higher temperature. niter. For more details on vented and
obturated delays and on delay compositions,
Contrary to initiation by stab, the percus­ see par. 3-21.
sion firing pin merely dents tbe case and
pinches the explosive between anvil and case. 3-14.2.1 VENTED DELAYS
Energy must be supplied at a rate sufficient to
fracture the granular structure of the explo­ The initiator assemblies of vented delays
sive. Firing pins with a hemispherical tip have can take several forms. In some instances the
been shown to give greater sensitivity than a assembly contains a charge holder that sits
truncated cone. Tip radius has little effect on directly on top of the delay column (conven­
sensitivity but is typically 0.050 in- tional), allowing very little or no free volume,
as shown in Fig. 3-30(A)30. Others use a
3-14.1.4 INPUT REQUIREMENTS chimney-type charge holder which may or
may not sit on top of the delay column but
Tire energy required for reliable initiation provides for a free volume in which to vent
differs not only for different initiator types gases (Fig. 3-30(B)). It also directs and concen-

3-44
 AM CP 706-1S8

Irates the hot gases and particles into a spit tube of artillery ammunition or like the
definite area. basket filled with low explosives as used in
rockets.
Another type of pyrotechnic delay assem­
bly frequently uses a configuration employing Pyrotechnic charges with ignition tempera­
a primer holder subassembly in which only tures of 500°C or less require little in the way
the primer is held securely. This subassembly of complicated ignition trains; a primer will
is then screwed into, staked into, or otherwise do. However, materials with ignition tempera­
held rigidly in the main delay assembly. The tures considerably above 500°C are more
igniter charge is made a part of the main difficult to ignite10. Many of the illumination
pyrotechnic delay column. Fig. 3-49 illus­ charges fall into this hard-toignik region and
trates the use of such a primer subassembly. usually require some form of energy amplifi­
cation in the form of intermediate mixes of
3-14.2.2 OBTURATED DELAY'S igniter composition.

When the primer or flash charge is ignited It is a rule of thumb that the igniter charge
in an obturated system, tire pressure in the bum at several hundred degrees higher ihan
enclosed free volume is increased. At first, the ignition temperature of the main charge.
this happens very quickly and then the Furthermore, the ignition charge must be in
pressure is increased progressively by gas intimate contact with the main charge. The
liberated by the burning delay column. production of hot slag or dross of the burning
ignition charge then assists in igniting the
As a result, the burning rate accelerates main charge over relatively large areas.
continuously and is usually nearly proportion­
al to pressure. Unless the free volume is At times it is difficult to recognize a
increased along witli the delay column length, particular component as an igniter, (n some
the delay time docs not increase directly. This pyrotechnic devices, a first-fire mixture is
requirement for a volume that is nearly used in place of an igniter. Having the same
proportional to the delay time limits obtu­ function as an igniter, the first-fire mixture
rated gas producing delays to about 0.4 sec consists of a readily ignitable mix that is
with a column diameter commonly in the loaded on top of the main pyrotechnic
range of 0.1 to 0.125 in. In addition to its charge. Such a charge is used in the incendiary
direct relationship to the free volume, the grenade shown in Fig. 3-34.
delay time of an obturated delay element is
related inversely to the gas volume and heat 3-14.4 IGNITION OF PYROTECHNICS
of explosion of the primer28- COMPARED WITH THAT OF SOLID
PROPELLANTS
3-14.3 IGNITERS
Ignition of solid propellants used in rockets
In a pyrotechnic ignition train, the igniter and guns is similar in many respects to
is the intermediate component between the ignition of pyrotechnic mixtures. When raised
primer and the main pyrotechnic charge. It to their ignition temperature, propellants
augments the flame output of the primer so as undergo preignition reactions followed by an
to ignite the main charge with greater reli­ ignition reaction. If conditions are favorable,
ability. Since many pyrotechnic compositions the reaction front moves at a nominally
can he reliably ignited by the flame of a constant velocity.
primer alone, igniters are often omitted. When
igniters are used, they take many forms. The Since some pyrotechnic compositions are
igniter could be a long cylindrical element relatively difficult to ignite, an ignition train
filled with an initiating explosive, akin to the similar to that used in other explosively

3-45
 roizc it,ct uwexi
Figure 3-31. Typical C a l. 50 Incendiary Bullet
Figure 3-32.
loaded items is used to produce the stimulus Typical 20 mm High Explosive
required to initiate the main pyrotechnic Incendiary Projectile
composition. The initiating composition, on
burning, produces sufficient heat to initiate used primarily against aircraft and fuel
an intermediate pyrotechnic composition that dumps.
forms the second part of the ignition train.
(2) Other incendiary munitions including
A composite propellant resembles a pyro­ bombs, grenades, mortar and artillery projec­
technic mixture in that it is an intimate tiles. These are used to initiate fires in
mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer. In general, buildings, industrial installations, ammuni­
for ail solid propellants, the temperature of tion, fuel dumps, and other targets in combat
the propellant a short distance below the zone.
burning surface is not affected by the com­
bustion of the propellant. In propagative (3) Special incendiary devices used for the
burning, as the burning surface advances, the destruction of materials and documents.
unburned propellant is heated, and the tem­
perature of the material increases to the point 3-15.1 SMALL ARMS INCENDIARIES
where the propellant decomposes into volatile
fragments. In some instances liquefaction may Small arms incendiaries are used primarily
occur prior to the chemical reactions that for starting destructive fires in aircraft fuel.
comprise the combustion process. For more They have been developed to meet the needs
details on the theory of ignition and propaga­ of the using services and now include ammu­
tive burning, see Ref. 1. nition up to 40 mm. The types include
incendiary bullets, armor-piercing bullets, and
3-15 INCENDIARIES high explosive incendiary projectiles. A typi­
cal incendiary cai .50 bullet is shown in Fig
Destructive fires are set off in a large 3-3 11. Unfuzed incendiary rounds up to 20
variety of targets by the use of incendiaries. mm are usually initiated by the heat produced
While aircraft, buildings, industrial installa­ when the metal nose crushes on impact.
tions, ammunition, and fuel dumps are among Ammunition, 20 mm and larger, is provided
the principal targets for incendiary attack, it with fuzes that initiate on impact. Fig. 3-321
has also been used effectively against person­ illustrates a typical 20 mm high explosive
nel, armored vehicles, and tanks. Incendiary incendiary pvojectile that is fuzed.
compositions and devices can be classified
based on their composition and use. Three The target effect in an aircraft depends
large classes based on their use are1 : upomthe amount of energy transferred to the
fuel. This is a function of the temperature
(1) Small arms incendiary ammunition reached and the characteristics of the
3-46
 AM CP 70&-188

Figure 3-33. 100-lb Smoke o r Incendiary Bomb, AN -M 47A 4

products of combustion, the mode of energy gasoline and 11.5 percent napalm thickener.
transfer process, and the efficiency with Napalm thickener is a granular base aluminum
which the energy is absorbed by the fuel. soap of naphthenic, oleic, and coconut fatty
Typical small arms incendiary mixtures are adds*.
listed in Table 3-19'. See Ref. 1 for further
details. Table 3-2231 lists the characteristics of
different sizes of incendiary bombs. A typical
3-15.2 INCENDIARIES FOR GROUND incendiary bomb is the AN-M47A4 (see Fig.
APPLICATION 3-3331), a 100-lb incendiary or smoke bomb.
It uses Igniter, AN49 (white phosphorus or
Ground incendiaries include that class of sodium filled) with Burster, AN-M 13 (TNT oi
munitions used for damage, mainly by com­ tetryl filled).
bustion, to ground targets. Various munitions
of this type include bombs, grenades, mortar Incendiary bombs are deployed from air­
projectiles, and artillery projectiles. craft and are designed for use against com­
bustible land targets such as warehouses,
The amount of energy from these incendi­ factories, docks, or storage dumps. They are
aries serves only to initiate combustion of the also used over water to ignite oil slicks. When
target in the oxygen of the air. All of these an incendiary bomb, equipped with a sodium
munitions, except those that are spontaneous­ igniter, impacts on the water, it bursts and
ly combustible, must contain an initiator. scatters burning gobs of incendiary gel con­
Three types of incendiary fillings are used in taining particles of sodium. The gobs of gel
incendiary bombs — PT, IM, and NP31. Table will float and the sodium will ignite spontane­
3-201 lists the composition of PT mixtures ously with water, thereby insuring the igni­
while Table 3-211 lists the composition of IM tion of flammable oil slicks. If a white
incendiary gels. Filler NP (oil, incendiary, phosphorus filled igniter is used, the scatter­
Napalm Type 1) is a mixture of 88.5 percent ing and the ignition of the gel takes place, but

3-47
 TABLE 3-19

TYPICAL SMALL ARMS INCENDIARY MIXTURES

IM-11
49% Potassium Perchlorate
50% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) 2% Calcium Resinate
50% Barium Nitrate
IM-139
1M-21A 10% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50)
<58% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) 40% Red Phosphorus
48% Barium Nitrate 47% Barium Nitrate
3% Calcium Resinate 3% Aluminum Stearate
1% Asphaltum
IM-142
IM-23 46% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50)
50% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) 48% Barium Nitrate
50% Potassium Perchlorate 5% Asphaltum
1% Graphite
IM-28
50% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) IM-214
40% Barium Nitrate 50% Zirconium (60/80) (lot6)
10% Potassium Perchlorate 25% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy
25% Potassium Perchlorate
IM-68
50% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) IM-241
25% Ammonium Nitrate 50% Zirconium (20/65)
24% Barium Nitrate 25% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy
1% Zinc Stearate 25% Potassium Perchlorate

IM-69 I.M-385
50% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) 49% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50)
40% Barium Nitrate 49% Ammonium Perchlorate
10% Iron Oxide (Fe503) 2% Calcium Resinate

(M-112 MOX-2B (High Explosive Incendiary Fillers)

45% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) 52% Aluminum Powder
5% Tungsten Powder 35% Ammonium Perchlorate
50% Barium Nitrate 6% RDX/Wax (97/3)
4% TNT (Coated on the Ammonium Perchlorate)
IM-136 2% Calcium Stearate
49% Magnesium-Aluminum Alloy (50/50) 1% Graphite

ignition of the gel on water is not assured31 . thermite. Ignition action is as follows; the
Burning gobs of incendiary gel will produce a fuze spits out a flame that ignites the first fire
temperature of 500° to 67 5°C at a height of 3 mixture. This mixture, talcing the place of an
in. above the flame over a maximum period of igniter, is shaped to cover the top of the
approximately 8 min. thermite charge so as to insure reliable igni­
tion of the entire thermite charge.
3-15.3 SPECIAL INCENDIARY DEVICES
The main use of special incendiary devices
Special incendiary devices are used for the is the destruction of safes and their docu­
destruction of various materiel. A typical ments or other contents to prevent their
incendiary grenade (Fig. 3-341) is loaded with failing into enemy hands. T ie M1A2 Safe

3-48
 AM CP 706-188

TABLE 3-20 TABLE 3-22

COMPOSITION OF PT INCENDIARY MIXTURES TYPICAL INCENDIARY BOMBS

Code PT-1 PT-2 PT-3 Overall

Assembled Filler Weight Filler Length,
Constituent Composition, Percent Weight, lb or Volume Material in.

Goop 49.0 30.0 - 4 0.6 lb TH3 21.3

Isobutyl methacrylate
polymer AE 3.0 - - 10 2.8 lb PT1 19.5
Magnesium (coarse) 10.0 10.0 30.0
(50/50 Mg-AI alloy) 10.0 500 174 lb PT1 59.2
Sodium Nitrate 5.0 8.0 6.5
Gasoline 30.0 44.0 37.5 100 421b PT1. IM. or 51.7
Petroleum Oil Extract 3.0 - - NP
(Bright stock) 10.0
GR-S (Buna-S 750 n o gal gasoline 138
synthetic rubber) - 8.0 6.0 (Fire Bomb)
Sulfur monochloride
(S2Clj) - 0.2 (add) 0.2 (add) 1000 112 gal gasoline, 168
(Fire Bomb) napalm

Destroying Incendiary (Fig. 3-3517), a modi- Incendiary Device, M2AI THII (Fig.
ficaiion of the M IA 1 T H I, is aiso used for the 3-3621) for destroying equipment is similar in
sole purpose of destroying cryptographic construction to the M1A2 but is smaller and
equipment. It uses the M2 IQ Incendiary Fuze has only two fuzes. It is designed to destroy a
and two floating Smoke Pot Fuzes (M209). single item of classified cryptographic equip­
The incendiary can be ignited electrically or ment. It is fitted with a M210 Fuze, a M209
manually by withdrawing the fuze safety pin. Smoke Pot Fuze, loaded with 8.5 lb of

TABLE 2-21

COMPOSITION OF IM INCENDIARY MIXTURES

IM IM IM
Code Type 1 Type 2 Typo 3 F-1416 F-1429 F-1431 F-1457

Constituent Composition, Percent

Isobutyl methacrylate
polymer AE (IM) 5.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Stearic acid 3.0 - - 1 .0 4.0 3.0 4.5
Fatty acids — 2.5 3.0 - - - -

Naphthenic acid - 2.5 3.0 3.0 - 1.0 0.5

Calcium oxide 2.0 - - 3.1 4.0 3.5 -

Causticsoda (40% solution) - 3.0 4.5 - ~ - -

Ammonium hydroxide
(27% solution) - - — _ _ 2.3
Gasoline 88.75 87.0 87.5 87.6 86.5 87.3 89.3
Water 1.25 _ - 2.3 2.5 2.2 -

3-49
 80DY

FIRST FIRE Figure 3-35.

MIXTURE
TH1 Safe Destroying Incendiary, M1A2

3-16 BATTERIES
THEHMITE

3-16.1 BATTERY TYPES AND REQUIRE­

MENTS

There are three distinct types of battery.

I. Live primary batteries that consist of

Figure 3-34. Typical incendiary Grenade
electrodes and aqueous electrolyte aJl in place
and ready to function when connecting the
thermite (TH1) and is ignited either electrical­ load to the terminals. The most common type
ly or manually. is the dry cell.
Tire M4 File Destroyer is intended primari­
ly to be used to destroy classified material in
filing cabinets provided with combination
locks. It consists of 44 oxidizer boxes, four
igniter boxes, and four racks. Fig. 3-3727
illustrates this incendiary. The oxidizer is
required because a closed file cabinet does not
contain sufficient oxygen to sustain combus­
tion. The incendiary is ignited electrically by
connecting Ml Squibs in each igniter box in
parallel to a power source. The oxidizer boxes
are made of celluloid and filled with approxi­
mately 26.5 oz of sodium nitrate. The racks
are made of interlocking links of heavy wire
that allows them to follow the contours of
the tops of the papers in the file drawer. This
arrangement keeps flie papers compressed Figure 3-36.
while they are burning27. TH1 Equipment Destroying Incendiary, M2A 1

3-50
 A M C P 70&-188

tbeir high chemical reactivity. On the other

hand, the systems stable at moderate to high
temperatures have inadequate power densities
at low temperatures. Without exception,
those systems that produce adequate output
at —40°F o t below deteriorate rapidly at high
temperatures. Since adequate output at
—40°F at least is required, a highly reactive
system must be used, with deterioration
controlled by using a reserve or secondary
power supply. Although storage life of a live
primary cell may be extended markedly by
storage at low temperatures, this would create
a serious problem in logistics, in maintaining
cold-storage facilities at depots and in transit,
as well as in routine replacement of overaged
batteries32. Live batteries, therefore, are not
recommended for pyrotechnic ammunition.

Secondary batteries have similar design

problems if only to a lesser extent. In
Figure 3-37. File Destroyer Incendiary, M4 addition, they are difficult to activate rapidly
and are too large in size. Hence, they are also
2. Secondary batteries that have their elec­ not recommended for this application.
trodes immersed in the electrolyte but may
not be capable of furnishing instant power to Reserve batteries, on the other hand, can
their load. Some types require charging to best fulfill the requirements. They are acti­
convert the surfaces of the electrodes electro­ vated rapidly and capable of withstanding
chemically to the proper composition for long storage without maintenance. They do
power delivery. A common type is the old- have the disadvantages of relatively high cost
style automotive battery. and one-time use capability.

3. Reserve batteries that have their elec­ 3-16.2 THERMAL BATTERY

trodes in place but the electrolyte is intro­
duced just prior to use. In the thermal type A thermal battery is basically a primary
reserve battery, the electrolyte is in the solid, voltaic cell of the reserve type. It consists of a
dry state between the electrodes. Tire thermal bimetallic electrode system, a fnsed-salt elec­
battery is made active by applying heat to trolyte, a heat source to melt the electrolyte,
melt the nonaqueous electrolyte. thermal insulation, and an initiating
system3 3. During storage, the electrolyte is in
While all three types of battery are used by an inactive solid state. When heat is applied to
the military, there are inherent difficulties the electrolyte (temperature of about 750°F),
with the First two types. The difficulty of the electrolyte becomes a liquid ionic conduc­
designing live batteries to meet all of the tor.
requirements is caused by the incompatibility
of the requirements with the properlies of Although the heat source for activation
electrochemical systems. Those systems char­ may be external, a complete thermal battery
acterized by high power density at low contains an integral source of heat that is
temperatures cannot withstand long storage at dormant until required for operation. One
moderate to high temperatures because- of way of providing heat is to surround the

3-51
AM CP 706-188

CHAM8ER
3-17 GAS ACTUATED DEVICES

A gas actuated device is one that employs

the energy supplied by the gases produced
when a pyrotechnic composition bums to
accomplish or initiate a mechanical action,
other than expelling a projectile. Gas actuated
devices are often called propellant actuated
devices (PAJO) and formerly were referred to
as cartridge actuated devices. The mechanical
tasks performed by gas actuated devices in­
clude switching, stroking, pin pulling and
positing, and cable cutting.
individual cells with a pyrotechnic material
that is ignited by a primer. The activation 3-17.1 TYPICAL DEVICES
time (the time for the electrolyte to melt)
varies from about 0.5 to 8 sec depending on Many gas actuated devices such as switches,
battery size; the smaller the battery, the faster dimple motors (see Fig. 3-3829), and bellows
the activation Lime. Thermal batteries can be motors are relatively small and contain the gas
designed with a variety of dimensions and producing pyrotechnic mixture as an integral
with different voltages and currents. Their part of the device. Others, such as catapults or
active life is about I0 min. They are inherent­ thrusters (see Fig. 3-3934), employ separate
ly rugged, withstanding all required shock and power cartridges. Tire cartridge contains its
vibration tests, and have a shelf life of own primer and booster charge and has the
approximately 15 yr. general appearance of a shot gun shell.

Tne thermal battery is the only power

supply giving assured operation over the Another category of gas actuated devices
military temperature range. It is widely used includes those actuated by.sources of gas that
in nonrotating and slowly rotating projectiles. have been generated externally by a gas
Current development effort is under way to producing device. The pin puller sIio w t i in
improve its capability in withstanding spin Fig. 3-4034 is an example of a gas actuated
forces, to lengthen its life within a small device with no self-contained gas supply.
package, and to further shorten its activation Details and specifications for existing gas
lime32. actuated devices arc found in Refs. 34 and 35.

Fiaure 3-39. Thruster, M 3 A 1

3-52
 AM CP 706-188

PIN

Figure 3-40. Pin Puller

3-17.2 METHOD OF OPERATION Cartridges are usually initiated mechanically

by a stab mechanism that is spring-loaded or
Basically, gas operated devices contain a pneumatically operated.
chamber of semifixed volume which, when
fUJed with a pressurized gas, is able to expand Gas actuated devices are simple devices
and perform work. The dimple motor, shown containing a minimum number of parts. They
in Fig. 3-38 for example, has a small chamber must be light in weight, yet strong enough to
adjacent to a gas generating mixture. Upon withstand the maximum pressure created by
application of a sufficient electric current burning the propellant they contain. The
through the resistive bridgewire, the mixture materials selected for use in these parts must
is ignited and the generated gases fill the be compatible with the propellant, igniter,
chamber to such an extent that the chamber and primer at the temperatures and in the
itself is forced to expand in order to accom­ functional and storage conditions to which
modate the gas. Thus, the dimpled end of the the parts are exposed.
device “pops” out. Tins motion is commonly
used to operate a switch. A bellows motor Standard parts should be used wherever
Operates in the same manner except that the possible, and when special parts are necessary
gas fills a sealed bellows that is capable of they should be designed so that they are
expanding a greater distance than the dimple manufactured easily. Wherever possible, parts
motor. A l-in. travel is common. should be made nonreversible (i.e., it should
be impossible to assemble a component back­
Larger gas actuated devices operate on the wards). Much time is saved by using existing
same principle. In some devices the chamber cartridges, details of which are found in Refs.
is behind a piston that is thrust outward when 34 and 35. Information on the thermochemi­
the chamber fills with gas (Fig. 3-39). The gas cal properties of gas generating pyrotechnics
for piston-type actuators is usually supplied (generally referred to as propellants) is con­
by cartridges that are fabricated separately tained in Ref. 36.
and placed in the actuators before rise or by
an external source of gas that is piped to the 3-18 GAS PRODUCING DEVICES
chamber. One advantage of using replaceable
cartridges is that the actuator may be reused. A gas producing device is one that gener­
ates gas. Many gas actuated devices (see par.
The duration of the power impulse pro­ 3-17) employ an external source of gas for
duced by the gas actuated devices varies from operation. This external source is a gas pro­
milliseconds for dimple and bellows motors to ducing device using a pyrotechnic mix. It
several seconds for large thrusters. Initiation differs from a gas actuated device only in
may be electrical, pneumatic, or mechanical. output. Its container is a chamber of fixed

3-53
 Figure 3-41. Mechanically Operated Initiator, Mk 9 Mod 0

I.I 35 i n . d i o m . O-SING FIRING PIN CARTRIDGE

Figure 3-42. Gas Operated Initiator, Mk 10 Mod 0

3-54
 A M C P 706-180

duration (more than 0.5 sec) “gas genera­

tors”, Both devices consist of vented cham­
bers containing cartridges and firing mecha­
nisms. Tire firing mechanisms may be operated
electrically, pneumatically, or mechanically.
While gas producers are designed primarily to
supply gas pressure to operate the firing
mechanisms of gas actuated devices, they may
also be used as sources of energy for operating
piston-type devices such as safety belt re­
Figure 3-43. Gas Generator leases, safety-pin extractors, and switches.
Initiators are used extensively in aircraft to
volume that connects to an outlet port which, operate the firing mechanisms of propellant
in turn, is connected via tubing to the gas actuated devices. They eliminate cumbersome
actuated device. cable-pulley systems and provide a more
reliable method of triggering. Initiators are
There are basically two types of gas pro­ often used as intermediate boosters in systems
ducing devices: ( l) short duration (usually where the gas actuated device is remote from
less than 0.5 sec) “initiators” and (2) long (he initiator. They are also used to introduce
a delay into gas actuated systems where
several operations must be properly se­
TABLE 3-23 quenced. A typical mechanically operated
initiator is shown in Fig. 3-413 5 while a gas
COMPARATIVE DATA FOR INITIATORS operated initiator is illustrated in Fig. 3-4235.
Comparative data for several initiators are
Chamber given in Table 3-233<l. Further information is
Weight. Volume, Delay, Peak Pressure*,
found in Refs. 34 and 35.
Model lh in.3 sec psi

MECHANICALLY OPERATED Gas generators differ from initiators in the

M4 1.0 2.4 2 600(12) duration of the pressure impulse that may last
M12 t.O 2.4 1 500(12) several minutes for a gas generator. Typically,
M3 0.9 2.3 - 1000(15) gas generators are used Tor catapults, ejectors,
M29 1.6 2.3 - 1000(15) cutters, removers, and thrusters. They have
M27 0.3 0.6 - 1200(15) also been used to supply gas flow to spin
T30E1 0.3 0.6 — 1200(15) turbines as well as for supplying pressure to
M30 1.1 2.6 2 5500(15) operate pumps that supply hydraulic pressure
M32 1.1 2.6 ! 1500 (15)
M8 2.2 43 - 1800 (30)

GAS OPERATED TABLE 3-24

M6 1.0 2.4 2 600(12)
M33 1.0 2.4 1 600 (12) COMPARATIVE DATA FOR GAS GENERATORS
M5 0.9 2.3 - 1000 (15)
M28 0.3 0.6 - 1200(15) Chamber Operating Operating
T31E1 0.3 0.6 - 1200(15) Weight, Volume, Pressure, Time,
MIG 1.1 2.6 2 1500(15) Model lb in.3 psi sec
M31 1.1 2.6 1 1500(15)
M9 1.8 4.3 - 1600(30) T3 25 100 2000 90
T4 30 50 1500 480
"Peak pressure in 0.062 in.* gage located at the end nf XM7 0.75 0.3 SOOT 0.9
length of ?>lS*2874T-4 hose. The number following the pres­
sure indicaies the length of hose in feet between the initiator
and the gage. t At the end ol 2 ft of MS-2874 1-4 hose.

3-55
to missile controls. Comparative data for gas pyrotechnic composition and an ignition
generators are given in Table 3-2434. An element. The characteristics of the complete
example of a gas generator is shown in Fig. gas producing device are determined by the
3-4334 design of the cartridge and the chamber with
its vents into which the gas expands. Com­
The heart of the gas producing device is the plete design details are given in Refs. 34 and
cartridge that contains the gas producing 35.

SECTION V FUZING AND TIMING

3-19 FUZES but which in the overall picture constitute a

part of the fuzing system.

3-19.1 PURPOSE OF A FUZE Inherent to the understanding of the pur­

pose of a fuze is the concept of the progres­
The word fuze is used to describe a wide sion of action of the explosive train starting
variety of devices used with munitions to with initiation and progressing to the func­
provide the basic functions of (I) arming, i.e., tioning of the main charge. Initiation, as the
sensing the environment(s) associated with word implies, starts with an input signal, such
actual use including safe separation and there­ as target sensing, impact, or other. This signal
upon aligning explosive trains, closing must then be amplified by suitable inter­
switches, and/or establishing other links to mediate charges until a proper stimulus is
enable the munition to function; (2) firing, obtained that will set off the main charge, be
i.e., sensing the point in space or time at it photoflash, smoke, or flare. The explosive
which initiation is to occur and effecting such train is interrupted to provide safety. Present
initiation; and (3) safing, i.e., keeping the requirements call for at least two independent
munition safe for storing, handling (including safing features, wherever possible, either of
accidental mishandling), and launching or which is capable of preventing an unintended
emplacing. functioning; at least one of these features
must provide delayed arming (safe separa­
Because of the variety of types and the tion).
wide range of sizes, weights, yields, and
intended usage of ammunition, it is natural The design of fu2 es, then, is a complex
that the configuration, size, and complexity subject. It is treated in detail in Ref. 37.
of fuzes also vary over a wide range. Fuzes
extend all the way from a relatively simple 3-19.2 TIMERS FOR FUZES
device such as a grenade fuze to a highly
sophisticated system or subsystem such as a A timer is a programming device; its pur­
radar fuze for a missile warhead. In many pose is to control the time interval between
instances the fuze is a single physical entity — an input signal and an output event or events.
such as a grenade fuze while in other in­ There are four essential components in all
stances two or more interconnected compo­ timers: (!) a start system that initiates the
nents placed in various locations within or programming action, (2) a power supply that
even outside the munition make up the fuze sustains the timing action, (3) a time base or
or fuzing system. There is also a wide variety regulator, and (4) an output system that
of fuze related components, such as power performs the required operation at the end of
sources, squibs, initiators, timers, safing and the desired time interval.
arming (integrating) devices, cables, and con­
trol boxes that sometimes are developed, In selecting the components of timing
stocked, and issued as individual end items systems, the designer must first determine the

3-56
 AM CP 706-188

purpose for which the system is to be used 3-19.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SENSORS

and the factors influencing the selection 01
components. Some of the factors to be If the fuze is to provide safing and func­
considered in the choice of the basic mecha­ tioning actions, it must sense when the
nism include time range and variation, accura­ environment is right for action. Hence, envi­
cy and reliability, input and output signals, ronment sensing is a basic and critical action
and cost. of every fuze.

Military timcm are categorized into main 3-19.3.1 THE ARMING ENVIRONMENT
types depending upon the method used to
generate the time base. The main types are1 The arming environment is a combination
(1) Precision Reference Timers of aJl of the conditions at which tlie fuze is to
change from a safe state to one of readiness
(2) Electronic Timers for functioning. The interior ballistic environ­
ment includes setback and spin (see par. 4-5)
(3) Mechanical Timers and the exterior baJlistic environment in­
cludes aerodynamic forces (see par. 4T>).
(4) Pyrotechnic Timers Sensing is accomplished by means of sliders,
spring-mass combinations, links, and the like.
(5) Fluoric Timers For design details, see Ref. 37.

(6) Electrochemical Timers. 3-19.3.2 THE FUNCTIONING ENVIRON­

MENT
General timer characteristics are listed in
Table 3-253S. As a general rule, there is a Often referred to as target sensing or
direct relationship between the accuracy of a terminal ballistics, the functioning environ­
limin ’, device, and its output power and cost. ment relates to having the pyrotechnic devices
Those timing devices that arc most accurate, accomplish its intended function. Tire target
such as the quartz crystal controlled units and can be sensed by contact when the device
the cesium beam standards, are likely to have touches the target; it can be sensed by
the least output power and to be the highest influence as with a proximity fuze; action can
in cost, Those timers that have a lower order be preset in a time fuze so that the fuze will
of accuracy, such as the pyrotechnic delays function when a predetermined time interval
and the untuned-escapement mechanical has expired; or it can be sensed by a combina­
timers, are likely to provide more output tion of these or command triggering. For
power and to be lower in cost. design details, see Ref. 37.

With the exception of precision timers that Occasionally an intermediate action is re­
are reserved for special applications, all of the quired of pyrotechnic ammunition, such as
tinier lypes are in use in fuzes for pyrotechnic ejection of a parachute (see par. 4-8). The
devices. Perhaps the most common timer type intermediate act ions are sensed in (lie same
is the mechanical clockwork making use of a manner as Final actions.
tuned two-center escapement in combination
with a gear train. Electronic timers make use 3-19.4 INPUT AND OUTPUT
of an RC circuit.
Fuzes are initiated by a source of energy
The design of timers is discussed in detail in that produces heat. Mechanical initiators are
Ref. 38. For a discussion of pyrotechnic ignited by a firing pin. Electric initiators arc
delays, see par. 3-21.4. ignited by a current that heats a bridgewire;

3-57
AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 3-25

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TIMERS

Precision Etectro-
Features Reference Electronic Mechanical Pyrotechnic Flueric Chemicat

Input to Voltage pulse Voltage Voltage or Voltage, flame, Fluid pressure Voltage,
start mechanical or firing pin chemical
release

Time base Crystal or Oscillator Escapement, Pyrotechnic Oscillator Rate of

atomic motor, tuning burning rate chemical
fork reaction

Time range TO 9 sec to 10 3 to I03 Seconds to days 10'3 to 103 sec 1 to 103 sec Minutes to
years sec days

Accuracy 1 part in 104 ±0.1% ±5% to 1 part ±10% ±1% ±4-10%

to 1 part in in 10s
t o '2

Output Voltage pulse Voltage Mechanical Flame Fluid pres­ Chemical

or time sure, voltage reaction,
interval voltage,
chemical

outrent source is a batfery or other power will vary once a segment has been cut and
source. Sec par. 4-4 on ignition emplaced for a period of time.
For most pyrotechnic devices the output is Safety fuse is made with several different
a flame that will ignite the main pyrotechnic burning speed ranges; the two most common
charge to produce light, smoke, heal, gas, or burning rates are 30 and 40 see ft 1. both
sound. Occasionally, the output is a detona­ having a tolerance of ± 10',:. Some fuse, made
tion wave as in a battle effects simulator or an for higher attitudes, may bum slightly slower
ejection cartridge. Here the explosive train (nominally 43 sec f r 'h The fuse is usually
must include a detonator and possible other manufactured in 50-ft lengths, then coiled
components Ihat augment i he detonation and wrapped in packages containing two coils.
wave. Design details are covered in Ref. 28.
3-20 FUSES Two types of fuse are in common use by
the U.S- Axmy: (1) blasting time fuse that lias
The safety fuse most commonly used con­ a spiral wrapped outer cover usually colored
tains black powder that is lightly wrapped orange, and (2) Safety Fuse M700 that lias a
with Several layers of fabric and waterproof­ smooth green plastic cover with length
ing materials- It is used to transmit a flame markers of abrasive material (so they can be
along a preselected path to the pyrotechnic fejt in the dark). These two types of fuse are
charge, where the flame may be used to shown in Fig. 3~44i 9 .
initiate the charge directly, or it may initiate
one or several squibs that are used as charge Safety fuse can be ignited in several ways:
igniters. Fuse burns slowly at a fairly uniform
rate; however, il is likely that Hie burning rate (I) Matches. Ordinary matches are fre­
will vary from roli lo roll of the fuse, and il quently used to light a single line of fuse. The

3-S8
 AMCP 706-188

----- W

Figure 3-45. Fuse Lighter, M2

of safety fuse even under extreme environ­

mental conditions. Two military fuse lighters
in use by the U.S. Army, the M2 and the M60
are shown in Figs. 3-4S37 and 3-4639

(3) Pull wire fuse lighter. This lighter for

safety fuse is a commercial product common­
ly used where positive ignition together with
Figure 3-44. Types of Safety Fuse weather protection is required. It is a paper
tube, closed at one end, from which a wire
with a pul] tab protrudes. In use, the fuse is
fuse must be split, taking care not to dislodge inserted into the open end until it bottoms
tile black powder filler. The match is applied and is securely held in this position by an
so that its initial flare ignites the fuse. internal gripper. The fu*e is ignited by pulling
(he wire.
(2) Military fuse lighters. The military
lighters provide a method for positive ignition Safety fuse should be used and stored so as

© FRICTION SEAL WASHER ( 5) washer

© STRIKER SPRING (?) WASHER

© STRIKER (7) GROMMET

© PRIMER BASE (a) SHIPPING PLUG

Figure 3-46. Fuse Lighter, M6Q

3-59
AIWCP 706-188

to prevent contact of the covering from ness of the confinement, internal volume, the
petroleum distillates that will attack the need for baffles and retainers, and the method
covering and make the fuse unreliable. Twists, of initiation (i.e,, mechanical or electrical).
kinks, or sharp bends may crack the covering For methods of initiation, see par. 3-14.
or cause discontinuities in the powder train.
Cold weather causes the covering to be less /VII of these factors must be taken into
resistant to mechanical movement and addi­ consideration and each factor balanced
tional care is required to maintain its reli­ against the other so that an inexpensive,
ability. When safety fuse is used in applica­ reliable, and tugged item results. These topics
tions where it is closely confined, its burning are discussed in detail in Ref. 38.
rate is .onsiderably increased, the tighter the
confinement, the faster the burning rate.
3-21.2 VENTED DELAYS
Wanting: It is important to distinguish
safety fuse from detonating fuze. Detonating Vented delay elements have openings to
fuze has a high explosive filler with a propaga­ permit the escape of gases produced by their
tion rate of approximately 21,000 fps. Its functioning. They are used when large quanti­
intended use is the detonation of high exclu­ ties of gas are produced by the burning of the
sives. delay powder. They may even be necessary
for gasless compositions when long delay
3-21 DELAYS times are required in order to eliminate the
pressure build-up within the delay element
The delay element consists of a metal tube, and subsequent unpredictable burning rates.
usually aluminum or brass, loaded with a Venting exposes the burning delay composi­
delay composition. It is placed between the tion to ambient pressure and. as a result, the
initiator and the relay or other output charge. burning rate is sensitive to changes in altitude
Sometimes all three are combined into one except that manganese delay compositions
unit. Representative de-lays covering various show no significant effect. In addition, these
lime ranges have been compiled in a compen­ vents require sealing up to the time of
dium110. No single pyrotechnic delay mecha­ functioning in order to protect the delay
nism is suitable for all applications, lienee, element from humidity. Two methods of
the selection of a delay device must be based sealing vented delays—by a disk. Method A.
on the overall requirements of the particular and by a solder plug, Method B-arc shown in
military application in which it will be used. Fig. 3-47'.
Considerations differ depending on whether
(he delays are vented or obturated, and they The burning time of a given quantity of a
must lake into account the space limitations gas producing material is, in general, nearly
imposed. directly proportional to pressure. The rela­
tionship has been shown to be hyperbolic and
3-21.1 SPACE LIMITATIONS can be represented by an empirical equation
of the form
Idle designer of a pyrotechnic device
always will be faced with Space limitations
when trying to fit it into a military item.
= a +J7t ' sec (3-12)
Factors affecting the amount of space re­
quired arc the length of the delay column (a
function of the lime delay and the delay where
mix), the diameter of the column (.each mix t = burning time, sec
having a particular failure diameter below
which propagation is not reliable), wall thick­ a - factor depending on mixture, sec

3-60
 AM CP 706-188

5(X.OC1»
P . -0
soL
1NPoesto
v*Ct POROUS BAFF LE

IGNITER MIX

Figure 3~47. Sealing of Vented Delay Element

DELAY MIX

k - factor depending on mixture, dimen­

sionless
OELAY BODY
P = pressure, lb in."2

n = factor depending on mixture, dimen­

sionless
IGNITER MIX
The numerical values of the factors are a - SLOTTED BAFFLE
0.26, k = 1.0, and n = 0.13 for the 95.4/4.6
barium chromate boron/composition (DP
480). This equation fits many of the data
points, however, it is not accurate below a Figure 3-48. Typical Baffled Delay Column
pressure of 10 cm Hg.
sitjon before Ibe base or terminal charge is
The design of a vented delay column must ignited, see Fig. 3-49'.
include means to resist forces such as spin,
setback, shock, and internal gas pressure if Delays are considered to be obturated if
they are present in the sped He application. the gases produced are vented internally into
These forces can cause separation of the delay a closed volume in the pyrotechnic device.
column and resulting failure, either in the The effects of ambient pressure and humidity
form of no-fire or instantaneous functioning. are eliminated in obturated delays because
Means of alleviating separation include thread­ they are sealed from the external environ­
ing the inner diameter wall and using retainer ment. Possible harm to other components of
rings and disks. A more successful solution is the system is prevented because the combus­
to baffle both ends of the delay column. tion products are contained. If a short time
Tit esc baffles can be in the form of slotted delay is required, an obturated delay is often
disks, washers, or porous metal disks. A used because obturation tends to increase the
typical baffled delay column is shown in Tig. average burning rate of the delay composi­
3-48‘, ° The baffles are always force fitted tion.
Into the delay body with approximately
0.002- to 0.005-in. interference fit. Baffles and retainers are included in an
obturated design for the same reasons that
3-21.3 OBTURATED DELAYS they are used in the vented design. Design
considerations are the same in cither instance,
An obturated delay element is constructed see par. 3-21.2.
to retain all the gases produced by the
functioning of the initiator and delay compo- Tiie internal free volume is that volume

3-61
 V - enclosed free volume, in.'3

Using this equation, the designer can run

through a series of calculations, varying the
weights of priming and delay compositions
and the free volume in order to obtain a safe
pressure.

3-21.4 DELAY COMPOSITIONS

The basic ingredients of a delay composi­

tion consist of a fuel, an oxidant, a binder,
and a lubricant. Delay compositions react
when the proper ratio of oxidant and fuel are
intimately mixed and ignited. The rate of
burning is dependent on the concentrations of
the ingredients, their particle size, composi­
tion, temperature, and pressure. For a general
discussion of the chemistry and technology of
Figure 3-49. Delay Element, Obturated, M9 primary explosives, see Ref. 41.

formed by a cavity in the delay housing which 3-21.4.1 BLACK POWDER

is designed to contain the gases produced by
the chemical reaction. Containment of the Black powder is not favored by most
gases makes the delay independent of the engineers for use in new designs. Still there
effects of pressure or humidity of the ambient are instances where the unique ballistic prop­
atmosphere and the fumes which might dam­ erties of black powder are difficult or imprac­
age other components of the system. tical to duplicate. Formed into compressed
pellets, columns, or ring segments, black
In' an obturated system, the time will be powder has been used to obtain delay times
greatly increased or the item may not bum from milliseconds to a minute.
through if the pressure rise is sufficient to
cause bursting or significant leakage. The The advantages of black powder are great
pressure can be calculated by defining the sensitivity to ignition even at low tempera­
thermodynamic relationship between the heat ture. economy, multiplicity of uses, and
and gas volume liberated by the primer and relative safety in handling. The disadvantages
delay column and the enclosed free volume in are hygroscopicity and limited stability, ex­
which tire gases are confined. A reasonable cessive (lash and smoke, undesirable solid
estimate, for design purposes can be derived residue, difficulty in controlling burning rate,
from the empirical equation58 poor burning qualities under diminished pres­
sure, and finally, limited supply.
30 (Wn wd )
P = ]b in.‘
(3-13) 3-21.4.2 GASLESS COMPOSITIONS

where To overcome the disadvantages of black

P = pressure, lb in.’5 powder as a delay composiUon, research was
initiated to develop nongaseu us delay pow­
Wp = weight of priming composition, mg ders, making use oT inorganic exothermic
reactions similar to those used for thermite
Wd = weight of delay composition, mg mixtures.

3-62
 AM CP 706-138

T A B L E 3-26

GASLESS DELAY COMPOSITIONS IN CURRENT USE

Fuel, % Oxidants, %■ Inert,%

Manganese Barium Chromate Lead Chromate None

30 to 45 0 to40 26 to 55

Boron Barium Chromate Chromic Oxide None

4 to 11 89 to96 —

13 to 15 40 to44 41 to46

Nickel-Zirconium Barium Chromate Potassium Perchlorate None

Alloy 25 60 14

Nickel-Zirconium Barium Chromate Potassium Perchlorate None

Mix
5/31 22 42
5/17 70 8

Tungsten Barium Chromate Potassium Perchlorate Diatomaceous earth

27 to 39 59 to 46 9.6 5 to 12
39 to 87 46 to 5 4.8 3 to 10
20 to 50 70 to 40 10

Molybdenum Barium Chromate Potassium Perchlorate

20 to 30 70 to 60 10

Silicon Red Lead Diatomaceous earth

20 80 Max 8 parts by weight

Zirconium Lead Dioxide

28 72

Table 3-261 lists the gasless delay combina­ tent with requirements; should be readily
tions in current use. The range of composi­ avaiable and inexpensive; and should be com­
tions given for some of the combinations patible with each other.
allows for adjustment of the burning rates
over wide ranges. Additional delay mixtures
are discussed in Ref. 38. (2) They should be as insensitive as pos­
sible, meaning they should be capable of
3-21.5 SYSTEM DESIGN AND PERFOR­ being blended, loaded, and assembled into an
MANCE item with minimum risk from impact, fric­
tion, moisture, heat, and electrical discharge,
In delay system design, the delay composi­
tions, being the critical component of the (3) They should be readily igni table, and
delay element, ideally should have the follow­ should change little in performance character­
ing characteristics: .(I) istics with small changes in percentages of
ingredients. Their burring rates should be
(I) They should be stable and nonhygro reproducible within each batch and from
scopic; should have the highest purity consis­ batch to batch with minimum of variation.

3-63
 (4) They should be compatible with their practical, use a seal that opens upon ignition.
container as well as with other contacting
compositions. Performance characteristics (4) If a sealed unit is not practical, use
should not change appreciably with long term delay compositions of demonstrated resis­
storage. tance to conditions of liigh humidif y.

(5) They should be relatively insensitive to (5) Calculate the effect of cumulative tol­
changes in pressure and temperature. erances upon such pertinent factors as ex­
ternal free volume.
(6) They should be capable of withstand­
ing the vibration and shock of transportation, (6) Provide for adequate free volume in
setback, rotation, and impact: and should be obturated units.
resistant to physical abuse inherent in the
loading and firing of ammunition.
(7) Analyze stresses induced by both in­
ternal and external forces iliat may be antici­
Because delay compositions contain all
pated during loading, shipping, launching, and
ingredients necessary for a self-propagating
operation-
reaction, their burning is mctastabJe. The
effect of any factor thal tends to cause an
increase or decrease in burning rate is magni­ (8) Make sure that all components will
fied. For this reason, satisfactory performance survive these stresses, taking into account the
requires accurate control of all such factors. elevated temperatures that result from burn­
ing of the delay columns.
Control must be maintained from the pro­
curement of raw materials until the end item,
in which the delay is a component, accom­ (9) Specify adequate loading pressures (at
plishes its intended use. The designer should least 60,000 psi for gas producing composi­
be governed, therefore, by the following tions and at least 30.000 psi for gasless delay
rules:(I) powders), and short enough increments (onc-
half diameter or less).
(I) Use delay compositions prepared by a
well-established procedure from ingredients of (10) Provide for proper support of the
known and controlled characteristics. delay column.

(2) Use obturated or externally vented (II) Use diameters well above the failure
construction when practical. diameter at —65°F, (Usual practice is 0.2 or
0.25 in. for gasless mixtures; 0.1 or 0.125 in.
(3) Where obturated construction is im- for black powder.)

SECTION VI OTHER EFFECTS

3-22 SOUND with pyrotechnics: (1) single burst or report,

and (2) whistle.
The production of sound by means of The single blast effect is usually produced
pyrotechnic compositions has found some by the rapid expansion of the gaseous and/or
military applications. These include training solid products of a pyrotechnic reaction. Tire
of troops and observers, decoy or deception shock produced by high explosive reactions
of enemy troops, atmospheric sounding, can also generate burst-like effects. Whistle­
warning, signaling, and military salutes. In Like effects are produced by the burning of
general, two types of sound are produced certain compositions in tubes. The whistle is

3-64
 A M C P 706-188

OUTER CASE G*S CHECK WASHER

p r o pe llin g c ha rg e

I------ ----- • !» ■ IN ----- -

Figure 3 -50
Projectile A ir Burst Sim ulator, M 7 4 A 1
Figure 3-51. Firecracker, M80
produced by the decrepitation and sub­
sequent intermittent burning of the composi­ are used during troop training and maneuvers
tion42. to provide safe simulation of actual booby
traps. Either a loud report or a whistle lasting
The selection of a pyrotechnic system 3 or 4 sec is produced Training in the
(composition, container, delivery mode) for installation of actual booby traps as well as
producing audible effects depends, of course, the respect for enemy booby traps can thus
on the intended use. A discussion of some of be accomplished. The M80 Firecracker which
the possible uses will clarify this point. The simulates an explosive detonation is shown in
mechanisms of producing sound are covered Fig..3-514. The Ml 19 Booby Trap Simulator
in pars. 3-22.2 and 3-22.3. is a whistling device and is shown in Fig.
3-521.
3-22.1 USE OF SOUND-PRODUCING
PYROTECHNICS (3) Ground burst simulators. These simu­
late an approaching artillery projectile with a
3-22.1.1 TRAINING OF TROOPS AND OB­ 2 to 4 sec whistling sound followed by a flash
SERVERS and loud report. The ,MI 15 Projectile Ground
Burst Simulator shown in Fig. 3-53* is an
Although it would be desirable to simulate example.
the sound of typical military items, the
requirements of safety and the restrictions on (4) Hand grenade simulator. This device is
size, weight, cost, and state-of-the-art often approximately the sise of a hand grenade. The
make exact duplication impractical. It is fuse bums for 6 to 10 sec after ignition and
sufficient for most training maneuvers if the simulator explodes with a loud report and
personnel can associate the simulated sound mild explosive action. The Ml 16 Hand Gre­
with the real. Some of the sound simulators nade Simulator looks very similar to the
presently used in training are: simulator in Fig. 3-55 except it is only 4.25
(1) Air burst simulators. These simulate an in. long.
artillery projectile burst by producing a puff
of smoke and a loud report. An example is (5) Nuclear blast simulators. These are
the M74A1 Projectile Air Burst Simulators training devices that attempt to simulate the
shown in Fig. 3-50*. flash, sound and mushroom-shaped smoke
cloud of a nuclear blast. The XM142E1
(2) Booby trap simulators. These devices Atomic Explosion Simulator is qn example43.

\
3-65
 A M C P 706-188

Figure 3-52. Whistling Booby Trap Sim ulator, M l 19

(6) Gun-fired blank cartridge. This type of obvious that some degree of realism must be
ammunition is provided in small and medium sought in the simulator. However, the psycho­
calibers (75, 76, 90, and 105 mm) for logical effect of a loud report or whistling
simulated heavy gun lire and military salutes. sound on an enemy infiltrator—as provided by
It consists of partially loaded cartridge cases a booby trap which simulates no particular
with no projectile. weapon—is apparent. In this instance it should
be noted that unconventional devices can be
3-2Z1.2 DECOY AND DECEPTION OF EN­ used to improvise noise makers. Blasting caps,
EMY TROOPS acetylene and oxygen ignited by a spark coil
Almost all of the devices described in par. to achieve a machine gun effect, and others
3-22.1.1 can be used to deceive or decoy have been tried. It has been suggested ('
enemy troops. If gun fire must be simulated pyrotechnic wliistles might be used unt,v.
under the scrutiny of enemy troops, it is water to decoy or confuse sonar devices41

FUSE LIGHTER
PULL CORD SAFETY FUSE
CAP
WHISTLE
ASSEMBLY

M M lil \TOH. PROJECTILE (.POIND mus/ Ml

k iu im . is s t h i r r i o \ s-
H T M O N f c N * V \ 1 ' C l I f ►U O M I L S I - I 11.1 i , r* f » li ( \ fl
ovf u n s r u ( O HD , s } ll» I N M O s l M V u
?-V' 1 » h*«V - * A . r..» - ^

SAFETY CLIP

Figure 3-53. Projectile G round Burst Sim ulator, M l 15

3-66
 AM CP 706-18S

T A B L E 3-27
3-2Z1.3 WARNING AND SIGNALING
SOUND PRODUCING COMPOSITIONS
The so-caJJed railroad torpedo is used to
warn the engineer in an'engine cab by means Weight,
of a loud report that he is approaching an Ingredients %
open switch, fork, etc. It is sometimes used
by the military for this purpose as well as for M U 5 ProjectileGround BurstSimulator
simulation. A simulator such as the M1 17 or Mg 34
Ml 19 Booby Trap Simulator is useful for Al 26
Potassium perchlorate 40
warning or signaling the approach of the
enemy or alerting friendly troops in restricted Ml 17 Booby TrapSimulator
areas, Mg (Grade A, Type l| 17
Antimony sulfide (Grade Ior 11,Class C) 33
3-2Z1.4 MILITARY PROTOCOL Potassium perchlorate 50

The use of blank small and medium caliber XMI42E1Atomic Explosion Simulator-
ammunition for military salutes is covered in (Sound Charge)
par. 3-22.1.1. Al (pyro black) 20
Potassium perchlorate 64
3-2Z1.5 SOUNDING Sulfur 8
Bran (grain) 8
The sound levels afforded by pyrotechnic Reprinted with permission from M ilit a r y $ n d C iv ilia n P y r o ­
mixes can be used advantageously for aerial H, Ellern, Chemical Publishing Co,, Mew York, 1969.
te c h n ic s ,

sounding. The properties of air which affect

sound transmission (density, temperature, blank cartridges, and the sound is produced
etc.) can thus be studied. by the obturation of the cartridge case with a
fiber or plastic dosing cap.
3-22.2 b l a s t e ff e c t
3-22.3 WHISTLE EFFECT
The production of a blast or single loud
report for the purposes mentioned previously Whistle effects are produced by burning
is easfly accomplished by the use or pyro­ compositions containing gallic add; the potas­
technic compositions which react or bum sium salts of benzoic acid, of 2, 4, dinitro-
rapidly, thereby producing a rapid release of phenol, and picric add; and the sodium salt of
gas. The speed of normally slow-burning salicyciic add; combined with potassium chlo­
compositions, such as black powder, may rate, perchlorate, or nitrate in tubes. Some
often 'be increased by confinement thus typical formulas are given in Table 3-28’’ ’4 i .
making them useful for blast effects. In
general, Hash signals (see par. 3-2.1) may also The frequency of the whistle compositions
function as burst simulators if the distance is is determined to a large extent by the length
not excessive3. of the tube into which the compositions are
loaded. Fig. 3-54 shows the relationship be­
Some typical compositions used in sound tween frequency and tube length, for two
producing devices are listed in Table tube diameters loaded with the middle com­
3-277’43. Note that the compositions are of position of Table 3-28. Frequencies much
the extremely rapid burning class. Thus, the higher than 5000 Hz have not been encoun­
production of sound is not necessarily depen­ tered.
dent upon confinement.
The burning rate of whistling compositions
Black pelletized or loose powder is used in appears to decrease as the frequency of lhe

3-67
 T A B L E 3-28

COMPOSITIONS PRODUCING A
WHISTLE EFFECT

Weight,
Ingredients %

Ml 19 Whistling Booby Trap Simulator

Potassium chlorate 73
Gallic acid 24
Red gum 3

Experimental
Potassium perchlorate 70
Potassium benzoate 30

Experimental
Potassium nitrate 30 Figure 3-54. Effect o f Tube Length on Fre­
Potassium dinitrophenate 70 quency of Burning Whistle Compositions

Reprinted With permission from M ilit a r y a n d C iv ilia n P y to -

te ch n ics . H. Ellern, Chemical Publishing Co., Mew York,
1969: and F o u r th S y m p o s iu m o n C o m b u s tio n , Paper ill, W, The following uses are exemplary:
R, Maxwell. 1953.

(1) Marking and Low-level Illumination.

whistle is increased RMS pressures at 20 ft Certain organic substances have been used for
have ranged from 3.59 dyn cm'2 for a 0.34-in. marking and illuminating trails, airstrips,
diameter tube up to 72 dyn cm'2 for a 3-in. minefields, and enemy troops at night. One
diameter tube. The tube materia] has little chemiluminescent substance is a liquid ali­
effect on the acoustical output. The acousti­ phatic amine which may be delivered to the
cal output intensity is dependent upon the target with artillery or other commonly used
relative proportions of the ingredients. pyrotechnic vehicles7. Upon delivery and
dispersion, the chemiluminescent material so­
It has been theorized that the whistling lidifies with the aid of a waxy material and
phenomenon is due to the rhythm;c. inter­ thereafter reacts with atmospheric oxygen to
mittent burning of the composition which is produce a glorv lasting up to 7 hr. I or more
enhanced by the resonance of the tube. An information about liquid-filled projectile de­
alternate but untried method of producing a sign, see Ref 44.
whistle effect would be to use a gas producing
pyrotechnic composition (see par. 3-18) in
conjunction with a mechanical type whistle. (2) Upper Atmosphere Studies. Certain
materials, when released above altitudes of 80
3-23 LUMINESCENCE km, can combine with the atomic oxygen or
nitrogen at these levels, or with previously
Luminescence is an emission of light that is released materials to produce chemilumine­
not ascribable directly to incandescence and, scent reactions'15. Some of the materials
therefore, may occur at ambient tempera­ which have been released into the upper
tures. It may be produced by physiological (as atmosphere are sodium45, ammonia4 s , nitric
in the firefly), chernical, frictional, electrical, oxide46, ethylene47, acetylene48, and alu­
and radiative action. The uses of luminescent minum compounds46. Of these, sodium and
materials as delivered or dispersed or mixed aluminum have been dispersed pyrotechnical-
with pyrotechnic compositions are numerous. ly7 ; the other materials are mentioned be-

3-68
 AM CP 706-138

cause it may be possible to release them with by mixture with other compounds. Jn either
the aid of pyrotechnics. case, a storage problem occurs because of the
reactivity of the compounds. The method of
Cherniluminescents are released into the dispesion from an artillery projectile is also a
upper atmosphere to study wind speed and problem because the mere bursting of the
direction, temperature, diffusion coefficients, projectile has proven unsatisfactory. Since
and N2 and 0 2 concentrations during the personnel may come in contact with the
night. dispersed material, the toxicity of the chemi­
luminescent substances also must be consid­
The chemistry of the high-altitude chemi­ ered.
luminescent. releases is well documented in
the literature4 5 and laboratory simulation of 3-24 IONIZATION
the various chemiluminescent reactions has
preceded the high nluiude tests in most cases. Ionization is the process of creating ions-
In one experiment46 the pyrotechnic mix atoms, molecules, or nuclei that have more
consisted of 75% o- ium nitrate, 23% aJumi- or less than the number of electrons needed
num powder, and 31/ magnesium powder to balance the opposing internal charges. The
pressed at 20,000 psi to form a 7.11-cm unbalance of electrons causes ionized sub­
diameter, 15.5-cm long grain. The pressed stances to have a positive or negative charge
grain was then loaded into a steel tube and and thus rather reactive properlies both elec­
ignited by a pyrotechnic (rain. The reaction trical and chemical.
products were vented through a convergent
tungsten nozzle with a 0.5-cm throat. At The properties of ionized materials as
altitudes above 100 km, such flares burned generated pyrotechnicaJly are useful in a few
for periods of 40 to 100 sec producing applications, mostly involving upper atmo­
glowing trails persisting up to 180 sec. The spheric research.
suggested reaction mechanism is

(1) AIO + Q-» A 1Oj 3-24.1 CREATION OF ARTIFICIAL

(formation of excited state) COMET TAIL

(2) A lO f + Molecule AI + Molecule It has been discovered that comet tails

(collisional deactivation) interact with the solar wind thus revealing
information about the latter. Rather than
C3) A 10f-> A 102+ hu depend upon the uncontrollable nature of
(radiative decay) existing comets, the production of interplane­
tary jon clouds has been proposed to simulate
(4) A I0 2 + 0-* A10 + 0 2 the properties of actual comet tails. Barium
(regeneration of A10) and strontium have been suggested as useful
elements for these endeavors49. The dissocia­
where reaction (2) would predominate over tion of ammonia (NH3) into NH2 and Nil
reaction (3) below 100 km because of the radicals has also been suggested for simulating
density of the atmosphere. certain comet tail characteristics45.

The chemistry and delivery modes -for 3-24.2 STUDY OF INTERPLANETARY

chemiluminescent materials used under nor­ MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
ma) atmospheric conditions are covered in
classified literature. Suffice ir to say that the It has been shown that the barium ion will
presently used compounds are activated (to diffuse along magnetic field lines at extremely
the glowing state) upon exposure to the air or high altitudes. Observation of this phenome­

3-69
AM CP 706-138

non is done with a camera equipped with the 3-24.4 REMOVAL OF ELECTRONS FROM
proper fitters*9. THE NORMAL IONOSPHERE

3-24.3 PRODUCTION OF ARTIFICIAL U has been shown that the chemical release
ELECTRON CLOUDS of sulfur hexaflouride (an electronic-attacking
gas) into the “F layer” region of ionosphere
The production of artificial electron clouds (200-300 km) can substantiaily reduce the
may be accomplished by vaporizing some of normal electron concentrations. In effect, a
the. alkali metals such as potassium and “hole” is produced in the ionosphere that
cesium at altitudes between 70 and 130 km distorts radio and radar signals45.
(the region known as the “E layer”). The
usefulness of artificial clouds stems from the 3-24.5 PRODUCTION OF VAPORIZED
ability to track the clouds with ground-based METALS
radar because the clouds act as a radar
“target” . The scientific uses of artificial elec­ The production of the vaporized metals
tron clouds include studies of high-altitude that are often used in the aforementioned
winds, diffusion, ionospheric structure, at­ applications is accomplished by burning pyro­
mospheric parameters, expansion of high-pres­ technic mixtures of the oxides or nitrates of
sure gases, thermochemical reactions, and the metals with aluminum or magnesium.
electromagnetic propagation50. Of course, Factors to be considered in the dispersion of
the use of small quantities of alkali metals in ionized or ionizable materials are photoioniza­
rocket exhausts can produce concentrations tion by sunlight, ion life, initial velocity of
of ions useful for tracking purposes7. In this ion or electron clouds from the source,
regard a rocket exhaust also might be sim­ temperature of released materials, and pres­
ulated with a flare-like device. sure at release altitude45-49 >s The impor-

IGNITER MIXTURE, NO. I

IGNITER MIXTURE, NO.2

TRACER MIXTURE, NO. I

■TRACER COMPOSITION

PRO PELLANT -MIX, HEI

Fiaure 3-55. 20 mm Charged Body Projectile, HEIT-SD, XM246E5

3-70
 AMCP 706-188-

tance of these factors would depend heavily Attempts have been made to control al­
upon the intended use. most all types of meteorological phenomena
including winter orographic storms, cumulus
3-25 DESTRUCT ELEMENTS clouds, hail, extratropica) cyclones, cold and
warm fogs, hurricanes and tornadoes, and
Self-destruction is required in the design of lightning. Varying degrees of success have
many munitions such as antiaircraft rounds been encountered in these attempts. In most
that may endanger friendly territories by cases the statistical verification of success or
missing and going beyond their intended failure is difficult due to the lack of proper
target. Self-destruct features are also used to control specimens. In small scale experiments,
deactivate area chemicaj munitions after a especially in fog control at airports, demon­
specified period. The destruct action is nor­ strable results have been produced.
mally initiated by a fuze or a tracer in the
round after a time that allows the projectile 3-26.1 TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCING
to reach its maximum effective burst height. NUCLEI

The charged body 20 mm projectile shown A large variety of techniques and sub­
in Fig. 3-55 illustrates the principle. The stances have been used in weather control
igniter mixes start the burning of the first attempts. Historically, one of the first cloud
(racer composition which in turn ignites the seeding experiments was performed in 1946
second tracer mix. As the latter burns to which succeeded in precipitating ice crystals
completion, it generates sufficient heat to from a supercooled “cloud” of water vapor
ignite the propellant stored in the recessed by the injection of dry ice (solid C 02) pellets.
cavity which initiates the high explosive in­ Chilled metal rods also induced precipitation
cendiary mix. in this experiment, The mechanism of induc­
ing precipitation was found to be the produc­
Pyrotechnic units are also used for destroy­ tion of nuclei of 1 to 2 micron diameter upon
ing classified cryptographic equipment, safes, which the water vapor could condense.
and files. These units normally consist of an
incendiary mix such as ihecmite or sodium The most frequently used substance for
nitrate and wood flour packaged in a metal producing ice nuclei in cloud formations is
case of suitable geometry for the application silver iodide (Agl). At temperatures of —6°C
(see par. 3-15.3). and below, Agl will form ice nuclei in
supersaturated atmospheres (hereby inducing
3-26 WEATHER MODIFICATION the formation of ice crystals that may precipi­
tate as rain or snow or that may affect cloud
Modification or control of the weather has formation or directions. Sodium iodide, lead
been the subject of many investigations in the iodide, certain steroids, amino-acids, phloro-
past. Aside from the obvious socio-economic glucinol, ff-phenazjne, and metaldehyde have
advantages to be gained from such control, all been tried as nucleating agents. Advantages
the military has interest in hurricane modifi­ sought by the use of agents other than Agl are
cation (Navy Project STORM FURY), dissipa­ lower cost, higher nucleating temperatures,
tion of all types of low stratiform clouds and less sensitivity to photolytic inactivation, and
fog (Air Force), and the suppression of greater nucleating ability. Successful reduc­
lightning discharges (Army)51. Endeavors tion of the photolytic decay of the nucleating
such as these, if successful, would facilitate or properties of Agl has been shown with the
allow tactical operations normally impossible addition of 0-naphthol, bsi-(2-amino phenyl)
due to weather conditions. The positive con­ disulfide, diphenylthiourea, 8-hydro-
trol of certain weather conditions also would xyquinoline, and Kodak Anti-Fog No. 2. The
prove to be a powerful military weapon. efficiency of the nucleating process of Agl has

3-71
 AM CP 706-1&8

Agl
ErHiCTIVENESS, ruclei/g

'°-6 - ro -14 -(6 -22

TEMPERATURE. “C tem perature , 6c
Figure 3-56. Area of Effectiveness-tempera­ Figure 3-57. Area o f Effectiveness-tempera­
ture Relationship for Fuel-supported Agl ture Relationship for Pyrotechnic Agi
Generators Generators

been increased by the deliberate addition of as propane or fuel oil

contaminants such as ammonium hydroxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide. (3) Burning a wick impregnated with Agl
in a liquid petroleum gas flame
When dealing with warm water-laden
clouds or fogs, different techniques must be (4) Detonating a mixture containing high
used for control or modification. Substances explosive and Agl
wiiich exhibit hygroscopicity are thought to
he useful. Calcium chloride and sodium chlo­ (5) Burning a pyrotechnic mixture con­
ride have been tried; and a pyrotechnic taining Agl or substances which will form Agl
mixture of aluminum powder and hexachlo- upon reaction.
roethane, burned to yield aluminum chloride,
has been suggested. Olher methods for use in lL has been found that the nucleating
warm fogs and clouds include evaporation by ability and the susceptibility to photolytic
heat from jet engines, asphalt paving, and deactivation vary with the method of disper­
spraying suspended carbon black;5 1. sion. The dispersion techniques that are im­
portant from the pyrotechnic stand pom! arc
In general the seeding agent is dispersed in discussed in pars. 3-26.2 through 3-26.4.
the form of an aerosol or a smoke, depending
on the method of generation: the generator
may be ground stationed or air borne. Deliv­ 2-26.2 BURNING Agl COMPLEX WITH A
ery from the ground is necessarily limited. FUEL
The major techniques that have been used to
disperse nucleating agents are: Typically, the complex consists of 2 or 3%
Agl with 0 to 1% Nal in a solution of acetone,
(1) Evaporation from an electrically isopropylamine, or ammonia52. I bis complex
heated wire is fed to a nozzle which forms an acrosif Tire
aerosol is burned with the aid of a fuel such as
(2) Burning a complex of Agl and acetone propane or fuel oil. In the case of the
or isopropylamine with the aid of a fuel such isopropylamine no fuel is used. The burning

3-72
 AM CP 706-188

rates for fuel supported complexes range from T A B L E 3-29

0.1 to 4 .S g m in .'' The ranee of effectiveness
as measured in nuclei per gram of Agl is TYPICAL PYROTECHNIC SEEDING MIXTURES
shown in Tig. 3-56S3, as a function of
Ingredients Weight, %
temperature, for a variety of fuel-supported ________ No. 1
generators.
Silver Iodide or Lead Iodide 40-60
3-26.3 IMPREGNATED WICK GENERA- Ammonium Perchlorate 26-45
TOR Iditol (synthetic resin) 10-25
Graphite or Oil 1.5-2
Jn this type of generator, a wick is impreg­
nated with Agl and burned in a propane or No. 2 No. 3
butane Hame. Typical burners generate from
0.006 to 0.04 g min’’ of Agl and are as Silver lodate 75
effective (in nuclei per gram of Agl) as fuel Lead lodate 75
Magnesium (25ju) 15 10
supported types53 . Wick generators are usual­
Laminae (with no hardener) 10 15
ly limited to ground-based operation.
R eprinted w ith perm ission h o rn M ilita r y and C ivilian P y ro ­
3-26.4 PYROTECHNIC TYPE Agl GENER­ technics. H. EUern, C hem ical P ublishing Co .N e w Y o rk . 1968,

ATORS
effective than fuel-supported and wick-Lype
Agl and similar nucleating agents may be generators. However, this is offset by the fact
conveniently produced by pyrotechnic com­ that more nuclei can be dispersed in a shorter
positions in which the product or products period of time with pyrotechnic generators
consist of said subsLances. Gompositjons are thus adding to their usefulness.
various and Agl content varies from 10 to
70 ’, Agl burn rates range from 1.5 to 150 g
A detonating type of generator wliich uses
min'1. Rig. 3-575 2 shows the range of effect­
detonating cord impregnated with Agl is even
iveness of pyrotechnic generators measured in
more rapid in dispersing Agl.
nuclei per gram of Agl over a range of useful
tempera turns. Note that the pyrotechnic gen­
erators are about a magnitude of order less Three typical seeding mixtures are shown

PAPtH
CAP v
.P u ll
WING
^ h OJECh n ic
CAMOlt
INSULA7 0 * $M 0xt Puu
,
paper
CAP

NJGur EKD day CKO

Figure 3-58. Marine Smoke and Illumination Signal, Mk 13

3-73
in Table 3-29D Photoflash cartridges have that might be employed either in day or
been used successfully for packaging pyro­ nighttime operations. Fig. 3-58“ illustrates
technic seeding generators, and special dis­ the Mk)3 Marine Smoke and UJuminalion
pensers capable of delivering up to 60 lb of Signal which is hand-launched and produces
Agl smoke also have been employed. either an orange smoke for day use or a red
flame for night use.
3-27 COMBINATION OF EFFECTS
Other devices incorporating combinations
It is often desirable to have more than one of effects are those used for simulation of
effect (light, smoke, etc.) available in a single battlefield effects. The Ml IS Projectile
pyrotechnic device. The combination of a Ground Burst Simulator (described in par.
smoke and illuminant signal, for instance, is 3-22.1.1) is an example of a combinational
often used in signaling and marking devices device.

REFERENCES

1. AMCP 706-185, Engineering Design 9. L. Lobe! and M. Dubois, Sensifometry,

Handbook, Military Pyrotechnics Series, The Focal Press, New York. 1955.
Part One, Theory and Application.
10. Theory, Application, and Instrumenta­
2. R. M. Blunt and W. A. Schmeling. Study tion for Infrared Non-Destructive Test­
o f Psychophysical Factors o f Vision and ing. Barnes Engineering Co., 30 Com­
Pyrotechnical Light Sources. Technical merce Rd., Stamford, CO, October 1966.
Report AFATL-TR 68-17, Air Force
Armament Laboratory, Eglin Air Force 11. AMCP 706-127, Engineering Design
Base, Florida, 1968. Handbook, Infrared Military Systems,
Part One.
3. TM 9-1370-200, Military Pyrotechnics,
Dept, of Army. 12. Applied Infrared Photography, Technical
Publication M-28, Eastman Kodak Co.,
4. OP 2213, JNrotechnic. Screening, and Rochester, NY 14650, Oct. 1968.
Marking Devices. Dept, of Navy.
13. Data for Aerial Photography. Publication
5. S. H. Green and R. G. Amicone, Predic­ M-29, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester,
tion o f Pyrotechnics Performance. The NY 14650, March 1969.
Franklin Institute Research Laboratories,
Report FR-C1881-2, March 1969
(AD-856 508). 14. L. FinkeJstein, Colored Smokes. Vol. 12
o f History o f Research and Development
6. MIL-STD-444. Nomenclature and Defini­ o f the Chemical Warfare Service m World
tions in the Ammunition Area, Dept, of War i f Army Chemical Center, Edge-
Defense. wood Arsenal, MD, 31 December DM5
(ATI-207 451).
7. Herbert FI Dm, Military and Civilian
Pyrotechnics. Chemical Publishing Co., ) 5. S. Gmndemeier, Survey o f Literature o f
New York, 1969. Chemical Tracking Aids. Report HADC-
TR-57-7, Missile Development Center,
8. TM I 1-401, Elements o f Signal Photog­ Holloman Air Force Base, NM, August
raphy. Dept, of Army. 1957 (AD-135 001).

3-74
 AM CP 706-138

16. Everett D. Craine, et a)., Development o f fare Laboratory under Contract DAA-
Burning-Type Colored Smokes, Report D05-69-C-0188, February 1970.
PATR 3273, Picatinny Arsenal, Dover,
NJ, August 1966 (AD-637 790). 26. Woodrow W. Reaves, et ah, Handy Andy
2-WRD Cartridge (E24 Riot-Control, 40
17. Ben F. Hardway and Bui Quang Trach, mm, CS Cartridge), Report CRDLR
LWL Smoke Target Marker, Final Re­ 3307, Edgewood Arsenal, MD, Septem­
port, Advanced Research Projects Agen­ ber 1965 (AD-470 959).
cy, R&D Field Unit, Vietnam, JRATA
Project No. 2L-505.0, June 1965. 27. TM 3-300, Ground Chemical Munitions,
Department of Army, (see * on next
18. Seymour Lopatin, Development o f oage)
XM144 Hand-Held Ground Signal Series. 28. AMCP 706-179, Engineering - Design
Report TM 1193, Picatinny Arsenal, Handbook, Explosive Trains.
Dover, NJ, June 1963.
29. Ml L-HDBK-137, Fuze Catalog, Depart­
19. James H. AJIison, Type 47 Red Smoke ment of Defense, 20 February 1970.
Tracking Flare, Notes on Development Volume III, P'uze Explosive Components
Type Materiel 257, Picatinny Arsenal, ( U) (Confidential Report).
Dover, NJ, November 1961.
30. Some Aspects o f Pyrotechnic Delays.
20. T. F. Watkins, et a)., Chemical Warefare, Journal Article 22.0 of the JANAFEuze
Pyrotechnics, and the Fireworks Indus­ Committee, 5 December 1961 (AD-270
try. Pergamon Press Inc., New York, 444).
1968. p. 50.
31. OP 2216, Aircraft Bombs, Fuzes and
21. OP 2793, Toxic Hazards Associated with Associated Components, Bureau of Naval
Pyrotechnic hems. Bureau of Naval Weapons.
Weapons.
32. B. L. Davis and G. L. Scillian, Electronic
22. L. A. Salvador, et a)., Survey o f Recent
Time-Fuze Power Supplies for Artillery
Investigations o f Plastic-Bonded and Cast­
Shells. Report TR-1288, U.S. Army
able Smoke Compositions, Special Re­
Harry Diamond Laboratories, Washing­
port, Atlantic Research Corporation, Pre­
ton, DC, 14 May 1965.
pared for Edge wood Arsenal under Con­
tract DA-18-108-AMC-40-A, Apnl 1963.
33. R. B. Goodrich, Thermal Batteries. Re­
23. R. D. Kracke, Improved Phosphorus serve Power Supplies Developed for Am ­
Smoke, Report TCR-13, Army Chemical munition and Weapons Applications, Re­
Center, Edge wood Arsenal, MD. March port TR-155, Diamond Ordnance Fuze
1949. Laboratories (now U.S. Army Harry Dia­
mond Laboratories) Washington, DC, 14
24. V. A. Lehikoinen and M. E. Gluckstejn, March 1955.
Organomeiallic Screening Materials. Re­
port LWL-CR-01C64A, Land Warfare 34. AMCP 706-270, Engineering Design
Laboratory, Aberdeen, MD, 1968. .25* Handbook, Propellant Actuated Devices.

25. A. C. Powell, LWL Floating Liquid 35. Power Cartridge Handbook, NAVA1R
Smoke Grenade, Report ER-6130, AAI Report 7836, Dept, of Navy, March
Corporation, Prepared for the Land War­ 1967.

3-75
36. I M 9-13 00- 214. MHi tary Ex plosives, 46. N. W. Rosenberg and D. Golomb, “Chem­
Depl. of Army. November 1967. iluminescent Techniques for Studying
Nighttime Winds in the Upper Atmo­
37. AMC'P 706-210, Engineering Design sphere'’, Journal of Geophysical
Handbook, Fuzes Research, 68. 3328-33 (1963).

38. AMCP 706-205, Engineering Design 47. M. Zelikoff, F. F. Marmo, ct al, “An
Handbook, Tuning Systems and Compo­ Attempt to Measure Atomic Nitrogen by
nents. Rocket Release of Ethylene at 105 and
143 km” . Journal of Geophysical Re­
39. FM 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions. search. 63. 31-7 (1957).
Dept, of Army, October 1963.
48. C. D. Cooper, U.S Air Force Cambridge
40. A Compendium o f Pyrotechnic Delay Research Laboratory Environmental Re­
Devices. Journal Article 30.0 of the search Paper, No. 15, Project Fire Fly,
JANAF Fuze Committee, 23 October 1962.
1963 (AD-474 833).
49. H. Foppl, et al., “ Preliminary Experiment
41. Tadeus/i Urbanski, Chemistry and Tech­ for the Study of the Interplanetary
nology o f Explosives, Perga mon Press. Medium by the Release of Metal Vapor in
London. Volume 111. 1967. the Upper Atmosphere” , Planetary Space
Science, 13. 95-1 14 (1 965 V
42. W. R. Maxwell. "Pyrotechnic Whisiles’’,
Fourth Symposium on Combustion, 50. F. F. Marmo, L. M. Aschenbrand and J.
Paper 111, The Williams and Wilkins C’o., Pressman. “ArtificiaJ Electron Clouds i,
Baltimore, MD, 1953. p. 906. 11, 111, IV and V” , Planetary Space
Science. 1. 227,291,306 (1959); 2, 17,
43. J. P. Salmon. XM-J4E1 Atomic Explo­ 174 (I960).
sion Simulator. Notes on Development
Type Materiel 238, Picatinny Arsenal, 51. Weather and Climate Mollification, Prob­
Dover, NJ. March 1960. lems and Prospects, Volumes ( and II,
National Academy of Sciences, National
I

44. AMCP 706-165, Engineering Design Research Council, Publication 1350,

Handbook, Liquid-Filled Projectile De­ Washington, DC, 1966.
sign.45
52. C. 1. Davis and R. 1. Steele. “ Performance
45. N, W. Rosenberg, “Chemical Releases at Characteristics of Various Artificial Ice
High Altitudes” , Science, 152. 1017-27 Nuclei Sources” . Journal of Applied Me­
(1966). teorology. 7, 667-73 (1968).

*TM 3 - 3 0 0 , Ground Chemi c a l Munitions, su p e r se d e d by TM 9 - 1 3 3 0 - 2 0 0 , Gr e n a d e s ,

Hand and Rifle; TM 9 - 1 3 4 5 - 2 0 0 , Land N i n e s ; and TM 9 - 1 3 7 0 - 2 0 0 , Military Pvro-
te c h n ic s .

3-76
 A M C P 706-188

CHAPTER 4

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4-1 INTRODUCTION mean and equal standard deviations when

fired under common conditions'. The condi­
4-1.1 GENERAL tions stated in this definition can never be
completely achieved There will always be
Before pyrotechnic ammunition can be
some tolerance, the magnitude of which
designed, it is first necessary to define all of
depends on the cost and effort required to
its requirements. A certain terminal effect is
achieve a near perfect ballistic match.
desired that must be delineated in detail,
including the correct amount of pyrotechnic The ballistic match is expected to improve
composition that will achieve the desired accuracy of fire and the responsiveness of fire
effect. To have the ammunition arrive at the requests. Improved accuracy can .educe
target, the delivery mode must be selected significantly the amount of ammunition re­
and all of its constraints must be taken into quired to defeat targets. Ballistic matching
account. Next, methods of packaging the also reduces the number and complexity of
pyrotechnic mix in the delivery weapon must firing tables required as well as data stored in
be selected -including containers, restraints, fire direction computers. Matching greatly
and ejection method. speeds delivery of ammunition to the targel
Following the design, all components and when surprise fire is desirable. Each projectile
finally the complete assembly must be type not matched ballistically would have to
thoroughly tested to assure reliable perfor­ be registered individually, requiring about 20
mance. Particular emphasis must be given to min and 15 rounds.
make certain that the pyrotechnic mix will
perform as intended over the military tem­ To illustrate the design problem, let us
perature range and that the entire pyrotechnic examine how other projectiles in a family
package will survive tire stresses imposed by might influence the design of a high explosive
the delivery system. projectile. Fig. 4-1 (A)' shows what the HE
projectile might look like if there were no
Designing ammunition for the delivery requirement for ballistic matching. It is a low
mode is further complicated by the fact that drag, high capacity projectile that is easy to
design constraints of other payloads must be manufacture. The top half of Fig. 4-1(B)
taken into account. As a result, ammunition shows how tire design is influenced by the
may be optimum for, say, both high explosive requirement that the ELE projectile be ballis­
and pyrotechnic fillers but not for each of tically matched with a rocket-assisted pro­
these separately. Nonetheless, both kinds of jectile shown on the lower half. The recess
ammunition must perform reliably. The con­ required in the base of the projectile slightly
sideration of multiple ammunition is termed increases the manufacturing costs.
ballistic matching.
A match with a base-ejection projectile is
4-1.2 BALLISTIC MATCHING shown in Fig. 4-1 (C). For proper ejection, the
Projectiles are ballistically matched if the payload of the base-ejection projectile must
impact or burst distribution have the same be cylindrical and to maximize effectiveness,

4-1
A M C P 706-188

the volume must be maximized. Therefore,

the optimized base-ejection projectile is
longer than the other configurations. To
provide aerodynamic stability, the extremities
of the projectile must be relatively light.
Hence, the base and ogive are made of
aluminum, and the steel ogival portion of the
steel projectile is thinned out. The effect on
the HE projectile is a significant increase in
production costs and degraded terminal
effectiveness because of less fragmentation
metal. Figure 4-1. Candidate Projectile
Configurations fo r Ballistic Matching
The selection of a final design can be made
only by means of a rigorous cost effectiveness ever configuration is finally chosen, some
analysis confirmed by ballistic firings2. What- penalty must be accepted to achieve the
desired results.

SECTION 1 DELIVERY MODES AND DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

4-2 DELIVERY MODES one of the tube type weapons discussed in the
paragraphs that follow. Design procedures are
Several modes of delivery are available to essentially the same for all fired projectiles,
the designer of pyrotechnic devices, including only the values of the forces differ in the
tubes and launchers. For each, the interior, various weapons. Note that the quantities
exterior, and terminal ballistic conditions given are merely typical values that do not
must be known. Methods for computing the take into account mode) to model dif ferences.
forces associated with these conditions are While they can serve forfirst-cul calculations,
given in pars. 4-5, 4-6, and 4-7, respectively. the exact values of the actual weapon must be
obtained for meaningful design.
The designer must examine the effects of
the ballistics of the delivery system on the 4-2.1.1 MORTAR
pyrotechnic device so as to insure that the
pyrotechnic will not be degraded by the A mortar is a short weapon designed to be
delivery mode, that it will be delivered to the fired at high elevation (up to 65 deg). It is
target selected, and that it will be deployed muzzle loaded. The bore may be smooth or
properly when its function is required. The rifled. When rifled, a cup-shaped disk of soft
pyrotechnic device may be degraded in one of metal at the base of the projectile is forced
two ways: (I) ihe delivery vehicle may not be outward by the propellant pressure to act as
structurally sound and therefore may collapse rotating band. Mortar characteristics are sum­
or disintegrate, and (2) the pyrotechnic device marized in Table 4-I3 ; complete values are
may be damaged by acceleration or rotational tabulated in Ref. 4. Setback force may be as
forces imposed by the delivery mode. This high as 8000 g but is usually about 600 g
paragraph discusses the characteristics of the lasting For about 3 msec. Spin rate for rotated
delivery system that must be taken into ammunition is up to 2000 rpm.
account when designing pyrotechnic devices.
4-2.1.2 RECOILLESS RIFLE
4-2.1 TUBES
As the name Implies, recoilless rifles do not
Pyrotechnic devices may be projected from recoil. The recoilless feature is achieved by

4-2
 AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 4-1 T A B L E 4-2

SUMMARY OF MORTAR CHARACTERISTICS S U M M A R Y OF R E C O IL L E S S

R IF L E C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
Pro­ Pyro Veloc­
jectile Filler Range, ity. Chamber Pro­ Pyro Veloc­
Caliber Wi, lb Wt, lb yd fpt Press, psi jectile Filler Range, ity, Chamber
Caliber Wt, lb Wt, lb yd tps Press,psi
60 mm 4 0.7 '2000 450 6000
81 m m 11 4.0 2500 700 6000 57 mm 5 0.5 4900 1200 8,000
4.2 in. 27 8.1 5000 900 6000 75 mm 21 1.0 7000 1000 9,000
90 mm 13 2.0 2300 700 9,000
105 mm 46 4.5 9000 1200 10,000
having nozzles at the breech end that permit 106 mm 41 7.7 3000 1600 10,000
propellant gases to escape rearward to balance
the momentum of the forward motion of the
projectile. Recoil less rifles are light and a howitzer was a shorter and lighter weapon
mounted on shoulder or tripod, Recoilless firing at higher elevation with less velocity.
rifle characteristics are summarized in Table The distinction is now less marked. Antiair­
4-23; complete values are tabulated in Ref. 4. craft guns fire at high elevations, and in­
Setback force is on the order of 10,000 g and creased ranges demanded of howitzers have
spin rate, 9000 rpm. necessitated longer, heavier weapons. In gen­
eral considering equal caliber, the gun will
4-2.1.3 GUN AND HOWITZER have the higher velocity, longer range, and less
mobility.
The classification of gun and howitzer no
longer conveys the precise meaning it once Characteristics of guns and howitzers are
did. As formerly defined, a gun was a high- summarized in Table 4-33; complete values
velocity weapon firing at low elevation while are listed in Ref. 4. Values of setback and spin
TABLE 4-3

SUMMARY OF GUN AND HOWITZER CHARACTERISTICS

ProjectileWt, Pyro Filler Range, Velocity, Chamber

Caliber Weapon lb Wt, lb yd fps Press, psi

37 m m Gun 2 0.7 9,000 2600 50,000

40 mm Gun 2 0.2 9,600 2900 40,000
75 mm Gun 19 1.5 14,000 2000 36,000
Howitzer 18 10 9,600 1250 29,000
76 mm Gun 25 1.5 16,000 3200 43,000
90 mm Gun 42 2.0 20,000 2700 38,000
105 mm Gun 45 7.0 10,000 2400 30,000
Howi tzer 42 5.0 12,000 1500 25,000
120 mm Gun 50 75 25,000 3500 38,000
152 mm Gun 49 6.0 9,800 2300 40,000
155 mm Gun 100 15.0 26,000 2800 40.000
Howitzer 100 15.0 16,000 1800 30,000
165 mm Gun 68 20.0 (information isclassified)
175 mm' Gun 147 30.0 35,500 3000 35,000
8 in. Howitzer 200 36.0 16,000 2000 38,000
240 mm Howitzer 360 53.0 25,000 2300 36,000
280 mm Gun 600 102.0 31,500 2500 35,000

4-3
AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 4-4

S U M M A R Y OF S M A L L A R M S C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

Projectile Pyro Filler Velocity, Chamber

Type Caliber Weapon Weight, gr Weight, gr fps Press,psi
M27, Tracer cal .30 Carbine 103 7.0 1SOO 40,000
Ml,Tracer cal .30 Rifle 152 16 2700 52,000
M196, Tracer 5.56 mm Rifle 54 4.2 3200 52,000
M62, Tracer 7.62 mm Rifle 142 8.5 2750 50,000
M26, Tracer cal .45 Pistol 208 5.5 885 19,000
M17, Tracer cal .50 Mach, gun 643 55 2860 54,000
M23,Incendiary cal .50 Mach, gun 512 90 3400 58,000
M220. Tracer 20 mm Mach, gun 1470 31 3380 51,000
M53, Incendiary 20 mm Mach, gun 1546 70 3380 55,000

vary considerably with caliber. In general, the While they can serve for first-cut calculations,
smaller calibers have the higher values of these the exact values of the parameters of the
forces. Setback can be as high as 100,000 g actual launcher must be obtained for mean­
and spin rale as high as 120,000 rpm. ingful design.

4-2.T.4 SMALL ARMS 4-2.2.1 ROCKET

The small arms family includes a scries of Rockets are propelled from smooth-bore
rifles, pistols, and machine guns. It includes in rocket launchers. A launcher may be a single
addition, by a convention established for tube or a number of tubes fastened together
convenience, 20 mm ammunition. The main in one mount to permit salvo firing. Rockets
use of small arms for pyrotechnic application are fm-stabiljzed. For some rockets the fins
is tracer ammunition. Small arms character- fold to allow firing from the tubes but extend
islics are summarized in'fable 4-45. In general into the air slream lor stability after launch­
setback and spin are lower than corresponding ing. Acceleration and setback forces arc gen­
values for guns and howitzers although the erally much less than those of gun-fired
values for 20 mm ammunition are among the ammunition, resulting in lower velocity.
highest to be found. Details about pyro­ Typical values are: setback, 550 g, and spin
technics for small aims ammunition are con­ rale 350 rpm. Even though the rockets are
tained in Ref. 6. fin-stabilized, they usually spin slightly so
that a small spin component must be allowed
4-2.2 LAUNCHERS for. Rocket characteristics are summarized in
Table 4~57-8.
Launchers are tubes from which ammuni­
tion is propelled such as rockets, guided As an example of rockets applied to pyro­
missiles, and special pyrotechnic devices. As a technics, tire 24-tube XM3 Rocket Launcher
class, launched devices are subjected to much (2.75 in.) has been modified for smoke use
lower forces and have much lower velocities when mounted on a helicopter. The adapter
than tube-fired projectiles. As in projectiles, permits laying of a smoke screen up to 1000
design procedures arc very similar for all of m long for periods of I0 min by firing A.N-M8
the devices in the launched class. Note that Smoke Grenades’ .
the quantities given in the paragraphs that
4-2.2.2 OTHER
follow are merely typical values that do not
take into account model to model differences. There is a wide variety of small, launched

4-4
 AM CP 706-188

TABLE 4-5 a special pistol designed to fire pyrotechnic

devices,
S U M M A R Y OF R O C K E T C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
(21 Firing from a mortar type launcher
Rocket Py/O Filler Veloc­ that consists of a vertical steel tube fastened
Size Type Wt, lb Wt. lb ity,fps
to a steel base plate.
66 mm 2 0.7
2.75in. Folding Fin 19 1.5 1800 (3) Hand thrown (for grenades) and or
3.5 in. — 10 2 SOO hand-held combination devices (for single-use
4.5 in, 42 6 1300 launch devices where the case acts as
5 in. Folding Fjrv 107 15 1800 launcher).
5 in. High Vel 138 8 2800
(4) L-.jection, primarily for aircraft
pyrotechnic devices including signals, flares, launched pyrotechnics.
and markers. Most of these are hand manipu­
lated. Characteristics of the hand-manipulated The devices may or may not have delays,
pyrotechnic devices are summarized in Table depending on their intended use. Ah hand-
4-67 1 0 . Four launching methods are com­ manipulated devices are light enough to be
mon: handled easily; they are subjected to small if
(I) Firing from rifle launcher, revolver, or any forces. 1he forces for ejected and
TABLE 4-6

SUMMARY OF HAND-MANIPULATED PYROTECHNIC DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS

Launched Total Wt, Diameter, Burning Time,

Item from Display 02*
10 in. sec

Ilium. Pyro. pistol colored

signal stars 6 1.5 7
Smoke Pyro. pistol parachute-
signal suspended
colored smoke 16 1.5 30
Smoke Rifle colored smoke 12 1.9 18
grenade launcher
Smoke Hand thrown colored smoke 23 2.5 100
grenade
Ilium. Hand. Outer colored 21 1.8 5
signal case ispro­ stars
jector
Signal cal .38 colored streak 0.4 0.4 8
cartridge revolver
Aircraft Aircraft colored light 400 5 180
flare 106 candle-
power
Aircraft Aircraft colored smoke 50 5 3500
smoke
signal
Marine Aircraft colored smoke 50 3 3500
location
marker

4-5
launched devices, less than those of mortar class. Note that the quantities given in Die
ammunition, are on the order of 10 g. paragraphs that follow are merely typical
vaJucs that do not take into account model to
Marine location markers have been adapted model differences. While they serve for firsl-
successfully for use in such terrain as jungles cut calculations, the exact values of the
and flooded rice paddies' 1. parameters actual device must be obtained for
meaningful design.
An interesting example of a small launched
pyrotechnic device is the indoor-outdoor The pyrotechnic devices jn this delivery
warning system developed for civil defense class do have some unique problems requiring
use12, it was designed as an inexpensive special design features. Bombs are affected by
outdoor-mounted alert system that can pro­ aircrafl travel and aerodynamic heating, and
vide instant audible and visual warning, day or submarine-launched devices must contend
night. The device consists of a small (3-lb) with hydrodynamic forces. These topics are
fin-stabilized rocket sealed in a 5 in. metal covered in the appropriate paragraphs.
tube that serves as its launcher. The assembly
is mounted atop a pole or building. On signal, The main pyrotechnic device dropped from
the rocket is expelled and rises to 2000 ft. an aircraft is a bomb. Bombs may be carried
The warning components are an explosive inside a bomb bay or suspended from a bomb
charge, a red smoke cloud, and an intensive rack under a wing position. The bombadier
red flare, the latter being lowered by para­ releases the bomb by means of a n electric
chute. The requirements established for this signal so that it will drop on the target area.
civil defense signal are extremely rigorous. Bombs may be released singly or in clusters
The units must witlistand temperatures depending on the application.
ranging from —65° to 200°F for a minimum
of 10 yr and remain operable without main­ 4-2.3.1 BOMB RELEASE
tenance. No other pyrotechnic device has
been required to meet standards this high. Because the bomb follows the aircraft
Design of the device has been completed. It closely for a short Lime, a risk is involved to
operates by electronic controls from 115-V personnel and materiel in the delivery of
house current. bombs. Fig. 4-213 shows the trajectories of a
bomb after release from an aircraft in hori­
4-2.3 AIRCRAFT LAUNCHED zontal flight. The figure labels the following
important parameters:
Aircraft launched pyrotechnic devices have
the lowest velocities and are subjected to the (1) Safe Vertical Drop (SVD). SVD is the
lowest forces of any delivery mode. This class vertical distance below release altitude in
includes primarily bombs dropped from air­ which the bomb must be safe. Hence it is the
craft. Bombs do not spin. They are not distance during which the fuze is not armed.
subjected to any setback when merely re­ The horizontal component of this distance is
leased from the aircraft but must sustain a called the Minimum Safe Air Travel (MSAT).
small setback force when ejected from a
launching tube. Because submarine-launched, (2) Maximum Drop to Arm (MDA). MDA
stationary, and manual pyrotechnic devices is the vertical distance below release altitude
are subjected to similar small forces, it is at which the bomb must be ready to function.
convenient to consider them in this class as Hence it is the distance at which the fuze
well. must be armed. This distance is also the
minimum altitude at which a bomb may be
Design procedures are very similar for all released and still have an armed fuze upon
pyrotechnic devices in this delivery mode arrival at the target.

4-6
 A M C P 706-188

SVD SA^C V E R T IC A L DROP

designer, by means of a few quick calculations
WO A i.' tiu u u 0 R O P TO arm using a simplified model of his system, to
6 • P O S IT IO N OF P L A N E AT BO M B IMPACT obtain a gross answer regarding the need for
P O S IT IO N OF P L A N E Af BOW
0 - RELEASE
more detailed calculations, the substitution of
pyrotechnics, or their insulation. The discus­
sion that follows is intended as an aid in
making such approximate calculations.

The flow conditions about an object

moving through the atmosphere are most
simple if they are considered in terms of a
coordinate system moving with the object. In
such a system, the undisturbed air is an
infinite stream moving at a velocity of magni­
tude equal to that of the object in a system of
fixed coordinates. Quite clearly, the object
impedes this flow of air. By Bernoulli's
principle (conservation of momentum) any
Figure 4-2. Bomb Trajectories reduction of the velocity of part of the stream
must be accompanied by an increase in
The trajectories shown in Fig. 4-2 present pressure. Rapid compression of a gas causes
the simple case of horizontal flight in which its temperature to trie. The highest tempera­
the drop time is independent, of aircraft ture which may be anticipated in any point in
velocity. In dive bombing, the situation such a system, called the stagnation tempera­
becomes exceedingly complex. Bomb velocity ture, is that of air which has been brought to
then becomes a function of release altitude, rest with respect to the object. The formula
release angle, and aircraft speed. Aircraft for the calculation of the stagnation tempera­
pull-out altitude and velocity are also of ture is
concern. Not only do these quantities differ
for the operational conditions just cited but Tt = r o ( l + 0 .2M 2\ ° K (4-1)
they are also a function of different aircraft
models and loading. Bomb releases curves for where
the aircraft considered must be consulted to T = stagnation temperature, °K
obtain specific values.
T0 = temperature of the undisturbed
Bomb fuzes generally are armed by a atmosphere, 0K
propeller that spins in the air stream. A safety
pin prevents the propeller from rotating prior M ~ Mach number
to releasing the bomb. The pin is attached to
an arming wire that is fastened to the bomb IT the stagnation temperature is below tltal
rack so that the pin is pulled free when the at which the pyrotechnic charge will suffer
bomb is released. any ill effects, there is no problem of aero­
dynamic heating.
4-2.3.2 AERODYNAMIC HEATING
A stagnation temperature high enough to
The determination of temperature profiles have deleterious effects upon the pyrotechnic
within ammunition items affeeted by aero­ is not necessarily reason to take special
dynamic heating is difficult, complex, and measures. Only a small fraction of the surface
quite beyond the scope of the present discus­ of a moving object is exposed to air at the
sion. It is, however, frequently possible for a stagnation temperature. The boundary layer

4-7
AM CP 706-183

of air in contact with the surface at points 4-2.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PYRO­

where there is an appreciable tangential How TECHNIC DEVICES
component approaches a recovery tempera­
ture that is well below the stagnation temper­ The characteristics of pyrotechnic bombs
ature. Typical relationships of recovery tem­ are summarized in Table 4-7’4 . These bombs
peratures to stagnation temperatures are neither spin nor are subjected to setback
forces. Minimum release altitude for smoko
Tr - T0 bombs is 250 ft.
0.8 < ' — < 0-9 (4-2)
' s ' o
4-2.4 OTHER DELIVERY MODES
where
f - recovery temperature, 0K 4-2.4.1 EJECTOR

The value of this ratio varies with velocity, Rather than merely being released, some
position, anJ shape of the object. bombs are pushed out of a lube by an ejector
Cartridge. Ejector firing simulates a rocket
In most instances, projectiles are subjected launcher. Both single shot Tiring and salvo
only for a short period of time to high firing are possible. Setback forces are less than
velocities during their flight at which the those in a rocket because ejection speed is
stagnation temperature of the air would have only about 5-10 fps. Ejected pyrotechnic
an undesirable effect upon the explosives. The devices must have a delay (minimum of 5 sec)
question as to whether the pyrotechnic to clear the aircraft before firing.
materials will teach undesirably high tempera­
ture during such an interval can be answered 4-2.4.2 SUBMARINE LAUNCHED
only by considering in detail the heat flow
into and within each component. Pyrotechnic devices are launched from sub­
marines for signaling and marking purposes.
As the stagnation temperatures rise relative The devices are fired from an ejector tube at
to those at which pyrotechnics are stable and 250 psi above sea pressure. All of these
as designs become more intricate, the means devices have a safety pin that prevents a trip
of resolving doubts regarding whether the lever from opening. The pin is pulled before
charges will survive aerodynamic heating inserting the device into the ejector tube and
become more laborious and less positive. Tire the lever operates after the device leaves the
introduction of a heat barrier may be the only tube. Water pressure is used to arm percus­
way in which these doubts may be removed. sion-initiated devices or to activate the

TABLE 4-7

SUMMARY OF PYROTECHNIC BOMB CHARACTERISTICS

Size, Pyro. Filler Burning Candle-

lb Type Wt. lb Color Time power

250 Identification 66 Red 3 min 25.000

Yellow 3 min 12,000
Greeo 3 min 5,000
175 Phoioflash 82 White 0.04 sec 1.3 x 10'
100 Smoke 72 Red -
100 Pyrotechnic 42 _ _ —

4-8
 AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 4 8. 4-3 D E S IG N C O N S T R A IN T S

S U M M A R Y OF S U B M A R IN E -L A U N C H E D Pyrotechnic ammunition is one component

P Y R O T E C H N IC D E V IC E C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S of a military system, it therefore must con­
form to all of the constraints imposed by the
Total Burning Delay,
system and by tire other components of the
Item Display Wt, lb Time sec
system. Ammunition must function reliably
Marine Colored 4 15 sec and safely in the military environment, must
signal smoke on fit the geometry and weight imposed by the
surface other components, and must be compatible
Marine Parachute- 4 25 sec with them.
signal suspended
stars 4-3.1 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
Location Colored 3 300 sec
Marker smoke on 4-3.1.1 TARGET AND TERMINAL BAL-
surface LISTIC NEEDS
Location Fluoresceni: 8 Slick
marker slickon persists Pyrotedinic ammunition accomplishes its
surface 90 min function when it performs as intended at the
target. There arc essentially two types of
battery of deetricaily-intiated devices. The target: (11 remote, and (2),at hand. To reach
mechanical devices are operated by spring remote targets, the ammunition must be fired,
pressure with a spring force so set that the launched, or dropped from aircraft-often
spring pressure overcomes the hydrostatic over appreciable distances-while being sub­
pressure at a depth of about 10 ft. Character­ jected to various forces, environments, and
istics of submarine launched devices are sum­ conditions. Requirements for nearby targets
marized in Table 4-810 . are not as severe. The pyrotechnic devices are
hand held or attached to stationary mounts.
The devices must still survive the military
4-2.4.3 MANUAL environment.

There is a large variety of manual pyro­ Both maximum velocities and ranges con­
technic devices in the main categories of tinue to increase with improvements in pro­
illumination, signaling, and battle effects pellants and other design features. The values
simulation. Their characteristics are for tube-delivered ammunition are listed in
summarized in Table 4-97. Tables 4-1 to 4-5. Four aspects of ammuni­
tion motion mast be considered by the
Each device has, for arming safety, a designer of pyrotechnic charges, namely:
manual pull pin. The head-held devices are
small so as to be conveniently carried and (1) Range and accuracy of Bred and
held. ! nrgm devices are emplaced either on launched ammunition depend upon its aero­
the ground or aboard an aircraft and fastened dynamic characteristics. The external con­
to a simple rig designed to hold the device in tours dictated by aerodynamic considerations
the right attitude for functioning. The family are a limitation upon the si/e and shape of the
of battle effect simulators provides the sound, pyrotechnic system. Sec par 4-6 for external
light, or smoke of ammunition. The devices ballistic considerations and par. 4-3,2 on
are similar to the ammunition they simulate configuration limiiations.
except they are often simpler and contain a
minimum charge, They are initiated remotely. (2) It is sometimes necessary to modify

4-9
A M C P 706-168

T A B L E 4-9

S U M M A R Y OF M A N U A L P Y R O T E C H N IC D E V IC E C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S

Total Wt, llluminant Delay Time, Burning Candle-

Item lb Wt, lb sec Time, sec power
Photoflash 4 2 4 0.04 4 x 106
cartridge
Aircraft 12 4 7 60 700,000
guide flare
Aircraft 65 31 5-90 1B0 3 x 10‘
flare
Towed air­ 21 15 0 360 80,000
craft flare
GM tracking 2 1 - 90 70,000
flare
Surface trip
flare 5 0.7 3 70 100,000
Ilium, air
craftsignal 0.4 0.2 5 13 50,000
Smoke and 15 4 90 3600 650
ilium, air­
craftsignal
Marine ilium, 3 0.4 50 35 15,000
signal
Ground ilium,
signal 1 0.4 5 10 18,000
Ground smoke 1 0.2 5 8 5,000
signal
Burst simu­
lator 0.3 0.1 0 3

tin: design of pyrotechnic charges in order to rigorous environments. For a discussion of the
distribute the weight properly for flight sta­ environmental forces caused by the ballistic
bility (see par. 4-3.2). system, see par. 4-5. The generaJ surroundings
are termed die military environment. The
(3) Velocities and flight times of many military environment influences the design
modem bombs and missiles are such that choices, type of materials, design of com­
aerodynamic heating has introduced addi­ ponent parts, and methods of packaging. The
tional design problems (see par. 4-2.3.1). main environmental characteristics are:

(4) Acceleration forces during firing or (1) Operating Temperature. The pyro­
launching, fligliL, and impact are the main technic device must withstand temperatures
sources of the structural loading of the ranging from an air temperature of 125°F
ammunition (see par. 4-3.1.3). (ground temperature of I45°F) in hot-day
climates to an air temperature of —50°F
4-3.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS (ground temperature of —65°F) in cold
climates. Temperatures can drop to -SO^F in
Pyrotechnic devices are subjected to bomb bays of high-flying aircraft, and aero-

4-10
 AM CP 706-188

dynamic heating can raise the temperature T A B L E 4-10

above I45°F for missiles launched from high
speed aircraft15. VALUES OF ACCELERATION IN AMMUNITION

Ammunition and Typical Peak

(2) Storage Temperature. -70° to I60°F, Acceleration, g Direction
Condition of Exposure
operable after removal from storage
Projectilesetback when 50,000 Axial
(3) Relative Humidity. 0 to 100% firedingun
Projectile piercing -150,000 Axial or
(4) Water Immersion. For certain applica­ armor Oblique
tions the pyrotechnic device may be required
to be waterproof. In this instance, it must be Rocket or missile, 100 Axial
operable after immersion in water at 70° ± gun launch
I0°F under a pressure of IS ± 5 psi for 1 hr. Rocket or missile, 30,000 Axial
gun launched
(5) Rough Treatment. Operable after with­ Missilesteering 40 Transverse
standing the rigors of transportation and Missileflight
rough handling vibration 10 Random
Mine water entry -2,500 Axial
(6) Fungus. The pyrotechnic device must
not support fungus growth.
time-acceleration function to which his device
(7) Surveillance. Operable after 10-20 yr will be subjected. Table 4-1O'6 lists the magni­
storage. tudes of some typical accelerations that
ammunition is subjected to. The main types
4-3.1.3 ACCELERATION of acceleration in ammunitions are:

Ammunition, when Fired, launched, or (1) Setback.

dropped, is accelerated. In some instances, the
magnitudes of the accelerations are great. To Setback is the relative rearward movement
the designer of pyrotechnic charges, these of component parts in ammunition under­
accelerations produce structural loading that going forward acceleration during firing or
applies inherently to all masses including the launching. Setback is conventionally assigned
pyrotechnic composition itself. Accelerations a positive value. Setback can be quite large in
associated with changes of momentum along tube-fired ammunition but is less so in
the line of flight are always variable, usually launched ammunition. Values for specific
impulsive, while centrifugal accelerations of delivery modes are given in par. 4-2.
spin-stabilized projectiles remain nearly
steady during the time of flight. (2) Setforward

When considering the effects of accelera­ Setforward is negative setback. It occurs

tion on ammunition, its variability must also when ammunition is decelerated in its for­
be considered. On the one hand, it is often ward motion. The largest value of setforward
possible to reduce peaks by use of shock is that associated with impact of hard targets
absorber principles. On the other hand, the such as armor plate. However, pyrotechnic
rapid changes can result in impact forces of ammunition is not usually called upon to
much greater magnitude than those due to the defeat armor. Setforward also occurs when
direct effects of gross acceleration. When projectiles arc rammed into an automatic
considering these effects, the designer should weapon. While weapon designers would like
obtain the best estimates available of the to increase ram velocities, they are presently

4-l l
AM C P 706-188

limited to 1000 g, (he maximum that present 4-3.1.4 TIMING AND SEQUENCING
fuzes can withstand.
The designer of pyrotechnic ammunition
must consider all aspects that involve placing
(3) Sideways Acceleration the device in the desired location with respect
to its target, safeguarding against its operation
Sideways acceleration occurs as a result of until it gets there, and initiating the action at
changes in velocity at right angles to the line the desired place and time. The sequencing of
of travel. Sideways acceleration is caused in these various actions is critical, hi general, the
modem automatic weapons due to seating. In first action is arming; in multistage devices,
practice, perfect alignment of a projectile and Stage separation is next; finally the device
the gun axis prior to firing is not consistently must function.
achieved. Therefore, upon firing, a sideways
force results as the projectile aligns itself with (1) A rming
the gun tube, fo r example, the 175 mm field
gun and the 120 min tank gun have such high All ammunition must be safe during the
lateral forces that fuze ogives have broken off. entire stockpile to target sequence. It must
Fhcsc forces have not been measured or also be capable of being armed in order to
calculated to date. In air-gun and drop tests, function as intended. Safing and arming de­
damage was simulated by accelerations larger vices must have two independent safing fea­
than 10.000 g. tures, whenever possible, either of which is
capable of preventing an unintended func­
Because the accelerations can be large, tioning before the ammunition is projected or
special care must be taken by the designer to emplaced’*. The philosophy is based on Lite
make certain that the ammunition will not low probability that [wo features will fail
fail structurally, an event that would result in simultaneously. Details of fuze arming features
failure to perform at the target as intended. ate discussed in Ref. 13. In all ammunition
Structural failures can result in the failure of that is fired, launched, or dropped, an arming
metal parts, in unstable flight, or both. Metal delay is provided so that the ammunition wilt
part security and flight stability tests are safely clear the delivery system. Hand-held or
commonly performed to test the adequacy of emplaced devices are always provided with a
the design, fo r example, such a test was pull pin, and delay is provided whenever
performed with the 155 mm Projectile, feasible.
Illuminating. XM45917. The projectile with
fuze is 34 in. long and weighs 96 lb. In a (2) Staging
previous test, the load bearing area of the
body base joint was loaded in a 450-ton Staging refers to an intermediate action
hydraulic press to simulate (he setback load required before functioning. The term origi­
resulting from the 10,500-g firing accelera­ nated with the stage separation of missiles but
tion. The projectile passed this test. Firing is also used for such actions as the operation
tests were then conducted at the excess of dissemination containers or the opening of
pressure of 5 1,000 psi both at ambient and parachutes. The time delay required is a
-b5°F temperatures. The projectiles passed function of the specific application and can­
the metal parts security lest but a flight not be generalized.
instability was noted. A bulge was produced
at the intersection of projectile body and (3) Functioning
ogive that was believed to be caused by the
shifting of the dummy illuminating charge Functioning delays vary from microseconds
which was loose. to minutes depending on the particular appli­

4-12
 AM C P 706-188

cation. Mechanical, electronic, pyrotechnic, However, other needed components, such as a

fluoric, or electrochemical timers arc used to parachute pack, take up some of this space,
provide time delays as discussed in Ref 19. hence no generalized statement can be made
For some pyrotechnic applications, the func­ regarding the available space.
tioning must be sequenced, such as when
laying a smoke screen. Here successive smoke 4-3.2.3 GEOMETRY
charges axe sot off at regular intervals that
depend on the type of screen desired and the The rule for hand-held and stationary
speed of the applying vehicle. devices is that any convenient geometry will
serve. The pyrotechnic composition can be
4-3.2 PAYLOAD CONFIGURATION made to fit or the container can be modified
when required; however in propelled ammuni­
The pyrotechnic payload must fit into the tion, geometry' is absolutely fixed. Not only
ammunition for which it was designed, must dimensions be adhered to, but the
neither impairing the performance of the center of gravity must also remain unaltered.
ammunition nor the operation of the payload. This limitation is necessary to permit the
Hence, the payload is limited in weight, size, ballistic matching (see par. 4-1.2). Hence, the
and geometry. Specific filler weights and sizes design constraints of the particular ammuni­
for different ammunitions are listed for the tion are imposed on the design.
various delivery modes in Tables 4-1 through
4-9. 4-3.3 MATERIAL CHOICES

4-3.2.1 WEIGHT Many materials go into the manufacture of

pyrotechnic ammunition. Each must be
The weight available for the pyrotechnic selected to optimize the entire military sys­
filler depends on the ammunition into which tem under consideration. For example, it is
it is to be assembled and on the delivery not optimum to have an "ideaF’ llare mix if it
mode. In general, smaller munitions have Ls incompatible with the housing material or if
proportionally less space than larger ones it is obscured by smoke under the planned
because the metal parts take up a certain conditions of use. Hence, materials must be
minimum space, Thus. 70';! of the volume of selected carefully.
a 100-lb bomb is available fora smoke filler
but only 159c of the volume of an Ml6 Rifle Specific pyrotechnic material are covered
Cartridge for ihe tracer bullet is available. in the same paragraphs as their design. Topics
Weights for hand-held devices are limited to of generaJ concern- compatibility and
about 10 lb. beyond which they are difficult sealants-arc treated in the paragraphs that
to manipulate. follow.

4-3.2.2 SIZE 4-3.3.1 COMPATIBILITY

Like weight, size is a function of the Compatibility implies that two materials,
specific ammunition and delivery mode. All such as a pyrotechnic charge and its con­
lube-fired and launched amiminition have a tainer, do not react chemically when in
definite outside diameter that cannot be contact with or in proximity to each other,
exceeded lor the ammunition to fit. The particularly over long periods of storage.
diameter available for the pyrotechnic com­ Incompatibilities may produce either more
position is further reduced by the wall thick­ sensitive or less sensitive compounds, or affect
ness of the metal housing. Since most ammu­ the parts they touch. If the metal container is
nition is longer than its diameter, more space incompatible With the pyrotechnic charge,
is generally available in the axial direction. coating or plating it with a compatible

4 -!3
AM CP 706-188

material will often resolve the difficulty. The materials. The blank spaces indicate no con­
compatibility of two materials may be deter­ clusive results to date.
mined by storing them together for a long
time under both ordinary and extreme condi­ Of the reactions of explosives with metals,
tions of temperature and humidity. Table that of lead azide with copper deserves special
4-1 l 12 lists compatibility relations among comment. Although this reaction is relatively
various metals and common explosive slow, even jn the presence of moisture, some

TA8LE 4-11

COMPATIBILITY OF COMMON EXPLOSIVES AND METALS

Lead Lead
Azide Styphnate PETN RDX Tetryl
Magnesium N B NS
Aluminum AN AN A N VS A N VS AN
Zinc CN A B VS

Iron N A BS
Steel CN B N VS A VSS CH
Tin AN A AN

Cadmium C A
Copper DN A B N VS AS S AN
Nickel C A AN

Lead N A AN
Cadmium plated steel B NS VS VS AN
Copper plated steel N B N VS B VS VS A VS

Nickel plated steel N BN VS AN S AN

Zinc plated steel N B N VS AN S AN
Tin plated steel N A B VS

Magnesium aluminum VS BNS

Monel Metal CN
Brass DN BNS ASS 8 VS
Bronze N A A VS

18-8 stainless steel AN A ANN ANN AN

Titanium N N N
Silver N N N

CODE

A no react ion H heavy corrosion of metals

8 slight reaction VS very slight corrosion of metals
C reacts readily S slight corrosion of metals
D reacts to form sensitive materials N no corrosion

4-14
 AM CP 706-188

forms of copper azide are so sensitive as to of gases, liquids, dust, or all of these. Two
create a senous hazard even in minute quan­ types of joint on which sealants are often
tities, particularly when in contact with lead used in ammunition construction are the butt
azide. For this reason, it is desirable to use or crimped joint, and the threaded joint. A
.only containers of aluminum and stainless sealant used on threads must not act as a
steel. cement for the threaded joint, but must be
easily broken to permit inspection or repair of
enclosed components. A sealant for a butt or
The compatibility of explosives with a large
crimped joint has greater latitude because
number of plastics has also been studied20. It
this type of joint is usually a permanent one
was shown that the following lypes of plastic
and cementing is desired.
have negligible effect on explosives and are
themselves unaffected: acrylates, cellulosics,
The term sealing materials is also one that
ethylenes. fluorocarbons, nylon, properly
refers to the sheet stock and molded shapes of
cured unmodified phenolics, and silicones.
resilient character that form the gasket type
seals. The materials most often used for this
An important class of explosive materials is purpose include natural rubber, synthelic
that of mixtures of fuels and oxidants. Many rubber, and plastics. Whenever possible, the
of the oxidants used are nitrates, chlorates, designer should use this kind of mechanical
and perchlorates. Water solutions containing seal rather than liquid or paste because
these ions are highly corrosive to metals. The production quality more readily is assured.
alkaline metal salts, with the help of a little
moisture, will pit aluminum quickly. The The following factors must be carefully
trend away from potassium chlorate in weighed when selecting a sealant or sealing
priming mixes is p'art of ihe effort to reduce material:
corrosion. Where explosives are used that
contain metallic nitrates, chlorates, or (1) Physical properties. The sealant or
perchlorates in contact with metals, particular sealing material physical properties - such as
attention should be given the exclusion of tensile strength, compression set, elongation,
moisture. and hardness—must be considered-

In delay compositions, these corrosion (2) Chemical compatibility. The seal must
problems have resulted in widespread use of be chemically compatible with the metals,
chromates that, in addition to being insoluble, fuels, lubricants, explosives, acids, or other
lend to inhibit corrosion. materials to which it may be exposed (see also
item 4 following).

Mixtures containing chlorates and per­ (3) Storage characteristics. The sea) must
chlorates in combination with 'organic withstand exposure to a wide range of envi­
materials tend to be quite sensitive. There has ronments over a long period of time in
been a general reluctance to use such mixtures storage.
except as primary explosives. An exception
has been ammonium perchlorate. (4) Outgassing. Any products of out-
gassing, especially during the curing process of
4-3.3.2 SEALANTS the sealing material, must not cause particle
or organic contamination of electrical con­
tacts nor fouling or corrosion of other parts.
A sealant is a liquid or paste that is applied
to a joint to prevent or reduce the penetration (5) Temperature, The seal must not

4-15
AMCP 706-188

dc&rcdate ai the extrem es o f the m ilita ry cost, ease of application, toxicity, useful
temperature range. pot life, and service life~1.

No sealant or sealing material has all the The materials commonly used as
qualities required. The problem, then, is to sealants include various rubber, neoprene,
choose the best combination of char­ polyesters, alkyds, phenolics, vinyls, and flex­
acteristics. Choice is usually based pri­ ible epoxy resins22. No sealant has been
marily on the overall physical and found (hat will produce a joint as tight as a
chemical properties of the materials and well-soldered joint.
secondarily on its aging properties. Other The designer should investigate the present
things to be considered before a final de­ effort made to apply one component sealers
cision is made arc availability of materials, in order to avoid pot life problems.

SECTION II IGNITION AND BALLISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

4 4 IGNITION will then initiate the main charge. Often a

delay train is included in the second part of
The overall process of ignition involves the explosive train. See par. 3-21 for details
heating a portion of a combustible material- on delays.
such as a propellant or a pyrotechnic mix-
tu re-to its ignition temperature, i.e., the Certain chemical reactions have been used
minimum temperature required for a self­ for ignition trains. An example is white
sustaining reaction. An ignition stimulus that phosphorus exposed in air. Others include
can be reduced to effect heat absorption diethyl zinc or Lriethy) aluminum in a glass
starts a sequence of preignition reactions vial, alkali metals reacting with water, and
involving crystalline reactions, phase changes, sodium. The mixture of iron powder,
or thermal decomposition of one or more of potassium permanganate, and sulphuric acid
the ingredients. In many instances, a gaseous results in a vigorous chemical reaction. See
phase is formed and combustion starts in the Ref. 23 for details on heat effects from
gaseous phase. For more detailed information chemical reactions.
on ignition of pyrotechnic mixtures see Ref.
23. 44.2 METHODS OF INITIATION

44.1 IGNITION TRAIN Pyrotechnic ammunition is initiated with

(I) stab. (2) percussion, or (3) electric
The ignition train consists of an assembly primers. Stab primers are initiated by a
of explosive elements arranged in order of pointed firing pin that punctures the cup. In
decreasing sensitivity. The function of the contrast, the percussion primer is fired with­
train is to accomplish the controlled augmen­ out puncturing its container. A blunt firing
tation of a small impulse into one of suitable pin crushes the priming mix against an anvil.
energy to reliably initiate the main pyro­ Electric initiators differ from stab and percus­
technic composition. Such a train can be sion primers in that they contain the initia­
considered as divided into three parts. The tion mechanism as an integral part. A plastic
first part contains a sensitive initiating com­ plug holding the initiation mechanism makes
position that can be ignited by a relatively up one end of the cylindrical housing. As a
small, mechanical, electrical, or chemical group, electric initiators are more sensitive
stimulus. This initiating composition, on than mechanical primers. While several types
.burning, produces sufficient heat to ignite an of transducers have been employed—viz. hot
intermediate pyrotechnic composition in the wire bridge, exploding bridgewire, carbon
second part of the ignition train. Us output bridge, conductive mix, and spark gap the

4-16
 AM CP 706-188

hot wire bridge is the most common initiation P r o j( d ll< v « lo < rftv

mechanism. For detailed design information

of initiators and for a discussion on methods
of initiation see Ref. 16. Priming composi­
tions arc tabulated in Appendix B.

4-5 INTERIOR BALLISTICS

4-5.1 GENERAL

Projectiles containing pyrotechnics, like all

gun-fjred ammunition, are subjected to
interior ballistic forces while traveling within
the weapon barrel. A brief review of classical
interior ballistics will make clear the forces Figure 4-3. Pressure-travel (solid lines) and
resulting from firing a gunJ4 . Velocity-travel (dotted tines) Curves

A series of pressure waves is produced to the control of interior ballistics in­

within the gun chamber by the burning clude:
propellant. The pressure acts on the rear of
the projectile to force it out of the weapon. A (1) Variation in propellant chemical com­
typical pres sure-travel curve is shown in Fig. position
4-314. The important facts to note from this
figure are: (2) Variation in reaction rates

(1) Curve A cannot be tolerated because (3) Variation in ignition characteristics

the allowable barrel stress would be exceeded.
(4) Variation in shape of grains (grain
(-2) '."he area under any P-u curve is the geometry)
work done on the projectile per unit cross­
sectional area. (5) Variation in charge weight (density of
loading)
(3) To obtain a higher muz2 )e velocity, a
greater area is required under this curve. (6) Environmental factors
Pressure C gives a higher velocity than pres­
sure B. (7) Physical density and mechanical pro­
perties of grains
(4) Force due to the pressure on the round
at every instant is given by F = PA, where P is (8) Effects of retardant coating composi­
the instantaneous pressure, and A is the bore tion and thickness.
area.
The internal parts of a projectile (payload)
Thus the internal force (from setback, etc.) must be able tu withstand without failure any
is governed by the shape of the pressure-travel effects of setback and spin forces that may
curve, that in turn can be altered by a occur within the chamber.
different choice of propellant and gun barrel
length. Since barrel length has a practical Two methods commonly used for interior
limit, the propellant properties are generally ballistic calculations of small arms are given,
manipulated to obtain a desired muzzle with examples, in Appendix C. These can
velocity. Tire propellant variables basic serve in estimating the ballistic performance

4-17
A M C P 706-188

required o f small arm pyrotechnic ammuni­ applied at the mass center of the part being
tion. considered.

4-5.2 SETBACK FORCES Axial acceleration may range from hun­

dreds of g’s for some projectiles to tens of
4-5.2.1 SETBACK IN THE WEAPON thousands of g’s for high-performance wea­
pons (see par.-4-3.1.3). It is important to
Setback results from the relative motion define acceleration levels that must be met by
between parts on or in the projectile body as a pyrotechnic device and then to assure, by
the projectile accelerates. When the projectile design or experiment, that the components
accelerates, unequal forces are applied to its used and their supporting structures remain
components. The projectile is normally intact.
thought of as being a solid, uniform body, but
this is not the case. Most ammunition com­ Structural consideration of the effects of
prises a number of internal components that high-acceleration loading requires the applica­
are accelerated only because the projectile in tion of conventional mechanics and strength
which they are contained is accelerated. of material analysis. The product of the mass
of each pyrotechnic component and the
In most weapons there is an axial com­ number of g’s experienced results in the force
ponent of acceleration and in some instances to which the component will be subjected.
a spin component. Typical accelerations are Mechanical failure of components of pyro­
shown as a function of projectile travel within technic ammunition may result in premature
the bore (see Fig. 4-4). The maximum axial firing or in disruption of the pyrotechnic
acceleration is experienced as the projectile components.
moves down the bore, usually within a few
milliseconds after propellant ignition. The Much has been learned in fuze develop­
axial acceleration force is ments concerning the treatment of high
acceleration; some of this experience is
(4-3) pertinent to pyrotechnic applications that
Fa = M o = Mn , lb
p p \ M) require delivery by high acceleration
means' 3.
where
F0 = axial force, lb

a = axial acceleration, ft sec 1

p = pressure in Ihe gun, psi

A = area over which the pressure actsv

in.2

= mass of the part, slug

K
M = projectile mass, slug

Note in Lq. 4-3 that Fg is directly,rclated

to a and varies with the acceleration time
curve shown in Fig. 4-4. Fa is a force vector Figure 4-4. Typical Acceleration Functions
directed opposite to the direction of motion vs Time (Artillery Projectile)
 AMCP 70&-188

Analytical methods of predicting perfor­ Introduction of a binder into the mixtures

mance have limitations. Among these are will improve performance under high accelera­
incomplete information on the materials tion conditions; however, binders tend to
being used, particularly their ultimate produce large amounts of gaseous products so
strength under the conditions of high setback. that the system can no longer be considered
Hence, designs are completed to the point gasless. Mechanical support of the delay
where prototypes are built and tested, often column at both ends tends to reduce variation
in air guns or centrifuges to recover the in burning times by minimizing slag flow.
components, to assess their performance
under accelerations approaching those of set­ 4-5.3 SPIN FORCES
back. Similar procedures may be used for
pyrotechnic payloads. Some gun bores have helical grooves that
act on the rotating band of a projectile and
Quite often it is found that components force the projectile to spin, producing the
survive setback more readily in one orienta­ acceleration shown in Fig. 4-4. Spin js impor­
tion than they do in another. The orientation tant in maintaining projectile stability. Too
in the payload should be adjusted to provide little spin will cause wobbling and a large
the proper resistance to setback if orientation deviation from the intended trajectory, while
is found to be critical. too much spin will tend to keep the projectile
nose up during the flight. The spin velocity of
the projectile as it leaves the muzzle is related
4-5.2.2 EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION ON directly to the twist of rifling (measured in
DELAY ELEMENTS calibers per turn) and die speed with which
the projectile leaves the gun. Spin velocity
Delay compositions are consolidated with reaches a maximum at the muzzle where the
pressures between 30,000 and 40,000 psi in spin velocity to is expressed as
order to withstand the forces to which they
are subjected in use23 . 247m . .. ..
go - ---- — , rad sec ’ (4A)
nd
Delay elements are often subjected to very
high accelerations while the delay composi­ co - — —, rev sec 1 (4-5)
tion is burning. If the structure of the nd
material at or behind the reaction front is too
weak, the acceleration may cause the hot where
reacting materials to lose contact with the n ~ twist, cal rev 1
unreacted composition or a subsequent charge
and extinguish flic reaction. Quantitative data v = instantaneous projectile velocity,
regarding the resistance of delay compositions ft sec'1
to this type of failure are not available.
However, “slag retention", i,e., the fraction of d - bore diameter, in. (the caliber)
the weight of the original charge remaining in
an open-ended delay column after func­ Twist varies from weapon to weapon and is
tioning, has been used as a possible indication specified as “ 1-50’’ which is read as “one
of the resistance of a delay element to revolution of the projectile for 50 calibers
acceleration forces. The higher the slag reten­ (diameters) of travel along the gun barrel'’ -
tion the greater the setback resistance. Slag which is 1jn when applied to Eqs. 4~4 and
retention for some delay compositions is: 4-5. Twist can also be expressed directly as
manganese, 95%: red lead, 90-95%; tungsten, the number of calibers per turn (cal/tum),
95%; nickel-zirconium, 80-90%; boron,
59-90%. While twist is commonly uniform through­

4-19
AM CP 706-188

out the travel of the projectile, a few guns use When using Eqs. 4-4 and 4-5 for deter­
a variable or gain twist. Here the rifling is mining spin rates, the instantaneous values of
straight in the breech section of the bore with velocity v and rrjn always must be used.
the twist increasing progressively to its highest
value at the muzzle. Uniform and variable With uniform twist, engraving of the
twist can be represented graphically as shown rotating band occurs only until such time that
in Fig. 4-5. Tins type of presentation allows the entire rotating band enters the rifling and
visualization of the relationships among the the grooves of the rifling have been formed in
travel along the bore, the circumference of the band. With increasing twist, however,
the bore, and the angle of twist. Examples of portions of tine band are constantly being
uniform twist and increasing twist are shown engraved.
in Fig. 4-5(A) and 4-5(B), respectively. The
angle of twist <b is the angle between a tangent Spin rates of projectiles vary from 0 to
to the rifling grooves and a line parallel to the 200,000 rev sec"' with no definite relation
center of the bore. For weapons with uniform between caliber and twist. Data for weapons
twist, this angle is a constant. For variable from 20 mm to 250 mm are presented in Fig.
twist the angle is constantly changing. The 4 -6 '3. This nomogram permits determination
relation between the angle and twist is of spin velocity given the muzzle velocity,
twist, and caliber. While the nomograph is
tan 4> = =— (4-6) intended for existing weapons, there is no
dx n reason why it cannot be used for determining
spin velocity for other weapons if the same
characteristics are known.

Spin introduces a radial force vector in

addition to the force generated as a result of
setback (par. 4-5,2). The centrifugal force
vector varies directly with the radial distance
from the spin axis. This force F is deter­
mined from

F = M ar = A* cuV.lb (4-7)

where
I: - centrifugal force, lb

M - mass of the part, slug

ar - radial acceleration, ft sec 2

<u = angular velocity, rad sec’2

r = radial distance from the spin axis to

the CG of the part, ft

4-5.4 COMBINED SETBACK AND SPIN

It can be easily seen that both axial forces

Figure 4-5. Uniform and Increasing (from setback) and radial forces (from spin)
Rifling Twist Rates will occur at the same time in the interior of

4-20
 A M C P 706-138

RATES OF TWIST
cun, mj a m?, 2 “> 99 cal/ turn 9 0"*™ GUN, M (. m 2 a MJ. 5? CA l TyfTN
37 G U K , M j.M f l, W V M 6 a M 'O , 2 5 C A L / r U * N <05 mm HOW.. M l, M 2. MJ 0 M4, 20 CAl - f pjHN
J /m m GUN, M IA? 6 V 9 , JO C A L /TU H N I 2 0 « ^ CUN, m i , JO C A L/TU R N
^Om/r. GUN, Ml. JO C *L /T l>W N I5 i» n m GUN. M |, 2 5 C A L /TU R N
9 7 mm GUN. Ml. JO C A L /TU R N l9 5 » m GUN. M I^ IB U i. ?9 8 9 C A l/J URN
7jm<r» GUN. m j . M 4 . m £ a M i897, 25 59 C A t / t U * * 8 in Gu n . m i . 2 5 c a l 'T j r n
7 GUN. M5A>, 2 2 CAL / t vJPN fliN h Ovj , m i , 25 CA l / T U P n
7 !i / n iti HQ*, MJ, 2 0 CA L/TU RN ?40m m « 0 w . Ml, 25 C A L /T u RN
n GUN. M iA 2 . 52 CAl / T u RN 240iT.m M O * . M J 9 I6 . 20 CA l t U«N
J fN GUN. M i . MG » M 7, 4Q C A L /T U » N

ROTATIONAL v E l OCIT t, r e v /sec

1400 1200 1000 900 GOO 400 200
(GOO

<000 2000 3000 4000

M<j 2 Z L £ W C IO C IT t k <£►*

Figure 4-6. Nomogram for Determining Spin Velocity o f a Projectile

the barrel. Each of these forces contributes to total force F will be a maximum. This
the overall stress in any one part of the location will most probably be near the point
pyrotechnic payload. of maximum setback acceleration where Fg is
dominant. Maximum particle stress occurs
The magnitude of the total force /•' due to when the total force /•', is a maximum.
combined setback force /•" and spin force I \ However, in order to be thorough, maximum
is stresses in tension, compression, and sitcar
should be computed and these compared with
F, = \ A '/ + 1 / ,1b (4-8) the safe allowable stresses lor the materials.

Fig. 4-7 shows the direction of the force 4-5.5 EXAMPLE OF DESIGN PROCE­
acting as a result of these two components. In DURES
addition the resultant force vector and the
direction of this vector are shown. The following design procedure is appli­
cable for an illuminating round to he fired
At some location, the magnitude of the from a howitzer. The designer will make

4-21
AM CP 706-188

DIRECTION OF MOTION, VELOCITY V| ACCELERATION 0

Figure 4-7. Internal Restoring Forces on Particle Within a Projectile

preliminary calculations to determine the having a basic outside diameter of 3.9 in. and
soundness of his design approach and refine a basic inside diameter of 3.6 in. with a cavity
them as the design progresses. The dimensions I 2 in. long to accommodate the candle and
used were not taken from a specific projectile parachute.
design, but are of the order of magnitude of
those found in a medium caliber (105 mm) Weight estimates (lb) for projectile com­
base ejection projectile (see Fig. 3-6 for ponents are:
projectile configuration).
Fuze 2.2
Bearing stress of the projectile body on the
base plate is determined in order to assure Cylindrical shell 9.0
that the projectile (carrier) is not subject to
collapse in compression by the driving force Other, including base plug,
of the propellant gas pressure in the bore illuminant, expellant para­
during firing. A subsequent estimate of the chute, and holder 23.8
combined stress on the rear section of the
projectile determines the effect of the bore Total projectile 35.0
pressure and setback forces. These forces tend
to cause failure of the projectile body by In determining the bearing stress, weighl
separation during firing. An additional initial of candle, parachute, and expelling charge are
calculation should be made to determine the ignored because they bear on a much larger
force which must be generated inside the surface of the base plate which is not con­
projectile by the expelling charge in order lo sidered a critical area. Because of the
properly eject the payload upon Tuze func­ machined mating surface at ihe base plate-
tioning. body junction, the ID at this location is
considered to be 3.64 in. A bore pressure of
4-5.5.1 BEARING STRESS BETWEEN I l ,200 psi is used in calculating the stress.
BASE PLUG AND PROJECTILE The groove diameter of the barrel is 4.19 in.
BODY A more exact estimate of bore pressure may
be obtained by the Le Due equations24.
The weight of the projectile body is deter­ These empirical equations express projectile
mined by approximation from a detail velocity and propellant gas pressure as func­
drawing. For this example the body is of steel tions of time or distance in the bore.

4-22
 AM CP 706-183

The acceleration a applied to the projectile The values of bearing stress calculated in
when fired is this manner are conservative because we
assumed that the driving force of the pro­
pellant gas is applied only through the base
,8 (4-9)
4W plug. In practice, however, some of the
driving force is applied through the rotating
where band to the projectile body, thus lowering the
a = acceleration, g stress at the base plug bearing surface.

groove diameter, in. 4-5.5.2 COMBINED STRESS IN THE PRO­

JECTILE BODY
P = peak pressure, psi
In making this calculation, the conditions
W = weight of projectile, lb and location chosen are those considered
most critical, namely, the stress on the wall
^ 3.14X (4.I9)*X 11,200 just aft of the rotating band. Projectile ID and
4 X 35 OD are, respectively, 3.6 and 4.04 in. The
analysis is based on the behavior of a thin-
The force / ' necessary to accelerate all walled cylinder. The hoop stress Sh due to the
mass forward of the base plug is bore pressure is

Fb = a lb (4-10) 2rf (4-12)

•S, = P„ ,2 r1 , PS]
r \ ~ r1
where
Fa ~ accelerating force, lb where
Sh - hoop stress, psi
a - acceleration, g
P - peak pressure, psi
Wh = weight of fuze and body, lb
rl = outside radius of projectile body, in.
Fg - 44 10 X 1 1.2 = 49,400 lb
r7 = inside radius of projectile body, in.

The source ot this accelerating force is the

propellant gas acting on all surfaces aft of the Sh = 11,200 ( . )2_ |
2 2 02 000 psi
(2.02)2 - (1.8)2 j
rotating band including the rear band surface.
The force is applied to the bearing surface of The longitudinal stress S9 is
the base plug and body. The bearing stress Sb
in this area is
(4-13)
65 A
r% 0 -
sb (4-11)
where
St = longitudinal stress, psi
where
Sb = bearing stress, psi
F = longitudinal force, lb
A = area of the bearing surface, in.2
A = area under stress, in.2
49,400
■= 3 1,500 psi There are two forces acting in the projectile
S*> 3.14
[(3.9)2 -(3 .6 4 )2]
body in the longitudinal direction, the set-

4-23
back force of (lie con tents applied to the base the cross-sectional area of the shear pins
plate and the driving force applied to the calculated.
rotating band. Examination indicates these
forces are applied so as to oppose each other. As an example, the following procedure
We shall arbitrarily designate the setback, may be used to determine the size and
force as being positive. Assuming the contents number of shear pins required. Assuming a gas
of the project ite weigh 25 lb pressure of 3000 psi from the ejection charge,
the shear force Ft on the pins is calculated by
(441 n X 25) - 11,20Q ^J . - 1 jjn 19)4 _ (4.04pJ

r.i4 r i
— U4.04)5 - (3.6)1

- 37,000 psi
where
The combined stress Sc in the projectile wall F - total site ar force, Ib
during firing can then be estimated
______ F - gas pressure, psi
Sc - Vs?. + Si . psi (4-14)
P = diameter of the base plate, in.
where
Sc - combined stress, psi 3000X 3.V4 (3.6)z
F5 30,500 lb
4
S,' = hoop stress, psi

= longitudinal stress, psi

.9. = s/( M0,000)2 +(37,700)z = 119,000 psi

The results of this design analysis indicate

that the critical stress is the combined stress
aft of the rotating band. The magnitude of
stress indicates that this design may be safely
executed in carbon steel, but in iron, only
pearlit.ic malleable iron is usable; and careful
design and manufacturing procedures are re­
quired.

4-5.5.3 FORCE REQUIRED OF THE EJEC­

TION SYSTEM TO RELEASE THE
BASE PLUG

The base plug is held tightly in place by

shear pins that must be broken by forces
produced by the ejection charge (see Fig.
4-8). The design problem at Lhis stage can be
solved by several approaches; the diameter
and number of the shear pins can be specified
and the pressure required from the ejection
charge calculated, or the pressure developed Figure 4-8. Forces on Base Plate o f
by the ejection charge can be specilled and Illuminating Round

4-24
 AM CP 706-188

Then the cross-sectional area A of the shear The action of this pressure is comparable in
pins is calculated time with the acceleration introduced by
setback. The time period is long with respect
to the transit time for a shock wave to
progress through the explosive column, but
short for the transfer of heat from the
where explosive material to the surroundings. The
A ~ cross-sectional area of the shear pins. process, therefore, may be considered essen­
tially adiabatic.

S = ultimate shear strength of the pins, It is for this reason that long columns and
psi loosely packed explosive materials are un­
desirable. Voids in cast explosives and inter­
In making this calculation for a design in stices in powders experience dramatic rises in
which steel shear pins are used, the usual temperature during setback.
practice is to use the factor (0.75) times the
ultimate tensile strength of the material as the Furthermore, many explosive materials will
vjilue for the ultimate shear strength. In this fail structurally under high setback forces.
case Sr is estimated at 40.000 psi. Then The answer to minimizing these effects is to
provide adequate support for explosive
_ 30,500 _ columns, to precompress materials with high
A = 0.763 in.2
40.000 consolidation pressure, and eliminate voids in
explosive charges.
ll three shear pins are to be used, their
diameter d , in., is Consider a flare composition of initial
density pQ - 1.7 g cm'3. 10 in. long. At an
(4- 1 7 ) acceleration of 30.000 g, the pressure at the
base of this column would be about 18,300
psi. Many flare compositions would fail in
compression under these circumstances and
= 0.56 in. fluid-bke flow would occur. Adequate sup­
'3x3.14
port of the composition is imperative under
these conditions.
4-5.6 HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES
4-5.7 PROPELLANT CHARACTERISTICS
Often explosive materials are considered to
behave as fluids'3. If this is the case, the For a given gun system —i.e., projectile
pressure P at the bottom of a cavity con­ mass, diameter, and barrel length-the shape
taining an explosive charge is given by of the pressure-travel curve can be altered by
the characteristics of the propellant2 s . In
P - 0.036 pLa, psi (4-18) considering the characteristics of the pro­
pellant we should know the effects of grain
where size, composition, geometry, and the density
P = pressure, psi of loading. Although in a final design all
factors may be involved, it is of basic impor­
p - density of explosive, g cm'3 tance to note first the independent effects of
each variable. Much work has been done in
a = acceleration, g the past to record these effects indepen­
dently. They are summarized in the para­
L - column length, in. graphs that follow.

4-25
AM CP 706-188

4-5.7.1 GRAIN COMPOSITION

Grain composition will fix the burning rate

at various pressures and temperatures, and can
be related to other propellant compositions
by a term known as the “quickness” of the
propellant. This is a relative term. The most
commonly used propellant (single-based,
gelatinized nitrocellulose) has a burning rate
of 0.1 to 18 cm sec'1 from ambient to 60,000
psi, respectively. A quick propellant will bum
more rapidly and in general produce a higher Figure 4-10. Typical Shapes of
pressure in a given gun than a slow one. Propellant Grains

4-5.7.2 GRAIN SIZE illustrated on Fig. 4-11. One should also note
that the area under each curve in Fig. 4-12 is
Tire effect of grain size (surface area about the same because equal charge weights
variable) for a fixed weight of a given pro­ were fully consumed, thus exit muzzle veloc­
pellant is as shown on Fig. 4-926. Small grain ity should be about the same in each
size can be related to large surface area, instance.
medium grain size to medium surface area,
and large grain size to small surface area. 4-5.7,4 DENSITY OF LOADING

4-5.7.3 GRAIN CONFIGURATION Increased loading density increases the

amount of energy available, increases the
Propellant grains can be made of various maximum pressure attained, and causes peak
sizes and shapes as illustrated in Fig. 4-I026. pressure to occur sooner in the travel of the
The effect of some of these on the pressure- projectile.
travel curve for a given weight of charge is
illustrated m Fig. 4-1 I26, where the terms The Force on the projectile at each instant
degressive, neutral, and progressive are in­ is the instantaneous pressure at the projectile
dicated. These terms refer to the fact that the position in the gun barrel (pressure may be
area exposed to burning is decreasing, re­ taken from rhe pressure-travel curve, see Fig.
maining the same, or increasing, respectively, 4-3) multiplied by the bore area of the gun.
as the charge is burned. Fig. 4-1 226 shows the Thus the force exerted on the back face of
exposed area as a function of “ percent grain the round follows the pressure-travel contour.
consumed’’ for some of the grain shapes This is also the force that gives the projectile
mass its acceleration. Experiments have

Figure 4-11. Effects o f Grain Configuration

Figure 4-9. Effects of Varying Grain Size for on Pressure-travel Curves for
Equal Charge Weigh ts ■Equal Charge Weights

4-26
 AM CP 706-188

make use of conventional ammunition as

carriers. Firing tables exist for conventional
weapons and ammunition, describing fully the
flight characteristics of projectiles. At times it
will be necessary for the pyrotechnic de­
signers to deal with problems of trajectory,
stability, and subprojectile deployment.

4-6.2 TRAJECTORIES

The trajectory of a projectile may be

computed rather easily when eliminating (I)
PERCENT by wei gh! drag forces, (2) forces due to the rotation of
OE GRMN CONSUMED
the earth, and (3) effects due to the curvature
of the earth. In present pyrotechnic practice
Figure 4-12. Relative Areas o f Burning as a the latter two assumptions may be made
Function of Percent o f Individual Crain without serious errors being introduced into
Consumed for Several Typical Grain Shapes the Final result. For great altitudes and long
ranges, however—such as with intercon­
shown that the resisting force due to en­ tinental ballistic missiles and long range artil­
graving is large initially as the entire band is lery-these factors must be considered28.
engraved, then falls off rapidly after engraving
is complete. The basic differential equation of exterior
ballistics is
4-6 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
MR - Fd + Mg 14-19)
4-6.1 GENERAL
where
Exterior ballistics is the science of the M - projectile mass, slug
motion of projectiles in flight. Whereas the
times of inierior and terminal ballistics are R = vector distance from muzzle to pro­
short, projectiles spend most of their active jectile, ft
life in the exterior ballistic phase. Hence, this
phase is the main cause for inaccuracy in the g = vector of the acceleration due to
ballistic weapons, artillery, recoilless rifles, gravity, ft sec'2
and small arms. Some of these inaccuracies
may reflect faults in the original construction Fa = drag force, slug-ft/sec2 (lb)
of the projectile.
If the vector relations are reduced to their
Exterior ballistics draws greatly on statis­ respective magnitudes, equations for the
tical parameters based on physical phenomena vector projection on x- and .y-axes are
that are best defined by experimental results.
A vast amount of information has been Mx = — Fd cos 4> (4-20)
developed on both theory and practice of
exterior ballistics. The phenomena affecting
the flight of projectiles are well understood My = - Fd sin <p - Mg (4-21)
and developed in delail in military texts24•11.
where
Ammunition containing pyrotechnics may 4> - angle of elevation, rad

4-27
 a: = distance from the muzzle to the x-pro- Using the drag function of Eq. 4-22 and the
jection of Lhe projectile, ft fact that sin $ = y/v and cos <t> = x /v , rhe
traditional form of the ballistic equation is
y = distance from the muzzle to the ^-pro­ achieved. Tire equations must be modified to
jection of the projectile, ft accommodate yaw, wind, and earth cur/ature
and rotation for practical applications as
The drag force F'd is expressed as follows:

Fd - K0 p d- v1, lb (4-22) a = - Kd p(d2/M)vx (4-24)

where
Kd = normalized drag, dimensionless > - - Kd p(d2/M)vy - g (4-25)

p = air density, slug ft'3

d = projectile caliber, ft From the differential equations, Eqs. 4-24

and 4-25, it can be seen that two projectiles
v = projectile velocity, ft sec 1 of different size and weight may have the
same trajectory provided (1) the factor d2/M
Solving Eq. 4-22 for KD is identical, (2) they have the same shape (this
means KD will be the same), and (3) the
E,
(4-23) initial condition of velocity and elevation are
pd2v2 the same. Thus, the ratio of d 2jM becomes an
important consideration. Its reciprocal, M /d2
Tire normalized drag was determined experi­ is given the name ballistic coefficient. This
mentally by several investigators, notably coefficient describes the properties of a pro­
Gavre and Kent as Giown in Fig. 4-1325. The jectile in better terms than the caliber alone.
value of Kd varies from about 7 to 10 for M For homologous (have the same shape) pro­
values up to 0.8. {M is (he Mach number, the jectiles, M is proportional to d2 arid the
ratio of projectile velocity to sound velocity.) ballistic coefficient is most often approxi­
Most pyrotechnic devices travel in lhe range mately proportional to caliber d\ but the
below Mach 0.8. ballistic coefficient contains information on
mass and shape as well as implied information
on drag.

A chart that estimates the range of sub­

sonic projectiles, shown in Fig. 4-1425, is
useful for most pyrotechnic projectiles. This
chart allows for determinations of range as a
function of maximum vacuum range, given
the muzzle velocity v (ft sec'1) and a decelera­
tion factor c (ft'1). Tire range chart is based
on the principal results of the Otto-Lardillon
theory of square law drag. The abscissa is the
range in terms of the maximum vacuum
range. The ordinate, plotted on such scale
that the ordinate is proportional to muzzle
RATIO f OROJECTU: VELOerry TO SOVNO VELOCITY
velocity, indicates the importance of drag.
Figure 4-13. Effects of Projectile The base line of the figure represents the
Velocity on Drag vacuum trajectory.

4-28
 A M C P 706-188

gK _ _______ RANGE________
^2 “ MAXIMUM VACUUM RANGE

Figure 4-14. Range Chart for

Subsonic Projectiles

4-6.3 STABILITY A so-called standard structure is often

assumed in the design of ammunition in
Stability as applied to projectiles means which (1) the cross-wind forces arc assumed
that the projectile maintains its positional to be zero. (2) the sound velocity is assumed
integrity along the line of flight. Stabilization to be I I 20 ft sec'1, and (3) the air density
is accomplished either by spinning the pro­ varies according to the relation
jectile or by placing fins on it. This subject is
discussed in detail in Ref. 24. P = P0 e - hy (4-26)

In practice, stabilization is accomplished by where

applying a restoring force to any external p = weight air density al height, y. lb ft"3
fore? tending to misalign the projectile from
the line of flight: either of the two methods— P0 - initial weight air density. 0.07513
fins or spinning—can accomplish this task. lb r r 3
The main forces tending to deviate the pro­
jectile from :i vacuum flight are cross-vyind y ~ height, ft
forces and drag forces. It mu's* be pointed oul
that the cross-wind forces are allOca function h = a constant, 0.0000316, ft'1
of air density and Mach number both of
which vary to some degree with altitude. Fin sts hlization is accomplished by locat-

4-29
AM CP 706-188

ing the center of pressure behind the center of

gravity of the projectile (as illustrated in Fig.
4-15). At the center of pressure, a force R ,
the component of cross-wind force F. per­
pendicular to the direction of motion, and the
drag force Fd act to restore the fin-stablized
round to alignment with the motion of the
center of gravity. Cross-wind forces are the
result of unequal pressure on the fins. The
drag force is small and is often disregarded.
Figure 4-15. Cen ter o f Pressure Trails Cen ter
The structure of the fins is critical in o f Gravity — Fin-stabilized Projectile
producing good stability. Tbe problem is that
M = b(Fd + Fc cot 5), lb ft (4-28)
any asymmetrical differences in fins may
produce a rudder effect causing the projectile where
to veer off course. This effect is minimized by b = distance from center of gravity' to
introducing a roll to the projectile (nominally center of pressure, ft
5 to 15 rad sec"1), thus distributing any
asymmetry. This action allows for wider Fd = drag force, lb
tolerances in ihe fin construction and to some
extent reduces errors due to production, Fc = cross-wind force, lb
handling, and launching.
& = angle of yaw, rad
Spin-stabilized projectiles, in contrast to
fin-stabilized projectiles, have their center of For small angles of attack, Fd and cot 5
pressure forward of the center of gravity as is usually are ignored.
illustrated in Fig. 4-16. Note that the same
forces exist here through the center of A stability factor from unity to 2.5 general­
pressure as they did in fin-stabilized pro­ ly indicates that the projectile will perform
jectiles. well with the center of pressure leading the
A stability factor SF may be calculated for center of the gravity. If the factor is less than
a projectile to predict the degree of stability one, the projectile will tumble, lose range and
of a relatively untried projectile is inaccurate. Factors greater than approxi­
mately 2.5 produce over stabilization which
fl A^ may result in the projectile landing base first.
SF (4-27)
4IM

where
/ = axial moment of inertia of the projec­
tile, lb sec2 fl

I = moment of inertia about a transverse

axis through the center of gravity,
lb sec2 ft Figure 4-16. Center o f Pressure Leads Center
o f Gravity —Spin-stabilized Projectile
N - rate of spin of the projectile, rad sec"1
4-6.4 SUBPROJECTILE DEPLOYMENT
M ~ overturning moment factor, lb ft
Pyrotechnic devices are often delivered to
The overturning moment factor is defined by the target by subprojectiles. Hence, it is

4-30
 AM CP 706-188

necessary to activate the pyrotechnic device methods of deployment are as diverse as the
or the subprojectile at some predetermined ammunition itself. For this reason, much of
time or position. This is done by removing the the subject matter in this handbook deals
device from its container which could be a indirectly with the deployment of pyro­
bomb, projectile, or rocket. This action is technic payloads. This paragraph, however,
accomplished in a number of different ways discusses deployment specifically. In any de­
that depend upon the delivery mode, the sign where deployment of a pyrotechnic
nature of the pyrotechnic device, and the payload is being considered, see also the
terminal effects desired. paragraphs on the specific effects desired,
such as exterior ballistics (par. 4-6), fuzing
The design of a pyrotechnic package for an and timing (pars. 3-9 to 3-21). and parachutes
artillery projectile is shown in Fig. 3-6 and and other decelerators (par. 4-8).
described in par. 4-5.5.3, where an ejection
charge provides the stimulus to shear pins and
the energy necessary to eject the cartridge, 4-7.1.1 LIGHT PRODUCING PAYLOADS
including parachute and flare into the atmo­
sphere. This example serves to describe the
process of ejection and deployment. Deployment of light sources having a fixed
time delay must be analyzed in advance. In
Deployment is sometimes accomplished by projected devices, if the trajectory and the
drag forces experienced after ejection of the delay are known, an angle of elevation can be
sub projectile. For example, a ribbon is specified that will cause illumination to begin
allowed to trail the subprojectile. It creates at the desired height. Alternatives for pro­
enough drag force to rip a parachute from the jected illuminating devices are variable-time
subprojectile package. Details of parachute fuzes, variations in the elevation angle, or
design and opening devices are covered in par. changes in the launch velocity. All of these
4-8. complicate the design or increase the cost.
Ejection charges and their requirements are
determined in much the same manner as are
charges for other propellant applications as An example of a projected device that
discussed in par. 4-5.7. makes use of a fixed time delay is the marine
signal shown in Fig. 4-1729. This signal is a
The strength of the containers of the hand-held night distress signal for use by
pyrotechnic charge is important. However, aircraft personnel if forced down over water.
unlike in the case of gun tubes, only one When held at a specified angle, it ejects two
application of propellant gas pressure is re­ red stars, successively, to a height of about
quired. General design formulas for thin-wall 175 ft, which may be seen for 2.5 to 3 mi on
tubes may be applied to the solution of a clear day and 12 to 15 mi on a clear night.
stresses in the tube walls. Experimental proce­
dures usually follow the design stages of
pyrotechnic sub projectiles. Experimental When the firer pulls the retainer fork, the
techniques may benefit from measurement of firing pin is released under the force of the
strains in the tube as outlined in par. 5-8.1. firing pin spring. This initiates the primer
which in turn ignites the igniter that projects
4-7 TERMINAL BALLISTIC CONSIDERA­ the igniter holder assembly about 10 ft from
TIONS the signal. This projecting charge also ignites
the first delay charge which bums 2 to 4 sec
4-7.1 PAYLOAD DEPLOYMENT
before igniting the ignition charge, the quick-
The deployment of the payload is the match, and the first ejecting charge. That
ultimate objective of ammunition. The charge ejects and ignites the first star charge

4-31
 Figure 4■17. Signal, Illuminating Marine, AN-M75

and ignites ihe second delay charge. The ft to a maximum 12,000 ft. Trip of the fuze is
second delay also burns for 2 to 4 sec and accomplished by means of a lanyard attached
then ignites a similar scries of elements to to the aircraft and the flare. Upon drop, the
eject the second slar charge, leach star bums lanyard pull begins the time sequence in the
for 4 to 6 sec. fuze.

Other light producers, such as bombs and Photoflash bombs are deployed in much
aircraft flares, make use of fuze mechanisms the same manner as other bombs, i.e.( they
to provide variable delay times29. These times are dropped from bomb racks23. They are
normally arc indicated in terms of the drop timed by fuzing mechanisms set to react at
distance to the deployment of the flare. The various heights above the ground, but their
aircraft parachute flare shown in Fig. 3-5 is an reaction is different from most pyrotechnic
example of such a device. Setting is accom­ devices. The bomb payload is a consolidated
plished by means of a setting ring. Drop flash powder that must be dispersed rapidly
distances are variable from a minimum of 300 to produce a flash of intense light, t or this

4-32
 A M C P 706-188

reason dispersal and reaction of the powder is 4-7.2 FLOTATION

accomplished by a high explosive core. These
devices are treated as high explosive bombs in In applications where pyrotechnic devices
normal supply, storage, and handling pro­ are to be used in the waicr, consideration
cesses. must be given to the process of flotation in
addition to the other considerations of prepa­
ration for the water environment; i.e., ade­
4-7.1.2 SMOKE PRODUCING PAYLOADS quate protection of the device from ihe
effects of water pressure, corrosion, and
Smoke producing devices are similar in leakage.
many respects to light producers i.' cept that
the time delay need not be as lightly con­ Archimedes’ principle stales that a body
trolled. Devices that produce smoke normally partially or wholly submerged in a liquid is
do so for much longer periods than those buoyed up by a force equal to the weighs of
producing light. If the delay times are con­ the fluid displaced3’ . Thus, an object will
trasted with those of photoflash units, it is float if the weight of the liquid displaced is
clear that the delay limes for smoke pro­ equal to or greater than the weight of the
ducers are far less critical than those for object. Conversely, it will sink if the object
photoflash applications. weighs more than the liquid displaced. A
floating object, therefore, must be less dense
Most smoke producers are either hand held than the water in which it is placed. Nominal­
or emplaced. Few are air dropped for marking ly, fresh water has a density of 62.4 lb ft'3
purposes. Some pyrotechnic devices are and sea water has a slightly greater density
designed to produce both light and smoke SO (64 lb ft'3).
that a dual, day-night function can be served
by a single device3 0. Stability of a floating object depends upon
the relationship of three centers of the float­
4-7.1.3 CHEMICAL AGENT AND SMOKE ing object as depicted in Fig. 4-18, i.e., ( I ) she
PRODUCING PAYLOADS center of gravity G is the point at which the
resultant downward force (the weight) 3cts,
Chemical agents and smokes are usually (2) the center of buoyancy B is the center of
deployed by mixing the smoke or agent the volume of the displaced water, and (3) the
producers with pyrotechnics. The pyrotechnic metacentci /!/ is the point ai which the line of
serves to vaporize the smoke or agent and to action of the buoyant force intersects (he
expelt it into the atmosphere whereupon center line of tire floating object.
recondensation occurs. The result of this
combination of agent and pyrotechnic is a Two conditions of stability are indicated in
small package having good dispersal, capable the figure. In Fig. 4-18(A) the object is
of easy handling, and permitting long-term unstable and will tip over because the flota­
Storage. tion force F and the weight force W acting at
M and G, respectively, represent an overturn­
Employment normally consists of igniting ing moment tending to rotate the object in
the pyrotechnic mixture. In the case of the direction already taken. In this state of
smokes and chemical agents, it is desirable to instability, the center of gravity is above the
have them disperse over a long period of time metacenter.
Burning rates are controlled for this purpose
and to maintain the temperature of the The second condition in Fig. 4-18(B) shows
mixture at an optimum value during delivery. the center of gravity below the metacenter.
These factors are further discussed in pars. The torque caused by the forces F and IF, and
3-1 I and 3-13. the acting arm of these forces indicate a

4-33
AM CP 706-188

Fig. 3-1 I. Alternatively, the pyrotechnic may

be designed for continuous functioning under
water.

4-8 PARACHUTES AND OTHER DECEL-

ERATORS

Control of the terminal velocity or descent

time of pyrotechnic candles and signals over
(A) Unstoble (8) stable
C o n fig u ra tio n Co n fig u ra tio n targets can be obtained by proper use of
parachutes or oilier decelerators. The type of
decelerator chosen for given application is
Figure 4-18. Conditions o f S ta b ility and usually based upon consideration of the fol­
Ins tab ility o f a Floating Object lowing interrelated factors:

righting force tending to bring the floating (1) Drag force required to slow descent
object back to its vertical position.
(2) Stability required for the paytoad
In practice, flotation considerations can be
considerably more complicated than is indi­ (3) Peak force experienced in deployment
cated by these basic principles in that the
dynamics of the actions are more difficult to (4) Bulk and weight of the decelerator
describe and analyze. More detailed informa­
tion is available in literature on ship design31. (5) Environmental conditions
However, these basic discussions make certain
of the desirable conditions evident. It is (6) Manufacturing cost
desirable to have the center of gravity located
as low as is practicable on the floating object. (7) Reliability.
Similarly, it is desirable to have the meta­
center very high on the floating object. U is For most applications with a deployment
further important to have a relatively large velocity less than Mach 3, parachute systems
distance between these two points on the can provide stability, variation in descent
object. Such structures have been practically parameters, and a minimum of Storage
achieved in what are known as “ flip” ships. volume. From Mach 3 to Mach 7, deployable
These are long slender ships that are sailed to rotors, spheres, cones, and flared skirts can be
their station. They are then partially flooded made stronger than parachutes and are more
to give them a vertical attitude. By having a suitable to provide the drag forces. Generally,
large distance from (he center of gravity to more storage volume is required for the latter
the metacenter, they are extremely free of types. The complexity of parachute and
motion induced by wave action. decelerator design limits the presentation in
this handbook to general considerations. A
Deployment of pyrotechnic devices may comprehensive reference should be consulted
take place from boats including submarines, for details33 >34.
surfaces ships, and life rafts; or it may take
place from aircraft. The device may experi­ 4-8.1 PARACHUTES
ence immersion during deployment or upon 4-8.1.1 PARACHUTE TYPES AND NOMEN­
exposure to wave action. It is therefore well CLATURE
to include a restart feature that will re ignite
the pyrotechnic, such as is inherent in the Fig. 4-I9 illustrates a simple, flat, circular
design of the Marine Location Marker, Mk 2, parachute commonly used to decelerate illu-

4-34
 AM CP 706-188

surface between the radial seams (triangular

segments in the solid, flat, circular canopy).

(6) Permeability. The measured volume of

air that will flow through one square foot of
cloth in one minute at a given pressure (in
United States a pressure of 0.5 in. of water is
used; in Great Britain, I0 in. of water).

(7) Porosity. The ratio of open space to

total cloth (including slots and vents) area of
the drag producing surface. Also known as
geometric porosity.

(8) Riser. That portion of the suspension

system between the lower end of a group of
shroud lines and the point of attachment to
the store. It must be as strong as the total
strength of all the shroud lines attached to it.
It is also known as the suspension cable.
Parachute
(9) Squid. A partially opened canopy that
minating candles. Definitions of some terms is fully deployed and whose pear shape makes
associated with parachutes follows: it resemble a squid with tentacles. This term is
also used as a verb. Squidding occurs if the
( 1) Canopy. The drag producing surface canopy is deployed above critical opening
(cloth area or sail). velocity.

Deployment. The portion of the opera­ (10) Store. A payload, other than human.
tional sequence of a parachute occurring from
the initiation of ejection to the instant the (I I) Velocity, critical closing. The instan­
lines are fully stretched. taneous velocity above which the parachute
will collapse into the squid shape. Also known
(2) Diameter, constructed, d . The design as the upper critical velocity.
diameter along the radial (main) seam of a
parachute or tire maximum diagonal of a (12) Velocity, critical opening. The veloc­
parasheet. ity at or under which a parachute will fully
inflate from a squid shape. Also known as the
(3) Diameter, nominal, dg . The calculated lower critical velocity.
diameter of a canopy equivalent to the
diameter of a circle whose total area equals (13) Velocity, equilibrium. The velocity
that of the drag producing surface. Vent area that a falling body can attain when the drag is
larger than l% of the total area is deducted equal to the weight, i.e., when the accelera­
from the total area. tion for all practical purpose equals zero.

(4) Diameter, projected, dp . The mean Flat parachutes have a canopy made with
diameter of the inflated canopy measured in triangular gores joined to form a regular
the plane of maximum cross-sectional area.5 polygon. The canopy will be flat when spread
out. Parasheets consist of parallel fabric sec­
(5) Gore. Portion of the drag producing tions that form a flat canopy in the shape of a

4-35
 ( A) CHUTE ( B 1 GORE

Figure 4-21. Shaped Parachu te

full size can also influence performance.

Design estimates are normally made witli
specific data plus information from similar
parachute systems and these estimates are
Figure 4-20. Parasheet refined with successive iterations. It is general­
ly accepted by design engineers that a practi­
regular polygon as shown in Fig. 4-20. 'he cal, effective, parachute system for a specific
parasheet is somewhat simpler, less expensix _■ application wilt involve several trade-offs.
than the parachute, and is widely \ . .i to Good srability implies a relatively low drag
decelerate signals and illuminating candles, coefficient; higher strength requires greater
Shaped parachutes are formed with triangular weight and bulk; high performance systems
gores, Fig. 4-21, in which two of the sides arc require high cost canopies, staging of two or
slightly curved to give a pear shaped appear­ more drag areas, or both; fast opening
ance to the canopy. Ollier more complex canopies are subject to large opening forces.
parachute types differ mainly in the canopy The most important aspects are discussed in
configuration to provide more stability, better the paragraphs that follow.
control of drag forces and line stresses, or
both.
4-8.1.2 DRAG
A preliminary design of a parachute system
requires a simultaneous evaluation of para­ Drag is a force opposite to the downward
chute factors and interrelated payload vari­ force of the parachute system and its payload.
ables (weight, allowable descent rate, and When these two forces are equal, the para­
descent lime). The shape of the parachute is chute descends at a constant speed called its
determined by the specific requirements. equilibrium descent velocity, There will be
Broadly, parachutes may be divided into two both transient and steady state stresses due to
classes, (1) those that open at approximately aerodynamic, spring, damping, and gravity
their release speed, and (2) those that slow forces during the descent of a parachute. The
down their load appreciably before becoming governing steady-state equation for a para­
fully inflated35. Release mechanisms and chute system descending through the atmo­
forces acting to in Hate the parachute to its sphere is

4-36
 A M CP 706-188

where
= drag force directed upward, lb

^D = average drag coefficient, dimension­

less

4> = calculated diameter of parachute

canopy, ft
v t a t i c i * N U I K ' **'«. !•

P = local air density, slug ft"3 Figure 4-22. Variation in Drag Coefficient
With Vertical Descent Rate for
V = descent velocity, ft sec'1 Solid Fiat Circular Canopy

Note that this is the classic equation for 4-8.1.3 CANOPY LOADING
drag forces, tire same as used for exterior
ballistics (see Eq. 4-22, par. 4-6.2). The drag The loading of (he canopy can be obtained
force produced by a parachute depends if either the descent velocity »* or the drag
primarily on the average drag coefficient KD, area is known. If v is known
the acting dynamic pressure pvJ / 2, and the
canopy area d*. Pv
P = (4-29)
The average drag coefficient Kn is a func­
tion of the inflated shape and porosity of the If KDd3 is known
canopy. The inflated canopy shape depends
upon the gore shape, the length of the W
suspension lines, and the decelerated mass34. P = lb ff* (4-JO)
Drag coefficients for most common single W l
canopy type parachutes vary between 0.45 where
and 1.0, The average drag coefficient for the P = canopy loading, lb ft'3
solid Hat circular type canopy shown in Fig.
4-19 is about 0.75. P = local air density, slug ft'3

The drag coefficient for the solid flat y = velocity at the given aitiiude,
circular canopy frequently used in pyro­ ft sec'1
technic .-.pnljcations is not constant but varies
with d the nominal diameter, and the verti­ W = total weight of store and para­
cal descent rate p. This variation occurs be­ chute, lb
cause the permeability and the inflated shape
vary with the pressure differential across the = drag area, ft5
canopy. Test data indicate that the drag
coefficient will change with descent velocity 4-8.1.4 CANOPY SIZE
for solid flat circular parachutes with dif­
ferent diameters as indicated in Fig. 4-22. The The size of a parachute is most frequently
drag coefficient for other canopy shapes may established by the equilibrium descent rate.
or may not change significantly over the Equilibrium conditions exist when the drag
deployment range, and a suitable reference force developed is equivalent to the sus­
should be consulted as needed3 3. pended weight. Fig. 4-23 is a descent chart

4-37
AM CP 706-188

4V>

>
2
UJ
O
(A
a
UJ

u
O
U
t-J
<
a
5=>
a.

3
O
UJ

DRAG AREA Kod| , f t !

Figure 4-23. Parachute Descent Chart

showing variation of equilibrium descent rate Solution

v with drag area KDd* for a given weight.
Variation of drag area with nominal diameter
do is also shown for particular values of the A graphical solution is provided by the
drag coefficients KD at standard sea level parachute descent churl shown in Fig. 4-23.
conditions. Start with the left ordinate equal to a descent
rate of 30 ft sec"1 and find the point of
Example intersection with the curve representing a
weight of 10 lb. A vertical line from this point
Given: Store or payload weight, I0 lb to the abscissa determinines the drag area, 9
Equilibrium descent rate, 30 ft sec"' ft2 . The intersection of the vertical line with
Type of canopy, Hat circular (KD - the drag coefficient curve K0 = 0.75 pro­
0,75) jected horizontally to the left ordinate deter­
mines the nominal parachute diameter dQ
Find: (!) The drag area required equal to 3.9 ft. An altitude correction in the
equilibrium descent rate can be made by
(2) The nominal diameter of the measuring the linear distance on the altitude
canopy to provide the desired descent rate3 adjustment scale between sea level and
30,000 ft and adding it to the ordinate at 30
(3) The equilibrium descent rate at ft sec’1 to obtain a true air speed of 50
30,000 ft above sea level. ft sec’1.

4-38
 AM CP 706-1Q8

4-8.1.5 VARIABLE PAYLOAD WEIGHT which bums at a linear rate and is totally
consumed in 180 sec. The parachute and
In the case of parachute supported flares, associated hardware weigh 15 lb and the
the payload weight decreases as the flare is canopy area is 400 ft2. The air density is
consumed. For a given chute design, the flare 0 .0 0 2 4 slug ft"3 and the drag coefficient KD =
will descend a smaller distance in a given time 0.75. Find the distance descended in )80sec.
than if the load remained constant. With
constant load the distance y descended in Sol it l ion
time t can be expressed as
The total weight as a function of time from
/ 2W Eq. 4-32
y = ' (4-3 l)
*1
H -/(,)= >S + 3 5 - ^ f
where
y - distance descended, ft
The function is substituted into Eq. 4-31 and
IV = weight o f parachute and load, lb integrated between 0 and ) 80 sec to obtain

35 i/a
d3 = parachute area, ft2

p - air density, slug ft'3 (assumed con­ y =

,180
[50 ( 180
dt
(400)(0.0024)(0.75)
stant)
ISO
K0 = drag coefficient, dimensionless 180 2 T / 35 \ 3/2
= - 1.667 X-----{ “ SO- ( - — )/
35 I 3 L V180/ J
/ = descent time, sec

As the pyrotechnic device is consumed, the = 1690 ft

weight IV must be known as a function of
time. If the burning rate is linear with time, If the load had remained constant the para­
the following expression can be used. chute would have descended 2125 ft in 180
sec.
V
W = /(,) = {We + Wp ) ------- , lb (4-32) 4-8.1.6 STABILITY
'p
Stability is a measure of how well a
where parachute system can maintain a descent
W - parachute canopy and hardware couise without either lateral oscillations or
weight, lb drift It is always measured in still air.
Stabitily is also a measure of the damping of
IV = consumable pyrotechnic weiglit, lb oscillations, i.e., the most stable parachute has
tp = time to consume W , sec tile largest damping factors.

t = descent time, sec (valid for / < tp The main factors influencing stability arc
only) Canopy loading and total canopy porosity.
High canopy loading parachute applications
Example are in general considered more stable. Low
canopy loading may produce a gliding type of
A parachute system contains a pyrotechnic instability. However, lateral oscillation usually
flare with 35 lb of combustible material occurs with high canopy loading. For both

4-39
solid cloth and geometrically porous para­ ciably large. A I-10 aircraft flare, which
chutes, an increase in porosity will lower the contains a 40-lb candle and an I S-ft diameter
maximum angle of lateral oscillation. Fre­ flat circular parachute, developed an opening
quency of oscillations also will decrease as the shock force of 11,980 II) when it was released
porosity of woven fabric parachutes is effec­ at an allitude of 10,000 ft at 390 kt and
tively reduced. This may explain Hie increase allowed to fall 5500 ft before ejecting the
in both the angle of oscillation and the parachute at a velocity of 530 ft sec'1. The
increase in frequency of oscillation commonly peak stress on the canopy at opening was 55.4
experienced at high altitudes. In supersonic psi.
operation, a design must be of high geometri­
cal porosity such as provided by ribbon type These forces arc relatively mild for applica­
parachutes to avoid extreme fluctuation and tions such as hand-launched devices in which
inflation instability of the canopy. the parachute is ejected near the apex of the
ballistic trajectory.
Stability is desirable to prevent targe drifts
and oscillations for pyrotechnic candles but it 4-8.1.8 REEFING
is noi sought at the expense of ability to
withstand opening shock, low cost, and high In some cases it may be necessary to limit
drag per unit volume. Flat circular parachutes the opening force to meet both canopy
usually give average oscillations of ±15 deg strength and payload strength limits. A tech­
to £30 deg, which are tolerated as being the nique that may be used for this purpose is
current state-of-the-art in most pyrotechnic known as reefing, in which the inflated shape
applications. Parashcets can be -expected to of the canopy is restricted. Disreefing will
produce average oscillations of ±20 deg to allow the canopy to assume its full inflated
±35 deg. shape. A typical reef-disreef sequence is
shown in Fig. 4-25. The reefing line maintains
4-8.1.7 PEAK FORCE LIMITATIONS the skirt of the canopy to a fixed size that is
smaller than the fully inflated diameter. The
In the deployment and inflation of a reefing line can be cut by mechanically
parachute system, there occurs a snatch force initiated devices containing pyrotechnic
peak and an opening force peak. The allow­ delays.
able forces on the canopy, shroud lines, and
store must be considered. The snatch force Center line and control line reefing, illus­
peak occurs shortly before the opening shock trated in Fig. 4-2633, have also been used in
when the deployed canopy is accelerated to some military applications. In center line
the velocity of the store. Its magnitude reefing, the center of the canopy is held
depends mainly on the mass of the deployed below Ihe rim (Fig. 4-26(A)). In control line
canopy, the length of the suspension lines, reefing the reefing line is guided through rings
and the difference in velocity between the inside the canopy similar to the scheme
store and canopy. The magnitude of the force shown in Fig. 4-25. But now a control line is
is determined by equating the kinetic energy added that connects with two lines from
of the separating masses (canopy and store) to point B to points A (Fig. 4-26(BV). Retraction
the energy the elastic lines must absorb to of the control line reefs the canopy while
bring the masses to zero relative velocity. A extension disreefs it.
detailed reference should be consulted for
making snatch force and opening shock cal­ 4-8.1.9 DEPLOYMENT TECHNIQUES
culation33. A typical plot of these forces for
aircraft Hares is shown in Fig. 4-24. Various approaches arc used to expose the
canopy to the airstreams from its storage
The peak forces developed can be appre­ container. Two frequently used types—the

-1 -4 0
 AM CP 706-188

LEGEND

0 - STAGE at pa p AC HUT E RELEASE

(2 ) - STAGE AT SNATCH
( 5 ) - STAGE DURING SQLMDDING
0 - STAGE AT PARACHUTE OPENING

0 - STAGE DURING STEADY state

( | ) - STACE AS CONSTRUCTED
E0 = SHOCK FORCE AT OPENING
Es = SHOCK FORCE AT SNATCH

ul W - LOAD FORCE (STEADY STATE)

o
QC. VELOCITY AT SNATCH
O v c - CRITIC AL OPENING VELOCITY
V .s TERM INAL VELOCITY (STEADY STATE)

0.3 O.A 0.5 0.6 0.7

TIME, RELATIVE INDEX

Figure 4-24. Parachute Suspension System Showing Effects of Force,

Velocity, and Diameter at Various Stages o f Development

tree type and the full bag—are illustrated in deployment aids by the amount of air en­
Fig. 4-27. trapped in the canopy. The free type deploy­
ment therefore produces high snatch loads.
The free type deployment often is used in
military applications involving single or Full bag deployment is used to reduce the
double ejection of the parachute away from snatch force. The dotted lines in Fig. 4-27(Bj
the projectile. In this type of deployment enclose the mass whose velocity closely ap­
there is a rapid deceleration of the canopy sail proximates that of the pilot drogue chute
and the base plug, pilot chute, or wjnd sock that provides the deploying force. Solid
combination (enclosed by dotted lines in Fig. lines enclose the mass of lines and sail which
4-27(A)) because these components have low attains a velocity equal to Lhat of the payload
ballistic coefficients (high drag due to shape) before the snatch load occurs. Full bag
compared to the payload. 1nflalion begins deployment offers greatly reduced snatch
during the deployment process, which in­ loads since the canopy is accelerated in
creases the mass of the combined sail, and increments.

4-41
 i i
\ i
i i
7
CROSS
SECTION

(A) CENTER LINE REEFING

Figure 4-25. Typical Reef-disreei Sequence

4-8.1.10 BULK AND WEIGHT

The weight of a parachute generally must

be heavier for faster rates of descent and for ( 6 ) CONTROL LINE REEFING
greater canopy loading because a canopy and
shrouds of higher strength are required. To Figure 4-26. Other Reeling Methods
compare the efficiency of various parachute
designs, specific drag—the ratio of drag area to
weight—is used. The flat, circular design methods such as bag lacing, hydraulic press­
excels in this efficiency measure with specific ing, and removing air with vacuum techniques
drags of 45 to 120 ft2 lb"'. The parasheet can be used to achieve densities of 0 024 lb
ranks next with values of 35 to 110 ft2 lb"1.

The bulk (density) is controlled to a degree 4-8.1.11 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

by the pressure applied during packing. The
packed density, in pounds of parachute An aircraft parachute flare is shown in Fig.
weight per cubic inch of parachute volume, is 3-5. Flares released from aircraft usually have
used to determine the parachute compart­ delayed ignition so that they will clear the
ment volume required. Parachute pack aircraft and function at a desired altitude
densities range from 0.010 to 0.028 lb in."3 ; below it. The operation of an aircraft para­
however, densities below 0.012 lb in."3 are chute flare is shown in Fig. 4-2823 . Note that
loose, tend to lose their shape, and are much of the original weight (cartridge case) is
difficult to handle. Densities above 0.024 lb dropped before the flare is ignited. The
in."3 can create severe packing difficulties36. characteristics of some typical parachute sup­
ported flares released from aircraft are shown
Hand packing methods can be used to in Table 4-1223. For characteristics of other
obtain densities up to 0.018 lb in."3 and pyrotechnic devices, see Tables 4-1 to 4-9.

4-42
 A M C P 706-188

TABLE 4-12

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME PARACHUTE SUPPORTED FLARES

(AIRCR AFT RELEASED)

Burning / Max Speed of

Time, Fail Airplane at Time
Item Weight, ih sec Velocity, <ps of Release, mph

M8A1 17.6 1 6 5 - 195 9.0 200

M26 52.5 195 ± 15 11.6 150
M 26A1 52.5 195 ± 15 11.6 350.
M138 (T10E4) 62 360 10 440
M139 (T10E6) 62 180 10 440
Mk 5 and Mods 18 180 - -
Mk 6 Mods 5 and 6 30 180 - -
AN-Mk 8 Mods 1 and 2 18 180 8.0 250
Mk24 27 185 ■7.5 460
X M 170 11.5 150 15 -

4-8.2 BALLOONS inflated or force-inflated behind the payload

that is to be decelerated. Ltalioon-type deed-
A balloon decelerator is a high-drag object era tors should be considered for deployment
fabricated from material with very low vehicle velocities up to Mach 10. At super­
porosity. After deployment it is either self- sonic velocities above Mach 2 most parachute
decelerators start to exhibit erratic inflation
and stability characteristics.
PILOT CHUTE

A spherical balloon decelerator is shown in

Fig. 4-2933, The toroidal-shaped ring is
known as a “burble fence” and is used to
L i > * ... j f =>
provide stability at subsonic speeds.
£ > « ..............
4-8.3 RIGID DECELERATORS

Rigid decelerators are drag producing

shapes made from nonflexible material that
(A) FREE TYPE DEPLOYMENT are suitable in the supersonic speed range. A
DEPLOYMENT b a g
special category of rigid decelerators called
nonpowered rotors may be useful for applica­
tions in which the descent is controlled and a
soft (near zero velocity) landing is required.
Nonpowered rotors can be constructed em­
ploying helicopter-type rotor blades. Drag
coefficients can approach those encountered
with parachutes and, in addition, a long
gliding range may be obtained31.
(B ) FULL bag deploym ent
4-8.4 DYNAMIC DECELERATORS
Figure 4-27. Free Type and Full Bag
Deployment Techniques Several advanced concepts have been

443
AM CP 706-188

A - A R M IN G WIRE J — PULL OUT CORD

f - H ANG W lRE K RELEASING CUP DISK
C -C O V E R L- THRUST SPACER
0- t e a r w ir e M — SHADE RETAINER SUPPORT
£ -SLEEVE n sapety d is k
F - - DETACHABLE COVER LOCK P -SHOCK ABSORBER
G COVER RELEASING C u P Q -FRICTION WIRES O f IGNITER
H- DETACHABLE COVER R—COWER SPACER A N D RIB RETAINER

Figure 4-28, Operation of Typical Aircraft Parachute Flare

4-44
 A M C P 706-188

Bu r b l e Fence illustrated in Fig. 4-3G3R. While the dynamic

/ deceleralor is relatively stable, both balloon
and parachute tend to drift with the wind. In
addition, the parachute descends in altitude
anil lends to oscillate.

Stability of the dynamic decclerator is

achieved by employing a whirling rotoblade
driven by a propellant actuated device (PAD)
and an aerodynamic stability fin. Operation is
as follows. After flare ejection from the
aircraft, the PAD generator extends the
rotoblade and its protective cover away from
the Clare body and initiates rotation. The long
aerodynamic fin, located beneath the Hare
body during launch, is then released and
positioned by preset springs. The fin provides
directional control by pointing the opposite
end of the flare directly into the wind much
Figure 4-29. Spherical Dece/erator like a weather vane. Minimum wind drill
caused by aerodynamic drag is thus realized
because the minimum area of the flare is
studied recently to improve flare support consistently pointed windward. As the burn­
systems38. The new concepts make use of ing flare consumes the pyrotechnic grain, flare
dynamic decelerators that have the following weight is reduced. At the same time, the
inherent advantages over parachutes and rotational speed of the rotoblade is reduced
balloons: by a drop-off in PAD pressure thus maintain­
ing a constant flare altitude.
(1) Relative insensitivity to wind drift
Tile advanced concepts studied included
(2) Ability to operate continuously at flares burning at both ends (as sketched in
optimum altitude Fig. 4-30), vertical position flares, flares of
airfoil shape arranged in a pinwheel, and flares
(3) Small weight and bulk. attached to a spinning disk instead of a
rotoblade, The study also includes flare de­
Wind drift is a severe problem when using ployment techniques and contains an exten­
flares deployed by aircraft. This problem is sive literature survey38.

REFERENCES

I J. B. Dubin, “ Ballistic Matched Families 3. AMCP 700-3-3. logistics. Complete

ol Projectiles” , Paper delivered at U.S. Round Charts. Artillery Ammunition.
Army Weapons Command Meeting, no Army Materiel Command.
dale.
4. L. D. fleppner, Final Report on Special
2, R, N. Grosse, An Introduction to Cost- Study o f Setback an J Spin for Artillery.
Effectiveness Analysis, Research Analysis Mortar, Recoilless, and Tank Ammuni­
Corp., McLean, V.A, July 1965 (AD-622 tion, Report DPA-2611. Aberdeen Pro­
I 12). ving Ground, MD, TF.COM Project
AM CP 706-188

R e l e a s e A1111ude 8 a 1 l oon
4

2 --

1 -■

Figure 4-30. Relative Wind Drift Stability of Aircraft Flare Suspensions

9-1-0023-27, January 1968 (Released Proving Ground, MO, December 1964

only with TECOM approval). (AD-453 863).

5. Small Arms Ammunition. Pamphlet 23-1, 10. OP 2213, Pyrotechnic. Screening and
Prankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, PA, Dye Marking Devices. Naval Ordnance
August 1968. Systems Command.

6. J. J. Caven and Thomas Stevenson, Pyro­ I 1. Modified Mk 29 Marine Location Marker.

technics for Small Arms Ammunition, Research and Development Field Unit,
Report R-1968, Prankford Arsenal, Phila­ Vietnam, Dept, of Defense. Final Report,
delphia, PA, July 1970. JRATA Project 2L-505.1, December
1965 (AD-482 144).
7. AMCP 700-3-5 Logistics. Complete
Round Charts. Grenades. Mines, Pyro­ 12, Pyrotechnic Outside Warning System,
technics. Rockets. Rocket Motor, Demo­ Rocket Power, Inc., Final Report
lition Materiel, Army Materiel Command 7606-A, Prepared for Office of Civil
Defense, March 1963 (AD-403 367).
8. TO 11-1-30, Tactical Munitions Manual
for Rockets and Missiles. Dept, of Air
13. AMCP 706-210, Engineering Design
Force.9
Handbook, Fuzes.
9. Franklin Owens .Adaptor, Troop Landing
Smoke Screen, for the XM-3, 2.75 in. 14. AMCP 700-3-4, Logistics. Complete
Rocket Launcher. Report 64-11, Army Round Charts. Bombs. Army Materiel
Limited Warfare Laboratory, Aberdeen Command.

446
 AM CP 706-188

15. AR 70-38, Research, Development, Test Handbook, Design for Control o f Pro­
and Evaluation o f Materiel for Extreme jectile Flight Characteristics.
Climatic Conditions, Dept, of Army, July
1969. 28. AMCP 706-284, Engineering Design
Handbook, Ballistic Missile Series, Trajec­
16. AMCP 706-)79, Engineering Design tories (U) (Confidential Report).
Handbook, Explosive Trains.
29. TM 9-1370-200, Military Pyrotechnics,
)7. Engineer Design Test o f Shell, Illuminat­ Dept, of the Army, Sept. 1966.
ing, 155-mm, XM459 and XM4.59EI,
Report 3042, U.S. Army Yuma Test 30. TM 3-300, Ground Chemical Munitions,
Station, AZ, June I963 (AD-419 058L). Dept, of the Army, August 1956. *

18. M1L-STD-I316, Fuze. Design Safety 31. J. J. Myers, C. H. Holm, and R. F.

Criteria For. Dept, of Defense. McAJlister, Eds., Handbook o f Ocean and
Underwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill
19. AMCP 706-205, Engineering Design Book Co., New York, 1969.
Handbook, Timing Systems and Com­
ponents. 32. AMCP 706-350, Engineering Design
Handbook, Wheeled Amphibians.
20. M. C. St. Cyr, Compatibility o f Explosive
with Polymers, Report TR 2595, 33. ASD-TR-61-579, Performance o f and De­
Pica tinny Arsenal, Dover, NJ, March sign Criteria for Deployable Aerodynamic
1959. Decelerators, AFSC Wright Patterson
AFB, December 1963.
2 1. Ml L-H DBK-212, Casket Materials (Non­
metallic). Dept, of Defense. 34. AMCP 706-130, Engineering Design
Handbook, Design for Air Transport and
22. A. Damusis, Ed., Sealants, Reinhold Pub- A irdrop o f Materiel.
bshing Corp., New York, I 967.
35. T. F. Johns, Parachute Design, Tech.
23. /AMCP 706-185, Engineering Design Note ARM 365, Royal Aircraft Establish­
Handbook. Military Pyrotechnics Series, ment, Famborough. Hants, England,
Part One, Theory and Application. December 1946.

24. AMCP 706-107, Engineering Design 36. J. McCarthy, Ed., Handbook o f Para­
Handbook, Elements o f Armament Engi­ chute Textile Materials and Properties.
neering, Part Two, Ballistics. Report TR 5 5-264, Wright-Palterson
AFB, February 1956.
25. Fundamentals o f Ballistics. Special Text
9-153, Army Ordnance Center and 37. Proceedings o f Retardation and Recovery
School. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, Symposium, Report ASD-TDR-63-329.
November 1964. AFSt . Wright-Patlerson AFB, May 1963.

26. AMCP 706-150, Engineering Design 38. C. J. Litz, Jr., Advanced Concept Studies
Handbook, Interior Ballistics o f Guns. for Aircraft Flares and Dispensing Sys­
tems Part I. Report R-1934, Frank ford
27. AMCP 706-242, Engineering Design Arsenal, Philadelphia, PA, July 1969.
*Supers eded b y R e f . 29; TM 9 - 1 3 3 0 - 2 0 0 , G r e na de s , Hand and R i f l e ; and TM 9 - 1 3 4 5 ­
2 0 0 , Land M i n e s .

4-47/4-48
 AMCP 706-188

CHAPTER 5

INSTRUMENTATION

5-1 GENERAL from one system and supplying power in the

same or another form to a second system. A
In developing and testing pyrotechnic am­ detector is a device employed to recover a
munition it is necessary to measure para­ specific type of signal. When used in instru­
meters that determine if the round or its mentation, the term transducer is frequently
components can meet prescribed objectives. used to designate both types of device. The
Physical properties, the effect of external two general groupings of transducers are
forces, the timing of sequenced operations self-generating (voltage-generating) and pas­
and the pyrotechnic output in its specific sive (variable-parameter) types. Self-gener­
form may all have to be assessed qualitatively ating transducers develop voltage within
or quantitatively during the course of a themselves under the influence of physical or
development. Simple measurements of length, electrical input energy. Their direct voltage
weight, and strength may be made with output generally permits elimination of one
conventional measuring equipment Many of of the stages of data processing that is
the measurements, however, will be of such necessary when using the passive types of
duration or magnitude that they will be transducer. Subordinate classes oi these basic
impractical to assess with precision without types are shown in Table 5-1.
the aid of special instruments,
5-2.2 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
In this chapter basic means of converting
one physical phenomenon to another are Piezoelectric crystal transducers generate
discussed. Most often the conversion is from voltage when the crystal element has its
one physical phenomenon to electrical signals dimensions changed by mechanical force.
that are easily recorded, transcribed, and Some naturally occurring materials are piezo­
amenable to analog and digital techniques. electric, capable of producing an electrical
Photography also plays an important role to potential when stressed. A number of synthet­
record events, measure light or particular ic materials have been shown to produce the
regions of the spectrum in spectroscopy. same effect, often with a more efficient
production of electric charge than those
Detectors and transducers, used to sense occurring naturally. Quartz and most other
and convert phenomena from one form to naturally occurring materials generally show a
another, are treated in some detail because of higher electrical resistance than the synthet­
their widespread use in pyrotechnic applica­ ics' . The natural types can usually be
tions. Signal conditioning, calibration, and
recording methods are presented to give a TABLE 5-1
broad picture of instrumentation from a
system viewpoint. MAIN CLASSES OF TRANSDUCERS

Saif-generating Passive
5-2 TRANSDUCERS AND DETECTORS
Piezoelectric Variable Resistance
5-2.1 GENERAL Magnetoelectric Variable Capacitance
Photovoltaic Variable Inductance
A transducer is a device actuated by power Thermoelectric Photoemissive

5-1
AM CP 706-188

operated at higher temperatures than the A Weston photronic selenium cell presently
synthetics. Both types are suitable for use in is used for makjng light measurements of
transducers and have been so used. pyrotechnic items in both Army and con­
tractor test facilities. These photocells, as
Generally the physical properties of materi­ received from the manufacturer, are subjected
als will limit the charge which determines the to spectral sensitivity testing to insure a close
potential and the energy that may be pro­ CIE match. Temperature effects over normal
duced. Hence, electrical loading of the output ambient ranges are usually less than 2% with
may distort the input-output relation. Piezo­ low resistance loads used in photometric
electric materials therefore have been con­ testing. Although the selenium cell is used
nected to other circuits with minimal loading extensively for the testing of illuminating
by using vacuum electrometers and, more flares and colored signals, it is deficient in two
recently, field-effect transistors. It is well to areas: (1) it has a slow rise lime response to
operate piezoelectric transducers at frequen­ normal illumination (about 5 msec) and (2) it
cies well below any resonances because nomi­ is unable to withstand elevated temperatures.
nal calibrations do not apply under conditions
near resonance. Applications for these trans­ A silicon photovoltaic cell, on the other
ducers include microphones, pressure gages, hand, is capable of withstanding high temper­
accelerometers, and force transducers. atures and has a rise time on the order of
microseconds. Its spectral response covers the
5-2.3 MAGNETOELECTRIC TRANSDUC­ entire visible range and extends into the near
ERS infrared, making it more difficult to correct
to the 1CI response. A current development
Magneloelectric transducers depend upon program has resulted in excellent IC1 correc­
the action of a relative motion between a tion of individual silicon cells by hand tail­
conductor and a magnetic field”2. This is an ored methods. Experimental photocells have
elementary type of transducer action that is been successfully used at the Yuma, Arizona
applied to speed measurement and control, test facility.
dynamic microphones, and generators.

5-2.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCERS

5-2.5 THERMAL ELECTRIC TRANSDUC­
Photovoltaic or barrier layer cells consist of ERS
a semiconductor material having small a­
mounts of impurities deposited on a metal Thermal electric generators, thermo­
couples, and thermopiles are discussed in par.
substrate with a light-transmitting film of thin
5-3.2 particularly in connection with the
metal applied by evaporation or sputtering to
detection of infrared energy. Additional de­
form a second electrode. Light impinging on
tailed information is available in the litera­
the film surface causes a current to be
generated with no external power required. ture3.
With small resistive loads, this current is
proportional to the light flux on the photocell
surface over a wide range. Linearity can be 5-2.6 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
enhanced further by the use of zero-input
operational amplifier circuits. Selenium has a Resistive transducers which constitute a
maximum spectral response close to that of large portion of the passive group of elements
the standard human eye and varies little from are used to convert thermal or physical
cell to cell. Therefore, it is most easily variables into an indicative resistance. The
corrected to the standard eye or ClE response resistive group is further divided into thermo­
with standard colored glass filters. resistive types and mechanical types.

5-2
 A M C P 706-1Sfi

5-2.6.1 THERMORESISTIVE TRANSDUC­ pressure measurements, weighing equipment,

ERS displacement transducers, and many other
measuring applications.
Thermoresist ive devices may be made of
either semiconductors or of metais. Metal 5-2.6.3 ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
elements have positive temperature coeffi­
cients of resistance while semiconductors gen­ The electrolytic cell is another variable
erally have negative coefficients. Metallic sens­ resistance cell. The change in resistance of this
ing elements generally have low resistance cell depends on changes in length or cross
initially and the change in resistance with section of the conducting path of an electro­
respect to temperature is far less than with lyte between two electrodes. The change in
semiconductor devices, but metal devices are resistance may be produced by movement of
more linear and tend to be more stable. one of the electrodes that may be attached to
Semiconductors nominally have relatively a Bourdon tube element. These cells are not
large initial resistances and the change with widely used.
temperature is more pronounced1,4
5-2.6.4 PHOTORESISTIVE CELLS
When a thermistor is used in temperature
measurement, it is well to operate below its Photoresistive cells use a light sensitive
self-heating point to avoid the effects of the material whose resistance is changed by the
measuring current from becoming superim­ absorption of light. Tire resistance of these
posed on the temperature being measured. cells in the absence of tight, known as the
The thermistor, being a relatively high resis­ dark resistance, is a function of potential,
tance device, may be placed remotely from temperature, and the rate of change of these
the recording instruments without adverse variables. Illumination of these cells causes a
effects from long electrical leads. In addition, resistance change that is a function also of
the sensitivity of thermistors makes them wavelength, exposure time, temperature, ap­
ideally suited for.control applications. Little plied voltage, and previous exposure history5.
if any amplification is required for most The desired feature of the cell is that it
applications. measures light intensity.

5-2.6.2 MECHANOVARIABLE RESISTIVE The time response of semiconductor photo­

TRANSDUCERS resistive devices is generally much longer than
that of photoemissive tubes. The relatively
Mecha no variable resistances include a num­ slow response imposes limitations on the use
ber of devices-from a simple rotating potenti­ of photoresistive devices for measuring light
ometer to complex mechanisms that drive of short duration or rapidly changing intensi­
strain gages to give an electrical output from a ty. In addition, photoconductors exhibit
mechanical input. The most widely used type some instability and deviate from linearity of
of mechanovariable transducer is the strain current with light intensity.
gage.
5-2.7 VARIABLE CAPACITANCE
Strain gages are available in metal and
semiconductor types, the metal type made of Variable-capacitance transducers basically
wire or foil being more popular. A strain gage consist of two conducting plates separated by
resembles a postage stamp in size and shape a dielectric. Current.flow will be proportional
with the wire or foil active elements bonded to a change of distance between the plates,
to a substrate. The entire device is cemented change of plate area, or chemical or physical
to the surface on which strain is to be changes in the dielectric. Capacitive transduc­
determined. Strain gages have geen applied to ers operate on the basis that the capacitive

5-3
AM CP 706-188

reactance is inversely related to the product used to detect electromagnetic waves classi­
of the frequency of the source and the fied as light. Generally speaking, all wave-
capacitance of the transducer6. When the lengtlis in the spectrum shorter than 13,000
frequency is fixed, capacitance is the only A, can be photographed. A great variety of
variable. sensitive photographic materials are available
to make measurements in the region
5-2.8 VARIABLE INOUCTANCE 2000-5000 A and techniques for sensitizing
emulsions for wavelengths up to 13,000 N
Transducers that rely upon inductance for are available in the literature7. See also
their operation include those that exhibit a par. 3-4.
change in inductive reactance. The inductive
reactance changes with the inductance which 5-3 LIGHT DETECTORS
may be varied by insertion or removal of a
core. Inductive reactance is measured with the 5-3.1 GENERAL DETECTORS OF LIGHT
result that the core displacement is known.
The inductive effect also is related to trans­ There are two fundamental means of con­
former actions that depend upon inductive verting light energy into some other form of
coupling from one winding to another for energy: (l) the use of thermal effects pro­
transducer action. duced by the light to heat the sensitive
material of a transducer, and (2) quantum
Inductances and capacitors are often com­ effects that result from the interaction of
bined to form a tuned circuit at a particular photons with the sensitive material. The
frequency1. This type of circuit may be used essential difference between a photon detec­
in at least two ways. The network may be tor and a thermal detector is that the former,
used to control the frequency of an oscillator in principle, counts the number of effective
or it may be used to provide a limit on the quanta of radiation absorbed, whereas the
amount of signal that is passed through it near response of the latter depends on the total
resonance. In either case the inductance or energy absorbed8.
the capacitance may be changed.
Materials that have a physical or electrical
5-2.9 PHOTO EMISSION property with a measurable thermal coeffi­
cient, resistance for example, can be heated
When light strikes a metal surface it can by radiation and used lo supply another type
transfer enough energy to dislodge surface of signal like voltage or current. Thermo­
electrons. This fundamental mechanism of couples, bolometers, and Golay cells are
phoioemission is governed by the intensity examples of thermal detectors.
and frequency of the incident radiation and
the threshold frequency at which the elec­ Since every quantum-operated device has
trons may be emitted by the metal. Emission an energy threshold, there are certain frequen­
current is mainly a function of the intensity cies below which quanta will produce no
of the radiation, i.e., the number of light reaction. In today’s technology this limit
quanta that strike the surface per second. occurs within Lhe near IR, hence detection of
Since light intensity measurements are often light is restricted to wavelengths shorter than
desired, the emitted current can be amplified those of the near IR unless the detector is
and displayed to give a measure of Light cooled to very low temperatures. Recent
intensity- advancements in doping of germanimum-sib-
con single crystals with antimony have re­
5-2.10 PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES sulted in extension of response to I2 0 p in
the far infrared when the detector is operated
Photographic emulsions are commonly at liquid nitrogen temperature.

5-4
 AM CP 706-188

Pyrotechnic devices generally emit most of to incident radiation. The bolometer is a

their light from the far infrared to the near radiation detector ihat indicates the presence
ultraviolet range, covering the visible range. It of radiation by the change of electrical
is this range of radiation that must be resistance. The resistance change is due to the
measured in dealing with pyrotechnic devices. change in temperature of the element caused
by the absorption of the radiant energy.
To measure ihe quantity of infrared radia­
tion incident upon an area, many physical One circuit sample which can be used to
phenomena can be employed. The far infrared indicate resistance change in the form of a
must generally be measured by thermal ef­ voltage is shown in Fig. 5-2. As can be seen
fects, which result from radiant heating of the from the diagram, for small currents through
device; and the near infrared may be mea­ the element, the output voltage will be
sured hy quantum effect transducers. directly proportional to the current. As bias
current is increased however, a point is
5-3.2 THERMAL DETECTORS reached where power input to the element in
the form of joule heating has a serious
For the thermal-type radiation detector to influence on the dynamic behavior of the
provide a measure of the radiant energy detector. The magnitude of the bias current
incident upon it, the device must change in could be so high as to mask changes resulting
temperature by a measurable amount as a from incident radiation.
result of the absorption of the radiation. It is
generally desirable that the heat capacity of The temperature coefficient of resistance!*
the element he sufficiently low so that equi­ in ohm “K'1 is the essential difference be­
librium temperature can be reached quickly tween metal-element bolometers and semicon­
to give a short response time3. ductors. or thermistors. When used in this
application the temperature coefficient is
One of the earliest types of infrared de­ positive for metals and negative for the
tector is the thermocouple8 . This detector, semiconductors. For bolometers whose be­
see Fig. 5-1, is constructed of two junctions havior can be represented by a simple tinie
and J 2 between metals A and B. Metal B in
turn is connected to a third metal C which
serves as a connection to the readout instru­ + AT
mentation. The junctions y3 and are set at a
uniform temperature 7 so that these junctions
produce no net thermal potentials. The junc­
tion y, is connected thermally to a receiver
upon which radiation falls, raising the junc­
tion temperature by an amount AT" to ( T +
AT). The temperature difference between
junctions J j and J 2 will cause a thermoelec­
tric potential betw een the junctions. Semicon­
ductors can be used that exhibit an electric
potential several Limes that of bimetallic
types.

Since amplifiers or meters are voltage or

current operated devices, it is necessary to
pass a current (bias current) through tliis
detector so that the resistance change is
expressed as a voltage or current proportional Figure 5-1. Typical Thermocouple Circuit

5-5
AM CP 706-1aa

Basic Operating Circuit of a Bolometer

constant, it has shown that the equivaJent

electricaJ circuits of positive and negative
temperature coefficient bolometers are ap­
proximately as shown in Fig. 5-3 where the
radiation signal is represented in Fig. 5-3(A)
by an infinite-impedance current generator
and in Fig. 5-3(B) by a zero-impedance optical means. Detectors of this type have
voltage generator9. been made that will detect 1.4 x I O'9 W with
a time constant of 3 msec. The time constant
Thermal detectors based on a pneumatic has been made as short as 600 nsec by using
principle have also been used. By observing helium instead of air in the cell8 .
the small expansion that occurs in a volume
of gas, it is possible to indicate the presence 5-3.3 PHOTON DETECTORS
of radiant flux due to heating of the gas by
the absorption or radiation' °. An example of The outstanding feature of the photon
a Golay cell is shown in Fig. 5-4' The small detector is its ability 10 respond without any
movement of the diaphragm is amplified by dependence on a rise in temperature of the
sensing element. Its operation depends on the
emission of electrons resulting from the ab­
sorption of radiation. Any of the radiation
which may be lost at the detecting element is
of little consequence since the detectors
usually have a high thermal capacity and the
temperature rise due to the radiation is small.
Since the time constant of the photon detec­
(A) INFINITE - IMPEDANCE CURRENT GENERATOR, tor does not depend on the thermal capacity
POSITIVE COEFFICIENT
but on the photoelectric properties of the
sensitive material, it can follow changes in the
radiation very rapidly.

The photon detector will not respond

equally well to all wavelengths when com­
pared to the thermal detectors since there is a
lower wavelength threshold.
tSi ZERO - IMPEDANCE VOLTAGE GENERATOR,
NEGATIVE COEFFICIENT
T h e e ffe c tiv e r e s p o n s iv e q u a n tu m e ffic ie n ­
Figure 5-3. c y r/j i s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e ­
Generator Equivalents o f Bolometers n e ss o f th e p h o to n s in c id e n t o n th e d e t e c t o r 3 .

5 -6
 AMCP 706-188

This quantity is defined as the ratio of the The phenomenon of secondary electron
number of incident photons per unit time to emission from a material when it is bom­
the number of output events occurring in the barded with high velocity electrons has been
same time used to develop a photocell having high
internal amplification. Such a cell is known as
% = % (5-1 a photomultiplier. Electrons ejected from the
cathode as a result of light interaction are
where focused on another electrode where each
% = effective responsive quantum effi­ incident electron produces a number of secon­
ciency, dimensionless dary electrons. These are focused on a third
% = actual responsive quantum effi­ electrode and the process repeated several
ciency, dimensionless times. The electrodes at which the secondary
= fraction of energy lost by reflec­ electrons are produced are known as dynodes.
tion, dimensionless
£< = fraction of energy lost by trans­ The great advantage of the photomultiplier
mission, dimensionless cell is the extreme rapidity of its response to a
transient or fluctuating illumination (as fast as
By far the most important class of photon I O’13 sec). In this respect it is greatly superior
detector materials is that which includes to a system consisting of an ordinary two-
semiconductors. The particular phenomena element photoemissive cell and an amplifier.
associated with the reaction of semiconduc­
tors to optical radiation are broadly classified 5-3.4 CELL CONSTRUCTION
as photoconductivity11.
The different types of photon detectors
In certain materials, it is possible to excite described jn the preceding paragraphs, when
electrons in the crystal structure by infrared used in the visible and the UV regions, use
radiation absorption to the extent that they filters or windows to increase or limit their
are emitted from the surface of the material spectral response. The filters used in the
and become free to be collected by an visible spectrum are generally of the color
externa) anode3. This type of detector is type, to limit the response of the detector to
called photoemissive. a particular type of light. The most common­
ly used window material in the UV region is
The two basic types of photocells used in lithium fluoride (LiF). Because of its good
photometry are the photoemissive and the transmission properties between 1040 and
photovoltaic. The photoemissive cell is gen­ 2000 A, it is often used to the exclusion of all
erally used where high sensitivity, stability, other materials* 3.
precision, and proportionality of output to
illumination input are more important than Instruments used to measure the properties
portability of the instrument. The photo­ of IR radiation often require isolation in the
voltaic cell generally is used when simplicity form of transparent barriers or lenses or
of the instrument and portability are of prisms to diffract the light. It is important to
importance. know the transmission limits in terms of
wavelengths for the materials used in these
Even though the difference in sensitivity instruments. Table 5-2 shows the upper limit
between the photovoltaic cell and the photo­ of wavelength for transmission of a number of
emissive cel) is 500 pA lumen’1 and 10 pA materials*.
lumen'1, respectively, amplification of the
output of the photoemissive cell’ 2 can be up In the use of any of these materials, it is
to 20 A lumen *. important to consider the environment in

5-7
 AM CP 706-188

TABLE 5-2 of sources th a t produce luminance

c a lib ra tio n
such as chemical luminescent devices. The
TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON feature of these translucent materials is that
OPTICAL MATERIALS FOR INFRARED they may be illuminated on one side with a
INSTRUMENTS standard lamp that produces a calculable
illuminance on one surface of the slab and
Approximate Long-IAIave-
produce a known luminance on the opposite
Length Transmission A,
Upper Limit*6
5
4
side of the dab. An absolute detector based
Mat eri al
on the principle of photoionizalion is the
Glass 3.5 most precise and sensitive standard available
Quartz 4 for the measurement of absolute intensities.
Sapphire 5
Lithium Fluoride 6 To measure the absolute intensity of radia­
Calcium Fluoride 9 tion in a wavelength span from approximately
Arsenic Trisulfide 11 2 to 300 A, a properly constructed photon
Barium Fluoride 12 counter should be used13. In the range 250 to
Sodium Chloride 16 1022 A, it is simpler and more accurate to use
SilverChloride 27 the rare-gas ion chambers for the tendency of
Potassium Bromide 30 these detectors is to produce current directly
Thallium Bromoiodide 40 proportional lo the number of incident
photons. For wavelengths longer than 1022
F ro m Process In s tru n rn ts A C ontrols H an d b oo k by
C onsidice. C o p yrig h t 1957. LAed w ith perm ission o f A. a secondary standard with a flat response
McGravu-HlN Co.
should be calibrated against a rare gas ion
chamber. Probably the best secondary stand­
which Hie optical piece is lo be used. Some of ard is the thermocouple. Calibrating the
the materials are water soluble and may have thermocouple directly with a rare gas ion
Other characteristics that make (hem unsuit­ chamber involves onjy one step compared
able For sendee in adverse environments. with the three steps involved with the stand­
ard procedure. Moreover, most research lab­
5-3.5 CALIBRATION oratories can easily construct standard ion
chambers for the calibration of thermo­
A standard tungsien-fiJ ament lamp is most couples. A freshly prepared sodium salicylate
generally used as a secondary standard for coated photomultiplier can also be used as a
laboratory work involving pyrotechnics. A secondary standard from 1000 to 3500 A
specially constructed lamp may be purchased with moderate accuracy. When calibrated in
and sent to the National Bureau or Standards the vicinity of 1000 A, the accuracy over the
for calibration. These lamps are calibrated range 1000 lo 3500 A should be within ± 20
against a standard biackbody source. Emission percent. Once (he conditions for establishing
of the lumps is confined to wavelengths a flat response with sodium salicylate are
greater than 2700 A. Nominal output approx­ understood, the accuracy is likely to be
imates a standard illuminant wjth a color greater than that of the thermocouple; how­
temperature of The source subse­ ever. il is probable that the salicylate-coated
quently is used for color temperature calibra­ photomultiplier would need recalibrating
tion and for light intensity calibration. It is prior to any measurements. 7'lius the thermo­
also possible to obtain calibrations on trans­ couple probably remains the best secondary
lucent materials such as milk or opal gjass standard13
slabs that serve to convert units of illumi­
nance to units of luminance, for example, 5-4 SMOKE DETECTORS
from foot-candies to foot-1 am burs (see par.
2-1.1). These units are convenient for the The properties of smoke which need to be

5-8
 AMCP 706-188

NEUTRAL
OENSITY
FILTER
o

Figure 5-6.
Test Setup for Obscuration Measurements
Figure 5-5.
Typical Photometer for
Obscuration Measurements tance of the cloud. T is a property of the
cloud only, depending on the panicle size and
density. R is a property of the cloud and also
specified or measured depend upon the ulti­ a function of the ambient light.
mate use of the smoke-producing pyro­
technic. For signaling, the important proper­ Auxiliary measurements required are the
ties of the smoke are color and visibility. For incident illumination level and direction, and
the production of particulate clouds such as atmospheric phenomena such as wind speed
tear gas. the important properties are smoke and direction, '.emperature, and humidity. If
volume and persistency. The measurement of desired, appropriate transducers may be used
smoke properties will be highly dependent on and the data recorded simultaneously with
the surroundings such as confinement, wind, the photometer reading.
temperature, humidity, and the location of
the observer and the light source. A simpler method of measuring the obscur­
ance of smoke is to measure the attenuation
One method of obscuration measurement of light through a known volume of smoke in
uses a portable photometer and a two con­ a smoke chamber1 7. This method, however, is
trast target’4' 16 Some method of scanning not suitable for field use and does not take
the target is necessary such as a rotating target into consideration such factors as dispersion
or an oscillating mirror in the photometer. and persistence. A typical smoke chamber is a
Fig. 5-5 shows the construction of the photom­ cylindrical steel tank 8 ft in diameter and 2C
eter, and Fig. 5-6 shows a field test setup ft long. Mixing fans are pro' 'ded and rows of
As shown, light enters the photometer from lights arc positioned along the length of the
two sources. Light is reflected from the target tank for obscurance measurements. A photo­
and transmitted through the smoke cloud and cell and spotlight are positioned a known
also reflected from the smoke cloud. The distance apart, and a movable target is avail­
output of the photometer consists of two able for judgment assessment of obscuration.
signals an AC voltage proportional to the In practice, the pyrotechnic is fired and the
transmittance of the cloud and DC voltage chamber fans stir the smoke to uniformity.
proportional to the reflectance of the cloud. The light attenuation is measured as a func­
The obscurance is calculated as the ratio R /T tion of time with the photocell, and an
where R is the percent reflectance of (he observer may position the movable target at
smoke cloud and T is the percent transmit- the position of total obscuration and the

5-9
AM CP 706-168

TABLE 5-3

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Type Max. Range, lb in."2 Max. Freq. Response Comments

Piezoelectric 75,000 Near DC to 300 kHz High impedance output.

Temperature sensitive
Resistance 100,000 t DC to 500 Hz Simple signal conditioning
Strain Gage + DC + Infinite resolution
Variable Reluctance +■ DC + Requires AC signal
conditioning
Semiconductor 40,000 DC to 25 kHz High output, inexpensive
+ Dependsupon mourning
XApproximate

distance recorded as a function of time. depends upon the temperature range to be

measured and upon the effect the thermo­
It is importanl to note that such variables couple will have on the temperature being
as temperature and humidity affect the out­ measured because the size and mass of the
put of many smoke compositions and should thermocouple and its composition may affect
be measured and recorded in order to obtain the temperature reading.
meaningful and reproducible results.
Other temperature transducers include re­
Other parameters of smoke that may be sistance thermometers, liquid- and gas-filled
easily measured are particle size and composi­ thermometers and thermal expansion and
tion. Vacuum air sampling is often employed, bimetallic thermometers. Care should be taken
collecting the smoke particles on membrane when using any type of contact thermometer
filler pads. A better instrument for particle because the presence of the thermometer
size distribulion measurements is the cascade may alter the temperature by ihermal
impactor, a device which separates particles conduction. This fact leads to the desirability
by size as well as collecting them18. Once the of noncontactmg thermometers. These units
particles are collected, various techniques may are called pyrometers or radiation thermom­
be used to identify their composition such as eters. They actually measure the infrared
photometry, chemical analysis, titration, X- radiation from a source and compute the
ray fluorescence, and flame photometry. temperature by comparing the radiation to a
reference radiation source. Units are available
5-5 HEAT DETECTORS to measure the temperature of objects that
range from 60° to 7000°F.
The measurement of heat is closely allied
with the measurement of the radiation effects In order to measure the heat output from a
of infrared light. TTe thermocouple, described pyrotechnic device a calorimeter is used. The
in par. 5-3.2, is a basic temperature transduc­ calorimetry technique utilizes the tempera­
er. The voltage vs temperature charts are ture rise of a known volume of material to
published’ 9 for various combinations of ma­ calculate the heat output from a device. The
terials and temperature ranges because the pyrotechnic device to be evaluated is enclosed
voltage output is not a linear function of in a bomb and immersed in a known quantity
temperature. Selection of a thermocouple of distilled water. The unit is initiated and the

S-10
 AM CP 706-188

temperature change of the water is measured. pressure. If there is a g3$ flow in the area to
The heat output is obtained by multiplying be measured, the opening for the transducer
the temperature change by the effective heat should be at right angles to the flow. For best
capacity of the calorimeter system. high frequency response, the pressure measur­
ing element should be flush with the inside of
Heat flux measurements can be made using the wall where the pressure is being measured.
Specially calibrated temperature transducers. If necessary to protect the transducer from
Commercial units are available utilizing foil hot particles or fragments, the transducer may
and thermocouple temperature sensors that be isolated by means of a small orifice or
operate in the range of 2 to 500 cal/cm2-sec protected by a coating of zinc chromate,
at temperatures up to I 500°F. Care should be putty, or silicone grease without appreciably
exercised in applying calibration information affecting the frequency response.
because it is a function of the operating
temperalure and the mounting methods. Since all transducers mentioned except the
piezoelectric will respond down to zero fre­
5-6 PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS quency, a deadweight tester may be used for
static calibration. The low frequency response
There are many applications where the of piezoelectric transducers may be extenden
measurement of pressure is useful. Ejection sufficiently by means of high-input-imped­
systems, some flares, gas generators, whistles, ance or charge amplifiers to permit static
and propulsion systems are all characterized calibration. Calibration also may be accom­
by the generation of a gas pressure which may plished by comparison with a calibrated trans­
need to be measured and evaluated. Often it is ducer exposed to transient pressures, such as
necessary to know the peak pressure inside a in a shock tube.
casing in order to assess the weight versus
safely and reliability aspects of a particular 5-7 SOUND DETECTORS
pyrotechnic device. Pressure transducers may
also be used to evaluate the pressure of a gas The pyrotechnic applications of sound
evolved into a closed bomb of known volume. measurement include the evaluation of im­
Commonly used types of pressure transducers pact, vibration, and outpui from whistles, as
and their range and frequency responses are well as the sounds associated with the firing
shown in Table 5-3. In addition to absolute of a weapon. The basic transducer for sound
and gage pressures, transducers are available is the microphone. Common microphones are
to measure the pressure differential between of the piezoelectric, condenser, or dynamic
two points. Many transducers.are also avail­ type. All types may exhibit a frequency
able with signal conditioning equipment built response of approximately 20 liz to 20 kHz
into the transducers, producing an output although special units are available for mea­
voltage proportional to pressure. surements outside this range, Both the piezo­
electric and dynamic microphones are inex­
The output of a pressure transducer is pensive and rugged and require only a simple
usually recorded as a function of time on a voltage amplifier for signal conditioning. The
chart recorder or oscilloscope, depending on condenser microphone, operating on the vari­
the frequency response and recording time able capacity principle, is easily calibrated but
required. The most useful parameters are peak requires an external power supply and special
pressure attained, time to achieve peak pres­ amplifier. It is not affected by temperature to
sure, and duration of pressure. In mounting a the extent that the other types are.
pressure transducer-due to the phenomenon
being observed-care should be taken to pre­ Typical measurements on a sound pro­
vent damage to the transducer and yet obtain ducing device include sound amplitude and
an accurate representation of the desired frequency as a function of time, as well as
AM CP 706-188

(8) PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

( Vo l l o g e Gener at i ng)

Figure 5-7. Typical Signal Conditioning Circuits

5-12
 AM CP 706-188

TABLE 5-4
SIGNAL CONDITIONING REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS TRANSDUCER TYPES

Approx. Average
Transducer Full Scale Excitation,
Typa Example Output Volt DC Configuration Amplifier Linearization

Light Photo­ 10 mA 1500 Shunt load Impedance Not required

detector multiplier across P.M. matching
tube gives volt. only
output
Light Photo- 6 pA Not Voltage DC Not required
detector voltaic required source
tube
Strain Pressure 10 mV 5 Bridge DC Not required
gage transducer
Resistive Pressure 5V 5 Voltage May not be Not required
transducer divider required
Semi­ Pressure 100 mV 5 Bridge DC Not required
conductor transducer
Thermo- Temperature 25 mV Not Voltage DC Required
couple measuretnerv required source
Piezo­ Microphone Not Voltage AC Not required
electric required source
Pie20 - Pressure 10 mV Not Voltage High imped Not required
electric transducer required source or charge
Capacitor Microphone 150 AC Not required
Moving coil Microphone Not Voltage AC Not required
required source
Variable Microphone Not Voltage AC Not required
reluctance required source

harmonic content20. A typical measuring accuracies approaching ±0.3 dB error, the

system can record and analyze sound intensi­ closed coupler reciprocity technique is used.
ties in the range of 30 to 170 dB. On the same
scaie, a common conversation exhibits a 5-8 SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND RE­
sound pressure of 65 dB, the threshold of CORDING
pain for humans is 120 dB, and the threshold
of hearing is 0 dli I he data obtained may
consist of a simple amplitude vs time record, 5-8.1 GENERAL CONDITIONING AND RE­
or a more complex record of sound level vs CORDING EQUIPMENT
frequency. The sound analyzer may also be
used to indicate the energy of peel: pressure Hie function of signaJ conditioning equip­
al each frequency or band of frequencies ment is to provide an interface between a
desired. These data are useful when analyzing transducer and a readout device o ra recorder.
structural resonances and noise outputs from Signal conditioning consists of one or more of
rocket motors. A microphone may be cali­ Ihe following functions:
brated either by comparing it with a micro­
phone of known calibration, or by using a (I) Impedance matching and bridge com­
sound source of known characteristics. For pletion

5 -13
AJWCP 706-188

(2) Signal amplification or attenuation Signal amplification includes the active

devices necessary to amplify the transducer
(3) Transducer excitation output so that it is of a magnitude acceptable
to the recorder used. The attenuation func­
(4) Signal filtering or linearization tion provides the range selection so that small
signals may be resolved and yet large signals
(5) System calibration. do not overdrive or saturate the recorder. In
some situations the amplification and range ■
Which of these functions the signal condi­ selection are accomplished in the recorder. A
tioning equipment must provide depends good example of this type of instrument is
upon the type and range of the transducer, the cathode ray oscilloscope.
the input parameters of the recorder, the
required frequency response, and the signal Transducer excitation consists of providing
amplitude, duration, and character. the necessary operating voltage or current to
the transducer. For variable resistance, and
Typical signal conditioning requirements strain gage devices this is in the range of 5 to
are shown in Table 5-4 and the signal condi­ 10 V DC. For capacitive devices and some
tioning equipment for several transducers is photocells I 50 V DC is required. The photo­
shown in Fig. 5-7. multiplier tube may require as much as 1500
V DC. Variable reluctance and variable trans­
The recorder selected must be capable of former devices require an AC excitation of
faithfully reproducing the highest frequency approximately 5 V.
components of the inpuL signal and yet have
sufficient time base length to record the total Signal filtering is used to attenuate or
event. Often there must be compromise in segregate various frequency components of a
this respect because recorders which have long transducer output signal. For example, a
time bases, such as chart recorders, do not low-pass filter may be used to attenuate high
have the resolution or frequency response to frequency signals which are not necessary for
record high frequency signals. In cases of long data evaluation and may saturate the recorder
events where is is desired to observe high or make evaluation difficult. A high-pass filter
frequency signals, it may be necessary to may be used to suppress a direct current
restrict the recording to only a portion of the offset or eliminate power supply variations
total event by means of appropriate triggering and ripple. Band pass filters are useful for
s'gnals. determining amplitude of a signal at a speci­
fied frequency. An instrument incorporating a
variable band pass filter is known as a wave
Impedance matching usually takes the form analyzer and is useful for evaluating sound
of an active device having a gain of approxi­ and vibration data. Signal linearization is used
mately one, such as a cathode or emitter when the output of the transducer is not a
follower. Field effect amplifiers are also used linear function of the input parameter. This is
with very high impedance devices such as the case with thermocouples and hot wire
piezoelectric transducers. In the case of some devices such as anemometers. The linearizer
strain gage galvanometer-recorder combina­ may be as simple as a logarithmic converter or
tions, the impedance matching consists only as complicated as a computer program opera­
of resistors for damping and current limiting. ting on digitized data. Often the linearization
A transformer may be used for impedance is done manually using a calibration chart or
matching when there is an alternating current curves after the data are recorded.
output from the transducer. Microphones and
variable transformer transducers are represen­ The field calibration of a measuring system
tative of devices having an AC output. usually takes the form of an electrical signal

5 - 14
 AM CP 706-188

applied to the signal conditioning circuits

because a direct mechanical calibration may
be difficult to perform. In the case of variable
resistance transducers such as transducers
utilizing the strain gage or mechanovariable
resistor, calibration can be made by connect­
ing a resistor across the transducer element,
simulating a known input signal.

As an example, consider the elementary

strain gage circuits shown in Fig. 5-8. The first Figure 5-8. Simplified Strain Gage Circuits
circuit (Fig. 5-8(A)) is probably the most
simple that may be used with a strain gage.
For this circuit the signal voltage may be signal that was present in the ballast circuit.
represented by Except for the elimination of the DC com­
/ R + AR _ R ponent, the ryiagnitude of the signal voltage is
Vs = identical to that of the ballast circuit provided
t>yR + AR+ R, R +Rt
the resistances R, R ,, R 2, and R? are equal.
where
Vs = signal voltage due to the strain, volt The/e are limitations on the stability of
most power sources and on amplifiers down
vb = battery voltage, volt stream from the strain gage circuits that make
on-site calibration of strain gage circuits essen­
* . = ballast resistor, ohm tial. Calibration practice is a relatively simple
matter. Deliberate unbalance of the relaxed
R = strain gage resistance when relaxed, circuit may be created by switching a resistor
ohm across the strain gage, creating an artificial
strain in the circuit and a corresponding
AR = change in strain gage resistance due reading on the output indicator. The change
to strain, ohm in resistance AR as a result of actual strain is

The two terms in the parentheses of Eq. AR - eFgR (5-4)

5-2 represents the potential in the unstrained
condition (the right term) and in the strained Shunting a resistor R across the strain gage
condition (the left term). By setting the value when it is in the relaxed condition results in a
of the ballast resistor f?, equal to the strajn resistance change
gage resistance R, a process that is often used
in practice, the equation for the signal voltage RR.
can be reduced to AR - R — (5-5)
R

V - R b (5-3)
1 2(2 + eFs ) By equating the resistance change from Eqs.
5-4 and 5-5, simplifying, and solving for
where strain, we arrive at the strain equivalent ec
Fg ~ gage factor, dimensionless introduced as a result of switching the calibra­
ting resistor Rc across the gage.
e = strain, in. in.'1
-R
The simple bridge circuit of Fig. 5-8(B) F I R +R ) (5-6)
effectively eliminates the DC component of

5-15
where The simplest photometer consists of a
ef = electrically introduced equivalent photovoltaic cell, usually selenium, and a
strain, in. in.'1 microammetcr calibrated in terms of the
incident light intensity. A more sensitive unit
Rc = calibrating resistance introduced in contains a photoresistive cell (such ascadium
shunt with the strain gage, ohm sulfide), a battery, and a microammeler. Care
should be taken when using ail types of
In the case of capacitive transducers, a portable photometers to insure that the light
capacitor or a voltage source may be used for seen by the instrument is the light to be
calibration depending upon where the calibra­ measmed and not background illumination or
tion signal is applied. Voltage generating other light sources. Some photometers con­
transducer systems are calibrated by applying tain a lens system so that the observer can
a known voltage across the transducer output. actually see the light source being measured.

5-8.2 IMAGE CONVERTERS Portable sound intensity measuring equip­

ment consists of a microphone, amplifier, and
An image converter is an electro-optical meter calibrated in decibels. In addition some
device used to intensify an image and/or to instruments may contain filters to restrict the
convert the input radiation into light of a audio bandpass of the meter.
different wavelength. Basically it consists of a
transparent, conductive photo cathode upon Also available in hand held meters is the
which the object to be observed is focused, an radiation thermometer. These instruments
electrostatic focusing system and a fluores­ provide temperature measurements in the
cent viewing screen21. range of 60° to 3000°F. The irtstrumeti t
consists of an infrared detector and signal
A common use for image converter tubes is conditioning. The output is read on a meter,
in the electronic shutter. In tliis application, calibrated in temperature units.
the image converter consists of a conductive
photocathode, a conductive fluorescent
screen, and a fine mesh electrode or control 5-8,4 CHART RECORDERS AND OSCIL
grid between the anode and cathode. A high LOGRAPHS
voltage is maintained between the anode and
cathode, and the converter tube is controlled A chart recorder is an instrument whic
by the potential on the grid. Exposure times converts an electrical signal into a graph
as short us 5 nsec are available in commercial representation of the amplitude of Che sign
units These units also offer image converter vs time. Thus, in combination with a Irur
tubes sensitive to different wavelengths and ducer and signal conditioning, the chart re­
with light gains of 5u or more. corder is used to give a record of the
variations of a physical parameter vs time.
5-8.3 METERS The important parameters to consider when
selecting a chart recorder include sensitivity,
In many instances, the recording of a frequency icsponsc, number of channels, in­
transducer output is not required and an put voltage, impedance, power requirements,
average value 'may be used to represent a accuracy, resolution, and linearity. Chart
measured parameter. Tins is often the case in recorders commonly are classified according
sound and light intensity measurements, as to the method of converting the electrical
well as temperature. For these applications, a signal to a chan reading and also accordmg to
hand-held portable instrument utilizing a the type of chart paper and writing method
meter movement offers quick set-up porta­ used. A brief description of the commonly
bility. and easily analyzed results. used writing systems follows.

5-16
 AM CP 706-186

5-8.4.1 LIGHT BEAM GALVANOMETER 5-8.4.3 ELECTRODYNAMIC PEN MOTOR

AND PHOTOSENSITIVE PAPER USING TEMPERATURE SENSI­
(OSCILLOGRAPH) TIVE PAPER

This system uses a light sensitive paper This system uses a hot wire to mark a wax
which may be either Ihe direct print type coated paper as it travels over a knife edge.
requiring only exposure to light to develop or The trace is rectilinear and upper frequency
the chemical process type which requires response may reach 150 Hz over small chart
developing similar to ordinary photographic widths. Paper cost is exceeded only by the
films. Those using the chemical process re­ light sensitive types. Feedback may be used to
quire less powerful light sources and have a increase linearity and give higher frequency
higher upper frequency limit while the direct response than is available with a simple
print type offers a usable chart immediately amplifier circuit.
without any chemical processing required.
5-8.4.4 POTENTIOMETER RECORDER
Galvanometers used with this system have
sensitivities from 12 mA in .'1 to 50 mA in.'1 This recorder uses a dosed loop feedback
and frequency response from DC to 13,000 system to position the pen. The frequency
Ha, the liigher frequencies being available response is limiied by inertia to less than 5
only in the less sensitive galvanometers. Due Hz, but accuracies of 0 .1% arc easily achieved.
to the low driving power required, these
galvanometers may be used without amplifiers 5-8.4.5 SAMPLING RECORDER USING
under certain conditions. ELECTROSENSITIVE PAPER

Also available are recorders using cathode Tliis recorder has no moving parts except
ray tubes as a light source instead of the the paper feed mechanism. A series of fixed
galvanometer and light used in the recorders sty It are positioned along the width of the
mentioned. These units require special ampli­ chart that mark the paper when a voltage is
fiers to drive the cathode ray tube, but offer applied. A decoding circuit is used to energize
frequency response up to 1 MHz. the proper stylus corresponding to Lhe input
voltage applied. Commercially available re­
corders offer sampling rates of 3000 samples
sec'! and chart speeds up to 10 in. sec’1
5-8.4.2 ELECTRODYNAMIC PEN MOTOR
USING INK ON ORDINARY 5-8.4.6 MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER
CHART PAPER
This instrumenl is perhaps the most versa­
Tliis system uses the least expensive chart tile type of recorder. Two types of analog
paper. Frequency response is limited to 50 H2 recording are used, recording up to 14 chan­
or less depending on chart width and pen nels on I-in. tape or seven channels on 0.5-in.
motor design. The simplest recorder consists tape. In the frequency modulated (FM) mode,
of a pen motor similar to an ordinary meter a carrier frequency is generated and frequency
movement. The trace is a curvilinear function modulated by the input signal. Tliis method
of the input voltage, making analysis difficult. offers response down to DC but has a limited
Another variation of reco: der Utilizing the high-frequency response. Typical frequency
pen motor principle incorporates a Scott- response of an FM system is DC to 625 Hz at
Russel mechanism to give a true rectilinear 1-7/8 in. se c.1, and DC to 400 kHz at 120 in.
trace. An electronic feedback system may also sec.'1 In the direct mode, the signal amplitude
be used to give a rectilinear trace. variations are impressed directly on the tape.

5-17
A M C P 706-188

- 0j * 10 0 >o0o iooo
0 -
J
DfClMiL COUNTING uNHTS

Figure 5-9.
Counter Chronograph Block Diagram

Simpler electronic amplifiers are required to

drive the tape heads but the low frequency
response does not extend to DC. Typical Figure 5-10. Functioning Time Measurement
frequency response is 100 Hz to 6 kHz at
1-7/8 in. sec. 1 and 400 Hz to ) .5 MHz at 120 Oscilloscope plug-ins also provide signal
in. sec.'1 Most recorders offer plug in or conditioning units and spectrum analyzers
switchable record and playback amplifiers so which may be used to analyze data. Common
that either mode may be used. A signal level practice is to record the oscilloscope trace
of 0.1 to I V is needed to drive most photographically, but storage oscilloscopes
commercial recorders. One of the main advan­ are available which will retain the image on
tages of tape recording is that it can play back the cathode tube for analysis.
at a different speed than was used for
recording. This allows the user to scan large 5-8.5 TIME MEASUREMENT AND RE­
volumes of data quickly or play back high­ CORDING
speed event slowly for analysis. Another
advantage is that the data are still available in The applications of time measurement in
electrical form and may be played back pyrotechnic device testing range from a
directly into wave analyzers or computers. simple stopwatch determination of flare burn­
The tape is reusable. ing time to the measurement of initiator
functioning time with microsecond resolu­
tion. Since electronic signals are often used to
5-8.4.7 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE initiate and measure the output of pyro­
technic devices, the basic instrument for time
The oscilloscope offers the highest frequen­ measurement is the electronic counter chro­
cy response and most versatility of any nograph. If electronic signals are not available,
measuring instrument. It basically consists of they may be obtained from mechanical phe­
a cathode ray tube, associated power supplies, nomena by means of switches or transducers.
amplifiers, and an electronic time base. Input The block diagram of a typical counter
sensitivity ranges form 50 mV cm 1 to 20 V chronograph is shown in Fig. 5-9. The output
c m 1, and the oscilloscope may be used wit \ from a quartz crystal oscillator is shaped to
voltage divider probes, lowering the sensitivity produce square waves or pulses and then
to 20,000 V c m 1. Frequency response for passed through a gate. The gate is actuated by
random signals using direct amplification ex­ a signal on the start terminal and opened by a
tend from DC to 100 MHz or higher, while signal on the stop terminal. The pulses out of
sampling techniques extend the upper fre­ the gate are then counted to give a digital
quency limit to 4 GHz for recurring signals. representation of the time the gate was
Oscilloscopes are available having as many as actuated. If a l MHz crystal oscillator is used,
4 simultaneous traces, and time sharing tech­ the first decimal counter will record ,usec. As
niques may be used to provide more traces, if many decimal counting units may be used for
needed. the seconds digit and any larger count re­

5-18
 AM CP 706-188

quired. Commercially available counters ex- ratio, power requirements, ease of operation,
liibit counting rates to accommodate frequen­ and analysis of data. Of primary importance is
cies greater than 10 MHz, giving a least the voltage and impedance compatibility of
significant digit of 0.1 jusec. There is an the transducer, signal conditioning, and re­
inherent uncertainly due to the gating tech­ corder. Most transducer manufacturers offer
nique of ± one count in the least significant signal conditioning units which are compat­
digit as well as the inaccuracy due to time ible with their- transducers as well as similar
base error. A typical set up for functioning units from other companies,
time measurement of an electrically actuated
flare is shown in Fig. 5-10. In this example [n addition, many general purpose units are
the firing current to the flare triggers the available, often as accessories for specific
counter, and the light output from the flare recorders. The manufacturers’ recommenda­
stops the counter. Similar systems may be tions should be followed in using th$se units.
used to measure the delay time in pyrotechnic Consideration should be given to excitation
delay mechanisms. voltage and current available, input imped­
ance, signal amplification, calibration facili­
In addition to direct timing of events using ties, and output voltage and current. The
the chronograph, it is often desirable to effects of long interconnecting cables on
record a time signal along with the experi­ signal levef and high-frequency attenuation
mental data. Theoretically the chart speed on should be considered as well as the effects of
a recorder is a known, linear function of time extraneous signals due to ground potentials
and is usually specified as a chart length per and noise pickup. Portable, mobile, and field
unit time. However, inaccuracies due to instruments also require protection from envi­
motor speed variation may be present, espe­ ronmental effects such as moisture, dust,
cially in field and portable set ups where a shock, and vibration.
frequency-stable power supply is not avail­
able. It may also be necessary to synchronize Also, the effects of power supply voltage
two or more recorders with a common time and frequency variation should be considered
reference. For these applications, an external when operating from a portable power source
oscillator is used to supply a time signal to all or a long distance from primary power lines.
recorders. This signal is usually a square wave Often accuracy must be sacrificed in a field
or pulse signal and may be generated by a instrumentation system in order to gain porta­
crystal oscillator, a tuning-fork oscillator, an bility, reliability, or ease of operation. The
astable multivibrator, or a mechanical system use of solid-state devices has made portable,
such as a motor driven cam and switch, battery-operated instruments practical, and
depending upon the time scale desired and the their use should be considered whenever
accuracy required. designing a portable or field measuring sys­
tem.
5-9 SYSTEMS
5-9.2 FIELD SYSTEMS
5-9.1 GENERAL ASPECTS OF SYSTEMS
The basic distinction between a field instru­
A measuring system consists of a recorder, ment and a range instrument is portability. A
signal conditioning equipment, and one or field system may be easily moved and set up
more transducers. When integrating these in­ at any location where measurements are
dividual components into a system,, several desired. This allows the testing of pyrotechnic
factors should be taken into consideration devices under conditions more nearly approxi­
such as voltage levels, impedance matching, mating those in which the device will be used.
frequency response, accuracy and resolution A tactical system has even more restricted
desired, environmental effects, signal vs noise specifications such as small size, light weight,

S-1 9
and fast, reliable one ration. The basic concept the techniques used may be of interest to
of tactical measuring systems requires that all anyone faced with a situation requiring mea­
data analysis also be done in the field. One surement of pyrotechnic characteristics. The
example of a tactical measuring system is the unique aspects of most systems are the test
XM8 Chemical Agent .Alarm22. This unit is fixtures or chambers, so the choice of trans­
designed to give an alarm whenever toxic ducer is not restricted to only the make and
agents are present. The unit will detect model specified in the original system. Similar
quantities of toxic agent vapor below lethal transducers may be used as long as the signal
concentrations in the presence of smoke, conditioning equipment is adjusted to suit the
dust, motoi vehicle exhaust, or other pollu­ new transducer.
tants normally found on the battlefield. The
instrument weighs 18 lb and may operate in In the MAPI flare measurement system the
temperatures from -4U'J to 120°F for 12 hr transducer consists of an array of photocells
using a sell-contained power supply.
I which are scanned to give the light intensity
at a given location23. Computer techniques
An example of a field used system is the are used to compute the candle power at each
Sound Analysis Laboratory developed by location and also the average candlepower.
Frankford Arsenal20. This unit consists of a The data reduction equipment utilizes an
trailer mounted ancchoic chamber, measuring automatic optical reader which analyzes the
and recording instruments, and a gasoline pulse height from an oscilloscope picture. The
engine-driven generator. The mobility of this output is fed into a card punch which
unit enables it to be moved to the test area generates data cards in the proper format Tor
and set up in a short time. Instruments are computer processing.
available for recording and analyzing the
sounds emitted from a pyrotechnic device and Many times a measurement system is speci­
also for measuring the velocity of a projectile. fied in the Military Specification for the
Small devices may be mounted in the ane- pyrotechnic item. For instance, M1L-C-60303
choic chamber and tested under known acous­ contains the requirements for a facility to
tic conditions. obtain the burning time and particle disper­
sion of a gas generating device24. Ollier
5-9.3 LABORATORY AND RANGE SYS­ Military Specifications give descriptions and
TEMS requirements for facilities lor measurement of
a specific parameter such as flare candle power
Although many pyrotechnic measuring without reterence to any particular pyro­
systems have been developed for specific uses, technic item15.

REFERENCES

1. D. M. i onsidine. Ed.. Process Instru­ 4. Application Data, General Characteristics

ments and Controls Handbook, McGraw- o f Thermistors, Section 3704, Ther­
Hill Book Go.. New York, 1952. mistors, General Characteristics, Magnetic
Materials Section, General Electric Co.,
2. R. D. Rusk, Introduction to College Ed more, ML, no date.
Physics, Apple ton-Gentury-Crotts Tnc.,
New York, Second Edition, 1960. 5. C. G. Cannon, Electronics fo> Speciro-
scopists. Interscience Publishers Inc.,
Jamieson, Plans, McFee, Grube, and New York. I960.
Richards. Infrared Ph i sles and Enyfneer-
ing, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New 6. H- E. Thomas and C. A. Clarke, Hand­
York, 1963. book o f Electronic Instruments and Mea­

5-20
 AM CP 706-188

surement Techniques, Prentice-Hall, ment o f a Contrast Photometer and Its

Englewood Clil’fs, NJ. 1967. Methods o f Use for Field Evaluation of
Military Obscuration Systems. Report
7. C. E, K, Mecs. The Theory o f the 67-14-G. GCA Corp. Technology Div..
Photographic Process. "Hie McMillan Co., Bedford. MA, 1967. AD-822 305.
New York. 1942.
17. George A. Lane. Arthur Smith, and
8. Smith, Jones, and Chasmar, The Detec­ Erwin M. Jankowiak. Novel Pyrotechnic
tion and Measurement o f Infra-Red Radi­ Compositions for Screening Smokes. The'
ation. Oxford University Press, Amen Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Ml,
House, London, 1957. no date.

9. R. C. Jones, Advances tn Electronics. Vol 18. Albert Dciner and Merrill E. Milham,
5, Academic Press Inc.. New York, 1953, Measurement o f the Particle-Size Distri­
pp. 1-99. bution o f Thermally Generated Smokes,
Report EATR 4114, Edgewood Arsenal,
10. M. J. E. Golay. "Theoretical Considera­ MD. 1967.
tions in Heal and Infrared Detection with
Particular Reference lo the Pneumatic 19. Handbook o f Chemistry and Physics.
Detector". Rev. Sci. Instr. 18, 347 Chemical Rubber Publishing Co., Cleve-'
(1947). land. OH, 52nd Edition, 1971-1972,

11. Breckenridge. Russell, and Hahn. Eds., 20. Robert Markgraf. A Portable Sound Anal­
Photoconductivity Conference, John ysis Laboratory For Small Arms Weap­
Wiley and Sons. Inc.. New York, 1956. ons. Report R-1S78, Frankford Arsenal,
Philadelphia, PA, 1967.
12 J. W. T. Walsh, Photometry, Constable
and Co., Ltd., London. 1958. 21 J. D. McGee, “ Photo Electronic Image
lniensificrs”, Reports on Progress in
13. J. A. R. Samson, Vacuum Ultraviolet Physics. 24, 167 (1967).
Spectroscopy, John Wiley and Sons. Inc.,
New York. 1967. 22. “Chemical Field Alarm", Ordnance, LIII,
371, Jan.-Feb. 1969.
14. Earl S. Rosenlilurn, Feasibility and Ex­
ploratory Development o f Procedures 23. Ronald J. Stovall. General Description o f
and Instrumentation — ETC, Report MAPI Data Acquisition Systems, Naval
66- 24G. GCA Corp., Technology Div., Ammunition Depot, Crane, IN, 1966,
Bedford, MA, 1967, AD-81 5 105. AD-801 278.

15. Lari S. Rosen blunt. Exploratory Develop­ 24. M!L-C-60303(MU), Cartridge, 40MM,
ment o f a Contrast Photometer and Its Riot Control, CS. E24. Dept, of Defense,
Methods o f Use for Field Evaluation o f Oct. 1967.
Milli tary Obscuration System. Report
67- 7-G, GCA Corp., Technology Div., 25. MIL-C-18762 (NOrd). Candlepower o f
Bedford. MA, 1967, AD-819718. Pyrotechnics; Method o f Measuring and
Recording. Dept, of Defense, 29 June
16. Earl S. Rosenblum. Exploratory Develop­ 1955.

5-21/5-22
 AM CP 706-188

CHAPTER 6

TESTING

6-1 GENERAL DISCUSSION Department of Defense to assure uniformity

of test conditions to judge suitability under
6-1.1 THE TESTING PROGRAM conditions of military usage.

Test programs at various stages of the A list of applicable Military Standards is

development and manufacture of pyrotechnic contained in Table 6-1. Note that some tests
devices are required to assure that ammuni­ are designed strictly to assess safety, Ammuni­
tion delivered for field use is free of defects, tion need not function after these tests. After
safe under all Held conditions, and that it the other tests, correct operation is de­
performs as intended. manded. Each specification listed contains the
details needed lo perform the tests. General
Tltis chapter presents the tests designed to discussions of the standards are contained in
evaluate safety, reliability of functioning, and other military handbooks2345.
the qualitative and quantitative methods cur­
rently in use for measurement of pyrotechnic 6-1.2 KINDS OF TESTS
effects.
The different types of tests used in the
For personnel unacquainted with pyro­ process of developing pyrotechnic ammuni­
technic ordnance, purchase descriptions of tion are described in the paragraphs that
existing military pyrotechnic devices which follow.
contain minimum requirements and instruc­
tions arc a guide for tests of similar new
developments. 6-1.2.1 DEVELOPMENT TESTS

A typical flare Purchase Description1 con­ Development tests are performed by the
tains a list of: designing agency to be sure that component
subassemblies or complete ammunition func­
(1) Applicable Documents—including spec­ tion in the manner for which they were
ifications, standards, drawings, and other pub­ designed. These tests evaluate the latest ef­
lications forts of the designer and may be repeated
until successful results are obtained. The
(2) Requirements—quantities and perfor­ ammunition is subjected to a series of tests
mance characteristics that serve to determine that it is safe and
reliable, and to ascertain its readiness for test
(3) Quality Assurance Provisions and use by field forces. Part of the task of
planning an ammunition development project
(4) Preparations for delivery is to specify the type of test, the order of
execution, and other testing details.
(5) Special NoLes.
Development tests are usually made in the
The basic safety and reliability tests are laboratory or developer's testing facility and
those specified by Military Standard (MIL- need not include all of the parts of the
STD) designations whicli are approved by the complete device.

6-1
A M C P 706-188

T A B L E 6-1

T E ST S U T IL IZ E D IN THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF P Y R O T E C H N IC IT EM S

Specification Title Passing Using

Type of Test Specification Procedure or Procedure Title Criteria Service
a. Drop (Impact) MIL-STD-331 Test 103 Forty-foot Drop S A. N. AF
MtL-STD-331 Test 111 Five-footDrop 0 A, AF
b. Rough Han­ MIL-STD-331 Test 101 Jolt s A. N, AF
dling MIL-STD-331 Test 102 Jumble s A, N. AF
MIL-STD-810 Meth 516 Environmental Test 0 AF
Methods for Aerospace
and Giound Equipment
Shock
c. Vibration MIL-STD-331 Test 104 Transportation 0 A, N, AF
Vibration
MIL-STD-810 Meth 514 Vibration 0 AF
Ml L-E-5272 XII or XJV 4.7 Vibration Tests
DPS-1190 The Development of an 0 A
Engineering Taste Stand­
ard covering the Trans­
portation Environment
of Material
d. Radiation BUWEPS BUWEPS Code PREN s N
Instruction controls all RAD HAZ
5101.2A of Testing
26 Apr 1962
MIL-P-24014 Preclusion of Hazards s N, AF
from Electromagnetic
Radiation to Orcfrtance,
General Requirements
for
e. Aircraft MIL-STD-331 Test 201 Jettison (Aircraft s A, N. AF
Survivability safe Drop) (Fuzes)
MIL-STD-331 test 202 Jettison (Simulated s A, N, AF
Aircraft Sale Firing
from Ground Launcher)
(Rocket Type)
MIL-STD-331 Test 203 Jettison (Simulated s A, N, AF
Aircraft Safe Drop,
front Ground Launcher)
MIL-STD-331 Test 204 Jettison (Aircraft s A, N, AF
Firing) Rocket Type
MIL-STD-331 Test 205 Jettison (Aircraft s A. N. AF
Safe Drop) (Fuze
System)
MIL-STD-331 Test 206 Accidental Release s A. N, AF
(Low Attitude, Hard
Surface)

6-2
 AM CP 706-186

T A B L E 6-1

T EST S U T IL IZ E D IN THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF P Y R O T E C H N IC IT E M S (Cent-d)

Specification Title Passing Using

Type of Tasi Specification Procedure or Procedure Title Criteria Service

e. A irc ra ft Ml L-STD-331 Test 209 Missile PullOff from S A. N. AF

Survivability Aircraft on Arrested
(corn'd) Landing (G round
Launcher Simulated)
MIL-A-8591 Carrier Suitability S N, A, AF
Remarks (Aircraft
Catapult and Arrested
Landing Test Conducted
by NATC Patuxent River,
Maryland)
f. Firing Train Ml L-STD-331 Test 115 Static Detonator Safety S A, N, AF
Interrupter
g. Bullet Impact SMUPA-VL 222 Standard Procedure (or S A
Rifle Bullet Impact
Tests
NAVWEPS Par. 5.2 Warhead Safety Tests, S N, AF
WR-50 dtd Minimum for Air. Sur­
13 Feb 64 face and Underwater
Launched Weapons
(excluding Mine and
Nuclear Warheads)
h. Kinetic Remark (No Standard
Heating tests in use by the
Navy. Army or Air
Force)
i.Miscellaneous Ml L STD-331 Test 105 Temperature Humidity 0 A, N. AF
Ml L-STD-810 Meth 507 Humidity (Cycling) 0 AF
Ml L-STD-810 Meth 501 High Temperature 0 AF
Ml L-STD-810 Meth 502 Low Temperature 0 AF
Ml L-STD-810 Meth 503 Temperature Shock 0 AF
Ml L-STD-331 Test 106 Vacuum Steam Pressure 0 A, AF
Ml L-STD-331 Test 107 Salt Spray (Fog) 0 A. N
Ml L-STD-810 Meth 509 Salt Fog 0 AF
Ml L-STD-810 Meth 510 Sand and Dust 0 AF
MIL-STD-810 Meth 513 Acceleration 0 AF
Ml L-STD-331 Test 108 Waterproofness 0 A. AF
MIL-STD-331 Test 114 Rough Handling
(Packaged) 0 A
BUWEPS Design and Test of 0 N
Weapons Re­ Packaging, Packing,
quirement Shipping and Handling
WR11 Equipment for Weapon
System Components

6-3
AM CP 706-1 OB

T A B L E 6-1

T EST S U T IL IZ E D IN THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF P Y R O T E C H N IC IT E M S (Corn'd)

Specification Title Railing Using

Type of Test Specification Procedure or Procedure Title Criteria Service

i.Miscellaneous Ordnance Part Picatinny Arsenal 0 A

(cont'd) 8837375 Experimental Testing
Criteria for Shipping
containers
MIL-STD-331 Test 110 1 Fungus (Components 0 AF
MIL-STD-810 Meth 508] only)
MlL-STD-810 Meth 512 Leakage (Immersion) 0 AF
Tests Not Named >r» Body of Chart;
M IL'STD '33l • Fuze and Fuze Components, Environmental and Performance Test for Tests
109, t 12,1 13,207,208,2 ( 0 ,2 ! 1, 212, 301. 302, 303.
MIL-E-5272 ■ Environmental Testing, Aeronautical and Associated Equipment, General Specification for
MIL-R-22449 (W£P) - Requirement (Certification) for Pyrotechnic Items
AH tests except OPS-1190, MIL-STD-331 Test 114, fvUL-STD-810 Method 516, BUWEPS Weapon Requirement WR-t1
and Ordnance Pert 8837375 are performed o n unpackaged items. Packaged as well as unpackaged items are tested under
M IL STD -810 M e th o d 514.
Key to last two columns,
Passing Catena $- safe O - safe and operable
Using Service: A-Army. hJ'Nsvy, AF- Air Force,

6-1.2.2 EVALUATION TESTS Acceptance tests are one form of service

test.
Evaluation tests are made to assess the
usefulness of a pyrotechnic system. It is used
to expose the characteristics of hardware to
observation by personnel experienced with G-1.2.4 SURVEILLANCE TESTS
pyrotechnic applications. An evaluation of a
flare launcher3, for example, includes a de­ Surveillance tests are made on specific lots
scription of the launcher, evaluates projected of ammunition taken from storage to deter­
altitude, illumination duration, effects of mine if changes are needed in components to
water soaking, day and night range, and provide satisfactory operation as well as to
ability to penetrate foliage; compares the determine the degree of degradation of the
performance of cal .38 with cal .45 cartridges; original lot4. Such tests should include ade­
and makes recommendations. quate sampling of the lot to assure true
representation and isolation of troublesome
Evaluation tests are usually carried out at a components and adequate tests to assure
test center under field conditions using the satisfactory performance of renovated ammu­
complete device. nition. Tests of this nature will salvage lots of
satisfactory ammunition whenever possible.
6-1.2.3 SERVICE TESTS
6-1.2.5 MALFUNCTION TESTS
Service tests are intended to determine the
suitability of hardware for use by the military Malfunction tests are carried out whenever
under field conditions. They compart the failures have occurred5. The rationale and
hardware with requirements set down in the planning for such tests is usually the responsi­
documents for the device being tested. The bility of the investigator. Special tests are
tests are always carried out on the complete applied lo pinpoint the cause of failure and
device under field conditions. for recommending corrective action.

6-4
 A M C P 706-188

6-1.2.6 NATO TESTS in different tunnels, outdoor facilities, and

actual end item conditions. Large variations
NATO tests are prescribed for safety and can easily occur depending on the lest system,
environmental survival of all ammunition test procedures, and the inherent variability
planned for use by NATO countries. Engi­ of the flares. If the candle is tested with its
neering design tests are listed for airborne burning surface upward, for instance, it will
devices for both unpackaged stores and pack­ give a larger reading than if faced downward
aged stores. An approved test series does not — due to the resulting differences in flame
currently exist. shape and smoke patterns.

6-2 LIGHT Usually large volumes of smoke issue from

the test flare which can reflect light or
6-2.1 GENERAL obscure the flame depending upon the motion
of the smoke. Blowers and dampers are used
Light producers may be tested by use of to adjust the wind velocity to maintain
human observers, simple electrical light detec­ control of this variable. Light intensity mea­
tors, or complex arrays of light detectors surements in tunnels are affected by the
coupled to recording instruments and to following variables:
computers for analysis of the light intensity
and spectra) content as a function of time. (1) Power density radiated by flare

Observers are used in many field situations (2) Area of the flare in the field of the
that are difficult to assess by instrumentation photocell
systems and hence play an Important role in
the ultimate testing of pyrotechnic light (3) Smoke screening the flare from the
produoers Many lest programs for quality photocell
assurance of existing candles and the develop­
ment of new types are performed indoors at (4) Fjcld of view of the photocell optical
large military installations having flare tun­ system
nels. A few instrumented outdoor sites are
available to evaluate the light output from (5) Reflectivity of the background
complete pyrotechnic ammunition under a
semblance of field conditions. (6) Accuracy of the spectral correlation

6-2.2 LABORATORY TESTS (7) Accuracy of the intensity calibration.

The candle of a pyrotechnic device is The flare is not truly an iseniropic source
usually tested as a separate component in as assumed in calculations because flux is not
development, production, and quality control radiated uniformly over the entire burning
efforts. Candles with outputs up to 106 surface. Radiation from the cylindrical sides
candlepower are commonly tested in areas may be twice that from end on. Measure­
equipped to contain the burning candle safely ments in tunnels normally are made from the
and to measure (he emitted light under side of the flare.
controlled conditions. Fig. 6-16 shows typical
hearths or fireplaces and light tunnels used by Intensity readings also will be incorrect if
the military for indoor measurements. These the field of the optica) system includes only a
facilities are very well suited for making portion of the flame produced by the flare.
comparative measurements of burning time The entire flame produced by the llarc should
and candlepower of flares, but caution is be in the field of view of the photocell and
required in relating values to those obtained any light reflected from the smoke in the

6-5
 KQT£ ;
1 - TUNNEL WALLS TO BE OF FIRE RESISTANT MATERIAL
a l l in t e r io r surfaces p a in t e d flat b l a c k .-
2 - DRAFT OUCT UN DE R FLO OR TO P E R M I T ADEQUATE FLOW
OF CASES UP STACK.
3 — (2 IN. THICK R f -I N F O R C E D CONCRETE INTERIOR SURFACE
PAINTED FLAT WHITE.
adjustable A -S TR E A M LIN E D TO EL IMINATE 5 MOKE POCKETS
S PE E O FAN
5 - SUFFICIENT HE IGHT TO PROvrDE. DRAFT AND AVOID
SMOKE RE - E f » EflING THROUGH DRAFT DUCT.
6 -O P E N IN G BETWEE N TUNN EL and HEARTH AFY x OFT
7 - LOCATION OF I L L U M I N A N T

INSTRU­
ME NT
ROOM
SIZE
o ptio n al

-NOTE 2 NOTE }

METAL RAIL FOR CENTERING

CELL BO*, BAFFLES AND LAMP.
HOUSING w i t h p h o t o m e t r i c
AXIS.

BRACKET FOR MO UN TIN G

plan view DAILY CALIBRATION LA M P

Figure 6-1. Typical Range Tunnels for Flare Testing

6-6
 AM CP 706-188

(A) Side v>£w

r
i -i
Figure 6-2. (8) io"> mew
Typical Outdoor Flare Test Facility
Figure 6-3.
vicinity of the burning Hare should be kept to Photocell Layout at MAPI Test Site
a minimum.
The light output of small arms tracer
Background reflections can produce partic­ projectiles is measured in a spinner that spins
ularly large errors in the measurements and the tracer projectiles at high cyclic rales (up
should be avoided. Apparent increases up to to 130,000 rpm) which simulates the down
40% have been noted by reflections from the range flight of the projectile. Tracer light is
tunnel floor. It is necessary to restrict the observed by a photocell the signal of which is
view of the measuring instrument to that fed to an oscilloscope. The Irace is then
portion of the flare producing the light. recorded photographically. As a result of
Spectral correction conforming to the re­ these laboratory tests, costly filing programs
sponse of the International Commission of can be minimized. Typical output exhibited
Illumination and intensity calibration with by cal .50 tracer is 600-900 candlepower7.
standard sources for the test equipment are Detailed test procedures arc contained in Ref.
also required. 8.

The practical difficulties in measuring true 6-2.3 FIELD TESTS

candle power of pyrotechnic flames makes it
desirable to refer to candlepower measured in The flame size and volume of smoke
accordance with a given specification6 , never­ produced by some flares such as the XM165
theless, measurements made under compar­ are too great for indoor tests. Such flares are
able conditions are valuable to rate light tested outdoors at test sites that are relatively
output and to maintain quality standards. flat open areas approximately 400 ft in

6-7
AM CP 706-188

diameter and have a means ot suspending the tional since 1970 at the Yuma Proving
flare al least 80 ft above the center of the Ground11. The range permits the evaluation
plane containing the photocells (Fig. 6-2). of pyrotechnic flares under dynamic condi­
tions. The output (illumination, duration, and
The Mulii-Aspect Assessment of Pyro­ pattern) of the flares is measured under
technic Illumination (MAPI) site at Naval conditions approximating tactical situations.
Ammunition Depot (NAD), Crane, Indiana, is
an example of such a site. It contains a The light sensing system consists of 361
grid work of cells at various angles on a ground photocell sensors arranged in a square of 19
plane which are directed at a flare suspended by 19 rows with a separation of 450 ft
80 ft above the center of the gridwork between sensors. The sensors are highly stable
between two towers (see Fig. 6-39). The silicon solar cells corrected with filters to the
output from the cells is fed to recorders and response of the human eye. The light received
data processing equipment to determine aver­ is compared with either a 0.05 or a 0.20
age candlepower as a function of time and footcandle reference level, as desired. Suitable
radial distribution about the suspended flare. instrumentation reads the output of the sen­
sors sequentially-it takes about 6 msec to
Picatinny Arsenal has recently developed scan the complete field and transmits the
instrumentation that will permit dynamic output to the display and recording units. At
assessment of actual rounds as fired by a the same lime three cinetheodolites track and
variety of launchers. The round is fired over a record the space position of the descending
matrix of detectors which will respond only jf flares.
a predetermined light level has been exceeded.
The detector field is sampled periodically at a The test range has three limitations: (1) the
fixed rate and visual presentation of the system measures only two threshold levels
performance is obtained electronically at a (0.05 and 0.20 footcandle), (2) testing peri­
central control station, This facility being ods are limited to moonless nights, and (3)
installed at the Yuma Proving Ground in data acquisition and reduction man-hours are
Arizona will offer more realistic estimates of excessive. However, preliminary tests success­
the effects of environmental conditions, the fully evaluated pyrotechnic luminants under
contributions made by associated flare hard­ actual firing conditions. Developments are
ware. and the effect of the ballistic forces on currently under way to alleviate the limita­
candle performance. tions.

Often the most practical method of evalu­ 6-2.4 COLOR MEASUREMENT

ating Light effects is visual observation supple­
mented with photography. Small arms tracers, Color of light-producing illuminants is as­
for example, arc viewed by two observers sessed by visual observation of flare burning
located 75 yd perpendicularly to the line of or by the use of instruments ihat can dissect
the trajectory10. A camera is located in front the light into characteristic colors or wave­
of the weapon in such a way that the field of lengths. Quantitative specfral data allow the
view covers a distance of I 5 to 125 yd on the engineer to observe dilution of a desired color
trace path. Lights are located at the I 5- and by unwanted colors, thus enabling him to
125-yd points along the trace path to serve as make corrections. These procedures may also
markers since the tests are made in darkness. be used for quality conirol in the production
The camera is mounted on a tripod that can of flares.
be tilted after each shot so that 2S cartridge
traces may be recorded on one film plate. A flare radiometer has been developed by
Picatinny Arsenal for rapid and simple spec­
An instrumented test range has been opera­ ia l examination of illuminating Hares and

6-8
 A M C P 706-188

Figure 6-5.
Laboratory TOP Measurement Chamber
Chamber for Preliminary Observation of
Smoke Producers tion, wavelength by wavelength. Chromaticjty
coordinates are calculated from the integrals
similar pyrotechnic devices17. The instrument under the three product curves and plotted in
consists of ten interference filters covering the a chromaticjty diagram to determine domi­
visible spectral region. The filters are chosen nant wavelength and purity.
to have a uniform spectral response at a
precisely chosen peak wavelength. Miniature 6-3 SMOKE
photocells positioned behind each of the ten
filters have trimming resistors which are ad­ 6-3.1 GENERAL
justed to provide a uniform output across the
Spectrum. When the radiometer is directed at In early stages of development-when gross
a source, each filter is illuminated in sequence effects are sought—much is gained by simple,
from blue to red by a motor-driven elliptical visual observation of the smoke produced.
minor. The optics are arranged so that every Visual observation is usually followed with
cell secs precisely the same field of view. A still and motion photography to make better
marker cell is provided to identify the begin­ estimates of volume and color. In the case of
ning of each sweep. screening smokes, quantitative measurements
of the obscuring power can be made by
Many modem facilities are equipped to measuring the attenuation of light by the
digitalize the analog data of the type de­ smoke. Signaling smokes have four properties
scribed for use in immediate computation or of importance to the military- color, visi­
storage on magnetic tape for later use. Present bility, duration, and volume.
equipment will sample analog data at the rate
of 50,000 times per second and provide Since instability is one of the main features
digital output with a definition of 0.1% (Ref. of the smoke cloud, its ability to persist is
13). Up to 30 spectral dislributions per usually judged by comparing it with smoke
second may be calculated with computers, a from a control burned simultaneously within
task requiring 30 manhours by manual meth­ close proximity of the test smoke generator.
ods. Correction for human eye response is Care must be taken so that two independent
made automatically. Candlepower is com­ plumes are observed under similar atmos­
puted by integration of the luminous inten­ pheric conditions. For smoke detection in­
sity over the wavelength range of interest. strumentation see par. 5-4.
Dominant wavelength and purity are deter­
mined by multiplying the radiant energy 6-3.2 LABORATORY TESTS
disuibutton hy the three color distributions
of the International Commission of Olumina- The test volume of Ihe equipment in use to

6-9
AMCP 705-188

measure Smoke production may vary from a where

few cubic feet to several thousand cubic C = concentration of smoke required for
fe e t'4. The test chambers usually provide obscuration (the weight of smoke
glove holes for manual manipulations; parts or producing formulation used divided
fittings for air, smoke, and exhaust, and an by the chamber volume), lb ft'3
optical system for obscuration measurement
as is shown in Fig. 6-4. Some chambers also Lt - fixed distance between the lamp and
provide means for controlling the temperature the photocell, ft
and humidity of the system.
The concenuation of smoke from Eq. 6-1
The screening value of smokes is deter­ is related to the concentration expressed in
mined by a figure of merit known as the total Eq. 6-2 by the relation
obscuring power (TOP), the area in square
feet that can be obscured by a pound of C = YC>; lb ft'3 (6-3)
smoke formulation.
where Y is the yield or the ratio of the weight
TOP can be determined either by measur­ of aerosol produced to the unit weight of
ing the light attenuation produced by smoke smoke-producing composition. These three
or by adjusting the position of a target equations, Eqs. 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3, can be
located in the smoke until the target is combined;
obscured in chambers similar to the one
shown in Fig. 6-5. The light attenuation eY (6-4)
TOP =
method changes the concentration of the
smoke and maintains a constant distance from
the light source to the photocell. where / is the transmitted light intensity
under obscuration conditions. A ratio of
The light transmission method of evalu­ 0.0125 for / // has been adopted as the
ating obscuring power15 is based on the obscuration point by some researchers based
Beer-Lambert relationship on physiological studies of the discriminating
capacity of the human eye. Introduction of
/ = c (6-1) this limit into Eq. 6-4 yields
t nil,11n )
where TOP (6-5)
( In Q A lS K l '
/ - observed light intensity, c

10 = initial intensity without smoke For fixed chambers and weights of smoke-
present, c producing compounds, tlus equation reduces
to
C = concentration of smoke, lb ft 3
TOP = K !og(/(//c ) (6-6)
L - path length, ft
If dilute smokes arc used, so that particle
e ~ scattering or extinction coefficient, coalescence is minima), tliis relationship is
ft- lb'1 valid and useful for rating the quality of
smoke mixes.

A cylindrical steel tank with dimensions of

28 ft long, and 8 ft in diameter has been used
( 0- 2)
successfully by NAD Crane15. Three mixing
fans, equally spaced along one side of the

6-10
 A M C P 706-188

chamber, provide for homogeneity of the 6-3.3 FIELD TESTS

chamber contents. Two rows of eight 60-W
lamps run the length of the chamber to In the field, observers are often used in the
provide illumination for a track-mounted assessment of smoke producing ammunition.
movable target that may be viewed through a A number of observers are commonly used in
port. A flood light, optically in line with a order to obtain statistically significant results.
collimator, and a photocell provide for atten­ Any person with serious visual defects is
uation measurements. eliminated, usually by tests made immediately
before the observation. Color blindness of
Smoke producers arc activated at the tank
observers is particularly searched out when
center and their product is stirred constantly
testing colored smokes. Observers are some­
by the fans. Light attenuation measurements
times supplied with binoculars during tests of
are begun three minutes after activation of
smoke. They compare performance with con­
the smoke producer; and a minute later visual
trols having well-known characteristics.
observations are begun to determine obscura­
tion, usually at five minute intervals. Since a
Wind tends to produce both good and bad
number of units are evaluated, minimum light
effects in smoke production and use. In
transmission and maximum target obscuration
outdoor tests of smoke producers, wind speed
are used as represen ta five values for the
and direction are normally recorded. Wind
particular device.
may aid in distributing the smoke for screen­
Titanium tetrachloride (FM) is used as a ing purposes. If the smoke is produced contin­
standard in this instance for conven'ence and uously, wind often helps to pinpoint a
because it is less corrosive than FS (sulfur marked area by observing the origin of (he
trioxide-chlorosulfonic acid solution) that is plume. On the other hand, the wind may
usually used for calibration. scatter the smoke.

PROCEDURE
Set film eating on melee
Select F stop
to'
Find normal exposure lime (1/10 to 1 /5 0 0 sec)
Use normal exposure time rind desired filter
factor to find required “ Long Exposure"
I0U I
10’ IOz I03 IQ- 105
" long EXPOSURE" REQUIRED, sec

Figure 6-6. Factors for Long Time Exposures (Panaxomic X Filmj

A M C P 706-188

In testing field-ready smoke producers, This method employs Roberts’ opacity theory
each sample is numbered; and ignition time to define the visible edge of smoke plumes,
and burning time of each sample are re­ maximum plume width and length, and ratios
corded16. Comments are recorded to describe of these to determine dispersion parameters.
out-of-ordinary conditions that may occur The vertical dispersion coefficient C is given
during the test-such as excessive sparking by y
upon ignition, flame-ups while burning, and
fuze failures.
<6 - 7 >

6-3.4 PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES where

n = Sutton’s stability parameter
Smoke plumes have been studied with
time-exposure photography17. Long photo­ T^n = ln ( y j y m )
graphic exposures (measured in minutes) of
smokes have been applied in a number of y, = total plume length, m
technical applications in which diffusion of
smoke into the atmosphere is of interest. y = distance from the source to the point
Time-exposure photography in daybght re­ point of maximum plume width, m
quires one or more of the following: very
slow film, small apertures, or dense filters. If x - maximum plume width, m
these conditions cannot be obtained, an alter­
native is to make dispersion photographs Motion pictures are used in the same
under conditions of twilight. manner as time exposures to determine dis­
persion coefficients.
Fig. 6-6' 7 serves as a guide for exposure
time, filter requirements, and aperture set­ 6-4 HEAT
tings. The Tilter factor on the ordinate repre­
sents the light reduction by the action of a Incendiary devices are normally evaluated
filter. A one-percent neutral-density filter has in terms of their ability to inflict specific
a filter factor of 100. Two of these would damage against specific, defined targets such
combine to have a filter factor of 10,000. A as burning a hole through metal plates18’1'5.
IVratten No. 25 (red) filter has a factor of The Hand Grenade. Incendiary, TH 3, AN-
eight. Each of the plotted lines in the figure is M14, for example, is required to burn through
coded with exposure times that are read from a steel plate 1/8-in. thick. The burning time
a light meter. The corresponding aperture (40 sec in this grenade) is another of the
used on the light meter is used in the practice parameters that is commonly measured.
of setting up the camera. The exposure time
required for the given aperture and filter Attempts have been made to improve the
factor is read on the abscissa. testing of heat producers by the use of
photographic techniques, spectrometers, and
The data shown in Fjg. 6-6 were deter­ radiometers10. The following factors should
mined by trial and error using Pan atomic X be measured or assessed qualitatively in tests
film; however, limited tests with Polaroid, of flame producers:
Kodachrome, Plus X, and Microfilm indicate
that little or no modification of the curves (1) Fuel dissemination in terms of “ blob”
will, be required for successful results at size, spectral and spatial distribution
exposure times of up to 15 min.
(2) Percentage of fuel ignited
Plumes recorded on photographs may be
analyzed to determine dispersion coefficients. (3) The adhesiveness of fuel “blobs” lo

6-12
 AM CP 706-188

different surfaces as a function of the type of fixtures may be necessary for close simula­
surface, “ blob” velocity, and altitude tion, but ordinarily closed bomb tests with a
fixed volume approximately equal to the
(4) Fuel spread and run-off during burning volume in the actual application will suf­
fice2 1.
(5) Oxygen depletion or contamination
A closed vessel of adequate strength to
(6) Heating of the air in the vicinity of the withstand the pressure released from the gas
target generator is used with proper instrumentation
to measure pressure as a function of time.
(7) Damage capability as a function of
target type. Normally, the volume of the closed bomb
is fixed but some bombs are made so the
Quantitative methods for evaluating all volume can be changed by the use of inserts
these factors have not yet been devised, or an adjusting plug. Some test fixtures
Spectroradiometric methods may be useful in provide for expansion of the chamber with a
some aspects of these problems but are not movable member as pressure is applied from
likely to play a dominant role in evaluation of the pyrotechnic gas producer. This type of
effectiveness against targets of flame pro­ test measures the ability of the charge to
ducing weapons. deliver a certain minimum quantity of work.
The pressure in the chamber and the displace­
Photography with infrared film and appro­ ment of the movable member are both mea­
priate fillers can provide an effective means of sured as a function of time. Piezoelectric
evaluating the temperature distribution over gages are most often used for pressure mea­
the surface of a large flame, provided the fuel surements and capacitance, inductive, or re­
is relatively homogeneous and the observation sistive elements for the displacement measure­
path is also homogeneous. The film should be ment.
calibrated with a blackbody source of IR, and
the calibration Him and recording film should Similar tests are made on propellant actu­
be processed identically. ated devices used to eject or separate compo­
nents of pyrotechnic ammunition. Pressure
Small arms incendiary rounds are evaluated and time are monitored in the charge con­
by firing them against aluminum target plate. tainer as observations are made on system
These rou nds are fi red to pene tra te the motion Or trajectory.
aluminum plate in rows to conserve target
materia). Each shot is photographically re­ Piston, dimple, and bellows motors are
corded for flash characteristics. Acceptance is actuated by expanding gas. These motors are
based on a comparison of the photographic evaluated using force measuring transducers
results with photographic standards represent­ or by working them against springs. These
ing the minimum acceptable flash for that devices are nominally closed and sealed. Test­
type of round. ing includes measuring the time (1) from
initiation impulse to start of motion, and (2)
6-5 GAS-OPERATED DEVICES from start to the end of motion. The designer
must be concerned with the input such that
Pyrotechnic gas generators may be designed the electrical power is sufficient to ignite the
to produce various quantities of gas at various explosive material. Also he must consider the
rates and temperatures and under a variety of output of the explosive material so that
loading conditions. H is good practice to test excessive pressure is not created in the con­
gas generators under conditions nearly the tainer that may puncture it or cause leakage
same as those anticipated in use. Special test at the joints.

6-13
 Problems that will be encountered in the Cove<for changing slides
testing of gas producers include the provision
of adequate seals at the interface of the
generator and pressure bomb, and at the
pressure transducer. Copper washers are often
helpful in both places. Some pressure trans­
ducers are fitted with beveled plugs that fit
into similarly contoured seats. Further prob­
lems will be encountered in providing protec­
tion for the face of the pressure transducer
that may, in some instances, be exposed to
the hot gases or particles from the pyro­
technic gas generator. Manufacturers of pres­
sure gages often recommend lubricants, either
semifluid Ot dry, that provide adequate pro­
tection of the gage interfaces in these circum­
stances without materially altering transducer
performance.

6-6 CHEMICAL AGENTS

Chemical agents are disseminated in the Reprinted wilh permission from Green & Lane, P a rtic u la te
C lo u d s : S m o k es a n d M is ts , E,F.N. Span Ltd, London,
form of small liquid droplets or small solid 1957.
particles. The particle size, shape, and concen­
tre Iion of these substances are the important
variables in their role as chemical agents12. Figure 6-7. Diagram of Cascade ImpacTor
Particle size and concentration are usually
measured to assess effectiveness of pyro­
technic chemical generators, j.e., pyrotechnic
munitions that produce clouds of chemical through a cylinder on the outside of the
agents. Microscopy, sieving, sedimentation, chamber to produce impact of the sample
light scattering, and impaction methods have with the plate. The particles collected on the
all been used to determine particle Size with plate were examined under a microscope to
some success23. While particle size in itself is determine particle size and distribution.
of little value, it is related to a number of
other factors that become important in the A cascade impactor was then developed
evaluation of these generators. The human which maintained a vacuum at a fixed rate.
respiratory system is one of the finest aero­ Impact takes place in separate chambers that
dynamic classifying systems for airborne par­ may vary in number depending upon the
ticles-rejecting or returning most particles design of the instrument24. The sample is
that fall outside the range 1 to S microns. passed through progressively smaller orifices,
Hence, particle size becomes a critical factor. each in a separate chamber and each having its
own collection plate, as shown schematically
Cascade impactors have become a major in Fig. 6-724 . This arrangement permits segre­
means of monitoring particle size included in gation of the contents of the sample by
the broad impaction and impingement cate­ particle si2 e. Each plate then has particles
gory. First models of impactors were cham­ within specific statistical variations of sample
bers with an adhesivc-coated slide on one side size, although the size ranges will overlap to
and an orifice at right angles to the slide. A some extent as shown in the generalized
spring-operated piston sucked samples example of Fig. 6-824.

6-14
 AMCP. 706*188

out placing unnecessary restrictions on exact

configuration. The criteria are to he included
in the design of a tunnel used for the testing
of pyrotechnic munitions that disseminate
chemical agents are:

(1) The test tunnel shall be the dynamic

type with once-through air (low.

(2) Tunnel capacity shall be sufficient for

100 g of pyrotechnic agent per test.
D t a m e t e r o f D r o p l e t , m ic r o n

(3) A homogeneous air stream shall be

maintained in the sample chamber.
Reprinted with jx^rmission fiom Green & Lane, P a n ic u la te
D u sts, S r n o k e s a n d M ists. E.F.N. Spon Ltd, London
O o tid s
1967. (4) Operation shall be in all weathef con-
dilions.
Figure 6-8.
Efficiency Curves for Four Stages o f a (5) Minimum air dilution shall be 2000 ft3
Cascade impactor min'1 per pound of agent

Limits on particle size for cascade im- (6) Munitions shall be initiated remotely.
pactors arc approximately 200 microns on the
upper end o f the scale and particles as small as (7) Provision shall be made for viewing the
0.2 micron have been collected with certain burning munition.
instruments. Considerations in the design of
impactors include case of slide removal, porta­ (8) Nine samplers shall be provided in the
bility, ease of use in the field, and particle size sample plane and equally distributed across
range. the sampling chamber; each sampler shall have
a sampling rate of 1.5 to 5 liters min 1 within
Pyrotechnic munitions that produce clouds ± 0.05 liter min"1 of the sampling rate
of chemical agent are tested in chambers with specified.
provisions to measure tile burning times of
the munition and to sample the resultant (9) Sampling time shall be at least 10 min.
cloud quantitatively. The basic facility re­
quired is a test tunnel consisting of an inlet (10) The air velocity through the chamber
plenum, burning chamber, sampling chamber, shall be maintained constant and shall be
agent decontaminating chamber, air moving measurable to an accuracy of * 35 .
system, and exhaust stack. Operation entails
moving air past the functioning pyrotechnic (11) The test tunnel shall provide test
munition into the sampling chamber where results with an accuracy of ± 5
aliquots of the agent are collected. The
residue is fed from the sampling chamber to a 6-7 GENERAL SENSITIVITY TESTS
decontamination chamber where the remain­
ing agent is rendered inert or collected, and 6-7.1 TEST LIMITATIONS
finally the remaining (low is expelled through
the stack. It is important to determine the sensitivi­
ty of pyrotechnic material to initiation by the
Criteria have been established for test input energy: it is also important to determine
tunnels that provide some conformity with­ liie capability of said pyrotechnic material to

6-I5
AM CP 706-18S

ignite a subsequent explosive or pyrotechnic ------ o \ 0----------

chajge (output). This knowledge will permit
MOVABLE +
not only greater safety and reliability but also PROBE —
10M
enable the designer lo pinpoint performance HV DC
requirements. While a number of different
tests have been devised to indicate the sensi­
tivity and output of a given explosive materi­
al, most authorities in this field view such
SAMP l E_
HEIGHT
GAP
■SAMPLE holder
r
tests as being merely indicative of the relative Figure 6-9.
sensitivity or output. Few feel that such tests Schematic Drawing of Electrostatic
yield numerical results that may be applied to Sensitivity Tester
a specific design problem. To make matters
worse, most of the tests employed are de­
signed for testing general explosive materials
rather than specific pyrotechnic materials. capacitance, series resistance, and potential
difference can be varied in order to arrive at
In spite of these shortcomings, the general an energy value indicative of the sensitivity of
sensitivity tests are valuable in establishing a bulk explosive materials. The series resistor is
relative sensitivity of the materials used. Once nominally a short circuit, zero ohms. 'Phis
a specific pyrotechnic has been selected, the resistance may be increased if splattering of
sensitivity tests are ideal for quality assurance the exp'osive sample occurs. Energy E is
determinations. If they accomplish nothing computed by
more than identifying a safety problem, they
have well paid for the effort. Additional E = 'ACV2 (6-8)
details for the Lests that follow are found in
handbooks on ex plosives15,2 6117. where
E - energy,J
6-7.2 IMPACT
C = capacitance, F
Impact tests with the Pjcatinny Arsenal
apparatus or with the Bureau of Mines appara­ V - potential, volt
tus provide a relative value of the energy
required to initiate an explosive17. A known 6-7.4 EXPLOSION TEMPERATURE
weight is raised a distance above a carefully
housed sample of explosive, and the weight is Explosion temperature tests are made by
allowed to tail into the assembly containing immersing, in a bath of Wood’s metal, metal
the explosive sample. Sensitivity is expressed shells of No. 8 blasting caps that have been
as the minimum height of the weight neces­ previously loaded with the explosive or pyro­
sary to cause initiation. technic mix being tested. The temperature
and time to explode arc recorded, and the
6-7.3 ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVITY temperature required to provide firing in 5 sec
is determined-usually by a plol of explosion
An electrostatic sensitivity test was devel­ ■ time vs temperature from which the tempera­
oped for the specific purpose of testing the ture for a 5-sec explosion time is taken.
sensitivity of pyrotechnic compositions. The
usual apparatus consists of a capacitor, a If the sample fails to explode during the
movable probe or sparking mechanism, a test, the temperature at which decomposition
sample holder, voltage controllers, switches, occurs is recorded. Decomposition tempera­
and timing mechanisms arranged as shown ture is defined as the evolution of smoke, gas,
schematically in Fig. With this tester or fumes as contrasted to an explosion.

6-16
 A M CP 706-188

TABLE 6-2

SUMMARY OF TESTS FOR STABILITY OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

Sample
Test Name Size,g Process Indicators Notes

Material 10 75°C (or48 hr lossof weight inexcess of Observe discoloration, fumes,

Stability water odors

Heat 10 Determine moisture % moisture

content

0.6 100°C. 48 hr weight loss Precaution: heat each sample in­

side pipe bomb

0.6 100°C, 100 hr reaction Note whether explosion occurs

Vacuum 5 90°, 100°, or 120°C gas liberation Room temp ,barometric pressure;
Stability vacuum to 5 mm Hg temp, to £ 0.5 deg C

Surveillance 45 65.5°C liberation ofcolored gas Time to emit colored gas:

90 days or less,impaired;
20 days or less,destroy

6-7.5 STABILITY sample is monitored and is the determining

criterion for indicating that the sample has
Stability tests generally measure the resist­ reacted.
ance of an explosive to decomposition by
heat. The end point may be the change in Table 6-2 lists some of the tests that are
color of a blue lest paper or the evolution of used routinely in determining the stability of
oxides of nitrogen. Also, loss of weight of the pyrotechnic materials and the types of materi­
sample or gas liberation are measured to als to which these tests are nominally applied.
determine stability, [wo tests commonly used
for stability determination are the differential 6-7.6 REACTIVITY
thermal analysis (DI'A) and thermal gravi­
metric analysis (TGA). They have proven to Reactivity tests arc made to determine the
be valuable tools in the analysis of pyro­ compatibility of a pyrotechnic material with
technic materials. The DTA test consists of its container because pyrotechnic materials
measuring the tempera lure different iai be­ are always housed in a container that is
tween (he sample and a thermally inert materially different from the explosive. 'JTie
reference compound while both are heated at container material may combine with the
a constant rate. Temperature difference is pyrotechnic to produce a compound far more
plotted versus sample temperature. An exo­ reactive than the original pyrotechnic mix­
thermic reaction may lake place due to a ture. The result could be a compound that
phase change in the sample and is identified ignites spontaneously or with very little need
by a sharp rise jn AT. An endothermic for externa) energy.
reaction may take place due to a phase change
in the sample and is identified by a decrease Reactivity is measured using the vacuum
in AT'26. TGA tests are similar to the DTA in stability test to compare a combination of the
that the temperature of the sample is moni­ contiguous materials intimately blended with
tored. It differs in that the weight of the pure, individual samples of the explosive and

6-17
the contact material. Two 2.5 ± 0.01-g sam­ 40 hr; however, if necessary or desirable,
ples are made of the pyrotechnic and lire lower or higher temperatures may be used.
contact- material. One sample of each of the The usual alternate temperatures are 75°. 90°
materials is blended with the other. The gas or )20°C. If the gas liberated by the mixture
liberated from the mixture is compared with exceeds the sum of the constituents by 5
the sum of the gas volumes liberated from the cm ' , the reaction is considered excessive; 3 to
pure samples. All samples are heated at a 5 cm3, considered normal, and 0 to 3 cm3,
nominal temperature of 100°C for a period of negligible.

REFERENCES

1- XAS I I46(R). Purchase Description, Procedures for 20 mm Cartridges. Section

Candle. Illuminating for Aircraft Flare. 8, Trace Test, Dept, of Army.
MLV-32/HQ9. Naval Air Systems Com­
mand, 28 March 1968. 9. Ralph D. Chipman, MAPI Data High
Intensity Flares, Report ROTR 78. Naval
2. AMCP 706-210. Engineering Design Ammunition Depot. Crane, IN, 9 June
Handbook, Fuzes. 1965.

3. /: valuation o f the Penguin Flare Launcher 10. AMCR 715-505, Ammunition BallisIk
and Cal .38 and Cal .45 Flare Cartridge. Acceptance Test Methods. Vol 3, Test
Report SAWG-TDR-63-14, Air force Procedures for 7.n2 mm Cartridges.
Weapons Center, November 1963, AD- Section 17, Trace Test Dept, of Army.
422 772.
11. Instrumentation Development lor Deter­
4. Final Report o f Renovation Test of mination o f Methodology for Measuring
Cartridge. 81 mm Illuminating, M30IA1 Flare Illumination, letter report, Yuma
with h u e . Time MS4, Report DPS-1702, Proving Ground, Arizona. May 1970.
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD. June
1965. AD-465 085. 12. Carlton 1. Davidson. Operating Manual
for Flare Radiometer. Picatinny Arsenal,
5. William t. Gaston, Malfunctioning investi­ Dover, NJ, May 196 7.
gations o f Cartridge, JOS mm, Smoke,
l/C, BF. M84. Report PAl R 3094, 13. James A. Swimson. Colorimetry and Ra­
Picatinny Arsenal, Dover, NJ, July 1963. diometer. Proc. First Pyrotechnic Semi­
nar, Report RDTR 131, Naval Ammuni­
6. MlL-C-l<S762(NOrd), Candlcpower o f tion Depot, Crane, IN. 10 October 1968,
Pyrotechnics. Methods o f Measuring and p. 419
Recording. Dept, of Navy. 29 December
1945. 14. W. H. McLain and R. W. Evans, A New
Smoke Screening Chemical for Use in
7. R. S. Shulman, Factors Affecting Small Aerial Smoke Tanks. Report DR I 2304,
Arms Tracer Burning, Report R-1287, University of Denver, December 1965.
Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, PA, Sep­ AD-479 680.
tember 1955.
15. G. A. Lane, W. A. Smith, and E. M.
8. AMCR 715-505. Ammunition Ballisiii Jankowiak, Naval Pyrotechnic Composi­
Acceptance Test Methods, Vol. 3, Test tions for Screening Smokes. Proc. First
Procedures for 7.62 mm Cartridges. Sec­ Pyrotechnics Seminar, Repoi l RDTR
tion 17, Trace Test and Vol. 8, Test 131, Naval Ammunition Depot, Crane,

6-1 8
 AM CP 706-188

131, Rival Ammunition Depot, Crane, 22. AMCP 706-186, Engineering Design
IN, I October 1968, p. 265. Handbook, Military Pyrotechnics, Part
Two. Safety. Procedures and Glossary.
16. Calvin C. Consky, Engineering Test o f
Cartridge. Signal, Smoke XMI66 (white). 23. A. Deiner and M. E. Milham, Measure­
XMI 67 (great), A'MI 68 (red) and ment o f Particle Size Distribution o f
XM169 (yellow), Report 7018, Yuma Thermally Generated Smokes. Report
Proving Ground. AZ, August 1967. EATR 4114, Edgewood Arsenal, MO,
November 1967.
17. Walter M. Culkowski, Time Exposure
Photography o f Smoke Plumes, Report 24. H. L. Green and W. R. Line. Particulate
OR0-359. U. S. Wen the; Bureau Re­ Clouds: Dusts. Smokes and Mists. D. Van
search Station, Oak Ridge, TN, April Nostrand Company. Inc.. New York.
1961. 1957.

25. AMCP 706-179, Engineering Design

18. Summary o f Chemical Corps Polar Test
Handbook, Explosive Series. Explosive
Program, Report DPG 345, Dugway Prov­
Trains.
ing Ground, February 19b3. AD-402
492.
26. Arthur J. Gear, Standard Lai‘oratory
Procedures for Determining Sensitivity.
19. TM 3-300, Ground Chemical Munitions. Brisunce and Stability o f Explosives, Re­
Dept, ol' Army, August I 956. * port PATR 3278, Picatinny Arsenal,
Dover, NJ, December 1965, AD-476 513.

20. Earl C. Kolubcrt, Field Colorimetryj!R 27. AMCP 706-177, Engineering Design
Instrumentation. Block Engineering, Handbook, Explosive Series, Properties
Cambridge, MA, October 1965. AD-481 o f Explosives o f .Military Interest
426.21
28. C. D. Lind, Thermal Decomposition
21. F. B. Pollard and J. H. Arnold. Eds., Characteristics o f Explosives, Repoit
Aerospace Ordnance Handbook, Pren­ TP2792, Naval Ordnance lest Station,
tice-Mall. Nevv York, 1966. China Lake, CA, February 1962.

'^Superseded bv T't 9 - 1 3 3 9 - 2 0 0 , Grenades, Hand and R i f l e ; TO 9 - 1 3 4 5 - 2 0 0 , Land

M i n e s ; and TM 9 - 1 3 7 0 - 2 0 0 , M i l i t a r y P y r o t e c h n i c s .

6 -1 9 /6 -2 0
 A M C P 706-188

CHAPTER 7

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING

7-1 VISION The lens of the eye is focused by an

Internal eye muscle system enabling it to see
The factors involved in vision are both clearly at both near and far distances. This
physiological and psychological. The physio­ adjustment, called accommodation, takes ap­
logical factors are those which control the proximately 0.5 sec. For persons over 40 yr
admission of light to the eye, the formation of age accommodation takes longer. The eye
of an image on the retina, translation into is protected from excessive illumination by
neural impulses, and transmission to the brain the action of the iris which can contract to its
for processing. The psychological factors are minimum size in approximately I.O sec. Al­
derived from neurological signals in the brain though the protection provided by the iris
and relate to apparent size, shape, color, may not ,be sufficient or fast enough, the
motion, and distance of the target object. eyelid can close in 60 msec.

7-1.1 THE HUMAN EYE As soon as an image is formed on the retina

of the eye the rods and/or cones respond and
A horizontal cross section of the human send a neural message to the brain causing a
eye is shown in Fig. 7-l ' . Light entering the conscious perception. Under any given light­
eye passes through the cornea, the lens, and ing condition (bright, dark, dim, etc.) the
the vitreous humor (a gel-like substance) ability to perceive an object is dependent
finally impinging upon the retina which con­ upon the contrast sensitivity of the eye. The
tains the photo-transducing elements called ability to recognize details and thereby identi­
rods and cones. The distribution of the rods fy the object depends on the contrast, the
and cones in the retina is shown in Fig. 7-2' . background luminance, the receptor mosaic
Generally speaking, the cones serve daytime
vision and the rods serve in dim illumination.
Only the cones are able to distinguish hue
(color).

Figure 7-2.
Distribution of Rods and Cones in the Human
Horizontal Section of the Right Human Eye Retina (Right Eye)

7-l
of the retina, and the interpretive ability of B - lum inance o f the o b je ct, c-m ' 2
the observer. In addition to these factors an
observer may further recognize the color, the When B is greater than B'. the contrast is
distance of the object, and the presence of positive and may vary between 0 and<». When
motion. B is less than B , the contrast is negative and
may change from 0 to - 1 . i he contrast
7-1.2 ILLUMINATION threshold, or the minimum detectahle bright­
ness contrast under a given level of illumina­
Hluminant flares form a large and impor­ tion, is a sensitive measure of visual perfor­
tant part of the family of pyrotechnic devices. mance.
Their primary purpose is to aid in the
detection of a target or in the accomplish­ 7-1.2.2 VISUAL ACUITY
ment of a visual task which would not
ordinarily be possible due to insufficient Visual acuity is an important performance
illumination. In most of these tasks it is not measure that refers to the ability to resolve
usually necessary lo distinguish color differ­ detail. The size of any object in the visual
ences. The detection of the presence of an field can be measured by the angle it subtends
object (which may be camouflaged) against a at the eye (visual angle) and visual acuity is
background and some object detail are suffi­ expressed as the reciprocal of the visual angle
cient for most purposes. For this reason the in minutes of arc. For example, a visual acuity
contrast threshold and the visual acuity of the of unity, or one, indicates an object subtend­
human eye as a lunciion of the illumination ing a visual angle uf one minute of arc can be
level are of primary importance in the design seen. This value has long been accepted as a
of illuminating Hares1-2. It is often possible standard for normal vision although research
to know the range, size, and contrast bright- has shown that much greater detail can be
riess of the target and thereby estimate the
I
resolved under certain circumstances (12 sec­
necessary illumination level in terms of can- onds of arc or an acuity of 5 >
dlepower at a given range.
It is appropriate to distinguish three stages
7-1.2.1 CONTRAST of vision dependent upon the luminance to
which the eye is adapted:
Contrast is an important property of a
target, signal, dr object of interest which (1) Photopic or daytime vision refers to
enables the human observer to detect it. It the state of essentially pure cone activity in
may be defined as a difference of adjacent the eye and is used in luminance levels
parts (within the viewed field) with regard to between 1 millilambert* and the limit of
brightness or color, ll has been shown experi­ comfortable vision, which may not Ire higher
mentally that brightness contrast is of greater than I04 millilambert.
importance than color contrast for the detec­
tion of targets. It is customary to express (2) Scotopic or night vision pertains to the
brightness contrast by the equation (see par. stage of pure rod vision used in luminance
2-1,4, Eq. 2-8) levels between 3X 10‘4 millilambert and the
vision threshold Gust barely perceptible), ap­
B - B' proximately 1CT6 millilambert.
B‘
(3) Mesopic or twilight vision refers to the
where intermediate stage in wliieh the activities of
Cb - brightness contrast, dimensionless both retinal receptor types (rods and cones)

B' = luminance of the background, c-nr ¥ Note i millilambert ^ 1 foot-knnbert

7-2
 A M C P 706-188

10° WHITE SURFACE

OBSERVEP Hr

10s
- F u l l Smvligki

I04 LIMIT o r—► -

COMFORTABLE VISION
-Overcast Sky

I03 PHOTOPIC VISION

( Day ! ime Vi sioo)
I02 -
- Good Reading
LEVEL,

, o '- -> Light

■Tw i l i'.'iii
I u 0 10 io 40 -flO £0 CO 70 60
MESOPIC VISION
LUMINANCE

Brightness Contract (Express*^ ii> 2)

(Twilight Vision)
10' Figure 7-4.
lNORMAL RANGE OF -F u ll Moonlight
I ILLUMINA1I0N PROVIDED Relationship Between Visual A c u ity and
10' L J by flares .
Brightness Contrast fo r Various Levels o f
Brightness
lO'5 -
Clear Night Sky
Some guides for the design of iiluminant
10' -
Hares are1■l >3:
SCOTOPIC VISION -Oyercasl (light Sky
10'- - (Night Vision) _
(1) The iiluminant should be essentially
white light.
10'
(2) The iiluminant source (or sources)
Figure 7-3. should have an inteasity adequate to provide
Range o f Response o f the Human Eye to a brightness level from 0.1 to 1.0 foot-
Various Levels o f Luminance lambert. A man is easily visible at 1000 ft
under this brightness range.
overlap. It applies to luminance levels be­
tween 1 millilambert and 3 X I O'4 milli- (3) The iiluminant should burn at peak
la m b e rt. intensity for at least 30 sec and preferably 90
sec. Til is is necessary because data acquisition
Die process of adaption is discussed further and tracking arc much more difficult under
in par. 7-1.4.1. Fig. 7-3 shows the range of the low illumination levels generally provided
response of the human eye in terms of various by Hares and under combat conditions (muz­
luminance (or brightness) levels. Fig. 7-42 zle Hash, noise, glare, etc.).
presents the relationship between visual acu­
ity and brightness contrast for various lumi­ 7-1.3 COLOR PERCEPTION
nance levels. The luminance levels in this
figure include those which might reasonably Color perception is an important considera­
be expected on target surfaces from pyro­ tion in the design of pyrotechnic signals when
technic illuminanis (0.1 to 1.0 foot-lambert). colored smokes and flares are used as sig­
In practice, approximations of the necessary nals' >4*4. The threshold sensitivity of the eye
intensity of an iiluminant flare are based on in the terms of radiant flux is shown in Fig.
the calculated brightness contrast and the size 7-51 for both daytime (photupic) and
of the target. nightime (scotopic) vision. Color is not neces-

7-3
 TABLE 7-1

THRESHOLD ILLUMINANCE VALUES FOR

CAq/^ec
WHITE AND COLORED LIGHTS AT NIGHT

Foveal Parafoveal
Threshold, Threshold
Color mile candles* mile candles’
IKRCSHOtO,

Tungsten at2800°K 0.24 0.010

(white)
FlU *

Blue 0.25 0.00087

R AIM A*!

Green 0.32 0.0040

Orange 0.20 0.046
Red 0.14 0.13

"A mile candle is 5280 footcandles

be increased to provide adequate contrast

against the daylight sky. Red signals have
been found to provide the best visibility and
recognition for general day and night time
UAV£l£*GTH,
use. A light red smoke has been found most
Figure 7-5. effective for maximum visibility with red-
Thresholds of Radiant Flux for Vision purple and orange somewhat less effective.
The saturation of the smoke color and the
sariiy perceived in scotopic vision although density of the smoke appear to be important
fhix sensitivity varies over the range of per­ factors in achieving maximum recognition.
ceptible wavelengths.
Normal color vision is called trichromatism.
Because of the structure of the eye (see Color deficiency or abnormal color vision
Figs. 7-1 and 7-2), color is perceived best by occurs to some degree in about 8% of the
the foveal or cone area; while brightness male population and about 0.4% of the
contrast is best perceived by the rods outside female population. The types and character­
the foveal area (parafovea). Thus the intensity istics of color deficiencies are:
required for the detection of a signal within a
180 deg field of view is less than for the (1) Anomalous Trichromatism—this group
subsequent color recognition of the same accounts for the largest portion of the color
signal once it has been brought into direct deficient population and is characterized by
sight- various (slight) deficiencies in red and/or
yellow-green perception.
Table 7-12 lists the foveal and parafoveal
threshold illuminance for white and colored (2) Dichromatism—characteristic of about
lights at night. Although these values are 2% of the male population and is character­
extremely small for practical signaling pur­ ized by a deficiency in the perception of red
poses they may serve as a guide in the (protanope) or green (deuteranope).
selection of colors for night signal lights.
(3) Rod-Monochromatism—a rare (0.005%
If pyrotechnic signal lights are to be used in of total population) condition in which no
the daylight, the intensity, and preferably the color at all is perceived, i.e., only shades of
color saturation (purity) of the signal, should gray are seen.

7-4
 AM C P 706-188

7-1.4 FACTORS IN RESPONSE

7-1.4.1 ADAPTATION

Daytime seeing is done in photopic vision

(see Fig. 7-3). At sunset, there may exist
mesopic levels in shadowy areas. After sunset
seeing is done in the upper mesopic level of
vision (I to I O'1 millilambert) and night
seeing occurs at the lower level of mesopic
vision (10'2 to 10'3 millilambert). The
process of change in types of vision with
changing illumination levels is know adap­
tation 1.

Of particular interest in pyrotechnic illumi­

nation is the processor adaptation from a low
level of luminance, e g., the night sky, to a
higher level such as that provided by a
suddenly ignited flare. Fortunately, dark to Arrol*rk4 - A recl j ul i llumination unl l . Th*: r et i nal
11 lurMnat ion In Trolands equal to the product of
light adaptation is relatively short requiring the pupil area (pun) e n d s o u r c e l umi nance ( c / m2 ) >
only 30 to 60 sec to see in bright sunlight
after being in a very dark room: Although an Figure 7-6.
observer would not normally have to adapt to Adaptation to Backgrounds of
a level as bright as sunlight, some time for Different Luminances
adaptation (e.g., 15 sec) should be provided in
the total burning time of a flare in addition to change in curves C, D, and E marks the point
that needed for target acquisition. al which the cones stop participating in the
visual process.
When an observer must adapt from a high
level of luminance to a lower level longer 7-1.4.2 FLASH AND FLICKER
periods of time are needed depending on the
level to be adapted to. Adaption times to A light source may exhibit nonsteady
different low levels of background luminances characteristics such as a flash or flicker1,2.
after being exposed to a bright, pre-adapting For flashes shorter than 0.20 sec the empirical
source for several minutes are shown in Fig. photochemical reciprocity law states that the
7-6*. In this figure, the criterion used to product of intensity and duration is equal to a
measure adaptation at any given time after constant photochemical effect
Uie pre-adapting source is shut off is the
threshold luminance of the target (always It = h (7-1)
brighter than the background) which just
makes it visible. In Fig. 7-6, background A is where
in the range of photopic vision and the ! = intensity, c
terminal (the maximum) threshold sensitivity
is reached in less than I 50 sec; background B t = lime, sec
is in the mesopic vision range and about 5 min
is needed to reach terminal sensitivity; back­ h = constant
grounds CJ.7, and E are various scotopic vision
regions and the final threshold sensitivity is There is a time interval between the onset
not reached until after 15 min. The abrupt of a stimulus and the onset of its perception.

7-5
AM CP 706*188

Primary Image per second the flash appears brighter than

when the same light is seen as a steady light.
This phenomenon is most effective at a light
level of 200 to 300 millilamberts and dark-
light distribution in a cycle such that the
light is on for 1/3 of the cycle. This
brightness enhancement may be due to
synchronization of impulses from visual stim­
uli with the alpha rhythm of the brain waves.
Figure 7-7. At high contrasts (between Hashing light and
Time Factors in Viewing a Stimulus o f background) the effect wanes and steady light
Medium Intensity and Duration is more conspicuous.

Flicker frequencies between 3 and 6 flashes

This is known as the perceptual latency time per second can produce discomfort. The
tPTL) and is shown in Fig. 7-71 In the fovea, flicker fusion frequency is the point at which
this time ranges from 35 msec for an intense successive light flashes appear to blend into a
stimulus up to 300 msec for a weak stimulus. continuous light: it increases with increasing
There is a reciprocal relationship between the flash intensities and with decreasing propor­
logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus and tion of the dark-light cycle occupied by the
the PLT at all stages of vision, but the PLT flash. The flicker fusion frequency may vary
can never be abolished entirely. The shortest between 12 and 60 flashes per second depend­
latency tune is found in the fovea at photopic ing upon the conditions stated earlier in rhis
and mesopie levels of vision. In scotopic paragraph.
vision, the shortest PLT is found 15-20
degrees from the visual axis of the eye, yet 7-L4.3 OTHER VISUAL PHENOMENA
the perception does not approach the rapidity
found in photopic vision. Unequal illumina­ Other phenomena related to seeing may be
tion of both eyes may cause a difference in of importance to the designer in specialized
perceptual latency between the two eyes, and applications.
thus produce distortions in the apparent paths
of moving objects. The PLT decreases with (1) Perception of Motion. Perception of
increasing size of the target. motion is produced by alterations of the
retinal images, which may occur’ :
The PLT is followed by a sensation known
as a "primary image” which reaches an (a) When the eyes are fixed and an object
intensity maximum within 100-200 msec, and is displaced in a stationaryenvironment
then gradually drops to a substained level.
After the stimulus has ceased, the primary (b) When the eyes are following a moving
image continues for a short time before it object, but the background changes
dissappears, and then is followed by a periodi­
city of aftei images which depend on inten­ (c) When the eyes are stationary and the
sity, hue. and duration of the initiating object grows or shrinks in size giving the
stimulus. After a stimulus a medium bright­ impression that the object is moving toward
ness and of several seconds duration, a longer or away from one in a stable environment.
lasting negative after-image is easily perceived
The minimum perceptible speed is ! to 2
A tight may become more conspicuous min of arc per second of time in the presence
when it is presented as an intermittent or of stationary reference objects and 15 to 30
Hickering light. At a frequency of 8-1 2 flashes min of arc per second of time in the absence

7-6
 A M C P 706-183

TABLE 7-2 through the successive presentation of two

stationary objects juxtaposed in space or
DURATION OF SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENTS through increasing the brightness of a fixed
object.
Extern of Movement, Duration of Movement,
deg rrrsec (61 Stroboscopic Effects. During nighttime
visual observation, detection of slow moving
10 40 targets may be enhanced through the use of
20 55 intermittent flashing of ihe lighi source caus­
30 80
ing the target to appear at many discrete
40 100
locations'.
of reference objects. Long tracking time and
good illumination tend to improve motion (7) Space Myopia. A condition in which
perception. the eyes tend to accommodate for a distance
of about 20 ft in front of the observer. Space
(2) Object Blur. When a motion of the myopia is due to the lack of something
eyes is not able to hold a steady image of the definite on which an observer can focus4.
target on the retina, the image becomes Objects beyond this distance arc consequently
blurred and contrast decreases'. Smooth lat­ out of focus and may not be seen. Such a
eral pursuit movements of the eyes are pos­ condition can occur at night as well as in
sible up to a target velocity of 30 deg per empty space.
second. At higher speed, the pursuit move­
ments lag increasingly behind the target and 7-2 HEARING
must be accompanied by frequent saccadic
eye movements. 7-2.1 USE OF SOUND

(3) Convergence- The act of aiming both Pyrotechnic devices are used to familiarize
eyes at the same point is called convergence unseasoned troops with the appearance and
and is a function of both internal and external sound of battle conditions without exposing
eye muscles4. The average time required to them to lethal ammunition. For simulation of
aim the eyes and focus them on a new point rifle fire and explosive charges, hand grenades,
displaced in distance is about 165 msec. This booby traps, and land mines, a small fire­
act is called fixating or refixating. Beyond 20 cracker type such as the M80 Simulator may
ft, convergence needed in order to fixate is be used (see par. 3-22.1). The degree to which
negligible. the simulated sound must correspond with
the actual device js not critical for training
(4) Saccadic tyc Movement. The simple, purposes provided that it gives a sharp report
conjugate movement of the eyes without
1
sufficient to startle or indicate to the trainee
complication by change of convergence is that something has happened. Sophistication
known as the saccadic eye movement4. These of design may increase as attempts are made
movements are used to change from one to reproduce the sound more faithfully, in
fixation point to another. Table 7-2 shows the terms of frequencies, magnitude, and dura­
duration of these movements for various tion. The M115A2 Simulator, for example,
angular eye movements. produces a high pitched whistle and a flash of
light followed by a loud report. Close repro­
(5) Apparent Motion. Lights presented in duction of the actual sound becomes more
succession at the proper time interval, dis­ important when the simulator is used under
tance from each other, and intensity give the actual combat to confuse the enemy.
impression of movement from one to the
other1’4. Apparent motion is also observed Modem sound spectrometers can be used

7-7
 AM CP 706-188

MIVOO u>»*•»

wir* lC-C»
W>S
»l
**
sU*
.
“'
V
1

*n»AC<ucwi'
\**CAVC*tf
O* *-00>

1<>W M*MCV»f« > 'I

Originally published by the University of California Press: re*
printed by permission of The Regents Of ihe University Of
California.

Figure 7-9.
Relationship Am ong Frequency, Intensity,
and L oudness

Qdginatty published by the University of California Press; re*

printed by permission of The Regents of rhe University of intensity at which a sound can be heard varies
California. with the individual and his age. Fig. 7-84
shows the average variation of hearing thresh­
Figure 7-8.
old with frequency. Normal hearing is most
Threshold o f Hearing as a Function
sensitive to a sound frequency of 3000 Hz.
o f Frequency

It is important to distinguish between the

to produce-three dimensional composite vis­
physical sound which may be generated by a
ual records of the frequencies present, their
sound source and the response to that sound
relative intensities, and the time of occurrence
which is called hearing. A sound source with
of each. Recorded patterns of this kind have
twice the intensity of another will not neces­
been made to identify voices of individual
sarily sound twice as loud to a listener.
persons and have been called voice prints6.
Fig. 7-9 (par. 7-2.3) is similar to a contour
Loudness is affected by the duration of a
map, showing frequency on the vertical axis,
sound. Maximum loudness is attained at a
real time along the horizontal axis, and
duration of 0 5 sec, beyond tins interval there
intensity or sound amplitude indicated by
may be a slight decline in loudness as the ear
contour levels. The darkest contour represents
adapts to the sound. The critical duration
the highest intensity. The same techniques
below which a tone sharply loses loudness is
can be applied to the matching of pyrotechnic
about 0.15 to 0.12 sec. To maintain equal
sounds. loudness for tones shorter than this critical
duration the intensity required is inversely
The reception, identification, and localiza­ proportional to the duration.
tion of the sounds when the human ear is the
sensor will be due mainly to the frequency,
The intensity of a sound diminishes accord­
duration, and amplitude of the sound as well ing to the inverse square of the distance.
as individual's hearing ability. Interfering reflections such as echoes, and
refractions caused by wind, trees, and temper­
7-2.2 THRESHOLD OF HEARING ature gradients will usually decrease the inten­
The threshold of hearing or the minimum sity of a sound before it reaches a listener.

7-8
 AM CP 706-188

Higher frequencies are more likely to be 7-2.4 SOUND LOCALIZATION

attenuated than lower frequencies.
The ability to locate sounds is dependent
7-2.3 FREQUENCY EFFECTS primarily upon binaural cues, which resolve
into differences of loudness, time of arrival,
The human auditory response to frequency and sound composition. Pure tones, which are
is commonly accepted as falling between the relatively rare in pyrotechnics, are not as
frequencies of 20 and 20,000 Hz. No clear accurately localized as complex sounds. The
generalizations can be made concerning the greatest errors occur in trying to locate a tone
frequency limitations of hearing, however, of 2000 Hz.
since intensity has an effect especially near
the extremes. 7-2.5 VARIATIONS IN HEARING ABILITY

When the intensity of sound is increased to Hearing ability varies greatly within the
very high levels, frequency components norm­ population. Aside from individual differ­
ally considered below or above the usual ences, age accounts for much of the variation
thresholds can elicit a hearing response. The in hearing ability. Fig. 7-1 O'1 shows the
hearing elicited by these very intense sounds changes in hearing sensitivity for men, with
is probably brought about through distortion the zero point obtained from the median
within the ear which breaks up a portion of value of the total sample of male and female
the sound energy into components, some of subjects aged 20 to 29 vr.
which fall within the range of hearing. Hear­
ing has thus been reported of sounds up to Some hearing loss is directly related to past
l 00,000 and as low as 5 Hz. exposure to loud noises. Exposure to noises in
excess of 85 dB over long periods of time
Tire relationship among frequency (mea­ generally results in permanent hearing impair­
sured in Hz), physical sound intensity (mea­ ment.
sured in dB) and subjective loudness (mea­
sured in sone) is shown in Fig. 7-94. 7-3 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS

7-3.1 MALE HUMAN BODY MEASURE­

MENTS

As an aid in the design of equipment,

selected dimensions of the human body (ages
18 to 45) are listed in Table 7-34 and
illustrated in Fig. 7-114.

Useful limits for arm reach should be based

on those of the small man. In Fig. 7-124,
selected data for a man with a 5th percentile
arm reach are shown. In Fig. 7-12(A) the
subject is in shirt sleeves and not restricted by
a shoulder harness. In Fig. 7-12(B) the subject
is restricted by a shoulder harness, and in Fig.
Originally published by Ihe University of California Press; re­ 7-l2(C) the subject wears a pressurized suit.
printed by permission of The Regents of the University of
California-
7-3.2 STRENGTH
Figure 7-10. Loss in Hearing A b ility fo r Men As a general rule the weight of hand-held
o f Various Ages launching devices and ammunition should be

7-9
Originally published by the U ni^rsiiy of California Press, reprinted by permission of The Regents of the University of California.

Figure 7-11. Key for Male Human Body Dimensions in Table 7-3
7-10
 A M C P 706-188

, in.d is t a n c e a b o v e seat

(A) S u b je ct i n S h ir t Sleeves (B) S u b je ct in Shoulder Harness

in.
d ist a n c e a b o v e s e a t ,

* '25'

i ■ / I.”
» :\ j-■■
r■■■

(C) S u b je ct in P re ssu re S u it

Oilgma'ly published by the University ol California Press, reprim ed by permission of The Regents of the University of California.

Figure 7-12. Arm Reach Envelopes

7-11
AM CP 706-188

as light as possible to increase the fire power and is included in the marking of the device.
and mobility of troops. For short times the The present system consists of letters or a
average man can exert forces as large as 450 lb letter followed by an Arabic numeral, for
with the leg if his back is supported against a example: An Army device may be marked
backstop. For design purposes, the maximum M1, a Navy device Mk 1, a device used by both
weight that individual troops are expected to Army and Navy ANMI, and a device still in
carry are limited to a maximum 50 lb. Two the development stage XM). items which
men can carry 75 ib without difficulty. have been modified are marked with a letter
or letters followed by the appropriate Arabic
When forces must be applied with the knee numeral, which is placed after the original
at a right angle, strain can be expected to model designation. The Army generally uses
occur at about 28 lb. A1 to indicate the first modification. Using
the given example, for the Army, a device
Devices such as grenades that must be which has undergone its first modification
hurled should be limited to less than 2 Ib. would be marked (MIAl). The Navy uses the
letters (Mod) followed by an appropriate
7-4 IDENTIFICATION CODESAND OPER­ Arabic numeral, for example, Mkl Mod I,
ATING INSTRUCTIONS would be the mode) designation after the first
modification.
7-4.1 IDENTIFICATION
Pyrotechnic assemblies are painted in ac­
Pyrotechnics are identified by lot number cordance with M) L-STD-709A. They are usu­
and the standard nomenclature common to ally painted white, except those having cases
other types of ammunition. Standard nom­ of either aluminum or plastic, or those air­
enclature is used so that each item may be craft signals assembled in a tube of rolled
specifically identified by name. In accordance cartridge paper, which are coated with color­
with Federal item identification guides for less lacquer. Ground flares (Army designa­
supply cataloging, standard nomenclature tion) M49 and M49A1, which have primary
consists of: item name (a generic term), a roles of giving warning of infiltrating enemy
colon, and other identification markings such troops and secondary roles as signals, are
as model number, serial number, etc. Also painted light green.
before Die colon will be included, where
necessary, descriptive adjectives such as: dum­ Pyrotechnics, in general, are marked in
my, blank, or inert ammunition. The use of black. These markings show the type, model,
standard nomenclature is mandatory for all ammunition lot number, and date of manu­
record purposes. facture. Signal types are marked with colored
bands and patches to indicate the color of the
When ammunition is manufactured, a lot signal produced. The top of launcher-type and
number is assigned in accordance with per­ hand-held ground signals are painted the color
tinent specifications. A lot consists of a of the signal and also marked with two
number of items manufactured under similar embossed letters for identification in the
conditions, which may be expected to func­ dark. The first letter is the initial of the color.
tion alike. Tire lot number consists, in general, The second letter indicates type “P” for
of the loader’s initials or symbol and the parachute or “S" for star. Thus, “ RP” indi­
number of the lot. cates the signal will produce a parachute-sup­
ported red star. Overage flares and those
A model designation is assigned to identify assigned to ranging am stenciled with a 2-in.
,a particular design at the time the model js blue band.
classified as an adopted type. This designation
becomes an essential part of the nomenclature It has been shown that embossed letters

7-12
 AMCP 70&-188

T A B L E 7-3

MALE HUMAN BODY DIMENSIONS4

DIMENSION
(ininches except where noted)
DIMENSIONAL ELEMENT Slh PERCENTILE 95th PERCENTILE

Weight 132 lb 201 lb

i Vertical reach 77.0 89.0

2 Stature G5.0 73.0
A 3 Eye to floor 61.0 69.0
4 Side arm reach from CL‘of body 29.0 34.0
5 Crotch to floor 30.0 36.0

1 Forward arm reach 28.0 33.0

2 Chest circumference 35.0 43.0
3 Waist circumference 28.0 38.0
4 Hip circumference 34.0 42.0
B 5 Thigh circumference 20.0 25.0
6 Calf circumference 13.0 16.0
7 Ankle circumference 8.0 10.0
8 Foot length 9.8 11.3
9 Elbow to floor 41.0 46.0

1 Head width 5.7 6.4

2 Interpupillary distance 2.27 2.74
3 Heed length 7.3 8,2
C 4 Head height - 10.2
5 Chin to eye - 5.0
6 Head circumference 21.5 23.5

1 Hand length 6.9 8.0

2 Hand width 3.7 4.4
D 3 Hand thickness 1.05 1.28
4 Fistcircumference 10.7 12.4
5 Wrist circumference 6.3 7.5

E 1 Arm swing, aft 40 deg 40 deg

2 Foot width 3.5 4.0

I Shoulder width 17.0 19.0

2 Sittingheight to floor (stdchair) 52.0 56.0
3 Eye to floor (stdchair) 47.4 51.5
F 4 Standard Chair 18.0 18.0
5 Hip breadth 13.0 15.0
6 Width between elbows 15.0 20.0

0 Arm reach (finger grasp) 30.0 35.0

G 1 Vertical reach 45.0 53.0
2 Head to seat 33.8 38.0
3 Eye to seat 29.4 33.5

'C L = chest line

7-) 3
 T A B L E 7 3 (Cont'd)

DIMENSION
(ininches except where noted)

DIMENSIONAL ELEMENT 5th PERCENTILE 95th PERCENTILE

Weight 132 lb 201 lb

4 Shoulder to seat 21.0 25.0

5 Elbow rest 7.0 11.0
S Thigh clearance 4.8 S.5
7 Forearm length 13.G 16.2
8 Knee clearance to floor 20.0 23.0
9 Lower legheight 15 7 18,2
10 Seat length 14.8 21.5
11 Buttock-knee length 21.9 36.7
12 Buttock-toeclearance 32.0 37.0
13 Buttock-foot length 39.0 46.0

Originally published by the University of California Press; reprinted by permission of The Regents of the
University of California.

provide a rapid means of nighttime identifica­ (2) One of the first instructions in the
tion with only a minimum of training5. Some sequence should include a check of the
letters (T.I.K.l.Y) are easier than others to integrity of the device. Are the seals broken?
identify due to distinctive shape. Is there evidence of damage'’ etc.

7-4.2 INSTRUCTIONS
(3) Size of the lettering should be compat­
Proper instruction labeling of pyrotechnic
ible with the expected illumination, with an
devices cannot be overemphasized. Although
adequate allowance for possible eye fatigue.
ease of operation may have been embodied in
For illumination of 1 foot-lamberl or less the
the design of a device, ambiguous, inconspicu­
size of lettering to he viewed at 28 in.
ous. or illegible instructions may make per­ (approximately arm length) should be be­
sonnel reluctant to use the device or cause tween 0.10 and 0.30 in. depending on the
them to use it in an unsafe manner. A few
nature of the instruction4. Best legibility is
basic considerations apply to the design in­
obtained with black letters on a white back­
struction labels: ground. Black on yellow, dark blue on wliite,
and green on white arc also good. Distinctive
( 1) Instructions should be clear and logical
borders may be placed around critical labels
with no possibility of misinterpretation. Indi­ to make them more conspicuous than routine
viduals can interpret instructions differently labels4.
because of intelligence and psychological dif­
ferences; hence, instructions should lie tested
on a mock-up device using a broad cross
Section of subjects. Short, concise instructions (4) Instruction labels should be placed in a
are highly desirable, but clarity should never conspicuous position that will not be subject
he sacrificed. to abrasion or scraping in handling.

7-14
 AM CP 706-188

REFERENCES

]. R. M. Blunt and W. A. Schmeling. Study search Laboratories. Wright-Patterson Air

o f Psychophysical Factors o f Vision and Force Base. OH, 1968.
Pyrotechttical Light Sources, Report
AFATL-TR-6S-17, Air Force Armament 4. W. E. Woodson and D. W. Conover.Hu­
Laboratory, Eglin Air Force Base, FL, man Fngitieering Guide for Equipment
1968. Designers, University of California Press,
CA, (964.
2. Human Engineering in the Design. Opera­
tion, Stowage and Transportation o f Am­ 5. B. L. Bucklin, Tactual D i s c r i m i n a t i o n - o f
munition, Pyrotechnics and Related Mater­ 40MM Ammunition for the M 79 Hand
ial. Phase II, Visibility Data as It Applies Held Weapons Systems, Report ESL IR
to Pyrotechnics, Dunlap and Associates, 272, Feltman Research Laboratories. Pica-
Inc.. Stand ford, CT. Contract DAJ- tinny Arsenal, Dover. NJ. June 1966.
28-01 7-501-ORD-(P)-l 294, April 25,
1955. 6. W. Heaton and C. W. Hargens. Eds., An
Interdisciplinary Index o f Studies in Phys­
3. R. Hilgendorf. Visual Search and Detec­ ics, Medicine and Music Related to the
tion Under Simulated Flare Light, Report Human Voice. Theodore Presser Company.
AMRL-TR-68-1 12, Aerospace Medical Re­ Bryn Masvr, PA, 1968.

7-15/7-1 6
 A M C P 706-188

CHAPTER 8

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

8-1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERI­ The ideal gas law is very convenient to use
ALS in the form

8-1.1 GAS LAWS P, V, _ P7 (8-4)

T, ' T7
The pyrotechnic designer is faced with the
control of materials that react to generate gas Although it does not hold strictly for real
at various rates. The generation of gas may be gases, it is often sufficient for approximations
desirable as the source of power for mechani­ made at high temperatures and low pressures.
cal motion or may be an undesirable result of
a pyrotechnic reaction that must be contained Pyrotechnic designs often require solutions
or vented. Familiarity with the behavior of for conditions of high temperature and high
gases will permit adequate design' . pressure where intermojecular forces and the
physical si2 e of actual molecules cause a
At a constant temperature T, the volume V departure from the behavior expected from
of a given quantity of gas varies inversely as an ideal gas. An improved equation of state
the pressure P to which the gas is subjected. which specifies the fundamental relationship
For a perfect (ideal) gas at constant tempera­ between pressure, volume, and temperature
ture, we have the relationship was proposed by van der Waals in 1873.
Cohesive forces are present between the mole­
PV = k (a constant) ( 8- 1) cules of real gases which tend to reduce the
pressure of the gas. These forces are propor­
which is the well known Boyle’s Law. tional to the square of the density and the
reduction in pressure can be written in the
At a constant pressure, the volume of a form a/ V1 where a is a constan t depending on
given mass of an ideal gas will increase 1/273 the exact law of attraction1. The physical
of its volume at 0°C for each degree centi­ space occupied by each molecule ii' it were a
grade rise in temperature, i.e., it is directly hard sphere would reduce the available space
proportional to the absolute temperature in by some factor b related to the number of
°K, This is Diaries’ Law which relates volume molecules. The two effects were combined by
to the absolute temperature for a constant van der Waals to yield what is known as van
pressure der Waals’ Equation of State

V - k .T ( 8- 2 ) ' p + - j ^ ) ( V ~ b ) = RT (8-5)

The two laws are usually combined to give Qualitatively, the constant b in Eq. 8-5 is
what is known as the idea) gas law the excluded volume due to the size of the
molecules and the constant a is a measure of
PV = nRT (8-3) the force of attraction between the molecules.

where the gas constant R has a universal value Many other attempts have been made to
for all gases, 1543 ft-lb (“Rankine-lb determine equations of state that agree more
mole)'1, 0.09206 liter-atmospheres (°K-g closely with the response of actual gases since
m ole)1, or 8.31432xl07 ergs C°K-g mole)'1; the assumption of hard spherical molecules is
and n is the number of moles of gas. not really warranted. The equation by Beattie

8-1
AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 8-1

CONSTANTS OF THE BEATTIE-BRI DGEMAN EQUATION OF STATE

Mini-
Maxi* mum
mum vol­
pres­ ume,
Temp. sure, cc/g -
Gas A0 a 89 b C X 10‘4 range, atm. mole

He 0.0216 0.05984 0.01400 0.0 0.0040 400 to -252 102 100.

Ne 0.2125 0.02196 0.02060 0.0 0.101 400 to-217 106 118
A 1.2907 0.02328 0.03931 0.0 5.99 400 to-150 114 167
0, 1.491) 0.02562 0.04624 0.004208 4.80 100 to -1 17 103 111
Air 1.3012 0.01931 0.0461 1 -0.01101 4.34 200 to -145 177 125
CO} 5.0065 0.07132 0.10476 0.07235 66.00 100 to 0 111 ,82
CH„ 2.2769 0.01855 0.05587 -0.01587 12.83 200 to 0 243 167
,(C}HS)j0 31.278 0.12426 0.45446 0.11954 33.33 325 to 150 90 370
C;H4 6 1520 0.04964 0.12156 0,03597 22.68 200 to 0 286 125
NHj 2.3930 0.17031 0.03415 0.19112 476.87 325 to - 35 130 340
cci2f 2 23.7 0.305 0.59 0.622 0 126 to 30 18.5 1,430
Ci H* 5.8800 0.05861 0.09400 0.01915 90.00 25 to 250 193 200
C;HS 11.9200 0.07321 0 .18 10 0 0.04293 120.00 97 to 275 305 100
n-C...H [o 17.7940' 0.12161 0.24620 0.09423 350.00 150 to 300 118 280
n-C7H 16 54.520 0.20066 0.70816 0.19179 400.00 275 to 350 315 200
lso-C4Hs 16.9600 0.10860 0.24200 0.08750 250.00 150 to 250 250 111
CHjOH 33.309 0.09246 0.60362 0.09929 32.031

NOT£i The constants for N? car be used for CO and the CO? constants ih f N ?0 at m oderate pressures and temperatures
not too near the critical ones.

The equations wilt not, in general, be accurate if used in any region where the molal volume is less than the mini­
mum listed.
o
Units atm, liter, g*mole, K

From C hernies! EngineeringT h e r m o d y n a m ic s by Dodge. Copyright 1344. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Bool: Co.

and Bridge man can be fitted to many gases PV = A + BP + CP2 + . . . (8-7)

within ]% over a wide range of pressures and
temperatures-. The coefficients A . B, C-functions of
temperature and mole fractions—are called
viriaJ coefficients; PV is the virial. Coefficient
A is equal to R T to make the ideal gas law
hold at zero density or pressure.

The virial equation is really a condensed

summary of the fit to experimental data with
great accuracy over large pressure ranges. It
where A 0, Ba, a, b. and c are constants. Table requires a different set of coefficients for each
8-13 lists constants of the BeatUe-Bridgeman temperature and as a result is very cumber­
equation of state for several gases. some for practical applications4 . At low
pressure and low density only the first two
The equation of state lias also been ex terms of the series are required to give
panded in a power series form satisfactory results.

8-2
 AM CP 706-188

8-1.2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Any structural material exhibits an elonga­

tion when subjected to an external load or
force and, within the clastic limit, the elonga­
tion A is directly proportional to the load Fs
IA> FOR FERROUS META i_S t 3 ] FOR BRASS, ALUMINUM,
SUCH AS CARBON OK CERTAIN STAINLESS
F sr A ( 8- 8) ALLOY STEEL STEELS a sim ilar METALS

If the total deflection or elongation A of the Reprinted withpermissionfromilcciro-Technology, Vol. 73.

M ay 1964
test piece is averaged over the initial unloaded
length L. a dimensionless quantity e, the Figure 3-7. Typical Tensile-test Diagrams
strain, results
(8-9)
e ~ ~j— r in. in. line, showing that the material is obeying
Hooke’s Law. This leads to the definition of
If the applied load F is divided by the point A as tiic proportional limit. It can
cross-sectional area A of the unloaded test readily be seen that the equation of this line is
specimen, the stress .S' is defined in pounds per the now familiar .S' = i-ZT where E is the slope.
square inch
Beyond point A linearity ceases, and at
S« _- -F. p s , ■ ( 8- 10) point H a sudden increase in elongation lakes
place with little or no increase in load. This
A simple relationship is Hooke’s Law, stress phenomenon is called y i e l d i n g , and point B is
is proportional to strain called the yield point of the material. The
stress associated with this point is the yield
5 = e£ ( 8- 11) stress. Once this point is reached in the
material, all load can be removed from the
where £ is the proportionality constant. specimen and the stress returned to zero, but
Young’s Modulus or the modulus of elasticity, a residua] strain, permanent set. will remain.
with dimensions in pounds per square inch. Any permanent set is usually considered
detrimental to a structural member.
Beyond the limits of Hooke’s Law, elonga­
tion or strain increases as the force increases, Beyond point B, stress and elongation
but the linearity of the relationship ceases. continue to increase until the maximum
Stress plotted against strain for any material stress, the ultimate s t r e s s , is reached at point
gives the tensile-test diagram, Fig. 8-15. Fig. C. Rupture of the material occurs at point/.),
8-l(A) is typical of a ferrous material such as which is reached without any increase in
carbon or alloy steel while Fig. 8-1(B) is stress or load in fact, decreasing the load
typical of some nonferrpus materials, such as beyond point C will not necessarily avert
brass and aluminum, and of some stainless fracture. Notice that the curve of Fig. 8-1 (A)
steels. The important distinction between the exhibits this definite, observed yield point,
two curves is that Fig. 8-1 (A) shows a definite one which can easily be recognized as it
inflection point and change of curvature, occurs during a tensile tesr. The materials
whereas Fig. 8-1(B) does not. represented by Fig. 8-l(B), however, do not
exhibit as definite a yield point, although the
Certain points on these curves have been other points on the curve are defined in the
defined and are important material properties. same manner as their counterparts in Fig.
Consider first the stress-strain curve in Fig. 8-1 (A). In materials such as those represented
8-1 (A). Tlie region from zero to A is a straight by Fig. 8-1(B), it is generally accepted that

8-3
AM CP 706-188

the yield point is the stress at the 0.2 percent (2) The moment o f inertia of an
"offset point", or the point at which the area has no physical significance except
strain reaches 0.002 in./in. To find this point, as a representation of a mathematical
draw a line through the point e = 0.002 with a quantity which enters into stress and
slope of E\ where this line intersects the curve deflection calculations. Formally, it is
(point B) is the defined yield point of the represented by the mathematical
material. expressions . (S-l3)
/moment of inertia\
Similar diagrams will result for tests in / « = J y 'd A ^about x-axis Jl
compression and in shear. These structural moment of inertia\(
(
properties are listed in tables in various 'y > about y-axis
handbooks; such as M1L-HDBK-5A, Strength
o f Metal Aircraft Elements. (3) The product o f inertia !. of an
area is also a parameter which has
The properties presented in most of the only mathematical significance. It is
handbooks including MIL-HDBK-5A are the determined when the following integral
room-temperaLure properties. If a problem is evaluated
involves elevated temperatures, the allowable
properties must be those for the elevated lxy = J xydA (8-14)
temperature; these are usually lower than for
room temperature. where x and y are the distances from
the x-axis and y-axis, respectively, of
8-1.2.1 PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS the centroid of area dA

Area, centroid, center of gravity, moment (4) The radius o f gyration pj of a

of inertia, and product of inertia are among cross section is an important parameter
the properties which must be computed, and in the design of compression members
their significances recognized, for stress analy­ or columns, and is defined as the
sis. distance from the inertia axis to that
point at which, if the entire area
(I) 'Hie centroid of an area is that point at could be concentrated, the moment of
which the whole area may be considered to be inertia would remain the same.
concentrated without changing its moment of
inertia about an axis. The location of the Thus, if J y l dA ~px A and lxr - p fA
centroid (I,y ) of a homogeneous area is
found by evaluating the expressions
Px Al ¥ (8-15)

(8-12) Note that there is a separate radius

of gyration associated with each of
the moments of inertia,
where
x - distance from reference axis to Many of the standard geometric
centroid of incremental area dA forms of structural members have been
investigated by means of the foregoing
y = distance from reference axis to relations, and the resulting equations
centroid of incremental area dA for / and p are presented in
handbooks*. In addition, brochures and
A - total area of homogenous plate catalogs which give the dimensional

8-4
 AMCP 706 188

data of shapes available on the market

will usually include values for the
various pertinent geometric properties.

81.2.2 LOAD ANALYSIS

In a complex design in which there are

numerous load sources and other design
conditions, load analysis is necessary.
Reprinted with permission Irom E le c tro -T e c h n o lo g y ,
Vol. 73, May 1964.
In most structures it is found that the same
design conditions are not critical for all
members; it is the critical conditions which Figure 8-2. A Three-dimensional Right-hand
require investigation and definition. System of Coordinate Axes

For a load analysis, use the basic equations is the definition of the vertical and horizontal
of equilibrium derived from Newton's Laws: directions in the problem. A set of coordinate
axes must be defined and carried unchanged
1. For every action there exists an equal throughout the design. Usually a
and opposite reaction in the slate of three-dimensional right-hand system is chosen
equilibrium. as shown in Fig. S-25.

2. A force F applied to a mass M will To apply the equilibrium equations

impart to it an acceleration a in the direction properly, it is necessary to understand the
of the applied force most important concept of the “free body”.
By definition, a free body is a mass which is
in equilibrium and which is divorced from its
surroundings in space. All forces on the mass
where n is considered equal to one for the are shown as vectors applied at their points of
equilibrium equations and for the load action.
analyses.
As an example, consider a rectangular
By applying Newton’s Laws, we can say container loaded with a pyrotechnic material
that a body is in equilibrium if and only if the that is bolted to a bulkhead. In order to
following three equations are satisfied determine the loads which act upon the
container, it is considered as a free body as
ZF V = O']i shown in Fig. 8-3s . The container is held in
place by four bolts whose locations are
OV (8-17) numbered on the figure, and its center of
gravity is located as shown. No other external
ZM = 0 ] forces axe known to exist on the container in
this problem.
wluch state that the sum of all verlical forces
Fv, the sum of ail horizontal forces Fh , and Fig. 8-4s shows the contamer in three
the sum of all momentsM acting on the body orthogonal projections from which i he
must be equal to zero at any instant of time. equations for the reactions can be derived in
If these conditions do not obtain, the body terms of its dimensions.
will experience either translation or rotation,
uv both, in accelerated motion. The first step Note that the coordinate axes are shown on
required in the application of these equations the free-body diagrams and all vectors are

8-5
 TOP VIEW

Reprinted with permission irom !:it'C In > -'l\x h n < > !i> v \, Vol. 73,
May 1964. SIOE VIEW PROMT VIEW

Figure 8-3. Free Body Diagram of Container Reprinted with pe/mission from L ir e ir o - T e c h n o lo g y . Vol, 73^
May 1964.

shown in the positive direction, so that a

negative sign winch appears as the equations Figure 8-4. The Container o f Fig. 8-3 in
are solved indicates that the vector is actually Orthogonal Form for Equation Derivation
pointing in the negative coordinate direction.
One other convention, which Ls observed Investigating the v-direction in a similar
when XM = 0, is to make all clockwise manner, i.e., finding the reactions due to P
moments on the body positive and all
counterclockwise moments negative. It is R
is. f y = nR 2y = - ^ U4)
2(24)
recommended that the analysis proceed by
considering one load direction at a time to
completion; therefore, the .v-dircction will be R j y - R 4 i' = - i 2(24)
Z ^
considered first.
_ F A 6)
A',, - R A2
From the plan view, assuming R t x ~R«X ~ ~ ~2(W)
R yx = R AX and taking moments about A P (.6)
R ,z = = “ 208)
‘
S M = 0 = P (8) + 2 R (18)
For the 2 -direct ion, the load P, is first
„ PX
/?i* = K3x apportioned into Ilie plane of bolts I and 4
2(18)
and the plane of bolts 2 and 3, and from this
point the individual bolt reactions are found
Taking moments about B in accordance with the geometric location of
- P A 10) the center of gravity.
lx = R ax = —2(18)
R ix ',
_ - 101(14)
A i -i ~
From the side view, assuming R 2, = R and 2(18)(24)

R m —R a ; ■ - PA 101(10)
R :, =
2(18X24)
Px (6 )
R ,: = R»: = 2(24) - ^ (8 )0 4 )
R 32 = 2(18)( 24)
and
- /\(8 )(I0 )
~PX(0) =
R i: = R t 21.18X24)
2(24)

8-6
 AM CP 706-188

Thus, the reactions have been found to

maintain the container in equilibrium for
loads in any direction because the load may
be resolved into components Px . Py , and Pz as
required. These reactions are to be supplied
by the supporting structure, and therefore are
presented as loads on the structure by
reversing the sign, which reverses the vector
direction.

Load analysis has determined the loads

which exist on the structure under
consideration: stress analysis is the means by Figure 8-5. Curve Indicating a Relationship
wluch the designer determines whether his Between Allowable Stress and Load Cycles
structure is adequate to withstand these loads
without failure. Since no universal criteria for
failure exist, they must be defined !o suit factors, and margins of safety. Therefore,
each problem. Basically, failure can be divided definitions of these terms are offered.
into these four general categories:
Safety factors are numbers representing a
(1) Rupture. A physical parting of the degree of uncertainty in the expected load,
fibers of the material when the ultin.ate the material properties, or other pertinent
tensile or shear stress is exceeded. data of the problem. These are applied to
reduce the guaranteed properties of the
(2) Yielding. The stress in the material material to a lower allowable value which
exceeds its allowable yield stress in tensio q shall then not he exceeded in the design
compression, or shear. Permanent sit takes calculations. For example, the ultimate tensile
place when the proportional limit of the stress for 2024T4 aluminum alloy extruded
material is passed. bar stock is published in MIL-HDBK-SA as
57,000 psi. A safety factor of 3 applied to a
(3) Buckling. The stress exceeds an member designed in this alloy would reduce
allowable stress which is predicted upon the the allowable tensile stress to 19,000 psi.
geometry of the loaded member. For Fatigue from repeated or cyclic loads is
example, columns buckle at a stress which is usually considered by applying n safety factor
dependent upon the length to to the allowable ultimate stress of the
radius-of-gyration ratio; thin flat panels material, Much data have been published
buckle under a shear stress which is relating allowable s'uoss to the number of
dependent upon the ratio of panel width to cycles of load, usually in llie form of curves
metal thickness. or tables, although the actual mechanism of
fatigue failure is not clearly defined. An
(4) Deflection. Since all structural example of such a curve is shown in Fig. 8-5s
members deflect under load, this deflection from wluch the engineer may choose an
becomes a failure criterion in certain allowable stress if he knows how many load
problems, particularly those associated with cycles his structure is to experience during its
vibration environments. design life.

8-1.2.3 SAFETY FACTORS Abrupt changes in cross section, notches,

grooves, or other discontinuities should be
Some confusion exists among designers in avoided in the design of structural parts
the definition and use of safety factors, load because these function as “stress raisers” .

8-7
A M C P 706-188

When these cannot be avoided, the designer percent of the computed stress, or it is the
must apply certain safety factors in these percent increase of the computed stress
local areas. Many handbooks publish tables required to equal the allowable stress. It is
and examples or guides to the magnitude of computed by the relationship
safety factor wliich may be used and which is
/allowable stress \ . . (8-19)
considered adequate. MS = I----------- — ---- — 11(100)
\computed stress /
8-1.2.4 LOAD FACTORS If the computed stress equals the allowable
stress there is obviously a zero margin of
Load factors are numbers representing safety, and failure may b,e imminent.
multiplying factors applied to the load on the Therefore a positive margin is desired in ajl
structure. These may be caused by any design, and experience has shown that a 15
number of environmental conditions, such as percent margin is adequate for most purposes.
an aircraft in arrested landing or in catapult
take-off, a truck proceeding across country on 8-1.2.6 ALLOWABLE STRESS
rough or bumpy roads, or a ship subjected to
an underwater blast or the firing of its own An allowable stress is defined as the stress
guns. Load or design factors usually are which a member may be allowed to reach
expressed in terms of g, or gravity units. Since (zero margin) and beyond which failure, as
the load analysis has been performed under a previously defined, is imminent. The
l-g condition, the load factors can easily be allowable stress in all cases, except for
taken into account by mulitplying calculated yielding, is the ultimate stress of the material
loads and reactions by the proper load factor. whether it be taken directly from the
By this simple means it is easy to take into handbook as the ultimate tensile stress or
account different loading conditions in whether it be calculated from a formula such
different directions or at different points in as Euler’s column formula. This means that all
the structure without directly affecting the computed stress (with the noted exception)
original load analysis. must be based upon the design load factor
and margin of safety computed on these
In this regard, an important definition to values. In some special problems where it is
remember is the li/nil load factor. This is the specified that the yeild stress shall be used as
load which the structure is expected to the failure criterion, the limit load factor
experience-it is the limit of the load on the should be multiplied by a minimum I.15
structure. The design load factor is larger than factor instead of the 1.5 previously noted to
the limit load factor and is used to compute conserve weight and cost. AJ1 problems and
the stress in the structural members. Common examples in this discussion, however, should
practice is to define consider that design load factors and the
margins of safety are computed on the
design load = 1.5 X (limit load) (8-18) ultimate stress. Some sample problems will
serve to illustrate the preceding discussion.
Although the 1.5 factor may be modified by
the individual designer it is recommended that 8-1.2.7 THIN-WALL CYLINDER
the range of selection remain between 1.5 and
2.0. Larger factors tend to be too conservative One of the most common containers for
and result in an overweight and more costly pyrotechnic materials is a (tun-wall cylinder
structure. (Fig. 8-61). These find such wide use that
special analysis methods have been developed
8-1.2.5 MARGIN OF SAFETY for them. For design analysis, the information
from structural testing is usually converted to
Margin of safety MS is expressed as a reduction factors that are then applied to the

8-8
 AM CP 706-198

on small-deflection theory, (n the classical

form, the equation contains a constant.
0.605, instead of the term a.

The critical axial (buckling) load P is then

determined from

P = SbA (8-23)

where

A - cross-sectional area of the thin-walled

cylinder, in.7

Figure 8-6. Thin-wall Cylinder Graphical representations of the equation

for Sb for various metals is shown in Fig.
equations obtained from classical theory. 8-77. For all practical purposes, these curves
Prior determinations of these reduction apply to any alloy of these metals because the
factors for radius r to thickness t ratios (r//) relevant property, modulus of elasticity,
above 500 have been based on fairing-in varies little from alloy to alloy. For
curves through the apparent mean of high-temperature applications, critical loads
scattered test data. can be computed by multiplying the
room-temperature critical load by the ratio of
The method presented here draws upon elevated-temperature modulus to
these prior studies and a considerable amount room-temperature modulus. Data for such
of additional test data to provide design calculations are provided in Fig. 8-7.
curves for a wide range of materials and cross
sections. The method is based on the equation 8-1.2.8 PLASTICS

= a (y) (8-20) Plastics have found widespread use because

of their low cost and ease of molding into
where a is given by various forms, plastic ammunition cases being
a common example. The strength of materials
a = 0 .6 0 6 -0 .5 4 6 (1 -<?") (8-21) theory previously discussed is also valid for
plastics; however, it should be realized that
and n by the properties of plastics can be radically
different than those of metals. A summary of
n =
' 16V? the mechanical properties of some plastics is
given in Table 8-28.
and
= critical buckling stress, psi The American Society for Testing Materials
defines a plastic as a material that contains as
E — Young’s modulus, psi an essential ingredient an organic substance o f
large molecular weight, is solid in its finished
l = thickness of cylinder, in. slate, and at some state in its manufacturing
process it can be shaped by flow 9. Plastics are
Y = inner radius of cylinder, in divided into two classes: thermoplastics and
thermosetters. The former softens with
This equation for Sb is simply a modified increasing temperature and returns to its
form of the classical buckling equation based original hardness when cooled. The

8 -9
 35
1
- Buyll.jrn Modu1us o f E l a s t i c i t y
f o r V a r i o u s Temp er at u r es
30
TEMPERATURE, t,
Stet MATERIAL “F 10s 0.
o
o Steel 70
o 30.00
25 ■ 500 2700
700 25 00
-Titor.rj/r, Alurunvm 70 10.50
300 10.10
600 7.35
Magnesium 70 6 50
300 5.9S
un — 600 5.70
Titanium 70 16.40
15 -- 500 13.80
700 12.80
-Wogrciium
Bcr>lltum 70 42 00
500 4000
10- — 700 33.00
u

of i i i i : : i i i m i I ii i i~~t~r~r
0 200 600 800 1C03 I2C0 '4C0 1600 1800 200
Ratio r/t
Reprinted with permission from M a c h in e D esign, Vol. 40. 1968, Penton Publishing Co , Cleveland.

Figure 8-7. Critical Buckling Stress as a Function o f r/t

thermosetters harden when heated and remain (I) Interactions wilh metallic components
hard when cooled. They "sot” into permanent (corrosion)
shape when heated under pressure. For
compatibility of plasties see par. 8-1.3.2. (2) Interactions with nonmetallics
(deterioration)
8-1.3 CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY
(3) Interactions of different pyrotechnic
Chemical compatibility is the ability of substances with each other (degradation or
materials to remain in intimate contact for sensitization).
long periods without harmful chemical
reaction. Incompatibility may cause loss of 8-1.3.1 CORROSION OF METALLIC
effectiveness, or produce a hazard. This COMPONENTS
concept is important because pyrotechnic
materials are required to have a shelf life as In almost every pyrotechnic application
long as 20 yr. Under such a time span, involving metals, some form of corrosion is
materials normally considered nonreactive can possible. Corrosion of metallic surfaces may
show change. affect the integrity of the container,
particularly at the joints. Hence, appropriate
Compatibility of pyrotechnic materials means of protection from corrosion is
may be judged under three main categories: required. The designer must know the

8-10
 A M C P 706-188

T A B L E 8-2

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

Physics Mechanical Electrical Environmental

Dioloc Dietac Max IvVoathar

Trans­ Flam­ Ton Sir, Ten mod, Impact Constant, Str, Use I Ro^st*
Material parent mable0 1000 psi 1000 psi Slrd GO H2 V/miia T #m p. F ant^
__________ ____ ___ ___L—---------
THERMOPLASTICS

ABS No Yes 4.5—8.5 2 0 0 -4 2 0 2 -3 .5 2 .8 - 2 9 3 0 0 -4 5 0 160-236 No

Ace tel s No Yes 8 -1 0 4 0 0 -4 1 0 1 2—1.4 3,7—3.8 7.30 180-220 No
Glass Fiber Reinf No Yes 9 -1 3 6 0 0 -1 0 0 0 3 — - 220 No
Acrylics Yes Yes 8 -1 1 350—450 <1 3.7 500 180-195 Yes
Impact Grade Yes Yes 5 -8 2 0 0 -3 0 0 1 -2 .5 3.5—3.7 4 5 0 -4 8 0 1 6 5 -1 8 5 _

PVC Alloy No SE 6.5 335 IS 3.86 430 ISO Yes

Cel hilosics
Cellulose Acetate Ves Yes 2 -8 8 0 -4 0 0 <1-6 3 .5 -7 .5 2 5 0 -3 6 0 140-170 No
Cellulose Acetate
Butyrate Ves Yes 2 .5 -7 5 0 -2 0 0 2-1 1 3 .4 - 6 4 250—400 140-175 No
Cellulose Acetate
Propionate Ves Yes LS—7.8 6 0 -2 2 0 < 1 -1 1 3.7—4.2 300 1500 140—175 No
Cellulose Nitrate Yes Yies 7 -8 190-220 5 -7 7.0—7.5 300- 500 120- 140 No
Ethyl Cellulose Yes Yes 2 -C .5 2 2 0 -2 5 0 3 -8 3 .0 -4 .2 350- 500 140- 180 No
Chlorinated Polyether No SEa 6 150 <1 3.1 400 250 No
Fluorocarbons
PTFE No NB8 2 -4 8 0 -1 0 0 3 2.1 5 0 0 -6 0 0 500 Yes
Glass Fiher Reinf No N8 1- 2.5 460 — 2 9 - 3 .6 3 0 0 -4 0 0 500 Yc5
FEP b NB 2—3.5 6 0 -8 0 DNB8 2.1 500-SQ0 400 Yes
CTFE No N8 5 -6 160-1 9 0 3 -7 2.6 1000 390 Yes
PVF b SE 1 0-19 195-235 - 3.0—4.1 - 225 Yes
PVF, No se 5 -7 120 3.8 8.4 260 -1 2 8 0 340 Yes
Nylons
Nylon. 6 No SE 9 -1 2 200- 400 1 —4 3.8 3 0 0 -4 2 0 250- 300 No
Glass Fiber Reinf No SE 2 0 -3 0 1000-2000 3 -4 4 ,4 -4 .6 4 0 0 -5 8 0 300- -100 No
Nylon, 6/6 No SE 1 1 -1 3 400—120 1 -2 3.6—4.0 3 0 0 -4 0 0 2 7 5 -3 0 0 No
Glass Fiber Reinf Ho se 2 0 -3 0 1400—2000 2 .5—3.5 4,0—4.4 4 8 0 -5 0 0 3 0 0 -4 0 0 No
Phsnoxies Yes Yes 9 -1 0 3 8 0 -4 0 0 1 -1 2 4,1 5 0 0 -5 2 0 l'70 No
Polycarbonates Yes SE 9 -1 0 345 16 3.1 400 250 No
Glass Fibe* Reinf No SE 1 5 -2 0 1000-1700 3 - 4 .5 3.7—3.8 475—482 270 No
ABS Alloy No Yes 8 -9 370 10 2.74 500 225 No
Polyethylene^
Low Density b Yes <1 -1 .8 1 5 -2 0 ON3 2.3 450 700 140—r 75 No
High Density b Yes 2 -3 .5 7 5 -1 4 0 < 1 -6 2.3 450 -500 180- 225 NO
Glass Fiber Reinf No Yes 4 -1 1 2 4 0 -9 0 0 4.5 2.3 _
No
High Mol V'/t No Yes 2 -5 .5 100 _ 2 .3 - 2 6 5 0 0 -7 1 0 180- 225 No
Ethylene Copolymers
EEAa b Yes <1 - 2.8 550 120 No
EVAJ Yes <1 — - 3.16 525 120-170 No
fonomers Yes Yes 3 .4 -4 2 5 -4 0 8 -1 4 2 .4 -2 .5 485 140 No
Poly imides No NB 10 460 <1 25 400 500 _
Polyphenylene Oxides No SE 9 -1 1 370 2.6 2.6 500 225 No
Modified No SE 9 -1 0 3SS 1.3 2.6 550 185 No
Polypropylenes Yes 3 -5 160-2 0 0 <1 2 .1 -2 .2 4 5 0 -6 6 0 250 No
Glass Fiber Reinf No Yes 6 9 4 5 0 -9 0 0 2.5 2 .3 - 2 .S 320 -475 250 No
Polystyrenes Yes Yes 4 -7 4 0 0 -5 0 0 <1 2 .5 -2 .6 5 SCO—700 150-190 No
GI3SS Fiber Reinf No Yes 1 1 -1 5 8 4 0 -1 2 0 0 3 2 .8 -3 5 350- 500 190-200 No
Impact Grade No Yes 2 -5 2 0 0 -4 0 0 2.5—4.3 3 0 0 -6 0 0 120-1 6 0 No
Potysulfones Yes SE 10 360 1.3 3.1 425 300 No
Glass Fiber Reinf No SE 1 6 -1 8 1 0 0 0-1600 1.7 - - 300 No

“ EEA: Ethylene ethyl acrylate. EVA: Ethylene vinyl acetate, M6: Nonburning, SE: Self-extinguishing, DNB: Does not break.
Transparent In thin films. c Mjny o f the flammable plastics are available in self-extinguishing grades. <*Lb-in. {notched), lyod.
1/8 in. thick sample, e 1/8 in. sample. No toad. ^Som e plastics available in weather resistant grades.

Reprintad with permission from M a te ria ls in D esign e n g in e e rin g , Vol 65, Feb. 1967, Reinhold Publishing Co
AM C P 706-188

T A B L E 8-2 (Cont'cJj

Physical Mechanical Electrical Environmental

Dielec Dielec Max Weather

T rarvs- Flam­ Ten Str, Ten mod, Impact Constant, Str, Use Resist­
Mata rial parent mable0 1000 psi 1000 psi S«r* 60 Hz V/miie Temp*, "’F ant^
THERMOPLASTICS

Polyurethanes No Yes 4 .5 -8 1 -4 _ 6 -8 8 5 0 -1 1 0 0 190 No

Glass Fiber Reinf No Yes 9 70 ” ' - 200 No
Vinyls
Flexible Yes SE 1-A 0 .4 - 3 - 5 -9 3 0 0 -1 0 0 130 Yes
Rigid Yes SE 6 -9 2 0 0 -6 0 0 < 1 -1 8 34 350—370 165 Yes
Chlorinated, Rigid No SE 7 -9 260—450 - 3.1 1200-1500 150-2 1 0 Yes
Styrene Acrylonitrile Yes Yes 8 -1 2 500—600 <1 2 .8 -3 4 0 0 -5 0 0 190 No
Glass Fiber Reinf No Yes 14-18 9 0 0 -1 8 5 0 A 3.2—3.6 5 1 0 -5 2 5 200 No

THERMOSETS

Alkyds, Mineral Filled No SE 9 2800 <1 5 .5 -6 .0 3 0 0 -4 0 0 275 No

Mineral/Cellulose Filled No SE s .s 1900 1 5.3—6.5 3 0 0 -4 0 0 250 No
Glass Filled No SE 6 -1 0 2 2 0 0 -2 8 0 0 8 -1 2 5 .2 -6 .0 3 0 0 -4 0 0 300 No
Ally! Diglycol Carbonate Yes Yes 5 -6 300 <1 - - 212 No
Diallyl Phthalate
Asbestos Ftried No Yes 5.5 1200 <1 4 .5 -6 .0 3 5 0 —450 3 5 0 -4 0 0 No
Oaeron Filled No Yes 5 640 4,5 3.8 3 7 5 -3 9 0 3 5 0 -4 0 0 No
Long Glass Filled No Yes 10 1300 6.0 4.2 3 5 0 -4 3 0 3 5 0 -4 0 0 No
Short Glass Filled No Yes ? 1200 <1 4,4 350—430 3 5 0 -4 0 0 No
Orion Filled No Yes 6 710 1.2 3.7—4.0 400 300—500 No
Epoxies Yes Yes 4 -1 3 3500 <1 4 —5 4 0 0 -5 0 0 2 5 0 -5 5 0 No
Glass Fiber Reinf No SE 1 4 -3 0 30 000 8 -1 5 4 -5 360 3 3 0 -5 0 0 Yes
Glass Fabric Reinf No SE 2 5 -6 0 35,000­ 4 0 -6 0 — 4 5 0 -5 5 0 500 Yes
40,000
Mineral Filled No SE 5 -7 20,000­ <1 4 -5 3 3 0 -4 0 0 3 0 0 -5 0 0 Yes
30,000
Melamines
Alpha Cellulose Filled No SE 7 -8 1350 <1 7 9 - 8 .2 2 7 0 -3 0 0 210 No
Wood Floor Filled No SE 5.7—6.5 1000 <1 6 .4 -6 .6 3 5 0 -3 7 0 250 No
Rag Filled No SE 8 -1 0 1400 <1 8 .1 -1 2 .6 2 5 0 -3 4 0 250 No
Asbestos Filled No SE 5 .5 -6 .5 1950 <1 10.0-10.2 41 0—430 300 No
Glass Fiiled No SE 5.9 2000 < 1 -6 7.0-11.1 170-370 300 No
Phenol Its
Asbestos Filled No SE 46 5 0 0 -9 0 0 <1 1 -6 350 350 No
Mineral Filled No SE 4 -7 1000-3000 <1 4 .7 -4 0 .0 160-400 2 5 0 -4 5 0 No
Glass Fiber Filled No SE 5 -1 0 3 0 0 0 -3 3 0 0 <1 7.1—7.2 2 0 0 -3 7 0 350—450 No
Wood Ftour Filled No SE 5 -8 8 0 0 -1 3 0 0 <1 7.0-13.1 2 3 0 -3 5 0 3 0 0 - 350 No
Rubber Phenolic No SE 5 -6 .5 4 0 0 -6 0 0 < 1 -2 5 7.9-21.2 2 1 0 -4 0 0 2 1 2 -3 6 0 No
Cloth Filled No SE 5 -9 9000­ 1 0 -3 0 6 .5 -1 5 .0 2 0 0 -3 5 0 2 5 0 -3 0 0 No
14,000
Polyesters
Glass Fiber Reinf No Yes 1 0 -2 0 1 1 0 0-1800 5 - 2 5 3.3—4.0 3 0 0 -3 5 0 2 5 0 -3 5 0 No
Glass Cloth Reinf No Yes 9 -2 4 8 0 0 -1 8 0 0 1 0 -2 0 3 .3 -4 .0 3 0 0 -3 5 0 2 5 0 -3 5 0 No
Mineral Reinf No Yes 3 -5 .5 5 0 -2 5 0 <1 3.3—4.0 3 0 0 -3 5 0 2 5 0 -3 5 0 No
Silicone, Glass Cloth Reinf No NB 2 0 -4 0 1800-3200 1 2 -1 8 _ 100-400 500 -

Ureas
Alpha Cellulose Filled No SE 5 .5 -7 1 3 0 0-1400 <1 7 .7 -7 .9 3 3 0 -3 7 0 170 No
Wood Flour Filled No SE 5 .5 -1 0 1 3 0 0-1600 <1 7 .0 -9 .5 3 0 0 -4 0 0 170 No

a EEA: Ethylene ethyl acrylate, EVA: Ethylene vinyl acetate, NB: Nonburning. S£: Self-extinguishing^ DNB: Does not break.
^Transparent in thin films. °Msny of the flammable olastics are available in self-extinguishing grades. °Lb-io, (notched), l 2od,
1/8 in, thick sample, e T/8 in. sample. *No load, QSomeplastics available in le a th e r resistant grades.

8)2
 AM CP 706-188

T A B L E 8-3

ELECTROMOTIVE SERIES

Standard Electrode
Potential V at
Metal 25°C, volts EMFa

o Magnesium -2.340
o Beryllium -1.700
< Aluminum -1.670
<sr Manganese -1.050
O Zinc -0.762
<A Chromium -0.710
4>
Iron -0.440
Cadmium -0.402
Cobalt -0.277
Figure 8-8. Nickel -0.250
Factors Affecting Choice of an *o Tin -0.136
Engineering Material o Lead -0.126
n
Hydrogen 0.000
CJ Copper +0.345
a>
operational requirements of the pyrotechnic X> Silver +0.800
O Mercury
device, the environmental conditions that it Z +0.854
CD Platinum -i1.200
will encounter in service, and the materials O
5 Gold + 1.420
that are available in order that protective
measures can be taken. Designers of military Note:
hardware must also be aware of combinations aThese values are obtain&d when the specific metal is placed
in a solution containing one equivalent weight of its ions
of materials, such as copper and lead azide, per liter.
the reaction of which form sensitive explosive
materials. It is difficult to achieve a solution
that meets all requirements; therefore, it The tendency for a metal to acquire an
becomes necessary to balance the corrosion electric potential when it is immersed in an
resistant qualities of a particular metal against aqueous solution can be characterized by
other factors as illustrated in Fig. 8-810. All what is known as the electromotive series of
these factors are always part of corrosion metals (see Table 8-3' M. Hie metals with a
design, otherwise, the designer would use very great tendency for forming ions in
platinum which is virtually corrosion solution (magnesium, aluminum, manganese,
resistant. zinc) are at the reactive or less noble end of
the series, while metals with little tendency to
In situations where alternate materials are form ions (platinum, gold) are at ihe noble or
being considered, it may become necessary to unreactjve end of the series. Thus, there is a
conduct simulated service tests to determine relationship between the susceptibility of a
Suitability of the material metal to corrode and ils position in the series

8-1.3.1.1 CORROSION PROCESSES The electrode potential of a metal is

dependent on the concentration and type of
Corrosion is a process involving the ions in solution which usually are quite
transformation of elemental metals to different Irom the arbitrary conditions
compounds of the metals through established for the electromotive series. Metal
electrochemical reaction with their specimens immersed in solutions containing
environment1 1. ions (cations) of that metal only, but of

8-13
AM CP 706-188

different concentrations, will have a higher EMR shielding design which requires the best
potential or tendency to dissolve as the electrical contact possible; therefore, some
concentration of ions in the solution compromise must be made, if electrical
decreases and vice versa. shielding is of concern.

Further, the nonmelallic ions (anions) in Another deterrent to galvanic corrosion is

solution also will influence the potential of polarization- Tilts condition can occur either
the metal, depending on whether or not the at the anode or cathode and is the result of
anions will complex with the metal ions and deposilion through electrolytic action.
promote dissolution of the metal. For Corrosion products can accumulate at the
example, tin is more reactive than iron in anode or hydrogen deposited at the cathode.
dilute citric or oxalic acid solutions owing to Either tends to reduce the electrochemical
the fact that Ihc concentration of tin ions is action. The designer must he aware of these
kept relatively small by the complexing power contributing factors in order to decide their
of the acid. From this it can be seen that importance in his application.
reversals of activity of elements in the
electron active series are possible under 8-1.3.1.2 TYPES OF CORROSION
various situations encountered in practice.
There are a number of types of corrosion
Accordingly, Table 8-3 should be used only which are evidenced hy uniform corrosion
as a general guide for establishing the relative attack over a surface of the metal or
corrosion behavior of metals in a particular concentrated attack at local or isolated areas.
environment. A brief discussion of types that are of concern
with pyrotechnic material follows:
To account for overall and practical aspects
as well as theoretical considerations, another (1) Uniform Corrosion: simplest form of
relationship has been devised. It is referred to corrosion which can occur in atmosphere,
as Galvanic Couples, shown in Table 8-41 '. In liquids, or in soil. Examples are rusting of
tins table, members of groups connected by iron, tarnishing of silver, and
lines are considered as permissible couples. high-temperature oxidation of iron or
However, this should not be construed as stainless steels.
being devoid of galvanic action. Permissible
couples represent a low galvanic effect. There (2) Galvanic Corrosion- previously
are several factors which influence and discussed. Corrosion results from grouping of
control galvanic action, namely, the dissimilar metals in a conductive environment.
effectiveness of the electric circuit, the ratio
of anode and cathode areas, and the (3) Concentration-cell Corrosion: caused
polarization of the electrodes. by nonuniformity of electrolyte or the
environment. It is electrochemical in nature
Galvanic corrosion requires not only a and ensues because of differences in ion
conductive environment but also good concentration or of cracks or crevices in the
electrical contact between the dissimilar metal surface which deplete electrolyte
metals. If this is not maintained, the galvanic components because of reactions in confined
action will subside. Insulation materials-such places.
as nonwicking gaskets, paint and plastic films,
and certain inorganic coatings at the mating (4) Stress Corrosion; results from the
surfaces of the dissimilar metals will prevent combined effects of tensile stresses and
or reduce the galvanic current and the corrosion. Cold-working, quenching, grinding,
progress of corrosion. This, of course, brings or welding may produce internal stresses. Tile
the designer in direct conflict with accepted most destructive type of stress is that which is

8-14
 AM CP 706-188

T A B LE 8-4

GALVANIC COUPLES

Group Metallurgical Category EMF, V

Gold. Solid and Plated; Gold-Platinum Alloys,

Wrought Platinum
Rhodium; Graphite
Silver,Solid or Plated; High SilverAlloys
Nickel, Solid or Plated; Monel; High Nickel-Copper
Alloys;Titanium
Copper, Solid or Plated; Low Brasses or 8romes;
SilverSolder; German Silver; High Copper-Nickel
Alloys; Nickel-Chrome Alloys; Austenitic Stainless
Steels (301, 302, 304,309, 316. 321,347)
Commercial Yellow Brasses and Bronzes
High Brasses and Bronzes; Naval Brass; Muntz Metal
18% Chromium Type Corrosion-Resistant Steels
440-430, 433,446, 17-7PH. 17-4PH
Chromium, Plated;Tin, Plated; 12% Chromium Type —0.45
Corrosion-Resistant Steel, 410, 416, 420
10 Tin-Plate, Terneplate; Tin-Lead Solders —0.50
11 Lead, Solid or Plated; High Lead Alloys -0.55
12 Atuminum, Wrought Alloys of the Duralumin
Type, 2014, 2024, 2017
13 Iron, Wrought, Gray, or Malleable; Plain Carbon
and Low Alloy Steels;Armco Iron
14 Aluminum, Wrought Alloys other than Duralumin; -0.75
Type 6061,7075, 5052, 5056, MOO, 3003, Cast
Alloys of the Silicon Type 355, 356
)5 Aluminum, Cast Alloys other than Silicon Type; -0.80
Cadmium, Plated and Chromated
16 Hot-Dip-Zinc Plate;Galvanized Steel -1.05
17 Zinc Wrought; Zinc-Base Die Cast Alloys; Zinc. - 1.10
Plated
18 Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys Cast or -1.60
Wrought

'Members of groups connected by lines are considered as permissible couples; However, this should not be construed as being
devoid of Galvanic action. Permissible couples represent a low Galvanic effect,
olndicates the most Cathodic member of the series, »An Anodic member, and the arrows indicate the Anodic direction.
Refer to Table II. MlL-STD-186, for group amplification of Galvanic couples.

8-15
local and nonunjform; the stressed lones are
subject (o accelerated corrosion.

(5) Fretting Corrosion: term is applied to

metal damage caused when two metal surfaces FROM CORROStOb* B N G iN E g fh N G BY EON t a n a d GREENE
COPYRIGHT 1967, USED WITH PERMISSION OF
are in contact, under load, and subjected to McGR AW * H I L L B OO K C O M P A N Y *

vibration or relative motion. Corrosion is

characterized by surface discoloration, Figure 8-9.
depressions, or pits. Case Cracking Due to Dezincification

(6) High Temperature Oxidation: direct The foregoing constitutes a list of the main
combination of an oxidizing agent (oxygen, corrosion hazards that a designer faces. Ways
sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide) with a metal and means of overcoming these hazards are'
at high temperatures. the subject of the next paragraph.

(7) Pitting: common and severe form of 8-1,3.1.3 METHODS OF PROTECTION

localized corrosive attack. Thin metal sheets
and plates are especially vulnerable; corrosion In the design of. pyrotechnic devices, the
may result in perforation and subsequent corrosive effect of the atmosphere and the
unserviceability. pyrotechnic materia] can be minimized by
proper choice of materials and use of protec­
(8) Corrosion Fatigue: fatigue failure tive coatings, encapsulation, evacuation, and
brought about by a corrosive environment. hermetic seals. Materials which break down or
Endurance Emit of metal is lowered as it outgas should not be used in devices which
undergoes stress cycles. are to be evacuated and sealed.

(9) Dezincification: occurs with some Material selection should be based first on
brasses. Involves loss of zinc, leaving a residue suitability and second on inherent resistance
of one or more other constituents, primarily to corrosion. If dissimilar melals are used in
copper. If not arrested, the entire metal will contact or near one another, they should be
be reduced Lo a weak spongy mass. An protected against electrolytic corrosion. Pre­
example of dezincification of brass is given in ventive measures are listed in Table 8-5
Fig. 8-9' 1. A brass case was crimped over a and the specifications for metallic coatings are
lead projectile. In the presence of an ammo­ summarized for reference in Table 8-6' 4
nium based powder (he dezincification of the
brass occurred and it cracked as shown. Preference should be given to those metals
and alloys which are resistant to both inter­
(10) Graphitization: occurs in grey cast granular and stress corrosion. Fabrication
iron and is similar to dezincification suffered operations such as bending, forming, and
by some brasses. This type of corrosion shaping should be performed on the metals in
requires specific conditions which corrode the annealed conditions.
away the iron leaving a matrix which is
mostly graphite.1 Hydrogen embrittlement can result in a
delayed fracture in those metals which can
(11) Biological: various types of micro­ pick up hydrogen from acid cleaning or
organisms, bacteria, yeasts, and molds influ­ plating. If metals must be used which are
ence the electrochemical reactions which susceptible to embrittlement, the following
cause corrosion. The most common result of techniques can be used to minimize the
this influence is pitting. damage:

8 - 16
 A M C P 706-188

T A B L E 8-5

PREVENTION OF DISSIMILAR METAL CORROSION

Preventive Measure Example

(1) Select metalswhich form a Use nickel, not naval brass, in contact with
permissible couple in Table 8-4 silver,

(2) Interpose a metal which reduces the Tin plate brass to be used next to aluminum.
potential difference between the
two metals.

(3) Design the metal contact so the relative Stainlesssteel screws inaluminum chassis.
area of the cathodic
(more noble) metal isthe smaller.

(4) Apply corrosion inhibitor such as zinc Use zinc chromate inhibitor when assembling
chromate primer MIL-P-8585 or zinc steel screws inaluminum.
chromate paste MIL-P-8116.

(5) Interpose an insulating barrieror Instructural joints, interpose tape Ml LT-23142

nonhygroscopic gasket between Incomponents, use organic insulantssuch as
dissimilar rnetals conformal coating MIL-1-46058.

(6) Apply insulating organic coating Coatings such asvinyl zinc chromate primer
to surface of each metal Ml L-P-15930, epoxy primer Ml L-P-52192, in­
sulating coating MlL-C-46057, MIL-V-173,
MIL-l-46058.

(7) Seal jointarea with moisture-proof coating or Instructural joints, sealant such as MIL-S-7124.
organic sealant Incomponents, coatings such as-MIL-V-173 or
MIL-l-46058-

(1) Use of organic coating, vacuum deposi­ (1) Chemical or Anodic Films
tion.
In chemical or anodic treatment, metals
(2) Use of low hydrogen embrittlement and alloys are coated with suitable solutions
baths prior to plating. of chemicals under controlled conditions to
form protective surface coatings. This coating
(3) EmbritLiement relief after plating (bak­ is physically integrated with the underlying
ing)1s ; with thermal stress relief and mechani­ metal and serves as a barrier against corrosive
cal stress relief performed prior to plating. attack. Coatings commonly used are oxides,
phosphates, chromates, or complex com­
(4) Elimination of acid or alkaline cathode pounds of the substrate metal and the com­
cleaning methods. ponents of the metal, and the components of
the treatment solutions. These coatings may
The most effective means of preventing be formed on iron and steel, aluminum,
electrolysis, is the application of protective magnesium, cadmium, and other metals and
film or coatings. These protective coatings can should be applied after fabrication or machin­
be described under three main headings: ing operations.
chemical or anodic films, metallic coatings,
and organic coatings. (2) Metallic Coatings

8-17
 T A B L E 8-6

SPECIFICATIONS FOR METALLIC COATINGS

Metal Specification

Aluminum, vacuum deposited Ml L-C-2321?

Cadmium, electroplated QQ-P-416
Cadmium, electroplated, low hydrogen content AMS 2401
Cadmium, vacuum deposited MIL-C-8837
Chromium, electroplated QQ-C-320
Copper, electrodeposited MIL-C-14550
Gold, electrodeposited tviIu-G-45204
Lead, electrodeposited Ml L-L-13808
Lead, hot dip Ml L-L-13762
Nickel, electrodeposited QQ-N-290
Nickel-cadmium, diffused AMS-2416
Nickel-phosphorus, electrodeposited MIL-C-26074
Palladium, electrodeposited MlL-P-45209
Rhodium, electrodeposited Ml L-R-4B085
Silver, electrodeposited QQ-S-365
Tin, electrodeposited or hot dip Ml L-T-10727
Tin-cadmium, electrodeposited Ml L-P-23408

Metallic coatings should be selected for solder, and titanium) require no finish other
their suitability for Ihe application involved, than cleaning.
wiili attention to prohlems of aging, cracking,
diffusion, and corrosion. When metallic coat­ Applications of aluminum, copper, and
ings are applied by electroplating, hydrogen magnesium require special treatment unless
embrittlement should be avoided. There are they are used in hermetically sealed units.
recommendations (sue Tabic 8-4) for the Aluminum should be anodized; where tliis is
prevention of corrosion which should be impossible, chemical film treatment in accor­
considered and specifications (see Table 8-5) dance with MIL-C-554116 may be used.
for the coatings themselves. Continued exposure of aluminum at liigh
temperatures may require the use of metallic
Metallic coalings are also applied to some coatings. Copper and copper alloys may be
metals by the process of hot-dipping. This is black oxide treated in accordance with MIL­
largely confined to the coatings of ferrous F-49 5 or may be plated or painted. If bare
alloys with metals and alloys of low melting copper is required, a tarnish-preventive thin
points. Typical hot-dipping coating materials silicone cured resin Him may be used.
are zinc, and tin and lead alloys including Magnesium has very poor resistance to
teme metal. Tinned steel, and zinc-coated or corrosion and therefore it should be anodized.
galvanized iron and steel products are the Several coats of alkali resistant primer with
most common hot-dipped products. If corro­ one or more coats of compatible top coat
sion-resistant steels are used, passivation should be applied or ii may be given moisture
should be done in accordance with proofing coatings such as epoxy or poly­
QQT-3515. If steels of the 300 series are urethane. Furthermore, magnesium used with
used, no further finish is required. any oilier metal requires extreme precautions
to prevent destructive corrosion.
The noble metals (gold, palladium, plati­
num, and rhodium) and the corrosion-resist­ Cladding is a process for covering one metal
ant metals (chromium, nickel, tin, tin-lead with another metal to utilize the superior

8-18
 AM CP 706 188 -

corrosion resistant properties of the exposed designated deterioration rather than corro­
metal. Cladding may be applied by working, sion. When considering materials such as
co-rolling, pressure welding, spot welding, plastics, ceramics, and rubbers, the number
explosive welding, and diffusion welding. becomes extremely large too large to list in
Principal clad composites produced for in­ this brief discussion. Fortunately there are
dustrial purposes are high purity aluminum or documents that are readily available to aid the
aluminum alloys on less resistant aluminum designer in selecting the proper choice of
alloys; stainless steel on steel; nonferrous materials as discussed in the paragraphs that
metals including copper, brass, lead, nickel, follow.
and nickel alloys on steel. With the advent of
explosive welding almost any desirable combi­ 81.3.2.1 PLASTICS
nation of properties is possible.
A general listing of plastics and their
Metal coatings can also be applied by resistance to external attack is shown in Table
metallizing or metal spraying, Metallized coat­ 8-2. Fluorocarbons arc considreed the noble
ings are porous, but they provide protection materials of the plastics, just as platinum and
from corrosion mainly because of their thick­ gold are for metals, in that they arc generally
ness. They require sealing or impregnation resistant to most environments. Typical fluo­
followed try painting. Metals used to spray rocarbons are Teflon and Kel-F.
coat are zinc, cadmium, and aluminum.
To obtain more specific information on a
(3) Organic Coatings given plastic it is necessary to refer sources
that gives detailed information (hood refer­
Organic coatings are used to protect metal ences for this purpose are Refs. 18, lb, and
parts, equipment, and structures primarily 20. For properties of plastics see also par.
against atmospheric corrosion. They are ap­ 8-1.2.8.
plied as liquids and act chiefly as a barrier
between the metal to be protected and the
environment. The value of the organic coat­ 8-1.3.2.2 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC
ings depends upon their ability to provide RUBBERS
complete and uniform coverage, a good de­
gree of impermeability, good adhesion, cohe­ The outstanding characteristic of rubber
sion, resistance to mechanical damage, and and elastomers is resilence, or low modulus of
good chemical inertness. elasticity. However, chemical and abrasion
resistance and good insulation qualities also
An example of such a coating employed in result in many applications. The natural rub­
pyrotechnic ammunition is the asphalt com­ bers have better mechanical properties while
pound for coating cavities prior to filling with the synthetics are more resistant to deteriora­
explosives11. Tabic S-71s tabulates a few of tion. Properties are compared in Table 8-818.
the organic coatings that are available and lists
their chemical resistance characteristics. Natural rubber is soft but can be made
semi-hard or hard by vulcanizing. Synthetic
8-1.3.2 DETERIORATION OF NONME- rubber is available in a wide variety of
TALL1C COMPONENTS materials including combinations with plas­
tics. Plasticizer fillers and hardeners are com­
When a pyrotechnic material is placed pounded to obtain a large range of properties
inside a metal container, there may be inter­ as illustrated in Table 8-8. Note lor example
actions with nonmetallic parts such as spacer, that the temperature resistance of silicone
gaskets, sealants, and potting compounds. The rubber is 580°F. Handbook data are available
gradual change of these materials is often in Refs. I 8 and 20.

8-19
 TABLE 8-7
o r g a n ic MATER IALS

A ik yd Cellulose Epoxy
A lk y d Alkyd A lkyd Alkyd- Styronniod NilfO- E thyl Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy E p o x y Epoxy E poxy-
A m ir* Phenolic Silicone AJkyd cellulose Cell.. Amme Ester Furane Me lam ini Phenolic Urea
Typa Aik yd Urea A crylic Butyrate
11Hr-

C HEM IC AL RESISTANCE
Exterior D urability fe E E e E G E E E E G E £ £ E VG
E G E E E E VG E £ E £
Salt Spray . £ VG E G
P P F
E
E E E £
Solvents-Alcohols F G G G G G G G Q
Solvents-Gasoline G £ E £ £ F G G G P £ E E E E £
Solvents-Hydrocarbons G e E G £ P F F F F E VG £ E t E
Solvent s -E iie rs . Ketones P p P P F P P P P P VG F VG E E VG
Solvents—Chlorinated , P p P ? P P P P P P G F E E E E
Salts VG E £ VG E £ VG G VG G E E c E E E
P P P P P P P G G P E P c P
Ammonia P P
Alkalis . , PP vG.G F.P G.P G.G G.v g G.F P.P P.P G.G E.E E.E E E.E E.E E.E
Acids —Mineral F P.P G.F.P VG.G.F G.P.P P.P.P G.F.P G.F.P E.G.F G.F.P G.F.P E.VG.G G.F.P G E.VG.G E.E.E E .V G .F
Aci<fe-Qxicji?ino P.P.P F.P.P G.F.P P.P.P P.P.P P.P.P PPP P.P.P P.P.P F .P.P G.P.P F P.P f G.P.P E.VG.P F.P.P
Aci(jS“ Organic (acetic.
I'or mic. etc,} P.P.P P.P.P F PP P.P.P P.P.P P.P.P P.P.P P.P .P p .p p G .-.- F.F.P P.P.P P .G G.P.P £ ,E ,VG F.P.P
A c id s —Organic jolaic.
stearic.elcJ F G VG G F F F F F - G £ E E E E
Acid Phosphoric . . P P P P P P P E P - G P E G E G
Water Isa!;, ■fresh} F G G G F G £ G E E G VG £ G E G
Chlorinated — . Rubber
Chlorinated Poly
Poly­ Fluoro­ Poly Poly Chlorinated Ura-
Polyerh*r amide Neoprene Hypalon V iio n V in y l
Typ« propylene carbon Furane Phertohc ester S ilitonv ethylene Rubber th^ng
ihyionl
CHEMICAL r e s is t a n c e
E xiorior D urability . £ E E G E P E E P E £ E e E E
Sait. Spray . E E E G E F £ E VG E E E E E E
S olvenis-A lcohols . E E E E E G G F £ E 6 - E VG F
Soivtrms-Gasolinc .. E F E E E G E F P G G G E FG G
Solvents-Hydrocarbons E F £ E E - E G - - G G E E -
Sol vents-Esters. Ketones E P P G F - P - P P -F P-F VG.E F-G P
Solvents-Chlorinated . E P e c F - P G P P P - F F
Salts . E £ E E E - G G P P P P G F P
P G P P £ E E E
Ammonia , E G £ £ E
E E
Alkalis . E VG .VG E.E £ P.P G.G P E,F E G G G E P £
A cid s-M in e rs E .E.E. E.G.G. E.E.E, E G.F ,P P.P.P E G.G.P P.G E.E E.E E.E E.E VG.F E.E
Acids—Ox id lin g . E.C.F E.E.G E.E.E p G.F.P - P P.P.P - E.E.E 6.G.G E.E.G E.E .E G.F.P E.G.G
Acitfs-Organit laceiic,
form ic, ere \ t.E .E GPP E.E.E F.G G.F.P P P.P P P.P.P V 3.V G .V G E.E .F P.P.P G.G.F E.E.E G.F.P E .V G .G
Acids—Organic (oleic.
stearic, etc.) - t G E E E VG F G VC.F.P G.P.P G.F ^ G.F.F G.G.G G.F.P E.P.P
Ac ids-Phosphoric . . E G £ £ F - F F G f G G G 6 E
Water fsaltjreshl . E £ £ E E F G £ VG G VG G G G G
Legend: E "excellent; V C -very good; G -oond, F - I spt; P-poor
Reprinted with permission from 1972 Materials Selector. Materials Engineering, Vo I- ?4. No. 4, September 197^. fteinhofd Publishing Co.
 T A B L E 8-8

PROPERTY COMPARISONS— NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBERS

Type—- Natural Butadiene- Butadiene- Butyl

Rubber Styrene Synthetic Acrylonitrile Chloroprene (Isobutylene-
(Cis-polyisoprene) (GR-S) (Polyisoprane) (Nitrile) (Neoprene) isoprene)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ASTM

Specific Gravity ... D792 0.93 0.94 0.93 0.98 1.25 0.90
Ther Cond, Btu/hr/
sq .... C177 0.082 0.143 0.082 0.143 0.112 0.053
Coef of Ther Exp
(cubical), 10‘* per°F .. D696 37 37 - 39 34 32
Electrical Insulation.... Good Good Good Fair Fair Good
Flame Resistance ... ., Poor Poor Poor Poor Good Poor
Min Rec Svc Temp,°F .... -60 -60 -60 ■60 ■40 -50
Max Rec Svc Temp,°F .... 180 180 180 300 240 300
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
Ten Str, psi
Pure Gum ........ D412 2500-3500 200-300 2500-3500 500-900 3000-4000 2500-3000
Black ........ D412 3500-4500 2500-3500 3500-4500 3000 4500 3000-4000 2500-3000
Elongation, %
Pure Gum ..... D412 750-850 400-600 - 300-700 800-900 750-950
Black D412 550-650 500 600 300-700 300-650 500-600 650-850
Hardness(durometer) .... A30-A90 A40-A90 A40-A80 A40-A95 A20-A95 A40-A90
Rebound
Cold Excellent Good Excellent Good Very good Bad
Hot ............ Good Excellent Good Very good Very good
Fair Good Fair to good Good
Abrasion Resistance.... Excellent Good to Excellent Good to Good Good to
excellent excellent excellent
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Sunlight Aging ..... Poor Poor Fair Poor Very good Very good
Oxidation ........ Good Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent
Heat Aging..... . Good Very good Good Excellent Excellent Excellent
Solvents
8-21

Aliphatic Hydrocarbons.... Poor Poor Poor Excellent Good Poor

 TAQL.E D &
8-22

PROPERTY COMPARISONS— NA1URAL AND SYN ■HETIC RUBBERS {Coin'd)

Type ' PhTIMtl 3i/tadier»o- □utarticnr- fckinvi

ll'ib b c r Styrene SynUmie AcrylDP.iir.le C,tikpoi**tv* !Isobutylene-
ICis pc-lyiwpf ene | (GR*$) (K tlybupruinJ I H l f l l :) (Ntoeireru1 iiaprenel

Aromatic Hydrocarbons .... Poor Poor .'■.■or Good F:lr Poor

Oxgenated, Alcohols .... Good Good Good Gr od Very good Very good
Oil. Gasoline ..... ...... Poor Poor Poor Excellent Good Poor
Animal, Vegetable Oils...... Poor to good Poor to good Excellent Excellent Excellent
Acids
Dilute ........ ..... Fair to good Fair to good Fair to good Good Excellent Excellent
Concentrated ......... Fair to good Fair to good Fair to good Good Good Excellent
Permeability to Gases ..... Low Low Low ' Vory low 1 )w Vory low
Water Swell Resistance..... Fair Excellent Excellent Excel ent Fair to excellent Excellent
USES Pneumatic tiresand tubes; power Same asnatural Carburetor dia- Wire and cable Truck and auto-
transmission bellsand conveyor lubber .-■hragms,self- belts, hose, ex- mobile tireinner
belts;gaskets; mountings; hose; titling fuel rruded goods. tubes, curing bags
chemical tank linings; printing press tanks, aircraft coatings, mold- fortirevulcaniza-
platens; sound or shock absorption; hose, gaskets, ed and Sheet tion and molding, steam
sealsagainst air,moisture, sound gasoline and oil goods, adhe- hose and diaphragms,
and dirt hose, cables. sives, automo* flexibleelectrical
machinery tive gaskets and insulation,shock,
mountings, seats, petroleum vibration absorption
printing •net chemical
rolls tank linings

Reprinted w ith permission from lUeJtrie h S ctn'iur, ,Lni'.i/t<'en*j.c, Vol. 74, Wo. 4, Septum! ■» 1971, Reinhold Publishing Co.
 AM CP 706-188

limited compilations have been made 1 l ,21

8-2 SAFETY

Safe practices in the use, handling, storage,

and manufacture of pyrotechnics are ihe
result of the experience and knowledge of
interested personnel and safety experts. Safe
practices are necessary because many of the
ingredients and mixtures are toxic, sensitive,
and potentially explosive. A thorough knowl­
edge of pyrotechnic ingredients, composi­
tions, and their reactions is an absolute
necessity for handling pyrotechnics in (he
8-1.3.2.3 CERAMICS best and safest manner. Safety cannot be
delegated; it is the responsibility of each
The class of materials referred to as ceram­ worker. Supervisors must personally assume
ics includes brick, magnesia, fused silica, responsibility for educating subordinates and
stoneware, porcelain, and glass. In general, promoting safety within then groups. The
compared to metals, these materials are inert subject of pyrotechnic safety is treated fully
to chemical action except for hydrofluoric in Ref. 23 while considerations of safety in
acid; however, they all tend to be rather general are covered in Ihe Safety Manual. Ref.
brittle, weak in tension, and subject to ther­ 24.
mal shock.
it is worth noting that there is probably a
One technique that permits the use of the greater variety of potential hazards arising
chemical inertness of ceramic while overcom­ from pyrotechnics than from ordinary explo­
ing its lack of" strength is to coat the metal or sives. Some of the basic safety precautions
plastic that needs to be protected with the that apply to pyrotechnics ‘may he summa­
ceramic. This is done by a process referred to rized as follows’ •’ :
as thermal-spraying, flame-spraying, or flame
jet coating. Temperatures of the jet are in the ( 1) Know the characteristics of (lie ingredi­
order of 30,000°F. ents and compositions such as toxicity, sensi­
tivity, reactivity with other materials, safe
8-1.3.3 DEGRADATION AND SENSITIZA­ working limits and storage, and disposal prob­
TION OF PYROTECHNIC MATERI­ lems. In addition—when dealing with finished
ALS pyrotechnic devices such as Hares, smoke
screening aids, and simulators one should
In some pyrotechnic devices, more than icnow the output characteristics and the meth­
one mix may be used and they may be in od (or methods) of initiation.
contact with each other. As an example,
consider the T24E1 Detonator shown in Fig. (2) Recognize the dangerous situations
8-10. A lead styphnate spot charge is covered that may arise because of potential or actual
by a lead azide charge which, in turn, is in hazards.
contact with PETN. Experience has shown
that these materials arc compatible. Unfortu­ (3) Minimize the hazards by working with
nately there is no convenient source for the or handling small quantities and observing
designer to find specific information on the established practices for safeLy equipment,
compatibility of pyrotechnics. However, some processing, testing, handling, storage, and

8-23
AM CP 706-188

disposal. The practices of good housekeeping hazards within and between containers as well
are fundamental to safe practices. as the hazards due to fragmentation, blast,
and fire. The minimum test criteria are
8-2.1 HAZARD CLASSIFICATION summarized in Table 8-915. For a description
of the tests, see par. 6-7 and for detailed
Hazardous materials are arranged into eight procedures of sensitivity, brisance, and stabili­
levels according to then storage hazard (see ty tests, see Ref. 26.
par. 8-2.3), and explosives are divided into
three levels according to their shipping hazard Rigorously speaking, hazards can be estab­
(see par. 8-2.4). The proper hazard classifica­ lished with precision only when we can
tion of each item must be known before pinpoint the environment to which ammuni­
pyrotechnic items can be made or used safely. tion containing pyrotechnics is subjected.
The Safety Manual contains a general suide to This is a difficult task. A recent study
hazard classes2 4. proposed that more effort be spent to sharpen
the definition11. In the stockpile-to-target
If the hazard level of a particular pyro­ environment—transportation, storage, and de-
technic item has not been established, it must livery-to-target phases—many of the specific
be obtained by standard tests devised for this environments are unknown. To make matters
purpose15. Tests include the establishment of worse, there is also doubt as to how well the

TABLE 8-9

MINIMUM TEST CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING

HAZARD CLASSIFICATION OF PYROTECHNICS

2. Packaging, as Nor­ 4. Types of Initiation To Ob­

mally Stored and 3. Type of Info To Be De­ tain Info Outlined in Item
1.Type Shipped termined by Test 3

Burning Individual Item or Propagation Within A Sin­ Simple Ignition

Unit gleContainer Detonation
Detonating More Than 1 Item Propagation from 1Con­ External Heat
Per Unit tainer to Another
Determination of Frag­
ment Hazard
Determination of Blast
Hazard
Determination of Fire Dis­
bursement Hazard

5.Minimum Test Criteria

Number items Number
Type test per test of tests Priming Booster Confinement
Test A. 1Container Normal Means None None
Detonation of Ignition or
Eogr Special
Blasting Cap
Test B. 2 Containers Same asAbove None None
Detonation
Test C. External 1to 6 Containers None None Steel Banded
Heat Depending on
Size of Unit
8-24
 AM CP 706-188

tests simulate the actual environments. Fur­ 82.2 HANDLING

ther, the present approach for determining
how a pyrotechnic responds is to test it in a Pyrotechnic items must be handled care­
particular hardware. This makes it difficult to fully during their entire life from the first
predict the response for similar items in laboratory experiments, through manufactur­
different hardware. For example, a maximum ing, and to the stockpile-to-delivery sequence.
storage temperature of I65°F is widely used. First, personnel must be familiar with the
If the rate of heat flow into the item were physical and chemical properties of the pyro­
specified instead, a more meaningful tests technic item or materials29. Next, sound
could be performed. A small pyrotechnic tem safety practices must be utilized23.
exposed in an oven may require a heat of
130 Btu ft'2 hr’1 to reach and maintain Safe handling is particularly important dur­
165° F. However, a large air-launched flare ing manufacturing where parts are not yet
weighing 250 lb may require 450 Btu ft'2 hr 2 fully assembled. Heat generated by friction,
to reach and maintain the I65°F temperature impact, vibration, and static electricity are
in the same oven. Do the two oven exposures major sources of hazards. See par. 8-5 for
simulate identical storage conditions? further details,

Handling during operation presents a differ­

In addition to the hazards described thus ent safety problem. Pyrotechnic items may be
far, pyrotechnics may also be toxic. Chemical handled by persons who are not familiar with
agents, in particular, should be handled with them. Hence, clear and precise labeling is
the utmost care. For details, see Refs. 23 and important. Personnel should be trained in safe
28. practices. For information on handling during

TABLE 8-10

STORAGE CATEGORIES OF TYPICAL PYROTECHNIC ITEMS

AND MATERIALS

ITEM Storage Quantity-

Compatability Distance
Group Class

Slack powder, in charges or containers O

Bombs, photoflash (Except M122, w/o burster) O
Bombs, photoflash, M 122, w/o burster C&Q
Cartridges, illuminating E
Cartridges, photoflash O
Cutters, reefing line B,E,N
Detonation simulator, explosive, M80 O
Grenades, illuminating N
Grenades, practice, w/spotting charge E
Grenades, smoke (except HC, WP & PWP) N
Photoflash powder A
Projectiles, illuminating E& N
Simulators, M110, M 117, Ml 18, and M1 19 N
Simulators. M 115 and XM142 Q
Simulator, M116 B&Q
Smoke pots N
Spotting charges (cartridge for miniature practice bombs) N

8 -2 5
AM CP 706-188

TABLE 8-11

EXCERPT FROM QUANTITY-DISTANCE TABLES

Distance, ft
Inhabited Highway & or
Material, Building Railw ay Intrnline Above Ground
lb bar.. unbar. bar. unbar. bar. unbar. bar. unbar.

Class 1
>Limit 100 100 too 80
Class 7
1 40 80 25 50
to 90 180 55 110 30 40
100 190 380 115 230 40 80 28 51
1,000 400 800 240 480 95 190 60 110
10,000 865 1730 520 1040 200 400 130 235
100,010 1855 3630 1115 2180 415 830 280 510

shipping. SCO pars. 8-2.3 and lists the compalibilily group. Ciro
8-2.4. respectively. most severe; all items in this group must be
stored alone. Items in groups LI through Q
8-2.3 STORING may be stored with other items within the
same group in any combination.
Basie information on storage is contained
in llie Safety Manual24. In addition, two Pyrotechnics are stored in accordance with
Department of Defense safety manuals con­ quantity-distance requirements, i hese re­
tain much of the same information but their quirements are defined as "the quantity of
arrangement makes them often easier to use. explosives material and distance separation
One of the manuals covers agencies30 while relationships which provide defined types of
the other covers contractors'1. protection. These relationships are based on
levels of risk considered acceptable for the
for the purpse of storage, hazardous mater­ stipulated exposures and arc tabulated in the
ials are arranged into eight classes according appropriate quantity-distance tables. Separa­
to their level of hazard. Ammunition contain­ tion distances are not absolute safe distances
ing pyrotechnics are divided into classes I and but are relative protective or safe dis­
7 depending on their hazard level. Class I tances” 30.
items are* those that have a high fire hazard
but no blast hazard and for which virtually no Quantity-distance tables are contained in
fragmentation or toxic hazard exists beyond the safety manuals’ 3■'0 J 1 ; a typical excerpt
the lire hazard clearance distance ordinarily is shown in Table 8-1 I 33. The largest mini­
specified for high-risk materials. In contrast, mum distances are required where a hazard
class 7 items are those for which most items exists to personnel, i.e., inhabited buildings.
of a lot will explode virtually instantaneously Intraline refers to the minimum distance
when a small portion is subjected to fire, between any two buddings within one opera­
severe concussion, impact, the impulse of an ting line or assembly operation. The magazine
initiating agent, or considerable discharge of distances given in the excerpi are for above­
energy from an external source31. The stor­ ground storage, which is the least desirable.
age categories of typical pyrotechnic items Earth-covered, arch type magazines are pre­
and materials are excerpted in fable 8-I024. ferred because they are safer: their required
In addition to the hazard class, the table also separation distances are much less than those

8-26
 AMCP 706-188

of above-ground magazines. Note that separa­ The safe transport of hazardous materials is
tion distance is roughly proportional to the the responsibility of the shipper. It has
quantity of material, and that a barricade of become expedient to pack and label hazard­
proper construction reduces by one-half the ous cargo to meet requirements for all kinds
distance used for unbarricaded storage. of transportation. The Navy is the largest
shipper of military cargo because most of it
Dissatisfaction has recently been expressed ultimately ends up aboard ship. If a commer­
with the degree to which safety classes suffice cial shipper is used, he should be properly
for pyrotechnic materials. Some pyrotechnics licensed in all states and countries involved.
are quite lethal, resulting in damage due to a Shipping regulations are complex and a quali­
fire ball (radiant heat) and fragments. Damage fied shipper is needed to cope with them.
is certainly greater than that of a Class 1
material. However, reclassification to Class 7 All safety regulations are enforced in the
presents two problems: (1) the pyrotechnic shipment of hazardous materials to protect
does not really qualify under the criterion for life, property, and the cargo itself. All cargo
detonating solids as established by the Card must be properly blocked and braced during
Gap Test (see Ref. 25), and (2) the common­ shipment. For some hazard classes, the vehicle
ly used barricades can at times enlarge the. must be placarded and inspected. Mixed
hazard by increasing the distance of thrown shipments in the same vehicle must be com­
fragments and burning debris. Hence, a sepa­ patible. In case of an accident on any mode of
rate classification for pyrotechnic materials shipping, Form F5800 must be filed with the
has been suggested32. It should be empha­ Department of Transportation when the in­
sized, however, that the personnel concerned cident involves death or serious injury,
with pyrotechnics have no choice but to $50,000 property damage, or continuing dan­
comply with the existing safety regulations as ger.
a minimum.
Shipping regulations for specific pyro­
technic items are contained in the item
8-2.4 SHIPPING specification. General regulations are covered
by the Department of Transportation, Code
For the purpose of shipping, materials are of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Parts
divided into three classes according to their 100-99. For detailed information on shipping
level of hazard3 3: ammunition containing pyrotechnics, see Ref.
33. It identifies each item by Federal Stock
(1) Class A. Chemical compounds, mix­ Number and lists hazard class as well as the
tures, or devices (mass detonating, spark information of concern to the shipper, such as
initiated, or shock sensitive) with maximum cube, weight, and labeling requirements.
shipping hazard. Examples are black powder, Transportation by rail, motor vehicle, and
PETN, and explosive ammunition. water carrier is also covered in Ref. 34. In
addition to these regulations, state and munic­
(2) Class B. Explosives that function by ipal laws, local ordinances, and harbor regula­
rapid combustion rather than detonation. tions must be observed where they apply.
Examples are gun propellants and certain
rocket motors. 8-3 RELIABILITY

(3) Class C. Devices that may contain Class Reliability is the extent to which we may
A or Class B explosives or both, but in expect a device to perform its intended
restricted quantities, and certain types of function for a specified period under stated
fireworks. Examples are electric squibs, ex­ conditions33. It is often expressed in statisti­
plosive bolts, and small arms ammunition. cal terms. Since reliability can be no greater

8-27
AMCP 706-188

than the most unreliable component of a ty and safety by pointing out the weaknesses
pyrotechnic device, it is important to prove in design, material, manufacturing process,
the reliability of each component. Moreover, inspection procedure, or adverse environ­
environmental factors such as moisture and mental conditions. The technique also ob­
vibration, encountered during storage and viates the testing of a large number of samples
transportation, can affect reliability and to achieve these purposes experimentally, a
therefore should be taken into account. task that is often.prohibitively expensive.

Keep in mind that reliability and safety are A typical example of a fault tree is shown
closely related. While pyrotechnic devices in Fig. 8-11. It diagrams the events and causes
must function as intended (reliability), they that could lead to the accidental ignition of
must not function under any but the right the EX' 48 Mod 0 flare. The fault tree analysis
conditions (safety). indicated that the most probable causes of
accidental ignition are:
8-3.1 CONSIDERATIONS DURING RE­
SEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 1. Heating to auto ignition temperature

During the research and development 2. Mechanical shock

phase, the reliability of individual compo­
nents is usually examined in detail, and the 3. Battery activation via an electrolytic
measure of reliability most often used is fluid leading into the battery cavity
probability. Probability is usually expressed as
a percentage and it denotes the ratio of 4. Squib initiation due to an intense radio
occurrence of a given event to total number frequency signal.
of events, e.g., if in a test of 100 aerial flares
98 function properly, the probability of An analysis of this type is used in deter­
proper functioning for these 100 flares is mining what tests must be performed to
therefore 98%. The confidence interval, a ascertain that none of the environmental
function of sample size, should also be deter­ conditions that the unit is likely to encounter
mined. will cause premature initiation. It also indi­
cates which events are more or less likely to
Predictions of reliability demand a knowl­ occur. In this instance, the mode of ignition
edge of the concepts of random sampling, least likely to occur is the accidental initiation
frequency distributions, significant differ­ of the flare by an RF signal because of the
ences, and methods for computing statistical number of events that must occur simultane­
parameters. All these should become a part of ously.
the designer’s working vocabulary so that, at
the very minimum, he can recognize those A few general suggestions can be made to
situations where a professional statistician is the designer with regard to reliability2 2:
required. The subject of experimental statis­
tics aimed specifically toward military appli­ (1) Whenever possible, use standard com­
cation is the subject of other hand­ ponents with established quality levels and
books36' 40. other reliability criteria at least as high as
those required by the application.
A powerful analytic technique for assessing
the reliability as well as the safety of pyro­ (2) Use redundant systems in more com­
technic ammunition is the Fault Tree Artal- plex and expensive materiel but tend to keep
ysis41. Based on logic diagrams, Boolean overall systems as simple as possible.
algebra, and probability values for individual
components, it helps to assess system reliabili­ (3) Specify materials for which the proper-

8-28
 AMCP 706-188

Safe-arm sw itch "arm ed" Leaky base p lu g seal;

in side , flu id a va ila b le , e le ctro lytic flu id en-
and b ase p lu g s a j a r ters base c a v i ty

Figure 8-11. Fault Tree: Accidental ignition o f Decoy Flare, E X 48 Mod 0

8 -2 9
AMCP 706-188

ties of importance to your application are (3) Design for ease of maintenance by
well known and reproducible. Keep in mind assuring accessibility to facilitate inspection,
that the average value for a parameter may be repair, and replacement.
less important for design purposes than the
extreme values. Make specification changes in (4) Consideration of field maintenance
proven items only with great caution. based on geographical locations and climatic
conditions.
8-3.2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE
STOCKPILE (5) Design for maximum utilization of
interchangeable components.
During manufacturing, the reliability of
pyrotechnic items is safeguarded by means of (6) Detection of conditions that will ad­
quality assurance procedures. When items versely affect the conduct of maintenance
reach the stockpile, surveillance programs are operations or generate excessive maintenance
applied. Surveillance includes the observation, and supply requirements.
inspection, investigation, test, study, and clas­
sification of pyrotechnic devices and their (7) Design to effect maximum compatibili­
components with respect to their serviceabili­ ty of maintenance operations with contempo­
ty, hazard, and rate of deterioration42. The rary common tools.
twofold purpose of surveillance is to insure
the reliability of items in storage and to (8) Evaluation for ease of packaging, car­
provide the designer with a source of data for loading, and shipment.
the improvement of future designs.
(9) Design to enable removal of major
One aspect of surveillance is concerned components as individual units.
with the order in which pyrotechnic ammuni­
tion is used. First priority is given to ammuni­ (10) Assurance that proper materials and
tion that is serviceable but not suited for special treatment are used for maximum
long-term storage. resistance to deterioration.

8-4 MAINTENANCE (11) Consideration of long term storage

with a minimum of periodic checks and
Ideally, pyrotechnic ammunition should be maintenance in storage.
completely maintenance free. It should be so
designed that it can be placed on the shelf and 8-5 MANUFACTURING
perform perfectly when withdrawn for use 20
yr later. Every effort should be made to As in any specialized industry, pyrotechnic
produce ammunition having optimum proper­ manufacturing processes involve the use of
ties of handling, storage, shelf life, and ser­ specialized tools, hardware, and assembly and
viceability. Design for maintainability requires control techniques. In general, many of the
incorporation of at least the following mainte­ processes used in the manufacture of pyro­
nance principles4 2: technic ammunition are the same as those
used for the manufacture of explosive items.
(1) Design to minimize maintenance and
supply requirements through attainment of The production of pyrotechnic items in­
optimum durability and service life of materi­ volves a series of steps starting with the
al. selection and processing of the pyrotechnic
ingredients, production of metal parts, and
(2) Recognition of field maintenance prob­ ending with final assembly. It is important, in
lems encountered in earlier designed items. the selection and processing of the ingredients

8-30
that their chemical and physical properties are metal should be conductive nonsparking.
known jn advance, especially particular haz­ Common nonsparking metals are bronze, be­
ards to personnel and property caused by the ryllium alloys, lead, and monel. Certain tools
reaction of these materials to various stimuli. may a';;o be made from wood, plastic, and
For detailed information on the properties of rubber. It should be kept in mind, however,
pyrotechnic materials, see Ref. 29. The pro­ that these nonsparking metals can occa­
cessing of pyrotechnics is treated in Ref. 23, sionally produce sparks under certain condi­
and the laboratory and plant procedures that tions.
must be followed for the safe processing of
pyrotechnic items are described in Refs. 21 When strength or dimensional stability is
and 24. needed, as in pressing, tool steel is required.
Flere it is particularly important that the tools
8-5.1 CONTROL OF RAW MATERIALS are designed in such a manner that the
pyrotechnic being worked is not pinched
As in any processing of chemical materials, between sharp edges. In addition, vent holes
quality assurance starts with the selection of or other means to prevent pressure buildup in
the proper ingredients. The physical and the event of accidents should be provided m
chemical reactions that often occur in pyro­ molds used in pressing operations.
technic mixes are sensitive to control factors.
Particle size, in particular, can have a large 8-5.3 LOADING
effect upon burn rate, light output, and
efficiency of flare, smoke, and delay composi­ After blending, the pyrotechnic composi­
tions. The various methods for determining tion is loaded into its container. All loading
particle size are covered in the Military operations should be performed by remote
Specifications for particular materials and in control with operating personnel behind rein­
Ref. 23. forced protective barricades. For purposes of
loading, compositions may be classified into
In addition to particle size, other factors three groups23.
that should be controlled are chemical purity,
moisture content, and reactivity. Reactivity is (1) llluminants and Smokes. These compo­
a measure of the ability of a compound to sitions usually contain a binder, and are
react with another substance and can be loaded by consolidating into a case by a
influenced by grinding processes, particle hydraulic press. Incremental consolidation is
shape, and the presence of trace impurities. often used.

8-5.2 CONTROLLING PROCESSES (2) Delay Compositions. These are usually

loaded in the same manner as illuminants and
Pyrotechnic raw materials are mixed, smokes, except that higher pressures arc used
ground, weighed, blended, granulated, dried, (except where birders are present). Dies are
pressed, or consolidated-depending on the normally used to support the delay body.
application23. For reasons of safety, process­
es should be controlled from behind suitable (3) Flash and Spotting Compositions.
barricades with the minimum possible quanti­ Flash and spotting compositions, because
ties. Often the process is controlled visually, they do not usually contain a binder, are
based on experience, but sampling and sub­ likely to be more sensitive to friction ihan
sequent measurement of particle size, mois­ compositions containing a binder. For this
ture content, and performance characteristics reason such compositions are usually loaded
are also used. by vibrating the item on a vibrating table.

Whenever possible, processing tools of Flash and spotting compositions are usually

S-31
loaded dry. In the other two groups, wet the p yro te c h n ic charge is b ro u g h t together
loading and cast loading techniques may also with the necessary hardware. Whether com­
be used. mon or specialized, hardware is produced by
means of conventional manufacture. Different
1~he desire is always to load a specific metals, wood, cardboard, paper, and plastics
weight of pyrotechnic. For small test quanti­ have all been employed. The design and
ties or for some premium quality production, selection of hardware is based on such factors
direct reading, one-pan b a l a n c e s are used that as chemical compatibility, storage life,
provide an accuracy within one percent. The strength, cost, availability, and reliability.
two most common volumetric measuring de­
vices are scoops and charging plates. To When pyrotechnic devices are assembled,
obtain the desired weight, the loading plant controlled operations are desirable. The tem­
must adjusl the volume to account for bulk perature and humidity should be carefully
density. In hand operations, scoops are filled controlled and dusting of the composition
and leveled against a rubber band. Careful should be kept at a minimum. The least
scooping is accurate within 4%. Qtarging practical number of items should be kept in
plates lend themselves to production rates22. the working area.

Production pressing tools are hardened too) While assembled pyrotechnic items are us­
steel (60 Rockwell C is common) and the die ually safer to handle than the pyrotechnic
is lapped and polished. Cups are supported by material itself, safe practices are nevertheless
close fitting loading tools while the charge is mandatory. To protect the pyrotechnic mat­
being pressed. A quantity of pyrotechnic can erial from deterioration, special sealing or
be pressed either to a controlled height (stop welding techniques are often employed in
laoding) or to the limit of an applied load for assembly, such as ultrasonic welding.
a given diameter (pressure loading). Stop
loading is faster but not as accurate as 8-6 PACKAGING
pressure loading. In normal production, a
reasonable weighing tolerance for pyrotechnic Pyrotechnic ammunition - such as flares,
charges is 3 or 4%. In stop loading, if the signals, fusees, igniters, and illuminants —is
height of an increment is exactly reproduced, packed in much the same way as other types
the density may vary as much as 7%. In either of conventional ammunition. The primary
type of loading, the density should be check­ function of any military package is to provide
ed for each production lot. protection against induced environmental
factors (shock and vibration) and natural
Loading pressure varies with the material environmental factors (humidity, tempera­
being pressed. For delays, the pressure is as ture, rain, dust, etc ), and to provide for ease
high as 10,000 psi. Charges may be pressed and safety of handling that may tv encount­
directly into their containers or, sometimes, ered during world-wide handling, shipping,
pressed into molds and ejected as pellets. and storage.
When a container of length greater than its
diameter is used, the pyrotechnic is usually Since packaging of the ammunition may
loaded in increments that are one diameter affect its design, a packaging handbook
long22. should be consulted42. The first concern in
packaging is to establish the Level (dcg.ee) of
8-5.4 ASSEMBLY protection desired, namely:44

Assembly methods are many and varied (I) Level A military packages are for un­
because of the wide variety of pyrotechnic known overseas destinations and storage con­
end items. During the assembly operations. ditions. The gross weight of a Level A military

8-32
 AM CP 706-188

For Level C, less expensive water-vapor mater­

ials are used and the wooden boxes are
simpler (no rope handles, wood preservative,
or metal hardware). Corrugated fiberboard
cartons are acceptable in place of the wooden
boxes.

A typical Level A package for pyrotechnic

items would be seven distress signals and one
ejector packaged in a set-up box (small
carton) and individually wrapped in a water­
proof barrier bag. Ten of these boxes fit into
a corrugated fiberboard box and each fiber-
board box is enclosed in a barrier bag (for
Figure 8-12. water and moisture proofing). The total mili­
Distress Signal Packaging fo r Level A tary package (see Fig. 8-12) contains four
Protection bagged cartons per nailed wooden or wire-
bound box. If moisture proofing is not
package could be either 65 or I 30 lb depend­ required and the item is large, such as a
ing on handling expected during field opera­ parachute flare, packaging would be one flare
tions (one or two man portability). per spirally wound fiber container with two
or four fiber containers per nailed wooden or
(2) Level B military packages are for wirebound box.
known overseas destinations and storage con­
ditions, and may provide a slightly lower level Packaged ammunition, especially that pro­
of protection than Level A, but for all intents viding Level A protection should be subjected
and purposes, the package is generally de­ to a series of environmental tests (shock,
signed similar to Level A. vibration, temperature, humidity, etc.) prior
to field release to verify the effectiveness of
(3) Level C military packages are used to the package to meet all logistic requirements
package metal parts or component subassem­ imposed by the military. In addition to the
blies of pyrotechnic items. They provide the packaging requirements set forth in Refs. 43
least amount of protection but adequate and 44, Department of Transportation as well
enough to insure high end-item reliability as state and local regulations have to be met
during domestic and interplanl shipments. (sec par. 8-2.4).

REFERENCES

1. E. I I. Kennard, Kinetic Theory o f Gases, 3. B. F. Dodge, Chemical Engineering

McGraw-Hill Book Co,, Inc., New York, Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill Book
1938. Co., Inc., New York, 1944.

2. J. A, Beattie and O. C. Bridgeman, “ A

New Equation of Slate for Fluids” , Jour. 4. J. S. K.unkle, S. D. Wilson, and R. A.
Amer. Chem. Soc., 49, 1665-7 (1927). Cota, V.ds., Compressed Gas Handbook,

8-33
 NASA SP-3045, N ational A eronautics ) 6. MIL-C-5541. Chemical Films and Chem­
and Space Admin., 1969. ical Film Materials for Aluminum and
Aluminum Alloys. Dept, of Defense-
5. F. A. Eckman,, “ Basic Structural Analy-
sis“ , i iectro-1echnology, 73, 5, 67-90 17. Ml L-C-45013, Coaling Compound.
(May 1964). Bituminous Solvent Type. Black (for
Ammunition). Dept, of Defense, 28 Sep­
6. L. S. Marks, Mechanical Engineers' tember 1965.
Handbook Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc.. New York, 1953. 18. "1972 Materials Selector", Materials En­
gineering 74. 4, 355-8, 471-4 (Mid-Sep­
7. J. A. Murtinelli. "‘Safe Loads for Thin tember 1971).
Wall Cylinders’’. Machine Design 40,18,
116-7 (August 1. 1968). 19. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia. McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. 1968, pp.
8. J. E. Hauck, Ed,, "Engineers’ Guide to 84-101.
Plastics'1, Materials in Design Engineering,
65. 92-3 (Feb. 1967). 20. N. E. Beach, Compatibility o f Plastics
With Liquid Propellants, Fuels and Oxi­
9. ASTM. Standards, Plastics — General dizers. PLAS'l EC ReporL 25, Picatinny
Methods o f Testing. Nomenclature, Part Arsenal, Dover, NJ, January 1966.
27, 1972.
21. OP 3237, Safety Principles for Labora­
10, Conference Digest, “ Design to Control tory and Pilot-Plant Operations. With
Corrosion", Machine Design, 41. 136-45
Explosives. A; lOtechnics. and Pro­
(Aug. 7, 1969). pellants. Dept, of Navy. July 1964.
11. M. G. Fontana and N. D. Green, Corro­
sion Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 22. AMC1’ 706-179, Engineering Design
Inc, New York, 1967 Handbook, Explosives Series. Explosive
Trains.
12. MIL-HDBK-721(MR) Co/rosion and Cor­
rosion Protection o f Metals. Dept, of 23. AMCP 706-186, Engineering Design
Defense. November 1965. Handbook, Military Pyrotechnics Series.
Part Two. Safety, Procedures and Glos­
13. M1L-S1D-186B. Protective finishing sary.
Systems for Rockets, Guided Missiles.
Support Equipment and Related Materi­ 24. AMCR 385-100, Safety Manual. Army
als. Dept, of Defense, Maich 1964. Material Command. April 1970.

14. M1L-STD-1250(MI). Corrosion Preven­ 25. TB 700-2, Explosives Hazard Classifica­

tion and Deterioration Control in Elec­ tion Procedures. Dept, of Army, 19 May
tronic Components and Assemblies, 1967.
Dept, of Defense, March 1967.
26. A. J. Clear, Standard Laboratory Proce­
15. QQ-P-35, Passivation Treatments for dures for Determining Sensitivity,
Austenitic. Ferritic, and Martensite Cor­ Brisance. and Stability o f Explosives,
rosion-Resisting Steel (Fastening De­ Report PA i R 3278, Picatinny Arsenal,
vices'). Dept, of Defense. Dover, NJ, April 1970.

8-34
27. H. C. Schafer, Environmental Criteria Reliability Engineering Dept, of Defense
Determination for Pyrotechnics, Report 2 August 1962.
NOTS TP 4254, Naval Weapons CenLer,
China Lake, CA, April 15)67. 36. AMCP 706-110, Engineering Design
Handbook, Experimental Statistics. Sec­
28. OP 2793. Toxic Hazards Associated with tion I, Basic Concepts and Analysis o f
Pyrotechnic Items. Bureau of Naval Measured Data.
Weapons, 1 November 1963.
37. AMCP 706-111, Engineering Design
29. AMCP 706-187, Engineering Design Handbook, Experimental Statistics. Sec­
Handbook, Military Pyrotechnics Series, tion 2. Analysis o f Enumerative .and
Part Three. Properties o f Materials Used Classificatory Data.
in Pyrotechnic Compositions.
38. AMCP 706-112, Engineering Design
30. (D eleted ) Handbook. Experimental Statistics. Sec­
tion 3. Planning and Analysis o f Compar­
ative Experiments.

31. DOD 4 145.26M, DO!) (. ontrac tors' Safety 39. AMCP 706-1 13, Engineering Design
Manual for Ammunition, Explosives and Handbook, Experimental Statistics, Sec­
Related Dangerous Material, Dept, of De­ tion 4, Special Topics.
fense. October 1968.
40. AMCP 706-114. Engineering Design
32. J. 11. McLain. “ Pyrotechnic Hazard Clas­ Handbook, Experimental Statistics. Sec­
sification’’. Proceedings o f the Seventh tion 5, Tables.
Symposium on Explosives and Pyro­
technics. The Franklin Institute Research 41. W. F. Larsen, Fault Tree Analysis. Report
Laboratories. Philadelphia, PA, Septem­ PATH 3822, Piealinny Arsenal, Dover,
ber 8-9, 1971. pp U-IO-1,-2. NJ. November 1968.
33. OP 2165, Atopy Transportation Safety 42. AMCP 706-134. Engineering Design
Handbook. Naval Ordnance Systems Handbook, Maintainability Guide for De­
Command. sign.

34. Agent R. M. Graziano’s Tariff No. 25 43. AMCP 706-121, Engineering Design
(DoT #25;, Ha znrdous Materials Regula­ Handbook, Packaging and Pack Engineer­
tions of the Department o f Transporta­ ing.
tion, Association of American Railroads,
Washington. DC, 1972. 44. AR 700-15, Preservation-Packaging. Pack­
ing and Marking o f Items o f Supply. Dept,
35. MIL-SI D-721 A, Definition o f Terms for of Army, 28 May 1968.

8-35/8-36
 AM CP 706-188

APPENDIX A

FLARE DESIGN INFORMATION

This Appendix contains the available design for Mg/NaN03 flares. The efficiency of vari­
aids for flares. Figs. A -l1 and A-21 are ous light sources for flares is compared in
nomograms from which the burning rate and Table A-l2.
candlepower, respectively, can be obtained

UtfJWAC SUAWW
1%) PATC PAftTlCU
(<« /«*3*I Stf£

DiRCCTrONS fOR US£

STEP ALIGN READ
I 7. a LA« V.
KO rM O Z 4, a m« size CASING
WO---*WO
00 burn
ID
3 a CASING10 rar E
Ul
r- a t
- 4 10
*■OJ
- io
- 420
- >l
- - I4
- It
- LI
y jt. E- ■ -2.0
5' 6- - t2 24
-

L2.1

S ta n d a rd E rro r o f E s tim a te 0 .6 in /m m

Figure A - 1. Nomogram - Burning Rate o f M g/NaNOi F/aresW ith

Laminae Binder and Paper Cases
 *1 ^ ^ LAHINAC CASING
PARTICLE 10.
1%) (%>
SIZE (ift.l
(ft) CAJiOLEPOWER
Ml
MK> 400 (lOOOcondin/J/i^l
370 _ - 4 l0
- 420

IZ-
10-

14 -

1.6 -

- 460 2.0 -
27.
2 4

48 ' JO
DIRECTIONS FOR USE
4V t-88
30 -68
s re p A L IG N R E AO '.2 -84
M.-62
1 Mg SIZE a LAM % 4 -, 38- ■60
2 4>, a c a s in g i o. 4 ,

Standard Error olEstimate 26xl03 candles/in.2 CANDLE-

3 4>z 6 Mg % POWER

Figure A-2. Nomogram —Candlepower o f Mg/NaN03 F/e/es With

Laminae Binder and Paper Cases

TABLE A-1

COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCIES OF VARIOUS LIGHT SOURCES

Luminous Flux,
to
Radiant Flux, Efliciency, Efficiency,
Item % Im W'1 c-sec-(gram metal)’1

Ideal Yellow-Green Line 556 100 680

Sun 16.1 100
Tungsten Lamp 5000 W 4.7 29
Sodium Vapor Lamp 16.4 102
ivl112 Photoflash Cartridge 1 .1 4 7.1 16,700
M123 PhotoIlash Cartridge 1.11 6.9 16,200
M120A1 Photoflash Comb 0.98 6.1 14,500
Al + Liquid Oxygen 1.3-1.6 8.1-9.8 20-24,000
X-52 0.65 4.05 10,000
T86E5 0.55 3.4 8,200
TI0E3-4 Flare 10.1 63 110,000
T10E5-6 Flare 8.4 52 94,000
T90 Photoflare 7.2 45 82,500
 AM CP 705-188

Two empirical equations predict the per­ + 4893.10004c/ + 301.9218142

formance of magnesium flares (within the - 235.217644 V + 41.9630004*
limits of 48-60 / magnesium content and
+ 225.86000<2.v —37 095000,1c/*
diameters from 1 to 2.25 in.)3. The mean
burning time is
where
/ - S23.20t.04 - 7.5 I 26000* (A-l) t = mean burning time, see
- 156.71800/1 i- 2.2476004*
r - output, dimensionless
r 12.25090042 - 0.1 73020004Tv
A - surface area of magnesium. 10'2 cm2g
and the output is
d = diameter, in.
/-= 14685.430 - 2P.29000 a- (A-2)
- 5658.0000/1 - 14332.500<7 a - magnesium content. %

REFERENCES

1. S. H.. ( irecn and R. G. Amicone. Prediction 2. Private cominunicntion from G. Wein-

o f Pyrotechnic Performance's. Report garten. Picatinny Arsenal. Dour. NJ.
P R-C1881-2. The Franklin Institute, for 3. Private communication from S. M. Fasig.
Picatinny Arsenal. Contract DA-28-107- Naval Air Development Center. Johnsville,
AMC-3309(A). March 1969. PA.

A -3 /A -4
 AM CP 706-188

APPENDIX B

PYROTECHNIC COMPOSITIONS

(1) Stab Primer Compositions

Composition, % by weight
Ingredients PA100 NOL130

Lead Azide 5 20
Potassium Chlorate 53 -
Antimony Sulfide 17 15
Basic Lead Styphnate - 40
Lead Thiocyanate 25 -
Terracene - 5
Barium Nitrate — 20

(2) Friction Primer Compositions2:

Composition, % by weight
Ingredients A B C

Potassium Chlorate 63 53 42
Antimony Sulfide 32 22 42
Sulfur - 9 3
Calcium Carbonate - 1 2
Meal Powder - - 3
Ground Glass * 10 3
Gum Arabic 5 5 5

(3) Percussion Primer Compositions:

Composition,% by weight
M39 PA101 FA70 NOL60 FA959
Ingredients (Ref. 3) (Ref. 1) (Ref. 1) (Ref. 1) (Ref. 3>*

Lead Styphnate - - - - 35.0

Basic Lead Styphnate - 53 - 60 -

Tetracene — 5 - 5 3.1
Potassium Chlorate 37.05 - 53 - -

Barium Nitrate 8.68 22 — 25 31.0

Antimony Sulfide - 10 17 10 10.3
Lead Thiocyanate 38.13 - 25 - -

Powdered Glass 10.45 - - -

Powdered Aluminum - 10 — - —

Powdered Zirconium - - — — 10.3

Lead Dioxide - - - - 10.3
TNT 5.69 — 5 — —

‘ R ep rinte d w ith perm ission fro m M ilita ry and C ivilia n P yrotechnics, H. E liern, C hem ical P ublishing Co., Nevu Y o rk , 1969.

B-l
 (4} ElectricPrimer Compositions5:’
Composition, % by weight
Ingredients A B C D
' —
Oiazodinitrophenol (DDNP) 20 75
Potassium Chlorate 60 25 55 8.5
Lead Thiocyanate — _ 45
Lead Mononitro Resorcinate (LMNR) — — —
76.5
Charcoal IS _ _ _
Nitrocellulose — _
15.0
Nitrostarch 5
(A) Used as primer and firetransfer.
IB) Used in Mk1 Mod 0 Squib.
(C) Used in M59 Electric Igniter.
(D) Used forvarious electricmatches.

(5) Conductive Primer Mixes5:*

C u m . position,% by weight
Ingredients A B C
Zirconium (<5p) 7.5 6-9 15.0
Zirconium (>10ju) 32.5 30-35 —

Zirconium Hydride - — 30.0

Lead Dioxide 25.0 18-22 20.0
Barium Nitrate 25.0 15-25 15.0
PETN - 15-23 20.0

(G) High Intensity White Flares5:*

Composition, % by weight
Ingredients A B C D
Magnesium (30/50) 58±2 45.5 53 55
Sodium Nitrate 371:2 45.5 39 36
Laminae 4*y, 9.0 8 9

(7) Mild White Light Source (used in Ml 18 Booby Trap Simulator)5:*

Ingredients Composition, % by weight

Potassium Perchlorate 73
Red Gum 21
Demin 6

(8)White Star5'

Ingredients Compositio
Magnesium 25
Alurninurn 14
Barium Nitrate 42
Strontium Nitrate 11
Asphaltum 5
Linseed Oil 3
•Reprintedwuh permission from MilitaryandCn/ih'anPyrotechnics. H, Ellern,Chemical PublishingCo .Now Vork. 1969.

(M
 AM CP 706-188

(9) High Altitude Flash Charges3:'

Composition. % by weight
Ingredients A B C D
Aluminum (< I7p) 40 31 20
Calcium Metal — - 30 80
Sodium Perchlorate — — - 20
Calcium Flour.de — 20 - -
Potassium Perchlorate 60 49 50 -

(10) Photoflash Powders:

Ingredients

Aluminum
Magnesmrn/Aluminum Alloy
Magnesium
Potassium Perchlorate
Barium Nitrate

(11) Simulator Mixes'’:*

Composition. % by weight
Ingredients A B
Magnesium 45 34
Aluminum - 26
Potassium Perchlorate 35 60
Barium Nitrate 15 -
Barium Oxalate 3 -

Calcium Oxalate 1
Graphite 1
(A) Used in Ml 10 Gunflash Simulator.
(BS Used in M 115 Projectile Ground Burst Simulator.

(12) Underwater Flare Mix’:*

Ingredients Composition, % by weight
Magnesium 16
Aluminum 12
Barium Sulfate 40
Barium Nitrate 32

(13) Intensity Flare (FI), Star (St),and Star Tracer (Tr) Mixes3:'

Composition, % by weight
Ingredients Red Green Yellow
FI St Tr _FI_ St. Tr FI St Tr
Magnesium 29 23 46 26 15 48 26 19 49
Gilscrtice 2 8 3 2 - 3 2 9 5
Oil 2 - - 2 2 - ? - -
Hex ichlgrobenaene 4 6 4 1 15 6 5 7 -
Powdered Copper - - - - 2 2 - - -
Cup, icOxide - - - 2 - - - - -
(conci:iuud)
"Reprinted with permission fr o m M iii* jrv 3 0 d C ivilian P y r o te c h n ic s , N. EUern. Chemical Publishing Co,, New York, 1969.

B-3
A M C P 706-188
Red Green Yellow
Ingredients FI Tr FI St Tr FI St Tr

Barium Nitrate — — _
45 66 16 29
Strontium Nitrate 34 41 18 — _ _ _
Potassium Perchlorate 29 22 29 16 _ 25 23 50 31
Sodium Oxalate - - - - - - 13 15 15

(14) Artillery Tracer Mixes3:*

Composition, %by weight
Ingredients Red Green Yellow White
Magnesium 28 28 41 33 43 34
Barium Nitrate - - 28 - 41 60
Strontium Nitrate 40 55 —
40 - __
Potassium Perchlorate 20 — — — — _

Barium Oxalate - - 16 — —
Strontium Oxalate 8 - — — _
Sodium Oxalate - - - 17 12 _
Sulfur - - - 2 _
Polyvinyl Chloride - 17 - — - —

Binder and Fuel - - 15 10 2 6

Calcium Resinate 4 - - - - -

(15) Flare Mixes3: *

Composition,
%by weight by paits
Ingredients A B C D E F
Magnesium 21 17.5 30 3-5 8 8
Strontium Nitrate 45 45 42 68-70 52 38
Potassium Perchlorate 15 25 9 — - -
Ammonium Perchlorate - - - - - 15
Strontium Oxalate - - - - 8 10
Hexachlorobenzene 12 - - 18 -
P olyvin yl Chloride - 5 12 23 - 17
Calcium Silicide - - - - - 2
Charcoal - - - - 1 -
Stearic A cid - - - - 13 6
G ilsonite 7 7.5 - - - -
Laminae - - 7 - -
Linseed Oil - - - 8 - —
(A) (B) (ClUsed in red Signal flares.
ID) (E) Slow burning red Hare.
(F) Used in Mk 43 and Mk 44 Mods 0 D rill Mine Signal.

(16) Green Flare M ixes3: *

Composition
% by weight by par
Ingredients A ** B
Magnesium 35 20
Barium N itrate 22.5 50
Potassium Perchlorate 22.5 10
Polyvinyl Chloride 13 16
(continued)
■Reprinted w ith oermirsiorr from M ilita ry a nd C iyilia n P yrotechnics, H . Ellern. Chemical Publishing Co,, New Y ork. 1969.
“ ’ Error rn nor adding oo ro 100% occurs in Ref. 3.

B-4
 AM CP 706-188

% by weight by parti
A** B
Laminae
Asphaltum
(A) Typical mix.
(B) Used in Mk 39 Mod O Drill Mine Signal.

(17) Yellow Flare Mixes3:*

Composition,
% by weight by parts
Ingredients A** B
Aluminum 3.5 3-20
Magnesium - 0-11
Potassium Nitrate (5.5
Strontium Nitrate 15.5 -
Barium Nitrate - 63-67
Sodium Oxalate 64 8-17
Sulfur - 4-5
Castor Oil 2 2-3
Rosin 5 -

' Error in nor adding up lo 100% occurs in Ref. 3.

(18) Blue Flare Mixture (used in Mk 1 Mod 1 Blue Distress Signal)3:*

Ingredients Composition,% by weight*"

Potassium Perchlorate 38.9 '
Barium Nitrate 19 b
ParisGreen 32.6
Stearic Acid 8.2

" " E r r o r in n o r adding up to 100% occurs in R ef. 3.

(19) Blue Flare Mixture3:*

Ingredients Composition, % by weight
Ammonium Perchlorate 7A2
Copper Dust 11.1
Stearic Acid 11.1
Paraffin 3.7

(20) White Smoke Mixtures:

Composition, % by weight
Ingredients A B C D E F
(Ref.4) (Ref.3)* (Ref.4) (Ref.4) (Ref.5) (Ref.4)
Hexaehtoroeihane 45.5 45.5 - - 30.5 -

Hexachlorobenzene - - 34.4 - — -

Dechlorane - - — 33.9 - —

Zinc Oxide 47.5 45.5 27.6 37.4 31.5 -

Ammonium Perchlorate - - 24.0 20.5 27.0 -

Aluminum 7.0 - - - 4.0 -

(co n tin u e d )
"R e p rin te d w ith perm ission fro m Military and Civilian Pyrotechnics, H . E ifern, C hem ical P ublishing C o., N ew Y o rk , 1969.

B-5
AM CP 706-188

A B C D E F
(Ref.4) (Ref.3)* (Ref.4) (Ref.4) (Ref.5) (Ref.4)
Calcium Silicide 9.0
Zinc Dust 6.2
Laminae 7.8 8.2 3.5
Styrene 3.5
White Phosphorus 65
Plasticizer 35
(A) HC. Type C
(8) HC, TypeB
(C)(D) Modified HC
(E) HCM8P Plastic-bonded White
(F) Plasticize;! White Phosphorus (PWP)

(21) Black Smoke Mixtures:

Composition, % by weight
A a
Ingredients (Ref.4) (Ref.3)*
Potassium Chlorate 52.0
Anthracene 48.0 19
Magnesium 19
Hexachloroethane 62

* R eprinted w ith per m ission from M ilit a r y a n d C iv ilia n P y ro te c h n ic s , h . - M ' n , C hem ical P ublishing Co., Nevy York .1 9 6 9 .

(22) Red Smoke Mixtures

Composition, % by weight Parts by weight
A _BJ C _D
Ingredients (Ref.2! (Ref.4) IRef.4) (Ref.4)
Potassium Chlorate 23 30.2 35.0
Sugar 23 17.0
Sulfur 11.8
1- methylamino (AQ)‘ 36.0 45.0
1,4-di-p-toluidino (ACU* 3.0
1(methoxyphenytazo)-
2- naphthol 80.0
9-diethylaminorosindone 54
Rhodamine Red 10
Sodium Bicarbonate 18.0
Dextrin 4.0
Potassium Perchlorate
Gum Arabic
Antimony Suflide
Sodium Chloride 20.0
t Standard red used in the M18 Smoke Grenade.
* I AO) Anthraqumone

B -6
 AM CP 706-188

(23) Green Smoke Mixtures:

Composition, % by weight Parts by weight
A C
Ingredients (Ref.4) (Ref.5) (Ref,2)
1,4-di-p-toluidine (AQ)' 28.0 28.3 -

Indanthrene GK fGolden yellow) 12.0 - -

Auramine - 11.7 -
Malachite Green - - 10
Potassium Chlorate 3S.0 26.0 -

Potassium Perchlorate - - 6
Sugar 23.0 - -

Sulfur - 10.0 -

Sodium Bicarbonate 2.0 24.0 -

Antimony Sulfide - 5
Gum Arabic 1

"t Standard green used in the M 18 S m oke Grenade.

‘ IA Q I A n tlira q u in o n e

(24) Yellow Smoke Mixtures:

Composition, % by weight
Ingredients A B C+
(Ref,4) (Ref.4) (Ret.5)
Bezanthrene 32.0 - -

Inoenthrene GK 15.0 - -

Auramine Hydrochloride 40.0 -

Potassium Chlorate 30.0 - 22.0

Sugar 20.0
Sodium Bicarbonate 3.0 * 31.5
Sulfur - - 8.5
Auramine - - 38.0
Sodium Chloride - 60.0 —

t Standard ye llo w used in Mil 8 Sm oke Grenade

B-7
C3
60

{25 ) Tracer and igniter M i x t u r e s 6 :

Composition, % by weight
ft 266 R2B4 ft20C R403 R321 1280 1276 1608 1136 IM11 S200W CS*49 LCA tfl LC No. 1 LC No. 2 LC No. 3

Aluminum 35
Magnesium 26.7 28.0 21.6 25,2 26,0 15.0 15.0 14.1 - 15.0 25.0
5 0 /5 0 Magnesium -
A lu m in u m A H oy “ 50 - -
S tro n tiu m N itra te 33.3 55.0 49,5 52,0 - 40.9
S tro n tiu m Peroxide 26.7 - 65.6 - - 76,5 - - 90,0 - 70 - 76 5 65.0
S tro n tiu m Oxalate SO - -
B arium Peroxide — - 3,4 33.5 79,0 -
G erium Nitrate 50 “ -
Potassium Perchlorate
Lead D io xide
0 x 8 m id e
- : 3,4
10,0 - -
- - 73,0

8.9
Polyvinyl Chloride - 17.0 “ 15.3 16,0 - 15.2
Perlon - 6,0 - - 5.5 -
C a lciu m Resinate 8.3 _ 6,0 - - 8.5 - - 10.0 - 15 23.5 20.0 10.0
Z m e Stearate 1.0 .9 -
T o lu id in e Red Toner .5 .5 -
1-MethYiamine
A n thrdQ uinone
L u c ite 17.0
A s p h a ltu r n 5.0
Silver iodide 5.0
RDX 64
 M A C ? 706-188

REFERENCES

1. AMCP 706-179, Engineering Design Hand­ book, Military Pyrotechnics Series, Part
book, Explosive Trains. One, Theory and Application.

2. F. B. Pollard and J. H. Arnold, Jr., Eds., 5. L. A. Salvador, Survey o f Recent Investiga­

Aerospace Ordnance Handbook, Prentice- tions o f Plastic-Bonded and Castable
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1966. Smoke Compositions. Atlantic Research
Corp., for U. S. Army Chemical R&D
3. Herberi Ellern, Military and Civilian Pyro­ Laboratories, Contract DA-18-108-
technics. Chemical Publishing Co., fnc., AMC-40A, 1963.
New York, I 969, Chapter 47.
6. Private communication from Frankford
4. AMCP 706-185, Engineering Design Hand­ Arsenal, Philadelphia, PA.

B-9/B-10
 AM CP 706-188

APPENDIX C

METHODS FOR INTERIOR BALLISTIC CALCULATIONS FOR SMALL ARMS

C-1 EMPIRICAL METHOD 2. For the First approximation, the expan­

sion ratio is assumed to be 5, i.e.. I■' /V' =5
A set of graphs prepared by Frank ford where Vm is the free volume at the muzzle,
Arsenal for use in small arms design is shown and the maximum breech pressure 60 kpsi.
in Fig. (.'-I1. These normalized graphs were Then from Fig. C-1 (A), the muzzle velocity is
obtained empirically by reducing experi­ read as 2610 ft sec'1.
mental data from eleven dilferent small arms
weapon systems. Least-square curves were 3 This velocity must be corrected for the
generated to give the best fit io the data. actual expansion ratio and breech pressure as
They can be used to relate maximum pres­ follows. The actual expansion ratio is
sure, propellant weight, projectile weight,
expansion ratio, muzzle velocity, and breech V xA + V_ 21.9 X 0.0732 + 0.25
pressure at a given projectile travel while the
0.25
projectile remains in the gun barrel.

i xtunple (liven (he f'mtridge. Caliber .30, = 7.41 (C-2)

bail with the following characteristics;
4. From Fig. C-llB) at F(J|/F 0 = 7.4), a
W ~ projectile weight = 150 gr value for v / 1>5 is read as 1.06.

W - propellant weight - 49.9 gr 5. To correct for the difference in breech

pressure, use is made of Fig. C-l(C). At 51.2
A = bore area = 0.0732 in? kpsi a velocity ratio rJJ(/V60 is read as 0.981

= case volume (initial 6. The true exit muzzle velocity* vm is then

free volume) - 0.25 in?

x - bullet travel = 21.9 in.

(barrel length) - ■ ■ - (7) C -
Pm = maximum pressure =51.2 kpsi = 2610 X 1.06 X 0.981 = 2 720 ft/sec

Find; Exit muzzle velocity v , ft sec"' . It should be noted that these figures work
well for a nearly optimum propellant and
Calculations. primer. In order to select the best propellant
for a given system, use is made of the relation
I First determine the ratio of propellant
weight W to projectile weight W Idiu
web « (C-4)
'p 49.9
= 0.333 (C-1)
Id 150 where W and A are projectile weight and bore

C -1
 A M C P 706-188

0.03 0 05 OJ

(A) V e lo c it y a t Vm/V 0 = 5 and pm = 60 *<Ps i as 3 F u n c tio n o f W_/U

(B) R e la t iv e V e lo c it y N o rm a liz e d to U n ity a t an E xp a n sio n

R a tio o f 5 as a F u n c tio n o f E xp a n sio n R a tio

Figure C-1. Empirical Curves for Small Arm Design

C -2
 A M C P 706-188

area, respectively, and \>b is the projectile where

velocity at “all burnt”. This generally occurs
in small arms systems at an expansion ratio of VJ =effective projectile weight, lb
about 3.5. For purposes of estimation, the
velocity at burnout may be replaced by W - projectile weight, lb
muzzle velocity, and a new system compared
to an existing, well-performing one. This d = bore diameter, in.
process allows a constant to be established for
the given relation so that the web dimension x m = travel to muzzle, in.
can be determined.
vm = muzzle velocity, ft sec"1
C-2 GRAPHICAL METHOD

Numerous schemes have been devised by

ballisticians for making fast approximate cal­ C-23; The ballistic parameters are defined by
culations of certain interior ballistic variables. Lhe following equations:
These schemes utilize a set of parameters
chosen so that their form does not involve a (r~ D( W. + Wpl3)ul
knowledge of unknown quantities, such as e = (C-6)
2gFC
starting pressures or burning rates. The charts
are based in part on simplified theory such as
that of Mayer and Hart7, and adjusted to (IV
v e + IVp l/ 3)n2
* m
their final form by fitting to numerous firing (C-7)
records. Such a scheme is that formulated by 2 g
* P in V m
Strittmater3 which utilizes a single working
chart that shows the interrelationship of five * = VnJ Vo (C-8)
dimensionless ballistic parameters:
FW.
( 1) e = thermodynamic efficiency (C-9)
Pm Vo
(2) z = piezometric efficiency

(3) x = volume expansion ratio y =■ (C-10)

(4) r = energy ratio

where
(5) y - pressure ratio
W - propellant weight, lb
If one knows any two of these initially,
then the other three can be round. The theory g - acceleration due to gravity, 386 in.
employed is that of Mayer and Hart with an sec"7
additional assumption that bore friction varies
proportionally with chamber pressure. This F = specific energy of the propellant,
assumption is used to improve the agreement in.-lb/lb
between the chart and experiment by adjust­
ing the effective projectile weight. The effec­ Pm - space mean peak pressure, lb im3
tive weight IV is defined by
Vm - free volume at the muzzle, in?
= W + SX \(ii d x mlv'lm ,Vo (C-5)
Vo - initial free volume, in3

C -3
 Pf ~ pressure when the projectile is at the = travel to muzzle, in.
muzzle, lb in'2
Now, if any two of the ballistic parameters
11 the maximum chamber pressure P (lb in'2) are known, the other iluvc can he evaluated
is given, the space mean peak pressure P is by means of the chart i fug. (M l.
calculated hv
Sample Calculation
Id + Id / 3
--------- }/■’.. lb in"2 (C-1 1 The data that fullou. are from the firing
W+W p l l ) ' v
records for a cal .30 rifle firing a 150.5-gi
projectile, propelled by 50 gr of a certain Sot
If Eq, C-3 is substituted into Eqs. C-6 and of propellant. The charae(eristics of the pro­
C-7. assuming the numerical v alu ed 1.30 lor pellant and rifle, that constitute pari of the
r and expressing the gravitational acceleration given data, are:
g as 386 in. sec'2, the ballistic e and piezomet­
ric : efficiencies, respectively, may be ex­ Guirncterisiic Symbol Value Unit
pressed as
PropelIanI
e = 3 89 X I 0“ (CM2) weight 0.007)4 lb
WP
Specific
lh' + 11^/3)]^ + 5x10s dxu energy F 4.023 X I06 in.-lb lb
Specific
rid volume V 17.5 in3 lb’1
Chamber
(Id + ldp /3)i'2 volume 0.25S in?
' in +5X10 sJ x pi
2 = --------- L---------------------------- (CM 3) Area o*"bore A 0.0755 in:
772/»/// r m Buie diameter d 0.30 in.
Travel to
Sob mg Eq. CM2 fo r i gives
muzzle X,n 21.79 in,
Projectilc
weight W 0.0215 lb
/2 5 7 4 /'ll'.e -5 x 0 1 sJ.v,
, ft sec'1
144(11' + u y 3 ) (CM 4) To calculate at least two of the parameters
from the given data, one also needs to know
The initial Irce volume V is defined by either the muzzle velocity or the mean pres­
sure. One or both of these will normally be
specified in any gun design problem. In the
present problem, the maximum breech pres­
The free volume at the muzzle Vm is defined sure P will be assumed to be given and equal
by to the measured value 35.390 lb inf2. Now we
can calculate the following paramelers:
l'„, = ]'0 +A x m (CM 6)
Calculated
where Characteristic Symbol Value Unit by
Initial free
!■'. = chamber volume, in? volume V0 0-133 in? Eq. CIS
Muzzle free
V - specific volume, in3 lb’’ volume Vm 1.735 in5 1q. C l6
Space mean
A = ■■■m-ca, in1 peak pressure Pm 34,180 lb ini2 Eq. C-! 1

CM
 AMCP 706-188

THERMODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY

4 5
ENERGY RATIO r

Figure C-2. Chart fo r In te rio r Ballistic Calculations b y the Scheme o f S trii tmater

C'-S
AM CP 70S-1M

Calculated 2572 ft sec"1. The actual observed velocity

Characteristic Symbol Value U nit by for this firing was 2565 ft sec"1.

Volume
If the theory represented by Fig. C-2 were
expansion
exact, the lines representing the five different
ratio X 13.05 - Eq. C-8
parameters for any gun-ammunition system
Energy ratio T 6.32 - Eq. C-9
would all intersect at a point. When experi­
mental values for the quantities defining the.
Then e, z, and y are read from Fig. C-2: parameters are substituted into the cor­
responding equations, the lines so determined
(1) Thermodynamic efficiency e~ 0.352 do not cross at a single point but form a
polygon. If the experimental values are not
(2) Piezometric efficiency . z - 0.566 subject to serious error, the dimensions of this
polygon are a measure of the discrepancies
(3) Pressure ratio y - 0.3 I 6 involved in using the chart. The triangles
shown on the chart are the result of using
The muzzle pressure P^ can now be found experimental values to determine e, x, and r
by use of Eq. C IO. The muzzle pressure is for the weapons indicated—as was done for
10,800 lb inT2*. The muz2 le velocity i> can be the given example. A similar set of nomo­
solved with Eq. C-14. The muzzle velocity is grams has been constructed by Kravitz4 .

REF

1. AMCP 706-1 50, Engineering Design Hand­ 3. R. C. Strittmater, A Single Chart System
book, Interior Ballistics o f Guns. o f Interior Ballistics. BRL Report 169,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, 1940.
2. J. F. Mayer and B. I. Hart, “Simplified 4. S. Kravitz, Nomographs for Interior Ballis­
Equations of Interior Ballistics”, J. tics, Report PATR 3035, Pica tinny
Franklin Institute, 240.401-1 I (1945). Arsenal, Dover, NJ, 1963.

C -6
 AMCP 706-188

IN D E X

Absorption, 2—9 Bomb

Absorption spectra, 2—4 characteristics, 4 —8
Acceleration, 4—1 1, 4 —I 8 incendiary, 3—47
Adaptation to illumination levels, 7—5 release, 4—6
Aerial photography, 3—I 9 trajectories, 4—6
Aerodynamic heating, 4—7 Booby trap simulators, 3—65
Air burst simulators, 3-65 Boyle’s law, 8 —1
Aircraft Bridgewire initiators, 3-43
delivery mode, 4—6 Brightness, 2 -2 , 3—4, 3-14
flare, 3—13, 4 —43 Brightness contrast, 2—2, 2-10, 3-2, 7-2
flare deployment, 4—3 I Buckling, 8—7, 8—9
launched device, characteristics, 4 - 4 Bullet, incendiary, 3—46
parachute flare, 4-43 Burning time of magnesium flares, A - I
signal, 2-13
Allowable stress, 8—8 Candela, 2 - 1
Anodic films for metals, 8—I 7 Canopy loading and Size, 4—37
Apparent motion, 7 —7 Cascade impactor, 6-14
Arm reach envelopes, 7 - 9 Cathode ray oscilloscope, 5—18
Arming, 3—57, 4-1 2 Center of pressure, 4 -29
Artillery Centrifugal force, 4 —20
ballistic matching, 4—1 Centroid, 8—4
flare, 3—13 Ceramics, 8-23
smoke projectile, 3-28 Charge holders for delays, 3—44
subsonic range chart, 4 -2 8 Charles’ law, 8-1
Assembly of pyrotechnic ammunition, 8—32 Chart recorders, 5 —16
Atmospheric studies, 3—68 Chemical
Attenuation agent deployment. 4—33, 6—14
coefficient, 3—4 compatibility, 8—10
of light, 2—10 properties. See. specific material
of sound, 2—I 6 resistance of ceramics and rubbers, 8—23
resistance of plastics, 8 —19
Chemiluminescence, 3—69
Ballistic matching, 4 —1 Chromaticity diagram, 2 -7
Balloons, 4 —43 Classification of pyrotechnic devices, 1-3
Band spectra, 2—4 Cloud seeding, 3—7 1
Base plug ejection force, 4—24 Coatings for metals, 8—I 6
Basic principles, 2 - 1 Color
Bearing stress between base plug and contrast, 2—3
projectile body, 4 -2 2 effects, 2—5
Beattie and Bridgeman equation of state, 8—2 measurement, 6 —8
Beer-Lambert relationship, 6—10 of light, 2—5
Biological corrosion, 8 - 16 of smoke, 3—13
Black powder, 3—62 perception, 7 -3
Blackbody radiation. 2 -5 Combination effects, 3—74
Blank cartridge, 3—66 Comet tail creation, 3—69
Blast, 2-16, 3-67 Compatibility, 4 - 1 3 , 8 - 1 0
Blur, 7 - 7 Concentration-cell corrosion, 8 —14
Bolometers, 5 —5 Conduction, 2 - 11

1-1
 IN D E X (Con't.)

Conductivity. 2—12 Dezincifieation, 8—16

Cones in human eye. 7—1 Diffuse reflectance of objects. 3 3
Continuous spectra. 2 5 Dimple motor, 3-52
Contrast, 2-2. 3—1 .7 -2 Discrete spectra, 2-4
Convection. 2 I 2 Dominant wavelength. 2—7
Conversion in vision, 1 Drag force, 4—28. 4—36
( orrosion DTA L-.st, 6—17
coatings, 8-1 8 Dyes for colored smoke. 3 25
fatigue, 8-16
processes, 8—13 Ejectors, 4—8, 4 - 3 0
protection methods, S-16 E.lectric initiators, 3 43
types, 8-14 Electrodynamic pen motors, 5-17
CS, 3-4 2 Electrolytic cell transducers. 5—3
Electromagnetic spectrum, 2—8
Deeelerators, 4-43 photographic active region. 3 23
Deception of enemy troops, 3—66 Electromotive series of metals. 8 - I 3
Deflection under loud, 8 7 Electron cloud production, 3 -70
Degradation of pyrotechnics. 8 23 Electrostatic sensitivity tests. 6 16
Delays Environmental aspects, 4 —10
composition, 3-62 sensors for fuzes, 3-57
effect of acceleration .4 19 Equipment destroying incendiaries. 3—48
general, 3 44, 3 60 Evaluation tests. 6 4
loading. 8—31 Explosion temperature tests. 6-16
obturated, 3 45. 3 61 Exterior ballistics
space limitations, 3 60 basic equation, 4 -27
system dcMgn, 3 -63 general. 4-27
vented, 3 44. 3—60 stability, 4 29
Delivery modes subprojectile deployment, 4 —30
aircraft launched devices. 4—4 trajectories. 4-27
bomb, 4 —S Eye, 7 - 1 . 7 - 7
general, -2
gun. 4—3 Field
hand manipulated devices, 4—5 conditions, 3 - l
howitzer. 4 —3 factors of illumination, 5 14
manual. 4 - 9 instrumentation systems, 5—19
mortar. 4- 2 tests. 6 -7 , 6- 11
recoilless rifle. 4 2 File destroying incendiaries. 3--40
rocket. 4- 4 Film
small arm. 4 - 4 characteristics, 3-18. 3—19
submarine, 4- S exposure time factors. 6- I 2
Density of propellant loading, 4 -2 6 infrared, 3-23
Descent chart, parachute. 4 -3 9 Fin stabilization. 4 29
Design considerations. 4 I, A—I Firecracker. 3 65
Destruet elements, 3 47. 3 7 I Flare
Detection of object, 3 - 1. 7-2 design, 7 —3. A I
Deterioration of nonmetals. S I 9 height and intensity. 3—5
Development tests. 6 I illumination candles. 3-11
Devices. Sec: Pyrotechnic devices location. 3 - 9
 AMCP 706-188

IN D E X (Con't.)

Flare (continued) Handling of pyrotechnics, S- 25

magnesium, A I Hazard classification. 8 24.8 26.8-27
mixtures, B 2. LI- 3 !{C smoke mixture. 3 36
parachute. 4 43 Hearing, 7 - 8
purchase description. 6- I Heat
size estimates, 3 9 capacity, 2—I I
smoke. 3 32 detectors, 5-10
tests. 6 5 energy transFer, 2 I 1
trucking. 3 - I 7 general, 2-10. 3 43
types, 3—13 ot Fusion, 2—1 I
typical, 3—I I oF reaction, 2—1 1
vision, 7—2 oF vaporization, 2-11
Flash and Dicker. 7 5 tests, 6 - I 2
Flotation, 4-33 Height oF signals, 3 5 ,3 -1 5
Fourier’s law, 2 - 12 1ligh temperature oxidation. 8 - 16
Frank Ford Arsenal small arm design, C—I Ilookc’s law, 8—3
Free body diagram. R 5 Hot bridgcwire electric initiators, 3—43
Fretting corrosion. 8 16 "Hot spot” theory oF initiation. 3-43
Functioning, 3 37, 4 12 Howitzer characteristics, 4 3
Fuse lighters. 3 - 59 Hue. 2 -5
Fuses. 3 5s Human body measurements. 7—9
Fuzes Human eye, 7 - I
environmental sensors, 3-57 Human Factors engineering
input and output. 3 57 hearing, 7 S
purpose. 3 -56 physical measurements. 7- 9
timers, 3 - 56 vision. 7 - 1
Hydrodynamic Forces, 4 25
Galvanic corrosion. 8 14 Hydrogen embrittlement, 8 16
Galvanic couples, 8 14
Gas Identification of object 3 - I
actuated devices, 3 52,6 13 Identification of pyrotechnics, 7—12
generators. 3 5S.6 13 Igniters. 3—45, B 8
laws, 8 - 1 Ignition of pyrotechnics. 3- 45. 4-16
producing devices, 3 53 Illuminating candles. 3 - I I
Gasless delay compositions. 3 -62 Illuminating flares. .$Ve Flares
General considerations. 8 I Illumination
Geometry ol payload. 4—I 3 adaptation, 7 -5
Golay cell. 5 0 composition loading. 8 31
Ground burst simulators. 3 65 efficiency, A—I
Graphiiization. 8 16 for positive recognition. 3 -15
Gun characteristics. 4 -3 For tracking, 3 1n
height. 3 - 5 ,3 - 1 5
Hand grenade infrared, 2—7
Dare, 3-13 level, 3 - 1, 3-5
incendiary. 3 48 marine signal, 4-31
riot control. 3 42 multiple sources, 3 - 7
simulator. 3 -05 properties. 2 I
Hand manipulated device characteristics, 4 —5 requirements. 3-1

1-3
AMCP 706-188

IN D E X (Con't.)

Illumination (continued) Intensity

surface, 2 -2 of flares, 3—5, 6—5
ultraviolet, 2—7 of light, 2 - 1 ,3 - 1 5 , 6-5
variables, 3—5 of sound, 2-14
visibility, 3 - 1 4 , 7 - 2 Interior ballistics
Ideal gas law, 8-1 design e x a m p le , 4 —2 I
!M incendiary mixtures. 3—49 ge ne ral, 4 — I 7
Image converters, 5—16 hydrodynamic forces, 4 —25
Impact sensitivity tests, 6 - I 6 propellant characteristics. 4 —25
Incendiary setback forces, 4—I 8, 4 —20
bombs, 3-47 small arms, C—1
destruction devices, 3—48 spin forces, 4 - 1 9 ,4 - 2 0
mixtures, 3-48 International Commission on Illumination
small arm devices, 3—46 (I.C.I.). 2 -7 , 6 -7
tests, 6—I 2 Ionization, 3—69
Infrared Ionosphere electron removal, 3 -7 0
light sources, 3—23
photography, 3-23. 6-13 Labeling of pyrotechnics, 7-14
pyrotechnic devices, 3-22, 6-13 Laboratory instrumentation system, 5—20
radiation, 2—7, 3—21 Laboratory tests, 6—5, 6 - 9
targets, 3-22 Lambert's law, 2-2
Initiation Light
delays. 3-44 beam galvanometer, 5—17
electric, 3—43 detectors, 5 -4 , 6-7
gas operated, 3-53 for photography, 3—19
input requirements, 3- 44 general, 2—1, 3—I
mechanical, 3—44 payload deployment, 4 - 3 1
process, 3—43, 4 - 16 source visibility, 3 —14, A—I
Initiator data, 3—55 tests, 6-5
Input requirements for initiation, 3—44 transmission of smoke, 6 - 9
Instruction labeling, 7—14 Liminal range, 3—5
Instrumentation Line spectra, 2—4
chart recorders, 5-16 Liquid smoke agents, 3—38
genera), 5-1 Load analysis. 8 - 5 , 8—8
heat detectors, 5 - 10 Loading of pyrotechnics, 8—3 I
image converters, 5—16 Loudness, 7—8
light detectors, 5 -4 Luminance, 7—2, 7—5
meters, 5—16 Luminescence, 3—68
oscillographs, 5—17 Luminous efficiency, 2-1
photon cells. 5—7 Luminous flux, 2—1, 2—9
pressure transducers, 5—I 1
signal conditioning and recording, 5—I 3
smoke detectors. 5-8 Magnesium flare performance. A—I
sound detectors. 5—I 1 Magnetic field line study, 3—69
systems, 5 - I 9 Magnetic tape recorder, 5-17
time measurement and Magnetoelectric transducer, 5 —2
recording, 5—18 Maintenance, 8—30
Uansducers, 5—I Malfunction tests, 6 -4

1-4
 AMCP 706-188

IN D E X (Con't.)

Manual pyrotechnic devices, Opacity, 2—9, 6-12

characteristics, 4—9 Operating instructions, 7-12
Manufacturing Organic coatings for metals, 8—16
assembly, 8—32 Oscillographs, 5-17
control of materials, 8—31 Outdoor flame test facility, 6—1
loading, 8 -3 1 Output of magnesium flares, A - 1
Marker projectile, smoke, 3—28
Marking Package
labeling, 7—12 labeling, 7 —14
location, 3—13, 3—24, 3—68 load analysis, 8-5
Marine signals, 3 - 17, 4-31 packaging, 8 -32 .
MAPI site. 6—8 Parachutes
Material chorees, 4-13 bulk, 4 -42
Materials control in manufacturing, 8-31 canopy loading and size, 4 -3 7
Mayer and Hart, interior ballistic design, C-3 characteristics, 4—43
Measuring systems, 5-19. See also. Tests deployment techniques, 4 -4 0
Mechanical initiation, 3—44 desefent chart, 4-39
Mechanovariable resistive transducer, 5 -3 drag, 4-36
Mesopic vision, 7 -2 general, 4 -34
Metal corrosion. See: Corrosion nomenclature, 4 -34
Metallic coatings, 8—I 6 peak force limitation, 4—40
Meteorological range, 3 - 4 reefing, 4 -4 0
Meters, 5—16 stability, 4 -3 9
Military protocol, 3—67 types, 4—34
Military Standards, 6 - 2 weight, 4 —39, 4—42
Mixtures. See' Pyrotechnic mixtures wind stability, 4 -45
Model designation, 7 -1 2 Particle size of smoke, 3 -24
Moment of inertia, 8 - 4 Payload
Mortar characteristics, 4—2 configuration, 4—13
Motion perception, 7 - 6 deployment, 4 - 3 I
Multiple source illumination, 3 -7 Perceptual latency time, 7—5
Performance requirements
Natural rubber, 8-19 acceleration, 4 —11
Newton’s laws, 8-5 environmental aspects, 4 -1 0
Night vision, 7 -2 material choices, 4 - I 3
Noise levels from common sources, 2—14 payload configuration, 4—I 3
Nomenclature of parachute terms, 4-34 target and terminal ballistic needs, 4-1
Nonvisible light, 2-1, 3—21 timing and sequencing, 4 - 12
Nuclear blast simulators, 3-65 Phase changes, 2—J 1
Nuclei production for weather modification, Photoemissive transducers, 5-4
3-71 Photoflash
bomb deployment, 4-31
Obscuration cartridge, 1-3
detection, 5 -9 powders, B—3
measurement. 6—10 Photography, 3-18, 3-23, 5-4, 6 - 12. 6 - I 3
power of smoke, 3—28, 6 - 10 Photon detector, 5 - 6
Obturated delays. 3—4S, 3—61 Photopic vision, 7 - 2
Oil smokes, 3—35 Photoresistive cell transducers, 5-3

1-5
 IN D E X (Con't.)

Photovoltaic transducers. 5 -2 Pyrotechnic devices (continued’)

Physical measurements of human body. 7- 9 simulators, 3—40, 3-65
Physical properties smoke pots, 3 33
plasties. 8 I I smoke producing. 3-30
rubbers. 8 21 smoke tracking, 3-52
Piezoelectric transducers. 5 I training, 5 65
Pin puller, 3 5 2 Pyrotechnic mixtures
Pilch 2-15 cloud seeding compositions. 3-67
Pit tin", * | h Hare compositions, H 2, B 3
Planck’s equation. 2 5.2 14 gusless delays, 3—63
Plastics igniter compositions. It "
chemical icsistance. 8 2U incendiary compositions, 3 48. 3 -49
deterioration, X 19 manufacture, 8 30
general. 8 9 primer composition'.. B 1
properties, X 1 I phoioflash powders. B 3
Potentiometer recorder. 5 17 simulator compositions, B 3
Pressing of pyrotechnics. X 32 smoke agents. 3—39
Pressure transducers. 5 1 I smoke compositions. 3—26, B 6
Pressure-travel cut ve. 4 I 7 smoke dyes, 3 -25
Primary colors. 2 5 sound producing compositions, 3 67
Primer compositions. B--1 star compositions. B 2
Primers. 3 43 tracer compositions. B—1, B 8
Projectile body stress, 4 23 whistle producing compositions. 3 -08
Propellant characteristics. 4 25
Properties of sections, X 4 Quantity-distance tables. 8 26
Proportional limit. S - 3
Protection again4 corrosion. 8 16 Radiated power, 2 - I
Protocol, 3 o7 Radiation, 2-13
Psychological color solid, 2—5 Radius of gyration. 8 4
P r incendiary mixture. 3 49 Range chart for subsonic projectiles. 4—2
Purchase description tor Hare, f> I Range factor, estimation. 3 4
Purity of color. 2 5 Reactivity. 6 17
Purpose. 1 -1 Recognition of objects. 3 1
Pyrotechnic devices Recoilless ritle characteristics, 4 -2
combination etToels. 3 74 Reefing parachutes. 4 to
delays, 3 Ol Reflectances of objects, diffuse. 3 3
llares. 3 I 3 Reflection. 2-9. 6 - 7
fuses and fuse lighters, 3 58 Reliability, x 27
gas actuated devices. 3 52 Requirements of illumination. 3 I
I LC smoke devices, ’ 30 Reserve batteries, 3 50
incendiary. 3 46 Resistive transducers. 5 -2
initiators. 3 55 Rilling twist, 4 19
marine signal, 4 31 Rigid deeelerators. 4 43
parachute flare, 4 -43 Riot control. 3—41
phosphorus smoke. 3 37 Roberts' opacity theory, ft-1 2
phoioflash. 1 3 Rocket characteristics. 4 4
riot control. 3 42 Rods in human eye. 7 l
screening smoke. 3 38 Role of pyrotechnic ammunition, i I

1-6
 AMCP 706-188

IN D E X (Con't.)

Rubber, 8—I 9 Smoke (continued)

Rupture. 8 7 general, 3 —24
HC mixture, 3 36
Saccadic eye movement, 7 -7 liquid agents, 3 38
Safe destroying incendiaries, 3-48 measurement, 6 - 9
Safety obscuring pov er, 3-28
factors. 8 - 7 . 8 8 oil, .■ -25
general, 8 -23 payload deployment. 4-33
handling, 8-25 physical characteristics, 3- 24
hazard classification. 8-24 pots, 3-33
shipping, 8 2 / riot control, 3 4 )
storing, 8 26 screening, 3—33
Sampling recorder, 5 I 7 “standard”, 3-28
Saturation of color. 2-5 tests. 6—9
Scope, 1-1 tracking, 3-3 1
Scotopic vision, 7 2 typical devices. 3-30, 3—36, 3 -38
Screening smoke. 3-33, 6 - i 0 whin phosphorus. 3 36
Sealants, 4 - I 5 zinc chloride, 3 - 36
Sensitivity tests, 6-15 Snalcii force. 4 40
Service tests, 6 -4 Sound
Setback, 4 11,4-18, 4 -2 0 compositions, 3 -67. B 3
Set forward, 4 11 detectors, 5 - I I
Shipping oI' pyrotechnics. 8-27 frequency. 7 -9
Sideways acceleration. 4 I 2 hearing. 7 -7
Sighting range. 3- 5 intensity, 2 - 14
Signal localization, 7 -9
conditioning and recording. 5 - t 3 media, 2--15
height. 3-15 velocity. 2-15
signaling. 3—12. 3 24, 3-67 wavelength, 2 14
smoke. 3- 30 Sounding. 3—67
typical devices. 3 16 Space myopia. 7-7
visibility. 3 14 Spectral color distribution. 2-4
Silver iodide lor cloud seeding. 3-72 Spin
Simulation of battlefield effects, 3-21, 3-40, forces, 4 - 19, 4- 20
3-65. 7-7, It-3 stabilization, 4 29
Size of payload, 4-13 velocity nomogram. 4 20
Sky brightness. 3 4 Stability, 4 29, 4 -3 9 ,0 -1 7
Skv-ground ratio estimation. 3 -2 of floating object, 4- 33
Small arms Staging 4- 12
clurac teristics. 4 -4 Stagnation tempera lure. 4 - 7
incendiaries. 3-46 “Standard’’ smoke, 3-28
interior ballistic design. C- I Stars. 3-13, B -2
tracer lests. 6 7 Stefan-Boltzmarm law, 2-5, 2 13
Smoke Storing of pyrotechnic^, 8—26
composition loading, 8 -3 1 Strain. 8 - 3
composilions, 3 26, H-6 Strain gage. 5 15
detectors, 5 8 .6 —9 Strength
dyes, 3-25 human, 7—9

1-7
AMCP 706-188

IN D E X (Con't.)

Strength (continued) Testing (continued)

materials, 8 - 3 smoke, 6—9
plastics. 8-11 ■ tracers, 6-7
rubber, 8 —21 types, 6 - I
Stress TGA test, 6-17
corrosion, 8 - 14 Thermal
general, 8 - 3 batteries, 3 -50
in projectile body, 4 -23 detectors, 5—5
Strittmatcr interior ballistic design, C-3 electric transducers, 5—2
Stroboscopic effect, 7—7 properties, 2 - 10
Submarine launched device, Thermite grenade, 3—48
characteristics, 4—8 Thermocouples, 5—5
Subprojectile deployment, 4 -3 0 Thermoresistive transducers, 5—3
Surface illumination, 2—2 Thin-wall cylinder, 8—8
Surveillance, 6—4, 8—30 Threshold
Suspension system, parachute, 4—40 brightness contrast, 2—3
Sutton's stability parameter, 6- I 2 hearing, 7—8
Synchronization of illumination and camera vision, 7—2
shutter, 3-20 Thruster, 3—52
Synthetic rubber, 8 - 19 Time measurement and recording, 5 -18
Timers for fuzes, 3—56
Target Tracerammunition,3 —17,6-7, B- 4 , JB-8
contrast, 3-2, 3 -4 Tracking, 3 - 1 7 ,3 - 2 2 , 3-31
illumination, 3—5 Training, 3-65
requirements, 4—9 Trajectories, 4-27
Temperature, 2 10 Transducers, 5—1,5—13
Temperature of explosion test, 6—16 Transfer of heal energy, 2-11
Tensile test diagrams. 8 - 3 Transmission
Terminal ballistics common optical materials. 5 -8
notation, 4 —33 infrared instruments, 5 —8
parachutes and other decelerators, 4—34 light, 2 - 9
payload deployment, 4 - 3 1 sound, 2-14
requirements, 4 —9 Trichromatism, 7—4
Terminal effects, 3 - I Tristimulus values of spectra) colors, 2 -7
Testing Typical devices. See Pyrotechnic devices
chemical agents, 6 -14
color measurement, 6—8 Ultimate stress, 8—3, 8—7
field, 6 - 7 , 6— I I
Ultraviolet radiation, 2 7
gas operated devices, 6—13
Uniform corrosion, 8-14
genera), 6—I Universal gas constant, 8 —I
heat, 6 - 12
laboratory. 6 -5 , 6 - 9
light, 6 -5 van der Waals" equation of state, 8—1
Ml L-STD‘s, 6 -2 Vaporized metal production, 3 -7 0
program, 6 - I Variable capacitance transducers. 5 -3
purchase description, 6 - l Variable inductance transducers, 5 -4
reactivity, 6—17 Velocity-travel curve, 4 - 17
safety hazard. 8—24 Vented delays, 3 -4 4 , 3—60

1-8
 AMCP 706-188

INDEX (Con't.)

Visibility Weather modification. 3 —71

considerations, 3-14 Weight of payload , 4 —13
factor, estimation, 3—3 White phosphorus smokes, 3—36
nomograph, 3—1, 3—14 Whistle effect, 3—67
smoke, 3—25 Wien’s law. 2—13
Visible light, 2 - 1, 3 - 1 Wind stability of decelcrators, 4—45
Vision, 7—1
Visual acuity, 2—3, 7 -2 Yielding, 8—3, 8—7
Young’s modulus, 8—3
Warning, 3 -12, 3-24, 3-67
Wavelength, 2—J4 Zinc chloride smokes, 3—36

1-9/1 -1 0
 AMCP 706-188

(AMCRD-TV)

FOR THE COMMANDER:

JOSEPH W. PEZD1RTZ
M a j o r G e n e r a l , USA
C h ie f o f S ta f f

Colonel, CS
C h ie f, HQ A dmin Mgt O f c

DISTRIBU TION :
S p e c ia l