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Vacuum System Sizing
In a power plant, the primary use of vacuum systems is to remove air and other
noncondensable gases from the shell side of the condenser in order to maintain
design heat transfer and thus design vacuum. If holding condenser vacuum is a
persistent problem, one often-overlooked cause is an inadequately sized vacuum
system.
The primary application of vacuum systems in the power generation industry is for
the evacuation of air and other noncondensable gases from the shell side and the
waterbox side of a steam surface condenser. On the shell side, the vacuum
equipment is used for two purposes: rapid evacuation of air to reduce condenser
pressure before steam turbine start, the “hogging mode,” or for continuous removal
of air and associated water vapor from the main condenser when the steam turbine
is in operation, the “holding mode.”
The removal of air and other noncondensable gases from the condenser shell side is
required for proper heat transfer from steam to cooling water in the condenser and,
thus, to maintain high vacuum in the condenser. This, in turn, enhances the amount
of energy extracted from the steam exhausted from the steam turbine and increases
the plant’s energy production. Without a vacuum system, air and other
noncondensable gases would severely reduce the heat transfer in the condenser,
and the plant would require a condenser with significantly more surface area for the
same thermal load.
This article provides plant designers with an understanding of published design
standards for air-venting equipment used in condenser shell side applications and
the vacuum system sizing methodology used by equipment suppliers.
Vacuum System Standards
The Heat Exchange Institute’s (HEI’s) Standards for Steam Surface
Condensers provides clear directions on capacity requirements for venting
equipment when operating in either holding or hogging modes. The capacity in the
holding mode is more critical, as it has a direct effect on megawatt generation.
The HEI recommends that the capacity of venting equipment in the holding mode “be
no less than the values shown in [HEI’s] Table 9 at the design suction pressure to
ensure adequate removal capacity under commercial operating conditions.” The HEI
defines the design suction pressure for electric generation service as “1.0 inch HgA
or the condenser design pressure, whichever is lower.” In addition, the HEI states
that the saturation temperature of the gas vapor mixture must be considered as the
steam temperature corresponding to the design pressure of the venting equipment
less the greater of 7.5F or 0.25 (Tsat –Tcw,inlet). Tsat is the saturation temperature of the
liquid in the condenser at the given vacuum, and T cw,inlet is the temperature of the
incoming cooling water.
The values found in HEI’s Table 9 correspond to dry air as well as the air-vapor
mixture at design parameters of 1 inch HgA and 71.5F, which corresponds to the
7.5F differential (subcooling) described above. If the subcooling is less than 7.5F,
then the vacuum pump duty increases accordingly. Note that the design conditions
selected by the HEI are used to physically size the venting equipment; actual
operating conditions are not necessarily the same. However, such sizing conditions
are stipulated in equipment purchase agreements to ensure that the venting
equipment capacity is adequate under “commercial operating conditions” where air
in-leakage can be expected and subcooling may not be as low as 7.5F.
The methodology for selecting vent equipment capacity from the HEI’s Table 9 is
explained in the HEI standards and should be carefully followed. In general, the
standard is based on the number of openings exhausting steam to the condenser
and the effective steam flow through each opening. Note that the German VGB code
is significantly different regarding the requirement for air-venting equipment (Figure
1). In fact, the VGB code is approximately 50% less stringent than the HEI standard
requirements. Your purchase specification should clearly indicate whether the
equipment should meet the HEI standards or the VGB code.
1. Pick your standard. The Heat Exchange Institute (HEI)
standards and the German VGB code have significantly
different dry-air vent requirements for vacuum
equipment. Source: Gardner Denver Nash
Air-Venting Devices
The three most common vacuum-producing devices are steam-jet air ejectors
(SJAE, also called air jet ejectors), liquid ring vacuum pumps (LRVP), and a hybrid of
ejector and pump. The application of SJAEs requires motive steam, so in many
plants the electric motor-driven vacuum pump is generally favored. LRVPs are
simple, reliable, low-speed devices with only one rotating part, and they can handle
condensable vapors or even slugs of entrained liquid without damage to the pump.
The hybrid helps in reducing the size of the vacuum pump.
The LRVP is a rotary displacement pump using liquid as the principal element in gas
compression performed in a single stage or two stages (Figure 2). Compression is
performed by the liquid ring using the relative eccentricity between the casing and a
rotating multi-bladed impeller. A portion of the liquid in the casing is continuously
discharged with the gas, collected in a separator vessel, and cooled in a heat
exchanger. The cooled liquid is introduced back to the pump casing to remove the
heat of compression. In power plant applications, the vacuum pump seal water is
usually demineralized water from the condensate transfer system.
2. Pulling a vacuum. A typical liquid ring vacuum pump with
separator vessel and seal water cooler. Courtesy: Bechtel
Power Corp.
Proof that the pump is adequately sized is based on an acceptance test conducted
by the pump vendor in the vendor’s shop. The acceptance test is performed on dry
air at various suction pressures and under ambient conditions present at the test
location. Atmospheric air at normal room temperature is considered dry air because
the small weight of water vapor present in ambient air is insignificant.
The pump performance curve generated during the acceptance test is displayed on
a performance graph, typically displaying inlet pressure (mbar) versus the pump
capacity (m3/min) at specified seal water temperatures. This pump capacity must be
adequate to meet the requirements of the HEI’s Table 9. However, a problem arises
because the acceptance test is based on dry air only, whereas the HEI gives values
for air-water mixture, which represents the realistic conditions expected during plant
operation, given the much higher moisture content inside the condenser than in
atmospheric air used during factory tests. Consequently, the pump test results must
be adjusted for the air-water mixture case, or the HEI values have to be adjusted for
a proper comparison.
Effect of Saturated Air-Water Mixture. The saturated air-water mixture tends to
increase the capacity of the pump, whereas dry air constrains the pump capacity.
This effect is caused when the pump is handling an air-water mixture: Some of the
incoming vapors are condensed due to the cooler seal water, thus allowing more
room in the impeller bucket to handle more of the incoming mixture. To a lesser
degree, dry air becomes instantly saturated by evaporating the sealing water in the
pump’s impeller bucket space, effectively restricting pump capacity.
Some pump vendors have published charts indicating the capacity increase with air-
water mixtures. The amount of increased capacity is generally related to the pump
inlet pressure, the temperature of the incoming mixture, and the temperature of seal
water.
Effect of Seal Water Temperature. Pump capacity is decreased if the seal water
temperature experienced during actual operation is higher than design or that used
for pump testing. In this case, the test capacity has to be adjusted by the vendor-
published factor for seal water temperature variation. Another option is to adjust the
HEI correction factors.
High seal water temperatures affect the capability of the pump, as it is no longer able
to attain low suction pressures. This is due to the increase in vapor pressure of the
hot seal water, which begins to flash and cavitate the pump as suction pressure
decreases. Cavitation in the pump casing can cause high vibration and could lead to
damage to pump internals.
Factory Tests Versus HEI Requirements
As an example of the differences, consider the following test data taken during a
vacuum pump factory test:
During factory tests, the vacuum pump capacity on dry air was 29 m 3/min at
33.9 mbar, with seal water at 25C (the same as that expected in actual
operation).
The HEI vacuum pump capacity requirement (Table 9) is 15 standard cubic
feet per minute (scfm) dry air at 1 inch HgA and 71.5F, which is equivalent to
67.5 lb/hr (30.6 kg/h) of dry air and 148.5 lb/hr (67.4 kg/hr) of water vapor at 1
inch HgA and 71.5F.
A quick review of the above data confirms that it is not a straightforward exercise to
compare the pump test results with HEI requirements. A proper comparison requires
that either the HEI requirement for air-water mixture be decreased (to account for
condensation of part of the water vapor inside the pump casing) and then compared
with the pump test result, or that the pump test result be increased for handling an
air-water mixture and then compared against the HEI requirements.
In either case, specific correction factors from the pump vendors are required, and
these factors must be correctly used as intended by the vendor. The next section will
continue this example by demonstrating how the pump test results should be
compared with the HEI requirements.
Comparing Calculations
The methodology for comparing vacuum pump test results with the HEI requirements
is reasonably straightforward. HEI requirements for vacuum pump capacity for 15
scfm (see above) can be found using the following calculations:
Amount of dry air = 30.6 kg/hr, equivalent to 30.6/29 = 1.055 kg-moles/hr,
where 29 is the molecular weight of dry air.
Amount of water vapor = 67.4 kg/hr, equivalent to 67.4/18 = 3.744 kg-
moles/hr, where 18 is the molecular weight of water vapor.
Total number of kg-moles/hr = 1.055 + 3.744 = 4.799 kg-moles/hr.
Units conversion: 4.799 kg-moles/hr x 22.4 = 107.49 standard cubic
meters/hr.
Units conversion: Convert standard cubic meters to pump test suction
conditions of 33.9 mbar pressure and 20C: 107.49 x (1,013/33.9) x (293/273)
x (1/60) = 57.455 m3/min. Note: 33.9 mbar = 1 inch of mercury and 1 atm =
1,013 mbar.
Pump test results provide the following data:
The capacity of the vacuum pump was 29 m3/min at 33.9 mbar and 20C.
The seal water temperature was 25C, the same as expected during plant
operation.
It appears that the HEI requirement for air removal is not being met, as the HEI
standard requires a pump capacity of 57.455 m 3/min. The test results found the
pump capacity was only 29 m3/min. The pump capacity, which is unknown by most
designers, must now be adjusted by a pump-specific “condensation bonus factor,”
which provides added pump capacity due to moisture condensation inside the pump
casing.
For example, if a condensation bonus factor of 0.5 is used, then 57.455 x 0.5 = 28.7
m3/min, and because this value is equal to or exceeded by the pump test capacity of
29 m3/min, the HEI requirement is considered to be met.
In other words, the pump capacity is governed by the value of the condensation
bonus correction factor that is determined by the pump vendor. This factor is
generally proprietary to each vendor and difficult for the purchaser to verify,
especially if these factors are not published. Note that the condensation bonus factor
for LRVPs is applied to the volumetric flow and not the mass flow.
For More Information
Additional information on vacuum system design requirements is available from:
Heat Exchange Institute, Standards for Steam Surface Condensers, 10th ed.
Heat Exchange Institute, Performance Standard for Liquid Ring Vacuum
Pumps, 3rd ed.
Dekker Vacuum Technologies, “Effect of Saturated Air Service on Capacity of
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps.”
Gardner Denver Nash, Vacuum Systems Handbook, 2006.
Hybrid Arrangements
In the hybrid arrangement, an air jet ejector is used as the first stage of the unit
(Figure 3). The ejector uses part of the pump discharge air as the motive air, and the
ejector discharge is directed to the inlet of the vacuum pump. Consequently, the first-
stage ejector boosts the pump suction pressure, thus requiring a smaller pump with
lower operating/capital costs.
3. Best of both worlds. This schematic shows a hybrid
arrangement using an air ejector and a vacuum pump. Source:
Bechtel Power Corp.
The first-stage ejector also helps to minimize pump cavitation, as the pump is no
longer operating at low suction pressures, which could cause vaporization of the seal
fluid within the pump casing. Cavitation occurs at low suction pressures and high
seal water temperatures.
In the hybrid arrangement, the air removal capacity is governed by the mass flow
capability through the ejector, and the “condensation bonus” discussed above is not
directly applicable to this equipment arrangement. However, a different type of
condensation bonus is used, taking advantage of a few degrees of adiabatic cooling
within the ejector, which reduces the water vapor load. This, in turn, reduces the
loading on the downstream vacuum pump. Note that the amount of adiabatic cooling
within the ejector is empirical and can vary from vendor to vendor. The water vapor
loading is directly related to the temperature and can be determined as (18/29) x
(Pw/Pt – Pw), where Pt is the total pressure associated with dry air plus water vapor
and Pw is the saturation pressure of water vapor at a reduced temperature inside the
ejector.
The HEI standard requires removal of water vapor plus dry air while the ejector-
pump system test is carried out with dry air at 33.9 mbar and room temperature.
However, the effective water vapor loading inside the ejector is reduced due to
cooling while the dry air loading remains the same. Therefore, for consistent
comparison of test results against the standards, the reduced vapor loading in the
ejector is first converted to equivalent mass of dry air (by multiplying by a ratio of air-
water molecular weights: 29/18), and the original amount of dry air specified in the
standard is added to it. This total mass amount (kg/hr) is then converted to standard
volumetric flow (m3/hr) and adjusted to pump test pressure/temperature conditions
for direct comparison to the dry-air test results.
Closing Thoughts
The HEI standards stipulate the capacity requirement for air-venting equipment for
the condenser. However, equipment provided by the vendor is generally sized at a
somewhat lower capacity, taking into consideration the condensation bonus. It is
difficult for the end user to verify the condensation bonus, as it is generally
proprietary and specific to the vendor’s equipment. However, vendors should be
asked to justify, with data, their selection of the condensation bonus for your project.
If the condensation bonus selected by the equipment vendor is too optimistic, proper
venting of the condenser will not occur, and design heat transfer rates may not be
achieved.
