LECTURE 1
(AUTOMATA THEORY)
AN IMPORTANT LANGUAGE
PALINDROME
The language consisting of Λ and the strings s defined
over Σ such that Rev(s)=s. It is to be denoted that
the words of PALINDROME are called palindromes.
Example:
For Σ={a,b}, PALINDROME={Λ , a, b, aa, bb, aaa, aba,
bab, bbb, ...}
REMARK
There are as many palindromes of length 2n as there are of length 2n-1.
To prove the above remark, the following is to be noted:
NOTE
Number of strings of length ‘m’ defined over alphabet of ‘n’ letters is nm.
Examples:
The language of strings of length 2, defined over Σ={a,b} is L={aa, ab, ba, bb} i.e. number of
strings = 22
The language of strings of length 3, defined over Σ={a,b} is L={aaa, aab, aba, baa, abb, bab,
bba, bbb} i.e. number of strings = 23
To calculate the number of palindromes of length
(2n), consider the following diagram,
which shows that there are as many palindromes of length 2n as there are the
strings of length n i.e. the required number of palindromes are 2n.
To calculate the number of palindromes of length
(2n-1) with ‘a’ as the middle letter, consider the
following diagram,
which shows that there are as many palindromes of
length 2n-1 as there are the strings of length n-1 i.e.
the required number of palindromes are 2n-1.
Similarly the number of palindromes of length 2n-1,
with ‘ b ’ as middle letter, will be 2n-1 as well. Hence
the total number of palindromes of length 2n-1 will
be 2n-1 + 2n-1 = 2 (2n-1)= 2n .
KLEENE STAR CLOSURE
Given Σ, then the Kleene Star Closure of the
alphabet Σ, denoted by Σ*, is the collection of all
strings defined over Σ, including Λ.
It is to be noted that Kleene Star Closure can be
defined over any set of strings.
EXAMPLES
If Σ = {x}
Then Σ* = {Λ, x, xx, xxx, xxxx, ….}
If Σ = {0,1}
Then Σ* = {Λ, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, ….}
If Σ = {aaB, c}
Then Σ* = {Λ, aaB, c, aaBaaB, aaBc, caaB, cc, ….}
NOTE
Languages generated by Kleene Star Closure of set of strings, are infinite
languages.
(By infinite language, it is supposed that the language contains infinite many
words, each of finite length).
PLUS OPERATION (+)
Plus Operation is same as Kleene Star Closure
except that it does not generate Λ (null string),
automatically.
Example:
If Σ = {0,1}
Then Σ+ = {0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, ….}
If Σ = {aab, c}
Then Σ+ = {aab, c, aabaab, aabc, caab, cc, ….}
TASK
Q1)Is there any case when S+ contains Λ? If yes then
justify your answer.
REMARK
It is to be noted that Kleene Star can also be
operated on any string i.e. a* can be considered to be
all possible strings defined over {a}, which shows that
a* generates Λ, a, aa, aaa, …
It may also be noted that a+ can be considered to be
all possible non empty strings defined over {a}, which
shows that a+ generates
a, aa, aaa, aaaa, …
DEFINING LANGUAGES CONTINUED…
Recursive definition of languages:
The following three steps are used in recursive
definition
1. Some basic words are specified in the language.
2. Rules for constructing more words are defined in
the language.
3. No strings except those constructed in above, are
allowed to be in the language.
EXAMPLE
Defining language of INTEGER
Step 1: 1 is in INTEGER.
Step 2: If x is in INTEGER then x+1 and x-1 are
also in INTEGER.
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in INTEGER.
EXAMPLE
Defining language of EVEN
Step 1: 2 is in EVEN.
Step 2: If x is in EVEN then x+2 and x-2 are also in
EVEN.
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in EVEN.
EXAMPLE
Defining the language factorial
Step 1: As 0!=1, so 1 is in factorial.
Step 2: n!=n*(n-1)! is in factorial.
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in factorial.
DEFINING THE LANGUAGE
PALINDROME, DEFINED OVER Σ = {A,B}
Step 1: a and b are in PALINDROME
Step 2: if x is palindrome, then s(x)Rev(s) and xx will
also be palindrome, where s belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in palindrome
DEFINING THE LANGUAGE {ANBN },
N=1,2,3,… , OF STRINGS DEFINED OVER
Σ={A,B}
Step 1: ab is in {anbn}
Step 2: if x is in {anbn}, then axb is in {anbn}
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above, are allowed to be in
{anbn}
DEFINING THE LANGUAGE L, OF
STRINGS ENDING IN A , DEFINED OVER
Σ={A,B}
Step 1: a is in L
Step 2: if x is in L then s(x) is also in L, where s
belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in
above, are allowed to be in L
DEFINING THE LANGUAGE L, OF
STRINGS BEGINNING AND ENDING IN
SAME LETTERS , DEFINED OVER Σ={A, B}
Step 1: a and b are in L
Step 2: (a)s(a) and (b)s(b) are also in L, where s
belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in L
DEFINING THE LANGUAGE L, OF
STRINGS CONTAINING AA OR BB ,
DEFINED OVER Σ={A, B}
Step 1: aa and bb are in L
Step 2: s(aa)s and s(bb)s are also in L, where s
belongs to Σ*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in L
DEFINING THE LANGUAGE L, OF
STRINGS CONTAINING EXACTLY AA,
DEFINED OVER Σ={A, B}
Step 1: aa is in L
Step 2: s(aa)s is also in L, where s belongs to b*
Step 3: No strings except those constructed in above,
are allowed to be in L
Q2) Prove that for any set of strings S
(S+)*=(S*)*
Solution: In general Λ is not in S+ , while Λ does
belong to S*. Obviously Λ will now be in (S+)*, while
(S*)* and S* generate the same set of strings.
Hence (S+)*=(S*)*.
ii) (S+)+=S+
Solution: since S+ generates all possible strings that
can be obtained by concatenating the strings of S,
so (S+)+ generates all possible strings that can be
obtained by concatenating the strings of S+ , will
not generate any new string. Hence (S+)+=S+
Is (S*)+ =(S+)*
Solution: since Λ belongs to S* ,so Λ will belong to
(S*)+ as member of S* .Moreover Λ may not belong
to S+, in general, while Λ will automatically belong
to (S+)*. Hence
(S*)+ =(S+)*
