COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

` ``

ED 216:
Facilitating
Learner-Centered
ED 216
Teaching
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

COURSE STUDY GUIDE TABLE OF CONTENTS

Week No. Module Topic Page

INTRODUCTION TO FACILITATING LEARNING

Learning and Metacognition
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
Developmental Theories
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
1 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 7-34
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory
Chomsky’s LAD
Intelligence and Learning Style
Learning/Thinking Styles
Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner
Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman
BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
Behaviorism
Behaviorism by John B. Watson
Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
2 Connectionism Theory E.L Thorndike 35- 64
Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner
Neo-behaviorism:
Cognitive Behaviorism by Edward Tolman
Social Learning Theory by Bandura
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Gestalt Theory by Wertheimer, Kohler and Kofka
Information Processing Theory
Conditions of Learning by Robert Gagne
3 Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory by Ausubel 65 - 98
Constructivist Theory by Jerome Bruner
Topological and Vector Theory by Lewin
Situated Learning Theory by Jean Lave
Network Model
COGNITIVE PROCESS AND MOTIVATION
Constructivism
Transfer of learning 99 - 127
Bloom’s Taxonomy
4 Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model
Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Types of Motivation
Classroom Management Theories
Summative Assessment 128 -153

Editorial Office
Course
Jade S. Tagab, LPT
Developer/s
Content Expert/s Nerissa S. Lopez, LPT, EdD
Felix M. Diano Jr., PhD
Language Editor/s Ian V. Rojas,LPT, EdD
Carodina R. Ginolos, LPT, MAT
Design/Media
Nina Bienna Marie Y. Monterde, LPT, MAEd
Specialist/s
DISCLAIMER NOTE
This course packet is not intended to be presented as the original work of the course developer. It is meant to be a primary reference
material for the course composed of the flexible learning syllabus, learning plans, course content, and assessment compiled from various
sources. Accordingly, the sale and distribution of such outside the University of the Visayas is strictly prohibited.
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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

Flexible Course Syllabus

College of Education
Bachelor of Elementary Education/Secondary Education

Semester/Term: FIRST
University of the Visayas

Course I. Course Information

Course This course explores the fundamental principles, processes and
Number ED 216
practices anchored on learner centeredness and other educational
Facilitating Course
Course Learner-Centered Description psychologies as these apply to facilitate various teaching-learning
Title Teaching
delivery modes to enhance learning.

Prerequisi Course 1.Gain mastery of the fundamental principles, process and practices
ED 111
te(s) Learning anchored on the educational philosophy of learner-centeredness;
Outcomes 2. Create a physical and psychological environment that facilitates
learning for all kinds of learners;
3. Critique the educational philosophy of learner-centeredness if it is
relevant in local, regional, national, and international contexts;
4. Demonstrate understanding of various learning and development
Credit
Three Units motivation theories and the learner-centered psychological
Unit
principles;
5. Apply the various theories of learning and motivation to help
students become highly motivated and self-directed learners;
6. Demonstrate learning skills that facilitate and maximize self-
directed learning.
II. Instructor's Information
Instructor Corporate [email protected]
Name Jade S. Tagab Email

Title Phone 09568568604

LPT
III. Course Syllabus
Week Module Topic Intended Learning Outcomes Learning Learning Materials and Mode of Assessme
No./No
Activities Resources Delivery nt Task/
. of
Hrs. Graded
Required Suggested Output

Introduction Explain metacognition in their Activity

to Facilitating own words;
Learning Apply metacognitive strategies in Analysis Module 1 - Facilitating Digital 1. Six
their own quest for learning as a Course Module Learning: A through Thinking
Learning and novice or an expert learner Abstraction on Facilitating Metacognitive Hats
MS Teams
Learner Process, 3rd Analysis
1 Metacognition Discover the significant roles of
edition. Corpuz
educators in facilitating learning Application Centered
et.al, Lorimar Printed
Explain the 14- learning Teaching 2. Module
Publishing Modules
principles Activity
Advocate the use of the 14-
learning principles in teaching-
learning process

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3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

Developmental *Identify ways on how to apply OTG USB 3. Major

Theories the 14 principles in instruction as (additional Exam
a future teacher
files)
Explain the salient concepts and
Intelligence and principles of the major
Learning Style development theories
*Apply developmental theories to
teaching-learning situations
Identify the different
learning/thinking styles and
intelligences of the learners
*Demonstrate positive attitude
towards diversity as an enriching
element in the learning
environment
2 Behaviorist Demonstrate understanding on Activity Module 2 - Digital 1. Six
Perspective the ideas and concepts of Course Module through MS Thinking
behaviorism and neo- Analysis on Facilitating Teams Hats
Behaviorism behaviorism
Learner Analysis
Explain the behaviorist theories Abstraction Centered Printed
Neo-
such as Classical Conditioning, Teaching Modules 2. Module
behaviorism
Operant Conditioning, Application and OTG Activity
Connectionism theory Facilitating
Learning: A USB
Explain the Neo-behaviorism Metacognitive (additional 3. Major
theories such as Tolman’s Process, 3rd files) Exam
Purposive Behaviorism, Albert edition. Corpuz
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory et.al, Lorimar
Publishing
Evaluate the behaviorism and
neo-behaviorism theories by
identifying its salient features
and its application in facilitating
learning

Plan some activities applying the

concepts of behaviorist and neo-
behaviorist in teaching and
learning

Cognitive Demonstrate understanding on Activity Module 3 - Digital 1. Six

Perspective the ideas and concepts of Course Module through MS Thinking
various cognitive learning Analysis on Facilitating Teams Hats
Cognitive theories
Learner Analysis
Learning Explain the different cognitive Abstraction Centered Facilitating Printed
learning theories and its Teaching Learning: A Modules 2. Module
Theories implication in facilitating a Application Metacognitive Activity
3 learner-centered experience Process, 3rd
OTG USB
edition. Corpuz
Evaluate the salient features of 3. Major
et.al, Lorimar
the different cognitive learning Publishing Exam
theories
Utilize the different concepts of
the learning theories by
applying it into the real world
scenario of facilitating learner-
centered teaching
Cognitive Demonstrate understanding on Activity Digital 1. Six
Process and Constructivism and its relevance through MS Thinking
Motivation in teaching-learning process Analysis Teams Hats
Identify the different motivation Module 4- Analysis
Constructivism theories and recognize its Abstraction Course
Facilitating Printed
significance in facilitating Learning: A
Modules 2. Module
Motivation learner-centered teaching Module on Metacognitive
Application Activity
4 Facilitating Process, 3rd
Classroom Explain the crucial role of the edition. Corpuz OTG USB
Learner
Management different classroom et.al, Lorimar 3. Major
management theories and how Centered
Publishing
Teaching Exam
Teaching Style it applies in the teaching-
learning process
Analyze the impact of teaching
style towards the learning
experience of the students

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IV-A. Points for Graded Output IV-B. Grade Equivalent Based on Points Earned

Course Week Module Topic Output Points Points Earned Grade

1 Minor Task 100 100 % 1.0
99 % 1.1
Module Activity
98% 1.2
Six Thinking Hats Analysis
2 Minor Task 100 97% 1.2
Module Activity
96% 1.3
Six Thinking Hats Analysis
3 Minor Task 100 95% 1.4
Module Activity 94% 1.5
Six Thinking Hats Analysis
4 Minor Task 100 93% 1.6
Module Activity 92% 1.6
Six Thinking Hats Analysis 91% 1.7
200 90% 1.8
Major Task 89 % 1.9
Interview and Documentation on Teachers 88% 2.0
87% 2.0
Major Examinations 86% 2.1
85% 2.2
84% 2.3
TOTAL 600 83% 2.4
82% 2.4
81% 2.5
80% 2.6
79% 2.7
78% 2.7
77% 2.8
INC is given if the final grade is 2.5 or better but missing any two of the course requirements listed 76% 2.9
above. INC should be complied within 365 days immediately after the close of the Semester. 75% 3.0
74 % below INC

V. Approval

Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by

JADE S. TAGAB ,LPT JHON MARK I. AROA ,M.Ed DR. AILEEN B. CATACUTAN, EdD DR. NERISSA S. LOPEZ
Instructor Program Chair Librarian Dean

Instructor’s Note:

Greetings!!!
Welcome to the new normal of education. This is your Course Module for Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching. This module was prepared for you to work on diligently and
independently. Remember, this is meant for you to have an in-depth understanding on how
to facilitate learning. Going through the various theories that attempts to explain the various
aspects of the learners and the teaching process is challenging but with your enthusiasm, I
believe that you will be able to ace it.
Please use the above Course Guide for you to be guided accordingly in accomplishing this
module. Make sure to perform the learning activities stated and be mindful of the required
output that you need to submit upon the completion of this course module. To effectively
manage your time, kindly follow the suggested date/schedule of accomplishment. This
module should be completed one month after you receive it. To further enrich your
understanding of the topic, you can read the suggested resources.

Are you ready to embark on this journey of exploring dimensions in facilitating learning
towards realizing your goal as an inspiring educator? I wish you an enriching and productive
learning experience.

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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

The principal elements of teaching and learning are the teacher, the learner and the learning
environment. The teacher serves as the prime mover of the educational wheel. However, the 21st
century brought enormous change in the landscape of education causing a major shift of the role of
the teacher in the classroom. From being the “sage on the stage” or sole source of knowledge, teachers
have now become the “guide on the side” or facilitators of learning. Teachers are tasked to facilitate
the learners which are considered the key participant in the learning process. The goals of education
revolve around the learner. The most important goal of education is to teach students to learn on their
own because the learner is the key participant in the learning process. Facilitating learning is an
approach where students are encouraged to take ownership and control of their learning process. It
involves teaching students to think critically and understand how the learning process works. Students
need to learn how to go beyond the basic facts—who, what, where, and when—and question the world
around them. In order to be an effective facilitator of learning, educators need to understand the
nature of the learners from various perspectives, possess metacognition in teaching and take
considerations on the learning environment in order to establish meaningful learning experience.

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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

MODULE
1

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Explain metacognition in their own words;
2. Apply metacognitive strategies in their own quest for learning as a novice or an
expert learner
3. Discover the significant roles of educators in facilitating learning
4. Explain the 14- learning centered principles
5. Advocate the use of the 14-learning principles in teaching-learning process
6. Identify ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future teacher
7. Explain the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories
8. Apply developmental theories to teaching-learning situations
9. Identify the different learning/thinking styles and intelligences of the learners
10. Demonstrate positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element in the
learning environment

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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

COURSE STUDY GUIDE

College of Education
Program: Bachelor of Elementary/ Secondary Education
Course Code: ED 216
Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
University of the Visayas Credit Unit: Three Units (3)
Module 1 WEEK NO. 1
Module Topic Introduction to Facilitating Learning
1.Demonstrate understanding on learning, metacognition, learner’s diversity and developmental
theories
2.Recognize the importance of important concepts in facilitating learner-centered teaching
Intended Learning 3.Utilize the important concepts learned and its implications in the teaching-learning process
Outcomes 4.Reflect one’s own role as facilitator in a learner-centered teaching
No. of Hours 13.5 hours
1. Why do educators need to be aware of the importance of metacognition?
2. What are the necessary components that influences the learners?
Study Questions 3. How can I use the concepts proposed by different theorists?
4. What will be the different considerations that I need in facilitating a learner-centered teaching?
Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
Print Module 1–Lesson 1 to 3: Course Module Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, 3rd
Digital on Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching edition. Corpuz et.al, Lorimar Publishing
(Printed for Offline. OTG USB for Hybrid, MS Teams
for Online)
Activity
Students will be provided with an activity to condition their minds about the
possible topic they will explore
Analysis
Learning Activity Students will give their initial thoughts based from the “Activity”
Abstraction
Students will read and understand the content of the module
Application
Students will apply what they have learned by doing the performance task.
1. Six Thinking Hats Analysis
Required Output 2. Module Activity
3.. Major Examination - Prelim
Assessment Task 1.Module Activity
2. Summative Assessment
1. Rubric for Module Activity
Assessment Tool 2. Rubric for Six Thinking Hats Analysis
3. Microsoft Forms/ Questionnaire for Summative Assessment
Target Competency Metacognitive Skills, Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:

Jade S. Tagab Jhon Mark I. Aroa , M.Ed Dr. Nerissa S. Lopez

Date: Date: Date:

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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

Read the story and reflect.

As she stood in front of her 5th-grade class on the very first day of school, she told the children
an untruth. Like most teachers, she looked at her students and said that she loved them all the same. However,
that was impossible, because there in the front row, slumped in his seat, was a little boy named Teddy Stoddard.
Mrs. Thompson had watched Teddy the year before and noticed that he did not play well with the other children,
that his clothes were messy and that he constantly needed a bath. In addition, Teddy could be unpleasant. It got
to the point where Mrs. Thompson would actually take delight in marking his papers with a broad red pen,
making bold X’s and then putting a big ‘F’ at the top of his papers.
At the school where Mrs. Thompson taught, she was required to review each child’s past records and she put
Teddy’s off until last. However, when she reviewed his file, she was in for a surprise.
Teddy’s first grade teacher wrote, ‘Teddy is a bright child with a ready laugh. He does his work neatly and has
good manners… he is a joy to be around..’
His second-grade teacher wrote, ‘Teddy is an excellent student, well liked by his classmates, but he is troubled
because his mother has a terminal illness and life at home must be a struggle.’
His third-grade teacher wrote, ‘His mother’s death has been hard on him. He tries to do his best, but his father
doesn’t show much interest, and his home life will soon affect him if some steps aren’t taken.
Teddy’s fourth-grade teacher wrote, ‘Teddy is withdrawn and doesn’t show much interest in school. He doesn’t
have many friends and he sometimes sleeps in class.’
By now, Mrs. Thompson realized the problem and she was ashamed of herself. She felt even worse when her
students brought her Christmas presents, wrapped in beautiful ribbons and bright paper, except for Teddy’s. His
present was clumsily wrapped in the heavy, brown paper that he got from a grocery bag. Mrs. Thompson took
pains to open it in the middle of the other presents. Some of the children started to laugh when she found a
rhinestone bracelet with some of the stones missing and a bottle that was one-quarter full of perfume. But she
stifled the children’s laughter when she exclaimed how pretty the bracelet was, putting it on, and dabbing some
of the perfume on her wrist. Teddy Stoddard stayed after school that day just long enough to say, ‘Mrs.
Thompson, today you smelled just like my Mom used to.’
After the children left, she cried for at least an hour. On that very day, she quit teaching reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Instead, she began to teach children. Mrs. Thompson paid particular attention to Teddy. As she
worked with him, his mind seemed to come alive. The more she encouraged him, the faster he responded. By
the end of the year, Teddy had become one of the smartest children in the class and, despite her lie that she
would love all the children the same, Teddy became one of her ‘teacher’s pets..’
A year later, she found a note under her door, from Teddy, telling her that she was the best teacher he ever had
in his whole life.
Six years went by before she got another note from Teddy. He then wrote that he had finished high school, third
in his class, and she was still the best teacher he ever had in life.
Four years after that, she got another letter, saying that while things had been tough at times, he’d stayed in
school, had stuck w ith it, and would soon graduate from college with the highest of honors. He assured Mrs.
Thompson that she was still the best and favorite teacher he had ever had in his whole life.
Then four more years passed and yet another letter came. This time he explained that after he got his bachelor’s
degree, he decided to go a little further. The letter explained that she was still the best and favorite teacher he
ever had. But now his name was a little longer…. The letter was signed, Theodore F. Stoddard, MD.

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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

The story does not end there. You see, there was yet another letter that spring. Teddy said he had met this girl
and was going to be married. He explained that his father had died a couple of years ago and he was wondering
if Mrs. Thompson might agree to sit at the wedding in the place that was usually reserved for the mother of the
groom. Of course, Mrs. Thompson did. And guess what? She wore that bracelet, the one with several rhinestones
missing. Moreover, she made sure she was wearing the perfume that Teddy remembered his mother wearing
on their last Christmas together.
They hugged each other, and Dr. Stoddard whispered in Mrs. Thompson’s ear, ‘Thank you, Mrs. Thompson, for
believing in me. Thank you so much for making me feel important and showing me that I could make a
difference.’
Mrs. Thompson, with tears in her eyes, whispered back. She said, ‘Teddy, you have it all wrong. You were the
one who taught me that I could make a difference. I didn’t know how to teach until I met you.’

Write your insights about the story? How did you feel after reading it? Do you see yourself as Mrs.
Thomson in the near future?
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LEARNING
Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors including skills, knowledge,
understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience. It is
therefore a relatively permanent change of behavior. It is a process inferred from relatively stable
changes of behavior that result through practice or interaction with and adaptation to the
environment. It is a development of new associations as a result of experience and the modification of
an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental experience.
Types of Learning
a. Cognitive Learning – concerned with the development of ideas and concepts
b. Affective Learning – involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions, and acquisition of attitudes
c. Psychomotor learning – understanding the external world through the senses and muscles.

METACOGNITION
The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. It consists of both
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. It is often
referred to as “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn. It refers to higher
order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive
processes engaged in learning

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3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge

that can be used to control cognitive processes.
Three Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge
1. Person Variables - Includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. It refers to knowledge
about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s own
learning processes.
2. Task Variables - Includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing
demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand.
3. Strategy Variables - Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating
whether this strategy is effective.
*META-ATTENTION is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused
on the topic or task at hand.
*METAMEMORY is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you
Omrod, includes the following in the practice of metacognition:
Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities.
Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time.
Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material.
Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension.
Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.

Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met.

Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following types of
questions:
• What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
• Do I know what I need to know?
• Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
• How much time will I need to learn this?
• What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
• Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
• How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate topic?
• How can I spot an error if I make one?
• How should I revise my plan if it is not.

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METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE LEARNING

1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.
2.Teach students study or learning strategies.

TQLR – it is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or a presentation.

T - TUNE IN - It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention, and that he is ready to
learn.
Q – QUESTION - the learner is given question or he thinks of questions about what he will soon learn.
L – LISTEN - the learner exerts effort to listen.
R – REMEMBER - the learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.
PQ4R – this strategy is used in a study of a unit or chapter.
P – PREVIEW - Scan the whole chapter before delving in each paragraph
Q – QUESTION - Read the guide question provided, or think of your own questions about the topic.
R – READ - Check out subheadings as you read. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you.
R – RECITE - Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have
R – REVIEW - Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in order to understand better.
read.
R – REFLECT - Think about what you read
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.
5. Have students develop questions; ask question of themselves, about what’s going on around them.
6. Help students to know when to ask for help.
7. Show students how to know when to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations
of tasks.

14 LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLES

The LCP were put together by the American Psychological Association. The following
14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the earning process.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to: -
❖ Cognitive and metacognitive
❖ Motivational and affective
❖ Developmental and social
❖ Individual difference factors

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of Learning Process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

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3. Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base.

4. Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning.
5. Thinking about thinking
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress towards these goals.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional
practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
with persistence over time.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. Developmental influences on learning
learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
11. Social influence on learning
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

12. Individual differences in learning
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them, if necessary.

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13. Learning and diversity

The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
14. Standards and assessment
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base - One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.

2. Strategic processing and control - Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts
and behaviors in order to learn more effectively.

3. Motivation and affect -Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal
goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.

4. Development and Individual Differences - Learning is a unique journey for each person because each
learner has his own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.

5. Situation or context - Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.

Classification of Learners According to Mastery

Novice Learners - A person who has just started learning or doing something.

Expert Learners - Employed metacognitive strategies in learning and monitored their learning and
consequently adjusted their strategies to make learning more effective

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In your ED 111 – Child and Adolescent course, you have encountered the terms in the
Crossword Puzzle. Why do you think it is important to revisit these theories? Do you
think it plays a vital role in facilitating learning? Justify your answer and cite examples or
scenarios.

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 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
3rd Floor, Admin Building, University of the Visayas- Main Campus

The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking researchers tells that
one can be an effective facilitator of learning if one has a good working knowledge of the learner’s
development. Previously in your Child and Adolescent course, the foundational theories related to
learner’s development were discussed. Let us review these theories that you have taken up and
connects them to learning.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive
development suggests that children
move through four different stages of mental
development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also
on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the
learning process, acting much like little scientists as they
perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the world around
them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema –refer to the cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt to and
organize their environment.
Assimilation – process of fitting a new
experience into an existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema.
Accommodation – process of creating a new
schema. If the same child now sees another
animal that looks a little bit like a dog but
somehow different.
Equilibration - achieving proper balance
between assimilation and accommodation.
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage 1 - Sensori-motor Stage

The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage
when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and
reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity.
Object permanence is the ability of the child to know that an object
exists even when out of sight.

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Stage 2 - Pre-Operational Stage

The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the
preschool years.

Symbolic Function is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol

is a thing that represents something else.

Centration refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.

Reversibility is the inability to reverse their thinking.

Animism is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects.

Transductive reasoning refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive
nor deductive.
Egocentrism is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also
has his same point of view.

Stage 3 - Concrete-Operational Stage

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete
objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:

Conservation – This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume,
or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance.
Decentering – This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and
situations.

Reversibility – During the stage of concrete operations, the child can

now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.

Seriation – This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in series

based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.

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Stage 4 - Formal Operational Stage

In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more
logical. They can now solve abstract problem and can hypothesize.

Hypothetical Reasoning – This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and
to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
Analogical Reasoning – This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible answer in other similar situation or problem.
Deductive Reasoning – This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Freud believed that personality
developed through a series of
childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking
energies of the id become focused on certain
erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is
characterized as an area of the body that is
particularly sensitive to stimulation.
During the five psychosexual stages, which are
the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages,
the erogenous zone associated with each stage
serves as a source of pleasure.

ECOLOGICAL THEORY
The Bronfenbrenner theory
emphasizes the importance of studying
children in multiple environments, also
known as ecological systems, in the attempt
to understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Theory, children typically find
themselves enmeshed in various
ecosystems, from the most intimate home
ecological system to the larger school
system, and then to the most expansive
system which includes society and culture.
Each of these ecological systems inevitably
interact with and influence each other in all
aspects of the children’s lives.
THE MICROSYSTEM -It includes family, peers, school, and neighborhood
THE MESOSYSTEM - It includes links between home, school, and neighborhood.
THE EXOSYSTEM - Consists of settings that do not include the child but that affect the child, such as city
government, the workplace, school board, and mass media.
THE MACROSYSTEM- Involves the dominant attitudes and ideologies of the child’s culture
THE CHRONOSYSTEM - Patterns of stability and change in children’s environment over time.
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SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Sociocultural theory focuses
not only how adults and peers
influence individual learning, but also on how
cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how
learning takes place. Culture reflects the
values, ideals, and beliefs of a particular group
of people that are passed on from one
generation to the next. According to Vygotsky,
children are born with basic biological
constraints on their minds. Each culture, however, provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These
tools allow children to use their abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live.
Zone of proximal development- range of skills a child has not yet mastered, but could accomplish
with the assistance provided by adults and more knowledgeable peers.
Scaffolding – help or assistance that a child receives from a More knowledgeable other

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
Each stage in Erikson's theory
builds on the preceding stages and paves the way
for following periods of development. In each stage,
Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on
either developing a psychological quality or failing
to develop that quality. During these times, the
potential for personal growth is high but so is the
potential for failure.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Kohlberg proposed that moral
development is a continual process
that occurs throughout the lifespan. His theory
outlines six stages of moral development within
three different levels. Kohlberg used the Heinz
dilemma to determine the reasoning for each
participant's decision on the moral dilemma. He
then classified their reasoning into the stages of his
theory of moral development.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Noam Chomsky argues that language acquisition
is innate structure or function of the human
brain. He believes that there are structures of the brain that
control the interpretation and production of the speech. Children
do not need any kind of formal teaching to learn to speak.
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What are the top 3 types Intelligences you possess and do you agree with the result and why?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
What are the bottom 3 intelligences you have and do you agree with the result and why?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Do you think you possess all the types of intelligences cited above? Explain.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Reflect on the way you learn and relate it to the most prominent intelligence (top1) that
you have. Does your intelligence influence the way you learn? Elaborate instances that
proves how your intelligence influence your learning?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

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INTELLIGENCE
“Intelligence is the ability to abstract
thinking”
“Intelligence is rational thinking.”
“Intelligence is a capacity to think well, to
judge well and to be self-critical.”
“Intelligence indicates the capacity to
acquire and apply knowledge.”

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Multiple intelligences refer to a theory describing the different ways students learn
and acquire information. These multiple intelligences range from the use of words,
numbers, pictures and music, to the importance of social interactions, introspection, physical
movement and being in tune with nature. Accordingly, an understanding of which type(s) of
intelligence a student may possess can help teachers adjust learning styles and suggest certain
career paths for learners.
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the
intelligence they will ever have.

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NINE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES BY HOWARD GARDNER

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence(Word Smart)
Listens and responds to the spoken word. Enjoys reading,
writing, and discussing. Remembers what has been said.
Remembers what has been read. Speaks and writes effectively.
Can learn other languages.

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence (Number Smart)

Familiar with the concepts of quantity, time, and cause and
effect. Uses abstract symbols to represent concrete objects and
concepts. Likes math and using technology to solve complex
problems. Expresses interest in careers such as accounting,
computer technology, and law.

Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)

Prefers to touch, handle, or manipulate what is to be learned.
Develops coordination and a sense of timing.
Learns best by direct involvement and participation.
Remembers most clearly what was done, rather than what was
said or observed. Enjoys concrete learning experiences such
as field trips, model building, or participating in role play,
games, assembling objects, or physical exercise.
Demonstrates skill in acting, athletics, dancing, sewing,
carving, or keyboarding.
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)
Learns by seeing and observing. Recognizes faces, objects,
shapes, colors, details, and scenes. Thinks in pictures and
visualizes detail. Uses visual images as an aid in recalling
information. Enjoys doodling, drawing, painting, sculpting, or
otherwise reproducing objects in visible form.

Musical Intelligence (Music Smart)

Listens and responds with interest to a variety of sounds
including the human voice, environmental sounds, and music,
and organizes such sounds into meaningful patterns.
Is eager to be around and learn from music and musicians.
Develops the ability to sing and/or play an instrument.

Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)

Bonds with parents and interacts with others. Forms and
maintains social relationships. Perceives the feelings,
thoughts, motivations, behaviors, and lifestyles of others.
Expresses an interest in interpersonally- oriented careers such
as teaching, social work, counseling, management, or politics.

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Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smart)

Is aware of his range of emotions. Is motivated to identify and
pursue goals. Works independently. Establishes and lives by an
ethical value system. Strives for self-actualization.

Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)

Recognizes and can name many different types of trees,
flowers, and plants. Individuals who are high in this type of
intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often
interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning
about other species. These individuals are said to be highly
aware of even subtle changes to their environments.

Existential Intelligence (Existence Smart)

Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human
existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how
did we get here

Intelligence Skills and Career Preferences

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence Skills - Listening, speaking, writing, teaching.
Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to Careers - Poet, journalist, writer, teacher, lawyer, politician,
the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words translator
2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence Ability to Skills - Problem solving (logical & math), performing
think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity experiments
to discern logical or numerical patterns Careers - Scientists, engineers, accountants, mathematicians
3. Musical Intelligence Skills - Singing, playing instruments, composing music
Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch Careers - Musician, disc jockey, singer, composer
and timber
4. Visual-Spatial Intelligence Skills - puzzle building, painting, constructing, fixing,
Capacity to think in images and pictures, to designing objects
visualize accurately and abstractly Careers - Sculptor, artist, inventor, architect, mechanic,
engineer
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Skills - Dancing, sports, hands on experiments, acting
Ability to control one's body movements and to Careers - Athlete, PE teacher, dancer, actor, firefighter
handle objects skillfully
6. Interpersonal Intelligence Skills - Seeing from other perspectives, empathy, counseling,
Capacity to detect and respond appropriately to co-operating
the moods, motivations and desires of others Careers - Counselor, salesperson, politician, business person,
minister
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence Skills - Recognize one’s S/W, reflective, aware of inner
Capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings
feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes Careers - Researchers, theorists, philosophers
8. Naturalist Intelligence Skills - Recognize one’s connection to nature, apply science
Ability to recognize and categorize plants, theory to life
animals and other objects in nature Careers – Scientist, naturalist, landscape architect
9. Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions Skills – Reflective and deep thinking, design abstract theories
about human existence, such as the meaning of Careers – Scientist, philosopher, theologian
life, why do we die, and how did we get here

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LEARNING AND THINKING STYLES

What is a Learning Style?
A learning style is how you receive information best.
Types of Learning Styles (VAKT)
1. Visual learners
These learners must see their teacher’s actions
and facial expression to fully understand the
content of a lesson.
Visual-iconic – Those who prefer this form
of input are more interested in visual
imagery such as film, graphic displays, or
picture in order to solidify learning.
Visual-symbolic – Those who prefer this
form of input feel comfortable with
abstract symbolism such as mathematical
formulae or the written word.
2. Auditory Learners
They learn best through verbal lectures,
discussions, talking things through and listening
to what others have to say.
3. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a
hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them.

What is a THINKING STYLE?

A thinking style is how you process information best.

Global – Analytic Continuum

Analytic – Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step processes of learning.
Global – Global thinkers lean towards non- linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather
than particle elements.

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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE BY DANIEL GOLEMAN

Emotional Intelligence is a type of social intelligence that affords the

individual the ability to monitor his own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them,
and to use the information to guide his thinking and actions.
It is “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating
ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.

Three Components of Emotional Intelligence

1. The awareness of one’s own emotions;
2. The ability to express one’s emotions appropriately;
3. The capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile objectives

MAJOR QUALITIES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Application in Teaching

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Module Activity
Make sure to perform all the activities specified on this module.

ACTIVITY 1.1 – LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

Instruction: Complete the tabular chart by describing the behaviors of novice and expert learners
according to the given criteria.
Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners
Knowledge on different subject
areas

Problem Solving

Learning/Thinking Strategies

Selecting in Processing

Production of Output

How many attempts did you make

before solving the puzzle?
_______________________________
What helps you in solving the
problem?
_______________________________
_______________________________
Draw your answer here _______________________________
Explain how did you solve the puzzle?
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

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ACTIVITY 1.2 – 14- LEARNER CENTERED LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Instruction: Go back to the story you have read at the start of this module. Identify the AT LEAST
5 situations that corresponds to the learner centered principles. Justify your answer.

ACTIVITY 1.3 – MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Instruction: Select a specific topic that you want to teach and plan different activities that for each type of
intelligence. BEED should pick any topic you want. BSED pick topics according to your major.
Example:
Topic: States of Matter – Grade 3

Musical Students will create their own jingle about states of matter and sing it after
Naturalist Students will explore outside and list down 10 the things they see in the
surrounding. They categorize them into solid, liquid and gas.
Visual Spatial Students will draw things for solid, liquid and gas.

Topic: ___________________________________________________ Grade level: _____________

Intelligences Activities

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Write your interpretation of the Venn Diagram.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Ideal Teacher _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 1.4 – DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Instruction: Create a graphic organizer of the different developmental theories and write all the
important concepts that each theory proposed.

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for Multiple Intelligences Theory and Emotional Intelligence.

Hat Color Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner Emotional Intelligence by Goleman

(first impression
when you heard
the theory)

(Important
concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive
aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of
the theory)

(application of the
theory in
teaching)

(your own insight

about the theory)

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR MODULE 1

Instruction: Read carefully and analyze each question. Encircle the letter of
your answer.

1. This refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over
cognitive process engaged in learning or “thinking about thinking”?
A. Cognition B. Schema
C. Metacognition D. Knowledge
2. The quote “If you teach a person what to learn, you are preparing that person for the
past. If you teach a person how to learn, you are preparing that person for the future”
adheres to which concept?
A. Rote Learning B. Memorization
C. Metacognitive D. Technology learning
3. In metacognitive learning, which of the following can be applied?
A. Emphasis on hypothetical question B. abstract concepts
C. monitoring own comprehension D. problem-solving skills
4. Among the following, which is an example of a metacognitive level of question?
I. What did I learn from the lesson?
II. How will I learn more from this?
III. How can I better arrive at a solution?
IV. Why is the lesson important to myself?
A. I only B. II, III and IV only C. I and II only D. I, II, III and IV only
5. Your fellow teacher tells you “ After reading the story, allow your students to interact
with one another in the group so that they can share personal experiences related to the
story theme. “ Which learning domain(s) pertains to this suggestion?
I. Cognitive II. Affective III. Psychomotor
A. I only B. I and II only C. II and III only D. I, II and III
6. Which of the following is NOT a metacognitive question?
A. How can I improve my solution? B. What is the good aspect of my work?
C. Which part in the process am I mistaken? D. When is the deadline of this report?
7. Sir Dino is known to be an overly strict teacher. Many students complain about his
approach. Which domain of the learner-centered principles should the teacher remind
himself about?
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive B. Motivational and Affective
C. Developmental and Social D. Individual Differences
8. Teacher Marie regards the goals of the learning process and allows students to strategize
their tasks for learning success. Which domain of the learner-centered psychological
principles does the teacher regard here?
A. Cognitive and Metacognitive B. Motivational and Affective
C. Developmental and Social D. Individual Differences
9. When can we say that knowledge is METACOGNITIVE?
A. When we read sentences perfectly
B. When you can answer the teacher’s examination
C. When you can memorize a poem
D. When you use it to ensure goal attainment
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10. One of the students of Teacher M always makes absences from the class because his
parents are not in good terms. When he comes to school, he is attentive and lousy. As a
result, he gets a very low grade. What factors affect the students learning?
A. motivation and emotional influences on learning B. intrinsic motivation to learn
C. developmental influences to learn D. effects of motivation on effort

11. This refers to the preferred way individual process information. This also describes a
person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving.
A. Multiple Intelligences B. Student Diversity
C. Learning/Thinking Styles D. Exceptionalities

12. John, a Grade 3 pupils, prefer to sit in front of the class so that no one would block his
view. He wants to see the actions and facial expressions of his teacher when discussing
for him to fully understand the content of the lesson. What thinking style does he John
has?
A. Visual Learner B. Tactile/Kinesthetic C. Auditory Learner D. Sensory Preferences
13. Leo prefers to manipulate to learning materials. He also likes playing outdoor games.
What is the learning style of this pupil?
A. Visual Learner B. Tactile/Kinesthetic C. Auditory Learner D. Sensory Preferences
14. Carlo, a Junior High School student, prefers with sound/music background while
studying. Based on Carlo’s preferences he is said to be_________.
A. Visual Learner B. Tactile/Kinesthetic C. Auditory Learner D. Sensory Preferences

15. All of the following describes a visual learner EXCEPT:

A. In remembering list items, wrote them down.
B. In doing something, watch someone show how to do process
C. When writing, concerned how neat and well-spaced the letter and words appear.
D. When verbally describing something, used gestures and move around
16. In Grade 2, Heidi is the Top 1 among her classmates who excel in English subject. She
gets excited during discussion where she is good into spoken and written words. What
intelligence does Jean is apt with?
A. Visual/Spatial B. Existential C. Verbal Linguistic D. Intrapersonal
17. Teacher Mae observed that her student excels in reasoning and problem solving. What
type of intelligence do the class have?
A. Visual/Spatial B. Logical/Mathematical C. Verbal Linguistic D. Intrapersonal
18. Miss Doblado, observed that her student excels in activities requiring strengths, speed,
flexibility, balance and hand eye coordination. Based on her observation, her student
possesses what kind of intelligence?
A. Visual/Spatial B. Existential C. Interpersonal D. Bodily Kinesthetic
19. In this kind of intelligence, the learners are learning through the feelings, values and
attitudes. The students place value on what they learn and take ownership for their own
learning?
A. Visual/Spatial B. Logical/Mathematical C. Verbal Linguistic D. Intrapersonal
20. Susan is very gregarious, she can easily connect to people and make friends. What
intelligence does she possess?
A. Intrapersonal B. Logical/Mathematical C. Verbal Linguistic D. Interpersonal

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21. The intelligence which described as the ability to seek connection involving one’s place
in family, school, community and the “role of the world”. They ask “Why are we here?”.
What intelligence is this?
A. Intrapersonal B. Existential
C. Verbal Linguistic D. Interpersonal
22. An individual can reproduce and perceive variety of shapes and colors. What
intelligence does he possess?
A. Intrapersonal B. Existential
C. Spatial D. Interpersonal
23. Miss Dina told her students to conduct an investigative report on the effectiveness of
herbal medicine. What type of intelligence will excel on the activity?
A. Intrapersonal B. Naturalist
C. Musical D. Spatial
24. Which one does not appeal to tactile learners?
A. Movement activities B. Games
C. Group activities D. Poster
25. Which of the following activities LEAST taps the left side of the brain?
A. Making a drawing of someone physically fit
B. Having self-assessment record of one’s fitness
C. Reading notes about the meaning of physical fitness
D. Calculating the correlation of one’s fitness to diet
26. Which activity which may suitably tap the right side of the brain when the teacher is
doing a lesson in Social Studies?
A. Writing a reaction paper about Martial law
B. Doing a debate about the use of contraceptives
C. Viewing a series of video clips about historical events
D. Listening to the news about the recent world events
27. Which does Noam Chomsky assert about language learning for children?
I. Young children learn and apply grammatical rules and vocabulary as they are exposed
to them
II. Begin formal teaching of grammatical rules to children as early as possible
III. Do not require initial formal language teaching for children
A. II only B. I only C. I and II D. I and III
28. Teacher Paul exerts effort to make students discover personal values applicable for life
in his lessons. In this particular activity, what domain of learning is focused on?
A. metacognitive B. cognitive C. Skills D. Affective
29. Teacher Ela considers herself mainly as “facilitator of learning” and not a “walking
encyclopedia”. Teacher Ela’s approach to teaching can be said as ___________.
A. Mastery centered B. Traditional Type C. Student-Centered D. Teacher Centered
30. Which of the following LEAST relates to the concept of learning?
A. A child gripping a pencil to write B. Students doing creative task in their art class
C. Pupils solving a Math Problem D. A boy using context clues to draw out meaning

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Name: ___________________________________________Program: ___________ Schedule: _____________

MODULE ACTIVITY RUBRIC

Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning

Content 20-18 17-15 14-12 11-1
Covers topic completely by Includes essential Includes some Includes little essential
answering the evaluation information in essential information information in answering
questions. Includes answering the in answering the the evaluation questions
properly cited sources and evaluation questions. evaluation questions
complete information. Includes enough
Encourages readers to elaboration to give
know more. readers an
understanding of the
topic.
Organization 20-18 17-15 14-12 11-1
Excellent organization; clear Organized effectively Adequately Disorganized; little
topic sentences; transitions but could be refined/ organized; needs coherent structure;
between ideas are tightened a bit (better better division confusing.
handled well topic sentences, between ideas.
transitions, etc.)
Writing Quality 10-8 7-5 4-3 2-1
Well written and clearly Above average Average and/or casual Poor writing style lacking
organized using standard writing style and writing style that is in standard English,
English, characterized by logically organized sometimes unclear clarity, language used,
elements of a strong writing using standard English and/or with some and/or frequent errors in
style and basically free from with minor errors in errors in grammar, grammar, punctuation,
grammar, punctuation, grammar, punctuation, usage, usage, and spelling.
usage, and spelling punctuation, usage, and spelling Needs work.
errors. and spelling.

Activity Number / Title (Write the title here) Score (Note: For instructor’s use only!!!)

Total Points

You have successfully completed Module 1 of this Couse

Packet. Please evaluate your understanding about the
module. See on the next module!

Module Reflection

Task: Color the circle that describes your level of understanding for this module. Then complete the phrase.

Go! I understand the lesson and learned about _____________________________________________________

I understand the lesson but wait, I still need to learn more about ______________________________________

Stop, I need more help especially ________________________________________________________________

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MODULE
2

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding on the ideas and concepts of behaviorism and

neo- behaviorism
2. Explain the behaviorist theories such as Classical Conditioning, Operant
Conditioning, Connectionism theory
3. Explain the Neo-behaviorism theories such as Tolman’s Purposive
Behaviorism, Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
4. Evaluate the behaviorism and neo-behaviorism theories by identifying its
salient features and its application in facilitating learning
5. Plan some activities applying the concepts of behaviorist and neo-
behaviorist in teaching and learning
6. Reflect one’s own role in applying and implementing the behaviorist and
neo behaviorist theories in facilitating learner-centered teaching.

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COURSE STUDY GUIDE

College of Education
Program: Bachelor of Elementary/ Secondary Education
Course Code: ED 216
Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
University of the Visayas Credit Unit: Three Units (3)
Module 2 WEEK NO. 2
Module Topic Behaviorist Perspective
Intended Learning 1. Demonstrate understanding on the ideas and concepts of behaviorism and neo- behaviorism
Outcomes 2. Explain the behaviorist theories such as Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning,
Connectionism theory
3. Explain the Neo-behaviorism theories such as Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism, Albert Bandura’s
Social Learning Theory
4. Evaluate the behaviorism and neo-behaviorism theories by identifying its salient features and its
application in facilitating learning
5. Plan some activities applying the concepts of behaviorist and neo-behaviorist in teaching and
learning
6. Reflect one’s own role in applying and implementing the behaviorist and neo behaviorist theories
in facilitating learner-centered teaching.
No. of Hours 13.5 hours
1. Why do educators need to be aware of the importance of the different behaviorist theories?
2. What are the necessary concepts that influences the influences the learning experience of the
learners?
Study Questions 3. How can I use the concepts proposed by the behaviorist and neo behaviorist theories?
4. What will be the different considerations that I need to keep in mind in using these theories in
facilitating learner centered teaching?
Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
Print Module 2–Lesson 1 to 2: Course Module Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, 3rd
Digital on Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching edition. Corpuz et.al, Lorimar Publishing

(Printed for Offline. OTG USB for Hybrid, MS Teams

for Online)
Activity
Students will be provided with an activity to condition their minds about the possible topic they will
explore
Analysis
Learning Activity Students will give their initial thoughts based from the “Activity”
Abstraction
Students will read and understand the content of the module
Application
Students will apply what they have learned by doing the performance task.
1. Six Thinking Hats Analysis
Required Output 2. Module Activity
3.. Major Examination - Prelim
Assessment Task 1.Module Activity
2. Summative Assessment
1. Rubric for Module Activity
Assessment Tool 2. Rubric for Six Thinking Hats Analysis
3. Microsoft Forms/ Questionnaire for Summative Assessment
Target Competency Metacognitive Skills, Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:

Jade S. Tagab Jhon Mark I. Aroa , M.Ed Dr. Nerissa S. Lopez

Date: Date: Date:

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Article
Read the news article.

DepEd says no to corporal punishment (Philippine Daily Inquirer)

The Department of Education (DepEd) on Thursday said it does not consent to any form of corporal punishment
or humiliation inflicted on a learner even as it called attention to two incidents last week in Iriga City, where two
students were hit by their teachers over minor offenses.

“While the DepEd is one with the belief that education should also instill and reinforce the values of respect,
responsibility, and discipline—it does not, without reservations, condone any act of violence or abuse in the
conduct thereof,” Education Secretary Leonor Briones said in a statement.

Briones urged all teachers and school officials to uphold the rights and the welfare of the students, citing the
department’s policy and guidelines for the protection of children in school from abuse, violence, exploitation,
discrimination, bullying and other forms of abuse.

She said Republic Act No. 7610 or the Special Protection of Children Against Child Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination Act also guarantees that learners’ rights are protected.

“Let it be remembered that children learn best by doing and that during the years they spend in school, they are
most heavily influenced by authority figures,” Briones said.

Corporal punishment, also referred to as "physical punishment" or "physical discipline," is defined as using
physical force, no matter how light, to cause deliberate bodily pain or discomfort in response to some
undesired behavior.

Do you experience corporal punishment in school before? How do you feel about it? Does it help
you or traumatized you? As a future educator, do you agree with DepEd about the complete
abolishment of corporal punishment? Write your insights about it.
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BEHAVIORISM
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes
that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (reward and punishment). It
does not give much attention to e mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner.

Behaviorism is based on the assumption that:

All learning occurs through interactions with the environment
The environment shapes behavior

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Ivan Pavlov
A Russian psychologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning
or stimulus substitution.
Classical conditioning is learning through association. In simple terms,
two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a
person or animal.
Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally
occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral
signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was
salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with
the environmental stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could
produce the salivation response.

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How Classical Conditioning Works

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally

occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in
response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring
stimulus.

During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

results in an unconditioned response (UCR). For example, presenting food
(the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the
UCR). At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no
effect—yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that
it will come to evoke a response.
The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response.
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs
naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.
In the before conditioning phase, an unconditioned stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus is then introduced.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the

previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association
between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.

At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the

conditioned stimulus (CS). The subject has now been conditioned to
respond to this stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously
neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned
response. The during conditioning phase involves pairing a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the neutral
stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS,
presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a
response even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting
response is known as the conditioned response (CR).

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously

neutral stimulus. In the after conditioning phase, the conditioned
stimulus alone triggers the conditioned response.

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FINDINGS ON PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT

Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a dog has been
conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the animal may also exhibit the same
response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. Once the dog has
learned to salivate at the sounds of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction refers to occurrences when a conditioned response decrease or disappear.
In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer
paired with an unconditioned stimulus. If you stop pairing the bell with the food,
salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest
period or period of lessened response. Extinguished responses can be “recovered”
after an elapsed time but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with
food.
Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and
other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The dog
could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell
would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning – Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the
bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at
the same time that the bell is rung.

APPLICATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN TEACHING

Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive
classroom environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-
provoking situation, such as performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings
helps the student learn new associations. Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these
situations, the child will learn to stay relaxed and calm.

If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously
have bad results, such as creating a school phobia.

For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate the school with
fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects
that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is
humiliated or punished in class by a teacher.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING BY BURHUSS FREDERICK SKINNER

The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning

was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He
believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an
action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between
a particular behavior and a consequence a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments
for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. It is based upon the notion that learning
is a result of change in overt behavior. Change in behavior are the result of individual’s response to
event (stimuli) that occur in the environment.

According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be
repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Skinner’s Experiment

Rats are placed in a box designed by him.

When lab rats press a lever when a green light
is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward.
When they press the lever when a red light is
on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a
result, they learn to press the lever when the
green light is on and avoid the red light.

Premise of Operant Conditioning

1. Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in
the future.

If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more
likely to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment.

Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is
strengthened.

2. Actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to
occur again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher reprimands you, then
you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

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Types of Behaviors

1. Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your
hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. You don't
have to learn these behaviors. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
2. Operant behaviors are those under our conscious control. Some may occur spontaneously and
others purposely, but it is the consequences of these actions that then influence whether or
not they occur again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of
that action make up an important part of the learning process.

COMPONENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory.

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds
of reinforcers. In both cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Reinforcer is anything that strengthen the desired responses.

1. Positive reinforcement are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or
a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a
positive reinforcer.
Positive reinforcer – any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.

2. Negative reinforcement involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display
of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once
you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively
reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).
Negative reinforcer - any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, it is a reward.

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior
it follows. Punishment is the consequence intended to result in a reduced response.

There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable
event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example
of punishment by application.

2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior
is an example of negative punishment.

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IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN OPERANT CONDITIONING

Behavior Modification - set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning. The main
principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's behavior. For
example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones.
Token economy - system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers). Tokens can be in the form
of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from
snacks to privileges or activities. For example, teachers use token economy at primary school
by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior.
Generalization - involves the elicitation of a response to a stimulus that resembles the
discriminative stimulus. It is useful in that it facilitates the transfer of behavior across similar
situations. For example, a secretary who can type on a typewriter can also type on a computer
keyboard.
Extinction or Non-reinforcement -when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer, this
previously reinforced response decreases in frequency. This is called extinction. For example, a
child will stop throwing tantrums if they are no longer reinforced by paying attention to them.
This happens not because the child has forgotten how to kick and scream, but because such
behavior fails to produce the desired effect. Extinction is different from forgetting.
Discrimination - involves the elicitation of a response only in the presence of a specific
discriminative stimulus, and not in the presence of similar stimuli. Discrimination is useful when
a particular response is not appropriate in similar situations. For example, behavior that is
appropriate in a fast-food restaurant, such as eating with your hands, may not be appropriate
in a French restaurant.
Shaping behavior - successive approximation of the behavior are rewarded. A further important
contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping through successive
approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to
produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way
as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time. Shaping
involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. It is widely used by animal
trainers to teach the animals to perform tricks.
Behavior chaining - comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. Chaining
involves one response leading to the occurrence of another response. Most behaviors occur in
chains. A basic example of chaining is saying the letters of the alphabet. The letter A acts as the
discriminative stimulus to produce the next response, saying the letter B, and so on.

Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedules – the timing and frequency of reinforcement influenced how new behaviors
were learned and how old behaviors were modified.
Fixed interval schedule - target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed
since the last reinforcement. An example is being paid by the hour.
Variable inter schedule – similar to fixed interval schedule but the amount of time that must
pass between reinforcement varies. An example is a self-employed person being paid at
unpredictable times.

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Fixed ratio schedule - fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may
recur. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.
Variable ratio schedule – number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies.
Implication of Operant Conditioning

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and received immediate feedback
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive
reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly
effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (shaping).
3. Reinforcements will generalized across similar stimuli (stimulus generalization) producing secondary
conditioning.

Operant Conditioning Examples

Positive Reinforcement
Students who line up
quietly receive a smiley
sticker.
After performing in a
community theater play,
you receive applause
from the audience. This
acts as a positive
reinforcer, inspiring you
to try out for more
performance roles.

Negative Reinforcement
The teacher ignores a student who shouts out answers but calls on him when he raises his hand.
A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not
have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test),
students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.

Positive Punishment
A student gets detention after being late for class too many times.
If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your performance
in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher, making it less likely that you will
finish projects late in the future.
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Negative Punishment
The teacher moves a student away from her friend because she was talking during a test.
A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her phone
for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a positive stimulus
is taken away.

APPLICATION TO TEACHING

In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and
student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.
A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g., compliments,
approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for
students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at frequent intervals,
and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only
exceptional outcomes are reinforced. For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to
answer questions in class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their
answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and
over time only exceptional answers will be praised.

Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it is important to vary
the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as the
teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Advantages of Using Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

Using operant conditioning in the classroom can be beneficial in many ways. But the most important
effect, at least from the teacher’s perspective, is the establishment of classroom management
techniques. Using operant conditioning can give students immediate feedback about their behavior.
When the teacher rewards positive behavior, other students are more likely to copy that behavior to
earn the reward. The rewarded student is also more likely to repeat that behavior because of the
positive feedback.
Immediate feedback is also useful in curtailing negative classroom behaviors. Light punishment or
withholding of praise can function as operant conditioning in education. When the teacher punishes
negative behavior, other students will want to avoid that punishment, and so they will be less likely to
perform that behavior. The punished student will be less likely to repeat the behavior as well, though
outside factors may come into play.
Disadvantages of Using Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

Using operant conditioning in the classroom can be part of a sound classroom management strategy.
However, relying too heavily on operant conditioning alone has its drawbacks. Operant conditioning in
education relies on extrinsic motivation, or factors outside the students themselves used to motivate
behaviors. The downside to extrinsic motivation is that it is less permanent than intrinsic motivation,
or motivation that comes from inside the self. Intrinsic motivation exists without the presence of
external motivating factors. But when extrinsic motivations are relied on too heavily, when those
motivating factors are removed, the behaviors they shaped are more likely to decrease or disappear as
well. Effective classroom management techniques use a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivating factors. Teachers can incorporate operant conditioning with other strategies for a more
holistic approach.
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CONNECTIONISM THEORY

Connectionism theory states that behavioral responses to specific

stimuli are established through a process of trial and error that affects neural
connections between the stimuli and the most satisfying responses. gave us the
original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. The main principle of connectionism
was that learning could be adequately explained without considering any observable
internal states. Learning occurs through stimulus-response associations derived from
trial and error.
THREE PRIMARY LAWS OF LEARNING

1. Law of Readiness- This law states that learning can only take place when a student is ready to learn.
When students feel ready, they learn more effectively and with greater satisfaction than when not
ready. You can do this by:
Hooking the learners before they ever begin the course. This can be done via a pre-work activity
or a short video introducing the content. By creating anticipation, you are building learner
excitement and motivating them before they ever even access the content.
Letting students know why it is important to learn a subject and what can they expect from the
course. By sharing with the learners what they will learn, you are already motivating the
students to meet standards set forth. Be very clear about how the content will be organized
and lay out the expected outcomes. This removes some anxiety and begins to get the learners
excited about accomplishing tasks set forth.
By designing a course that is not only interesting, but gives the student a measurable sense of what
can be accomplished, and why, you have followed this law!

Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn and they
do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.

2. Law of Exercise- This tells us that the more an S-R (Stimulus response) bond id practiced the stronger
it will become. "Practice makes perfect" seem to be associated with this. Students do not learn complex
task in a single session.
Remember back in grade school when the teacher would have you write spelling words three times
each and then use them in a sentence? Your teacher was practicing this law.
Knowledge not used becomes weakened and disappears from memory. "Use it or lose it" isn't just a
random saying: when it comes to learning, it is completely accurate. You can apply this by:
Providing learners the opportunity to use new information so that it sticks. This means
repeating the information, applying it immediately, or connecting the new information to
existing knowledge.
Providing multiple opportunities for students to go over the material. Add practice problems,
mini-quizzes, knowledge checks, summaries and any other kind of review to help achieve this
goal. Also, create short, but repetitive exercises immediately after a training course. The
constant “recall” leaves a mark and will increase your learner's retention levels significantly.

Things most often repeated are best remembered.

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3. Law of effect- This law states that:

➢ Learning is strengthened when associated with a pleasant or satisfying feeling. Learning is more
likely to happen again in the future.
➢ Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling, becoming less likely for
learning to occur again in the future. Learners will try to avoid it.
➢ Learning occurs when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
Therefore, we can say students are more likely to learn when they feel satisfied or are rewarded for
learning, rather than punished for not learning. They need to feel good in order to retain motivation.
You can accomplish this by:
Creating an eLearning course that includes rewards for completing portions of the course.
Incorporate Q&A’s, discussion forums and social media to encourage learners to interact with
instructors and within each other. By using these social tools, you are inspiring empathy and
creativity as opposed to passive listening. This allows learners to engage more, retain more and
overall get more from your courses.
It feels good to achieve something. You should provide feedback to learners regularly about
their progress, what they have mastered, and if they have met certain goals. Providing this
information will motivate learners as they progress through the course.
For example, a student who gets good grades when she studies. Every time she gets a good grade after
studying, the S-R bond is strengthened, and the student learns even more that studying results in
getting a good grade. On the flip side of that, every time the student gets a bad grade after not studying,
the S-R bond between not studying and good grades is weakened. The student learns that not studying
does not result in good grades and is less likely to not study in the future.
“Learning takes place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it. “

Other Laws of Learning

Law of Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlies
the reason an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the student must learn correctly the
first time.
Law of Intensity
Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation teaches a learner more than a
routine or boring experience. Real world applications (scenarios) that integrate procedures and tasks
the learner is capable of learning make a vivid impression and he or she is least likely to forget the
experience.
Law of Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered.
PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM THORNDIKE'S CONNECTION:
Learning requires both practice and rewards
A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
Transfer of Learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

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CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM

JOHN WATSON
He is the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was
initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior
research. He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the
emotional reaction of love and rage.

The "Little Albert" Experiment

In his most famous and controversial experiment, known today as the "Little Albert" experiment. John
Watson conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. In the beginning Albert was not afraid of the rat;
but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. They accomplished this by
repeatedly pairing the white rat with a loud, frightening clanging noise.

Elements of Classical Conditioning in the Little Albert Experiment

The Little Albert experiment presents and

example of how classical conditioning can
be used to condition an emotional
response.
Neutral Stimulus: The white rat
Unconditioned Stimulus: The loud noise
Unconditioned Response: Fear
Conditioned Stimulus: The white rat
Conditioned Response: Fear

APPLICATION OF BEHAVIORISM IN THE CLASSROOM

Behaviorism and Teachers Behaviorism and Students

Students learn through experiences and practices
Behaviorism is seen when teachers use the following ❖ Learning is also modified with positive and
methods: negative reinforcements
❖ Students begin to give predicted responses
❖ Testing specific skills to a stimulus
❖ More individual work than group learning
Behaviorism and My Classroom
❖ Using positive and negative reinforcement Ways in which I could use behaviorism theory in my
❖ One specific way teachers could incorporate classroom:
❖ Have objectives and expectations clearly
behaviorism is using a point or sticker stated
system to reward student’s good behavior or ❖ Give weekly quizzes/tests
❖ Use positive/negative reinforcement to
good academic performance. encourage and reward my students for good
behavior and to punish bad behavior.

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Help the mouse eat the cheese by finding the quickest way possible.

Did you answer a puzzle similar as this before? Does it help you in solving the maze
puzzle?

How did you solve the maze? Explain the steps and strategies you use.

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Neo Behaviorism postulates that a behavior cannot be full understood simply in terms of observable
stimuli and reactions. Neo behaviorism introduce mediating variables into the behaviorist stimulus-
response scheme.
Purposive Behaviorism
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning
involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the
environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-
directed behavior. Tolman’s system was called purposive behaviorism because it
studies behavior as it is organized around purposes. Purposive behaviorism has
also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman took the stance that all learned behavior has a purpose
rather than just a biological component.
A new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through
series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning.
An organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal.

Tolman stressed the organized aspect of learning:

“The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing
responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control
room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating
routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what responses, if any, the
animal will finally make.”

TOLMAN’S EXPERIMENT
In his famous experiment, he built a maze to investigate latent learning in rats. The study also shows
that rats actively process information rather than operating on a stimulus response relationship.

COGNITIVE MAP
Tolman coined the term cognitive map, which
is an internal representation (or image) of
external environmental feature or landmark.
He thought that individuals acquire large
numbers of cues (i.e. signals) from the
environment and could use these to build a
mental image of an environment (i.e. a
cognitive map).
By using this internal representation of a
physical space they could get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental features.
Short cuts and changeable routes are possible with this model.

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KEY CONCEPTS OF TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.

Tolman asserted the learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He believed individuals do more
than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive
toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.

Cognitive maps
Learning the location of reward. Once an individual has
learned where a given kind of reward is located, that
location can often be reached by means other than those
originally used.
Example: A shopper finds an interesting store while
exploring a city on foot. The shopper can then return to the
store either by car or bus. They learned the location rather
than a specific sequence of turns. He also found out that
organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to
achieve a goal.

Latent Learning
Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is learning
that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even if without
reinforcement.

The concept of intervening variable

Learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other
internal or environmental variables. Intervening variables that are not readily seen but serve as
determinants of behavior.
Example: hunger was the intervening variable with rats.

Reinforcement not essential for learning

Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for
performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of the way through
a maze, i.e, to develop a cognitive map, even the absence of the reinforcement.

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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become
perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development.
While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura
believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. His
theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and
behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling),
this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors. Social
learning theory focuses on the leaning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn
from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation and modeling.
Essentially, people learn by watching others and then imitating these actions.
Bandura goes on to explain that "Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action."
People learn from one another by observational learning, imitation, and modeling.

BANDURA’S EXPERIMENT
It was Albert Bandura’s intention to explain how
children learn in social environments by observing
and then imitating the behavior of others. In
essence, be believed that learning could not be
fully explained simply through reinforcement, but
that the presence of others was also an influence.
He noticed that the consequences of an observed
behavior often determined whether or not
children adopted the behavior themselves. The
experiment involved exposing children to two
different adult models; an aggressive model and a
non-aggressive one. After witnessing the adult's
behavior, the children would then be placed in a
room without the model and were observed to
see if they would imitate the behaviors they had
witnessed earlier.

Through a series of experiments, he watched

children as they observed adults attacking Bobo
Dolls. When hit, the dolls fell over and then
bounced back up again. Then children were then
let loose, and imitated the aggressive behavior of
the adults. However, when they observed adults
acting aggressively and then being punished,
Bandura noted that the children were less willing
to imitate the aggressive behavior themselves.

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Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can
learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this
process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean
that it will result in a change in behavior.
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and
imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s
studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children
were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
aggressive actions they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a
behavior.
A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films,
television programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride,
satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps
connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social
learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive
theory.
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational
learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner
can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be
followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

1.Attention
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that
detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel
aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full
attention to learning.

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2.Retention
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning
process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the
ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational
learning.
3.Reproduction
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the
information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed.
Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.
4.Motivation
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to
be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.
While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can
observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment.
For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for
being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modelling?

1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
Example: student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood
of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else.
Example: an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises
the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences.
Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.
Example: A students observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would
do the same extra work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then
the observer shows an increase in that same response.
Example: a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for
such action, so the children began to also hit the doll.

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COGNITIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LEARNING

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors.
1. Learning without performance
Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the actual imitation of what
has been learned.
2. Cognitive processing during learning
Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations
As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors
are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring
punishment. The learner needs to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and response
punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection.

4. Reciprocal causation
Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In fact, each of
these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each
other.

5. Modeling
There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person demonstrating the
behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other
medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

Collaborative learning and group work
Modeling responses and expectations
Opportunities to observe experts in action
Bandura's social learning theory has had important
implications in the field of education. Today, both teachers
and parents recognize how important it is to model
appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as
encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also
rooted in social learning theory.
As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn
everything you know from personal experience. Observing others plays a vital role in acquiring new
knowledge and skills. By understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater
appreciation for the powerful role that observation plays in shaping the things we know and the things
we do.

One the primary strengths of this theory is its flexibility to explain differences in a child's behavior or
learning. The environmental -- or societal -- aspect of social learning theory says that children learn in
a social context. This reinforces the idea that when there is a change in the child's environment, the
child's behavior may change. For example, a child may have trouble following directions in a relaxed
home environment, but have no problems with authority in a stricter school setting.
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With a heavy emphasis on how the child's environment affects him and directs his learning, this theory
is weak when it comes to the child's accountability for his own actions. Putting the focus on how setting
influences behavior places more weight on the people and community that the child is part of, and not
enough weight on how the child handles and processes new information. It neglects the child's
accountability and may go too far in stating that society directs how the individual behaves and acts.

Effects of modeling on behavior

➢ Modeling teaches new behavior.
➢ Modeling influences the
frequency of previously learned
behaviors.
➢ Modeling may encourage
previously forbidden behavior.
➢ Modeling increases the frequency
of similar behavior.

Educational implications of social learning theory

➢ Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
➢ Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones.
➢ Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
➢ Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors.
➢ Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Positive discipline is a more effective way to manage misbehaving students in the

classroom, rather than using punishment or rewards. It allows students to learn and adapt their
behaviors to meet expectations in the classroom, while simultaneously teaching them how to make
better choices in their path to adulthood.
Classroom Discipline
If a student misbehaves in the classroom, a teacher must have a few techniques that they can use to
reduce or eliminate the unwanted behavior. From misbehaving in the classroom to not doing the
assigned work, there are many ways to deal with unwanted behavior including punishment, discipline,
or even using rewards. However, the most effective method for dealing with students that are
misbehaving in the classroom is using positive discipline. According to the American Academy of
Pediatrics, there are many types of positive discipline, and whatever technique is used to prevent or
reduce misbehavior will only be effective if:
Both the student and teacher understand what the problem behavior is and what the expected
consequence is for the misbehavior
The appropriate consequence is consistently applied every time the misbehavior occurs
The manner you deliver the technique matters (calm versus aggressive)
It gives the students a reason for a specific consequence to help them learn
In most cases, using punishment or rewards is not needed, as the majority of problems or misbehaviors
can be dealt with using positive discipline.

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Difference Between Punishment and Positive Discipline

The meaning of punishment is simple - it's an action or penalty that is imposed on a student for
misbehaving or breaking a rule. However, the impact on students can be very detrimental, from
inducing physical or emotional pain to not being effective in reducing future misbehaviors. Punishment
is used to control the behavior of students, in two different ways:
➢ Negative discipline involves verbal disapproval and reprimands
➢ Corporal punishment involves severe emotional or physical pain
Alternatively, positive discipline is the practice of training or teaching a student to obey the code of
behavior or rules in both the short and long term. Instead of controlling the behavior of students,
teachers can use positive discipline to develop a child's behaviors through self-control and making
positive choices.
According to Teachers Unite, which is a movement of public school teachers fighting for social justice,
punitive punishment toward students — suspensions, aggressive policing and reactive strategies — go
against human rights and fail to address the real problem. However, preventative and constructive
approaches that use positive discipline create a positive school atmosphere and also teaches students
conflict resolution and behavior skills. In the end, positive discipline can help shape a child, by using
encouragement rather than meaningless and even painful consequences, like punishment.
Positive Discipline Techniques
There are tons of techniques that teachers can use to reinforce good behavior with positive discipline,
including:
➢ Set the classroom rules at the start of the ➢ Create individual plans for students
year ➢ Use Praise
➢ Have consistent expectations ➢ Model appropriate behaviors
➢ Set goals at the beginning of class ➢ Provide students with different choices
➢ Appropriate behavior should be reinforced ➢ Remove objects in the environment that cause
➢ Remain neutral during conflicts distractions
➢ Search for the root cause of the ➢ Listen to students
misbehavior
Using these positive discipline techniques will help teachers maintain a positive atmosphere and
support an inclusive learning environment. In fact, when addressing a specific child, it is important for
teachers to work closely with the caregivers and the student to develop a positive discipline plan that
works. One of the most critical parts of positive discipline is to help students learn the new behaviors
that meet expectations in the classroom, home and elsewhere.
Using Rewards and Privileges
Another alternative to punishment and positive discipline is the use of rewards and privileges for good
behavior in the classroom. A reward system can be put in place to encourage good behavior in students
that are misbehaving, from helping out other students to raising their hand instead of blurting out the
answer. On the other hand, a system that uses privileges, such as being able to go to class without an
adult, focuses on good behavior over a period of time and accumulating points toward a certain
privilege. However, using rewards and privileges in the long term can lead to negative outcomes, like
rewarding students just for participating. To avoid a reliance on a rewards system, positive discipline
uses positive and negative consequences to help students learn.

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Module Activity
Make sure to perform all the activities specified on this module.

ACTIVITY 2.1 – BEHAVIORISM

Instruction: Read the article about positive discipline found in the “ADDITIONAL READINGS”. Relate
the article to the concepts of behaviorism and neo-behaviorism theories. Answers must be in essay
form.
Can you still apply the concepts of behaviorism in the context of Positive Discipline? Justify your
answer.

Compare and contrast Punishment and Positive Discipline. Which do you think will be more
effective in facilitating learner-centered teaching? Justify.

In the light of the COVID-19 pandemic, how can educators apply the concepts of behaviorism
and integrate in to positive discipline?

Assuming that schools will resume physical classes but are mandated to do physical distancing,
how will you utilize the Behaviorism and Neo-behaviorism in the classroom? Cite examples and
elaborate your answers.

ACTIVITY 2.1 – NEO-BEHAVIORISM

1. Prove how Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura's Social Learning theory able to bridge
behaviorism and cognitive theory?

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for Operant , Classical Conditioning and Connectionism

Hat Color Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Connectionism Theory

(first impression
when you heard
the theory)

(Important
concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive
aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of
the theory)

(application of the
theory in
teaching)

(your own insight

about the theory)

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for Purposive Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory

Hat Color Purposive Behaviorism Social Learning Theory

(first impression when

you heard the theory)

(Important concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of the
theory)

(application of the theory in

teaching)

(your own insight about the

theory)

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR MODULE 2

Instruction: Read carefully and analyze each question. Encircle the letter of
your answer.

1. The following classroom applications of classical conditioning EXCEPT____________

A. Providing positive classroom environment
B. Helping students experience success
C. Allowing students to have their own interpretation of a concept
D. Presenting lessons gradually making students less threatened

2. Learning occurs when the individual manifests the target response/behavior because he is
rewarded for doing so or avoids undesired response or behavior. This point is in line with which
theory of learning?
A. Classical Conditioning B. Connectionism C. Operant D. Humanism

3. Which of the following pronouncements would fall under Skinner’s definition of negative
reinforcement?
A. No permit, no exam
B. The exam is postponed indefinitely
C. Those who miss the final exam will receive a failing mark
D. No final exam for those with midterm grade of 1.25 or higher

4. Skinner propounded the notion that learning is a result of change of overt behavior caused by
the events that occur in the environment such as school.
A. Shaping pf behavior B. Operant Conditioning
C. Behavioral Chaining D. Reinforcement Schedules

5. Which of the following does not reflect the principle of reinforcement?

A. After finishing the task on time, the teacher let the students have a break
B. The teacher recognized the top scores of the exam
C. When Dolly forgot to bring her book, the teacher let her stay in the corner
D. Many students got exempted for the final exam because they submitted their projects on time.

6.In Science class, Teacher C demonstrated to her students how to do the Science experiment.
With reference to Bandura’s different kinds of models, Teacher C, who demonstrated a behavior in
front of the learners, is an example of a _____ model.
A. Verbal B. Symbolic C. Live D. Virtual

7. During a Basketball training, Coach Herbert tells one of his players to look convincing when
making a fake pass. In Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, Coach Herbert exemplifies as ____ model.
A. Live B. Symbolic C. Verbal D. Virtual

8. Which learning theories defines learning as the changes in what people do or say?
A. Social Theories B. Cognitive Theories C. Gestalt D. Behavioral

9. Learning is a process of forming associations between stimulus and response mainly through
trial and error. Whose theory is this?
A. Edward Lee Thorkdike B. John Watson C. B.F Skinner D. Ivan Pavlov

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10. Learning occurs through either enactively through actual doing or vicariously by observing
models perform the task. Which theory asserts this?
A. Operant B. Classical C. Social Learning D. Purposive Behaviorism

11. Learning can take place only when the individual is emotionally and physically able to form
connections, to do so being satisfying and not to do so is annoying. This means the Law of
__________.
A. Frequency B. Readiness C. Exercise D. Effect

12. Teacher Nice believes that learning is effective when there is plenty of drills and activities in
her lessons. Which Thorndike’s law does she adhere?
A. Primacy B. Readiness C. Exercise D. Effect

13.For Teacher Kesha, learning is strengthened when the students find fun and joy while doing an
activity. What Thorndike’s law does she believes the most?
A. Frequency B. Readiness C. Exercise D. Effect

14. Trina is a perfectionist and hates every time she sees a red pen mark on her test papers. As a
result, she feels uncomfortable seeing people wearing red color. What aspect of Classical
conditioning is this?
A. Extinction B. Stimulus Generalization
C. Discrimination D. Spontaneous Recovery

15. (Continuation of #31) However, if she sees blue or any other color except red, she does not
mind at all. What aspect of Classical Conditioning is this?
A. Extinction B. Stimulus Generalization
C. Discrimination D. Spontaneous Recovery

16. The teacher gives points to students who answered correctly. What concept of Operant
Conditioning is this?
A. Negative Punishment B. Positive Punishment
C. Negative Reinforcer D. Positive Reinforcer

17. After seeing the Report Card of Nikka, her parents took her cell phone because they believed
her low grades is a result of too much Social Media. What concept of Operant Conditioning is this?
A. Negative Punishment B. Positive Punishment
C. Negative Reinforcer D. Positive Reinforcer

18. The English teacher announces that those participants that will win in the upcoming Intramurals
will be exempted from taking the semi-finals. What concept of Operant Conditioning is this?
A. Negative Punishment B. Positive Punishment
C. Negative Reinforcer D. Positive Reinforcer

19. All students listed on the “misbehaved students of the day” will clean the classroom before they
can go home. What concept of Operant Conditioning is this?
A. Negative Punishment B. Positive Punishment
C. Negative Reinforcer D. Positive Reinforcer

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20. Which of the following theories belongs to Edward Tolman?

A. Social Learning Theory B. Purposive Behaviorism
C. Stimulus-Response Theory D. Behaviorism

21. Four cognitive processes associate with Social Learning. Which one involves focusing on
behavior to be learned?
A. Retention B. Motivation C. Motor Reproduction D. Attention

22. Which of the following least relates to Social Learning Theory?

A. Retention B. Repetition C. Motor Reproduction D. Attention

23.Mrs. Yolly makes sure that she synthesizes the topics and let her students draw out the key
ideas of the topic. If she is following the Gestalt approach, which law is she applying?
A. Proximity B. Pragnanz C. Closure D. Continuity

24. Staying in class while the students do the group activities is derived from what law of Gestalt
theory?
A. Proximity B. Pragnanz C. Closure D. Continuity

25. In developing our lesson, teachers should see to it that it is arranged from simple concepts to
more complex concepts in order to established a foundation of knowledge. From what Gestalt law
is this derived?
A. Proximity B. Pragnanz C. Closure D. Continuity

26. If you are going to apply Social Learning principles in the classroom, which practice will directly
relate?
A. Doing higher-order thinking skills B. Assessing learning using reliable tools
C. Considering the student’s differences C. Ensuring active student participation

27. Which of the following BEST describes learning in the perspective of a Behaviorist?
A. compendium of information learned B. process of maturation and changed
C. holistic development of the learner D. change in observable behaviors

28. Teacher Willie makes sure that all eyes are on her as she demonstrates the proper behavior for
lighting a Bunsen burner. Whose theory supports his practice?
A. B.F Skinner B. Ivan Pavlov C. John Watson D. Albert Bandura

29. Learning occurs when stimulus that is neutral with respect to a particular response is paired
with a stimulus that elicits such response until the originally neutral stimulus elicits the same
response as well. What behaviorist theory is referred here?
A. Operant Conditioning B. Connectionism Theory
C. Social Learning Theory D. Classical Conditioning

30. In a Kindergarten class, Teacher MJ always gives “stars” to students who performs well in their
task. As a result, the students tried their best to do their activity so they can get a “star”. What
behaviorist theory is applied to the situation?
A. Operant Conditioning B. Connectionism Theory
C. Social Learning Theory D. Classical Conditioning

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Name: ___________________________________________Program: ___________ Schedule: _____________

MODULE ACTIVITY RUBRIC

Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning

Content 20-18 17-15 14-12 11-1
Covers topic completely by Includes essential Includes some Includes little essential
answering the evaluation information in essential information information in answering
questions. Includes answering the in answering the the evaluation questions
properly cited sources and evaluation questions. evaluation questions
complete information. Includes enough
Encourages readers to elaboration to give
know more. readers an
understanding of the
topic.
Organization 20-18 17-15 14-12 11-1
Excellent organization; clear Organized effectively Adequately Disorganized; little
topic sentences; transitions but could be refined/ organized; needs coherent structure;
between ideas are tightened a bit (better better division confusing.
handled well topic sentences, between ideas.
transitions, etc.)
Writing Quality 10-8 7-5 4-3 2-1
Well written and clearly Above average Average and/or casual Poor writing style lacking
organized using standard writing style and writing style that is in standard English,
English, characterized by logically organized sometimes unclear clarity, language used,
elements of a strong writing using standard English and/or with some and/or frequent errors in
style and basically free from with minor errors in errors in grammar, grammar, punctuation,
grammar, punctuation, grammar, punctuation, usage, usage, and spelling.
usage, and spelling punctuation, usage, and spelling Needs work.
errors. and spelling.

Activity Number / Title (Write the title here) Score (Note: For instructor’s use only!!!)

Total Points

You have successfully completed Module 1 of this Couse

Packet. Please evaluate your understanding about the
module. See on the next module!

Module Reflection

Task: Color the circle that describes your level of understanding for this module. Then complete the phrase.

Go! I understand the lesson and learned about _____________________________________________________

I understand the lesson but wait, I still need to learn more about ______________________________________

Stop, I need more help especially ________________________________________________________________

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MODULE
3

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1.Demonstrate understanding on the ideas and concepts of various cognitive

learning theories
2.Explain the different cognitive learning theories and its implication in
facilitating a learner-centered experience
3.Evaluate the salient features of the different cognitive learning theories
4. Utilize the different concepts of the learning theories by applying it into the
real world scenario of facilitating learner-centered teaching
5. Reflect one’s own role in applying and implementing the cognitive theories
in facilitating learner-centered teaching.

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COURSE STUDY GUIDE

College of Education
Program: Bachelor of Elementary/ Secondary Education
Course Code: ED 216
Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
University of the Visayas Credit Unit: Three Units (3)
Module 3 WEEK NO. 3
Module Topic Cognitive Perspective
Intended Learning 1.Demonstrate understanding on the ideas and concepts of various cognitive learning
Outcomes theories
2.Explain the different cognitive learning theories and its implication in facilitating a
learner-centered experience
3.Evaluate the salient features of the different cognitive learning theories
4. Utilize the different concepts of the learning theories by applying it into the real world
scenario of facilitating learner-centered teaching
5. Reflect one’s own role in applying and implementing the cognitive theories in
facilitating learner-centered teaching.
No. of Hours 13.5 hours
1. Why do educators need to be aware of the importance of the different cognitive theories?
2. What are the necessary concepts that influences the learning experience of the learners?
Study Questions 3. How can I use the concepts proposed by the cognitive theories?
4. What will be the different considerations that I need to keep in mind in using these theories in
facilitating learner centered teaching?
Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
Print Module 3–Lesson 1 : Course Module on Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, 3rd
Digital Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching edition. Corpuz et.al, Lorimar Publishing

(Printed for Offline. OTG USB for Hybrid, MS Teams

for Online)
Activity
Students will be provided with an activity to condition their minds about the possible topic they will
explore
Analysis
Learning Activity Students will give their initial thoughts based from the “Activity”
Abstraction
Students will read and understand the content of the module
Application
Students will apply what they have learned by doing the performance task.
1. Six Thinking Hats Analysis
Required Output 2. Module Activity
3.. Major Examination - Prelim
Assessment Task 1.Module Activity
2. Summative Assessment
1. Rubric for Module Activity
Assessment Tool 2. Rubric for Six Thinking Hats Analysis
3. Microsoft Forms/ Questionnaire for Summative Assessment
Target Competency Metacognitive Skills, Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:

Jade S. Tagab Jhon Mark I. Aroa , M.Ed Dr. Nerissa S. Lopez

Date: Date: Date:

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Read this as fast as you Decode the word by looking at Read the words twice and
can!!! the clue. First one is done for try to remember as many as
you. you can.

Exa Avocado
Peta Guava
Tera Mango
Giga Orange
Mega Grapes
Kilo Banana
Pear
Hecto
Lansones
Deka
Dragon Fruit
Deci Star Apple
Centi Watermelon
Milli Durian
nano

What is your answer on the first challenge? What could be the reason why you were able to
read it?

What is your answer for the second challenge? What could be the reason why you were able
to decode it?

What are the words that you memorize? What are the words that you always forget? What
do you think is the reason behind it?

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COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Cognitivism grew in response to behaviorism. It emphasizes that knowledge is stored cognitively as
symbols. It stresses that learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable
way. The studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

INSIGHT LEARNING THEORY

The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he describes experiments
with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. It posits that learning
could occur by “sudden comprehension” as opposed to gradual understanding; this could occur
without reinforcement. According to this theory, gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring,
analyzing, and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived.

GESTALT THEORY
It is a school of psychology founded in the 20th century that provided the foundation
for the modern study of perception. Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of
anything is greater than its parts. That is, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis
of the parts in isolation. The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been
“placed,” or “put together. The primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION and how people assign
meanings to visual stimuli. “The whole is more than the sum of all its parts” which means that the parts
are only secondary to the whole. Hence, in learning, one must examine the whole to discover what its
natural parts are and not proceed from smaller elements to wholes.
The proponent of this theory were Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka.
Max Wertheimer
Regarded as one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, Wertheimer is also known for his concept
of the phi phenomenon. The phi phenomenon involves perceiving a series of still images in rapid
succession in order to create the illusion of movement.
Kurt Koffka
Know as one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, Kurt Koffka had diverse interests and studied
many topics in psychology including learning, perception, and hearing impairments.
Wolfgang Kohler
Also a key founding figure in the history of the Gestalt movement, Kohler also famously summarized
Gestalt theory by saying, "The whole is different than the sum of its parts." He was also known for his
research on problem-solving, his criticisms of the introspection used by the structuralists to study the
human mind, and his opposition to behaviorism.

The three of them concluded that learners were not passive, but rather active. Learners do not just
collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it.
Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect their perception.

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GESTALT PRINCIPLES

According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by certain
principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or situation.

Law of Proximity
Elements that are closer together will be perceived as coherent object.
Law of Similarity
Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.
There seems to be a triangle in the square. We link similar elements
together
Law of Closure
We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive. We enclose a
space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
Law of Good Continuation
Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the
elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to
draw a good continuous line.
Law of Good Pragnanz
The stimulus will be organized into as good as figure as possible. In this
example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity, and regularity. The figure
is perceive as a square overlapping a triangle ,not a combination of
several complicated shapes. Based on our experiences with perception,
we “expect” certain patterns and perceive that expected pattern.

Law of Figure/Ground
We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A
stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground.

Relevance of Gestalt Psychology to Education according to Marion Polito

Gestalt psychology is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It takes
interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all
that emerges. It stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning.
Knowledge is conceived as a continuous organization and rearrangement of information according to
needs, purposes and meanings. Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher.

Gestalt is a theory of learning that focuses on the minds perspective. It is useful as a behavioral tool as
it enables the teacher to channel the pupil’s energy into thinking of an item or subject as parts of a
whole, e.g. a car, being metal, paint, wheels etc. By thinking of components and breaking down a
situation it enables for a more psychological process to take place and over time will broaden a pupil’s
mind into thinking of the sum of the whole rather than just a complete thing of situation.

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

This theory describes the psychological events in terms
of transformations of information from the input to
output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and memory in the
learning process. It states that human mind’s activity of taking in,
storing, and using information. The whole system is guided by the
control processes that determine how and when information will flow
through the system. Early information processing views of memory used
the computer as a model. Like the computer, the human mind takes in
information, performs operations on it to change its form and content,
stores the information, retrieves it when needed and generates
responses to it.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

1. Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
2. Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
3. Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time, and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

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Types of Memory
1. Sensory Register
Information retrieved through the senses and held for initial
processing for transfer to short-term memory; if nothing happens the
information will be forgotten.
Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is
more than what our minds can hold or perceive.
Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an
extremely brief period-in order of 1-3 seconds
Subcategories
1. Iconic Memory
This refers to immediate visual memories. Say something flashed on your computer screen for less
than a second. Your brain will "remember" what it saw very briefly, even after the image is gone.
Beyond the 0.5 second mark, anything you "remember" goes on to short-term memory.
2. Echoic Memory
Sometimes referred to as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory pertains to audio memories.
Overall, echoic memories are stored slightly longer than iconic memories: about four seconds. If you
hear a few notes of a melody, you may able to hum it back immediately after it finishes. However, if
you were asked for the melody again in a few minutes, you may be unable to remember it unless it
transferred to short-term memory.
3. Haptic Memory
This refers to memories involving the sense of touch. Just like with iconic and echoic memory, haptic
memory is equally fleeting. If you run your hand over a rough surface, you'll remember the exact
sensation you felt for a few seconds. After that, the memory needs to be encoded into short-term
memory for later recall.
The Role of Attention
To move the information into consciousness, we
need to attend to it. That is, we only have the
ability to perceive and remember later those
things that pass through the attention gate.

2.Short Term Memory (Working Memory)

This refers to the temporary storage of
information in memory. It serves as a storage that stores new information for 15-20 seconds.
Information is held, organized for storage or for discarding/ connections to other information through
rehearsal and repetition
3. Long Term Memory
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the stored
information until needed again. Information kept for a long period of time as it is integrated with
already known information through rehearsal, elaboration and organization.
Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity
Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

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TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
General vs. Specific- This involves whether the
knowledge is actual in many tasks or only in one

Conditional – This is about “knowing when and why”

to apply declarative or procedural strategies

Explicit or Declarative Memory

Factual information stored in our memory systems that can be recalled voluntarily and consciously.
Examples include social security number, home address, faces, or phone numbers.
Episodic Memory – this memory includes personal events that we have witnessed. For
example, your episodic memory will provide answer, when asked where you spent the last
summer. Memories in your episodic memory are more easily retrieved base on how
exceptional they are.
Semantic memory covers general facts – the information we have about the world around us.
Another thing that makes semantic memory distinct is that, the memory doesn’t necessarily
contain how or when a particular information was learned. This type of memory provides
answer to questions such as, “Who was the first man in the moon?”
Implicit or Non-Declarative Memory
Those memories stored in your memory system, but can’t be talked about. This type of memory is
usually acquired unconsciously.
Even though the actual events can’t be remembered or explained- implicit memories can affect one’s
thoughts and behaviors later in life.
Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things like steps in baking a cake.

Executive Control Processes or Metacognitive Skills

It guides the information through the system, helps the learner make informed decisions about how
to categorize, organize, or interpret information.
Forgetting
The inability to access information when needed. This could be because of decay or interference.
Decay is the weakening and fading of memory with the passage of time. If information is not
attended to, and eventually fades away. This very prevalent in working memory.
Interference happens when processing new information interferes with old information. New
or old information “blocks” access to the information in question.

Methods for increasing Retrieval of Information

Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
Meaningful Learning – This is making connection between new information and prior
knowledge.
Organization – It is making connection among various pieces of information.
Elaboration – This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what
Visual Imagery – This means forming a “picture” of the information.
Generation – Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear.

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Context – Remembering the situation helps recover information.

Personalization – It is making the information relevant to the individual.
Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will
remember the beginning and end of ‘list’ most readily.
Part Learning – Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to increase memorization.
Distributed Practice – Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once
(massed Practice).
Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain
and retrieve information more effectively.
• Loci Method – Familiar place, associate list with items in place
• Acronym – TRAIN Law
• Chain Mnemonics – My Very Earthly Mother Sat Under Neath (Planets of the Solar
System)

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING

APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM

1. Gain the students' attention.

• Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
• Move around the room and use voice inflections.

2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.

• Review previous day's lesson.
• Have a discussion about previously covered content.

3. Point out important information. • Provide handouts.

• Write on the board or use transparencies.

4. Present information in an organized • Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.

manner.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.

5. Show students how to categorize • Present information in categories.

(chunk) related information.
• Teach inductive reasoning.

6. Provide opportunities for students to • Connect new information to something already known.
elaborate on new information.
• Look for similarities and differences among concepts.

7. Show students how to use coding • Make up silly sentence with first letter of each wordin the list.
when memorizing lists.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.

• State important principles several times in different ways during

8. Provide for repetition of learning. presentation of information (STM).
• Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
• Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).

9. Provide opportunities for over learning • Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
of fundamental concepts and skills.
• Use content related to class.

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CONDITIONS OF LEARNING THEORY BY ROBERT GAGNE

This theory states that learning occurs as the individual

develops level skills that build successively on previously learned lower
skills. Human learning is cumulative which means that learning a certain
skill contributes to the learning of a more complex skills. Human learning
is viewed as both complex and diverse. Learning is a set of cognitive
processes that transforms the stimulation from the environment into
capabilities. The proponent of this theory was Robert Gagne. He believes
that external observer could recognize learning by noting behavioral
changes that remains persistent over time. He also stated that learning
has two parts, one that is external to the learner and one that is internal.

Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes
(Five varieties of learning)
Gagne’s theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of
learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that each different type of
learning calls for different types of instruction. Gagne named five
categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Distinct internal and external
conditions are required for each type of learning. For instance, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for
problem solving; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to
credible role model or arguments that are convincing and moving.
Five Categories of Learning

I. Verbal Information - This refers to the organized bodies of

knowledge that we acquire. They may be classified as names, facts,
principles, and generalizations.
Example: (being able to state ideas, “knowing that”, or having declarative
knowledge)

II. Intellectual skills- Intellectual skills involve the use of symbols such
as numbers and language to interact with the environment. They
involve knowing how to do something rather than knowing that
about something.
Example: (“knowing how” or having procedural knowledge)

Sub-Categories of Intellectual Skills

Discriminations - It is the ability to distinguish one feature of an object or symbol from another
such as textures, letters, numbers, shapes, and sounds.
Concrete Concepts- The ability to identify a class of objects, object qualities, or relations by
pointing out one or more examples or instances of the class

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Defined Concepts – It requires a learner to define both general and relational concepts by
providing instances of a concept to show its definition.
Rules - It is a learned capability of the learner, by making it possible for the learner to do
something rather than just stating something.
Higher-Order Rule - Process of combining rules by learning into more complex rules used in
problem solving.
III. Cognitive strategies
It refers to the process that learners guide their learning,
remembering, and thinking.
Example: (having certain techniques of thinking, ways of analyzing
problems, and having approaches to solving problems)
IV. Attitudes
The internal state that influences the choices of personal actions
made by an individual towards some class of things, persons, or
events.
Example: (mental states that influence the choices of personal actions)
V. Motor skills
Are the precise, smooth, and accurately timed executions of
movements involving the use of muscles. They are a distinct type of
learning outcome and necessary to the understanding of the range
of possible human performances.
Example: (executing movements in a number of organized motor
acts such as playing sports or driving a car)

2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.
Gagne suggests that according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure
following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem
solving.
The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to
facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a
learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type
of learning outcome. (Nine Instructional Events)
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis
designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. The theory includes nine instructional events
and corresponding cognitive processes.

4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.

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Nine Events of Instruction by Robert Gagne

1. Gain attention of the students
Ensure the learners are ready to learn and NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
participate in activities by presenting a stimulus to
gain their attention.
2. Inform students of the objectives
Inform students of the objectives or outcomes to
help them understand what they are to learn during
the course. Provide objectives before instruction
begins.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
Help students make sense of new information by
relating it to something they already know or
something they have already experienced.
4. Present the content
Use strategies to present and cue lesson content to
provide more effective, efficient instruction.
Organize and chunk content in a meaningful way.
Provide explanations after demonstrations.
5. Provide learning guidance
Advise students of strategies to aid them in learning
content and of resources available.
6. Elicit performance (practice)
Activate student processing to help them
internalize new skills and knowledge and to confirm
correct understanding of these concepts.
7. Provide feedback
Provide immediate feedback of students’
performance to assess and facilitate learning.
8. Assess performance:
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the
instructional events, you must test to see if the
expected learning outcomes have been achieved.
Performance should be based on previously stated
objectives.
9.Enhance Retention and Transfer
To help learners develop expertise, they must
internalize new knowledge

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Implications for teaching and learning

Since lessons are tailored for students (student centered):
Students become actively involved in lessons.
Learner will feel motivated.
Learner will be more focused on the content.
While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is
on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains.
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the
basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.

The role of the teacher

Instructors begin by identifying learning outcomes desired for the course.
In theory, the teaching objectives you identify for your course should fall into one of the
following forms of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies,
attitudes, or motor skills.
Once student learning outcomes are established, context must be considered—specifically the
conditions needed for learning to occur (both internally and externally). It is important to
remember that special conditions must be met for different types of learning.
A teacher should give frequent written and oral tests
A teacher should employ a variety of instructional strategies in classroom.
A teacher should use Gagne conditions for learning in lesson planning.
Contextualize Instruction
Description: Allow the learner to take ownership of the lesson by providing a customized, meaningful
learning experience.
Strategies: Ways to contextualize instruction for learners include:
Gain attention of the learner
Relate instructional goals to the learner
State the outcomes of the instruction
Present overviews and organizers
Adapt content of the instruction to the learner
Provide cases related to the content
Advantages
The domains of learning help teachers better organize their thoughts and the objectives of the
instructional lesson (it is a good way to put more structure into the objectives of lesson plans).
The domains of learning help teachers to better understand what types oflearning to expect
to see from their students.
Disadvantages
The theory is very systematic and rigid at most points. The systematic nature of the theory
may be a turn-off for many teachers, particularly those who like to be creative.
The theory is not always easy to implement. Many times it is difficult to take the goals a
teacher had for students, put them into the correct learning outcome category, and then
create objectives using Gagne's standard verbs.

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MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING / SUBSUMPTION THEORY

This theory states that

learning takes place when the newly
acquired information finds some
connection with what is already known
or simply relating new knowledge to old
knowledge already in the memory. It
states that meaningful learning results
when information is acquired by linking
the new information in the learner’s
own cognitive structure. David Ausubel
was the proponent of the theory.
Ausubel postulated meaningful learning
theory where an individual learns by
relating newly acquired information
with what the learner already knows.
The major instructional mechanism
proposed by Ausubel is the use of
advanced organizers, which help to link
new material with existing new ideas.
Features of Subsumption Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of the
learner’s present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories
and raw perceptual data that learner has available to him/her at any point in time this comprises
his/her cognitive structure.
Cognitive structures – a person’s store of information, overall framework that incorporates new
knowledge, prerequisite to meaningful learning.

2. Meaningful Learning Set

Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to ideas
that the learner already possesses. Before new material can be presented effectively, the student’s
cognitive structure should be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new
information is facilitated.
Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies
that one’s own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned.
Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.
Meaningful – learn in a particular meaningful way, related logically and can interact with new
material.
Rote Learning – learn the material in a word for word fashion, simple without any real
interaction from new material
Methods to Learning
Reception – passive learning, learner is presented with the material to be learned
Discovery – active learning, learner must first discover the material to be learned

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Meaningful learning can take place through four process

Derivative Subsumption
This describes the situation in which the new
information you learn is an example of concept
that you have already learned.

Correlative Subsumption
This describes the situation in which new
information you learn that is not in your
existing knowledge.
Superordinate learning
This occurs when you already know a lot of
examples of the concept but did not know the
concept itself until it was taught in school.
Combinatorial learning Ali learn about modification on the plants part,
It describes a process by which the new idea is Ali might relate it to previously acquired
derived from the previous knowledge but in a knowledge of how papyrus tree used to produce
different but related branch. It is learning by paper
analogy.

3. Advanced Organizer
New material is presented in a systematic way, and is connected to existing cognitive structures in a
meaningful way. The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The way to
strengthen the student’s cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to
already have a bird’s eye view or to see the “big picture” of the topic to be learned even before going
to the details. His belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption.
He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by which new material is
related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. The advance organizer, gives you two
benefits:
(1.) You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic.
(2.) You can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other.

As you go about learning about the topic and go through the four learning process, the advance
organizer helps you link the new learning to your existing scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate
learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure.
Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews and summaries which
simply emphasize key ideas presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the
material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related
ideas.

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TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZER

Expository – describes the new content. It gives students a broad idea of the lesson’s purpose before
the lesson begins.
Narrative – presents the new information in form of a story to students.
Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview such as chapter headings
Graphic organizer – structure information visually or in pictures visual to set up or outline the new
information. This may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps.
KWL Charts – popular form of advance organizer. Before a lesson begins, students may be asked to
divide a page into three columns- what they know, what I want to know, and what they want to learn.
Analogy like Venn diagram are comparisons of two things that are alike in some way.

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES

1. The most general ideas of the subject should be presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He called this progressive differentiation.
According to Ausubel, the purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability
and clarity of anchoring ideas.

The basic idea here is that, if you’re teaching three related topics A, B and C, rather than
teaching all topic A, then B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That is, in your first pass
through the material, you would teach the “big” ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in
all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin to elaborate the details.

2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented
information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY BY JEROME BRUNER

As perspective in education, is based on experimental learning

through real life experience to construct knowledge. The learning goal is the highest
order of learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity,
and originality that may modify existing knowledge and allow for creation of new
knowledge.
A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct
new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a
progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners.
Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material
so long as the instruction is organized appropriately.

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REPRESENTATIONS
Bruner was concerned with how knowledge is represented and organized through different modes of
thinking (or representation). In his research on the cognitive development of children, Jerome Bruner
proposed three modes of representation:
Enactive representation
At the earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions on physical objects and
the outcomes of these actions. (i.e. riding,
bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple,
building blocks)
Iconic representation
This second stage is when learning can be
obtained through using models and pictures.
Symbolic representation
In this third stage, the learner has developed
the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses
symbol system to encode knowledge.

Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities to
facilitate learning.
Before children can comprehend abstract mathematical operations, teachers can first have the
numbers represented enactively (w/ blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures) and children can later
handle number concepts (symbolic).

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SPIRAL CURRICULUM

Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting

cognitive development. BRUNER stressed that teaching
should always lead to boosting cognitive development.
Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the
student continually builds upon what they have already
learned. Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the
same content in different ways depending on students
developmental levels. Students will not understand the
concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s
level of understanding. In a spiral curriculum, teachers must
visit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different
ways depending on students’ development levels.
Bruner adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex
information: He explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This
involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first,
and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.
Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral
analogy). Ideally, teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.
Concepts of Spiral Curriculum
Learner builds on past experience
Students interact with environment
Discovers facts and relationships on own
Students create own construct of knowledge through narrative
Principles of Instruction stated by Bruner
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing
and able to learn (readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the students (spiral organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given

DISCOVERY LEARNING
This theory posits that learning is most meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to
discover on their own the relationships among concepts or to actively search for a solution to a
problem. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can
understand. Discovery learning means obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and
arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore and investigate.
A distinction is usually made between pure discovery learning, in which the students work on their
own to a very great extent, and guided discovery, in which the teacher provides some direction.
Discovery Learning – students work on their own to discover basic principles
Guided Discovery – An adaptation of discovery learning, in which the teacher provides some direction.

Examples of Discovery Learning

learning with and through narratives simulation-based learning guided discovery
case-based learning incidental learning problem-based learning

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Four Major Aspects in Bruner’s Theory

1. Predisposition to learn – introduced the idea of “readiness for learning”

This feature specifically the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in
general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors
contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teachers and parents' influence on
this. He believed learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a
teacher is to maintain and direct a child's spontaneous explorations.
2. Structure of Knowledge -This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured
so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.
A body of knowledge must be in a simple enough form for the learner to understand it and it must
be in a form recognizable to the student's experience.
3. Effective sequencing - No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be
presented in increasing difficulty.
A body of knowledge must be in a simple enough form for the learner to understand it and it must
be in a form recognizable to the student's experience.
No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of
it, can make learning easier or more difficult.
4. Reinforcement - Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately.
The more common concept of reinforcement is that of external reinforcement or providing the
student with a reward for learning something to motivate them. Bruner sees this as artificial and
a short-term gain at best. When the external reinforcement goes away so does the learning, and
a teacher can't always be there to provide inexorable reinforcement or reward. For Bruner it is
better to skip these extra reinforcers and rely instead on the intrinsic motivation of students
which is neither artificial nor contrived.

CATEGORIZATION
Bruner believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making, and making
inferences all involved categorization.
Four things that specify about objects
1. Criterial attributes- required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.
2. Prescribes how the criterial attributes are combined.
3. Assigns weight to various properties.
4. Sets acceptance limits on attributes. For Example: (VEHICLE w/o an engine is not a car or 2 WHEELS
would not be included in “car”

Categories
1. Identity categories -categories include objects based on their attributes or features.
2. Equivalent categories -Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects
equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions.
3. Coding Systems - are categories that serve to recognize sensory input.

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Benefits
Constructivist teaching places more emphasis on sensory input, something that has long been
overlooked by many traditional educators. In the days of old, students were expected to sit through
lectures, take notes and take tests. While some of that still occurs in classrooms, more and more
educators are learning that students need to be fully involved in the learning process, using all of their
senses, not just their eyes and ears. Learners aren’t just passive participants in the classroom; they
need to be actively involved in “the bigger picture” of the world around them.
The constructivist teaching method has been used in special education settings for some time. It is
quite effective for those students who have special needs like sensory processing disorder or those on
the Autistic spectrum. Some of these students have brilliant minds, but simply can’t be reached through
traditional methods. Rather than simply doling out information, a teacher is more of a guide for a
learning journey and actively participates in the learning process with the students as well as
encouraging them to challenge ideas.

Disadvantages
The biggest disadvantage is its lack of structure. Some students require highly structured environments
in order to be able to excel.
Constructivism calls for the teacher to discard standardized curriculum in favor or a more personalized
course of study based on what the student already knows. This could lead some students to fall behind
of others.
It also removes grading in the traditional way and instead places more value on students evaluating
their own progress, which may lead to students falling behind but without standardized grading and
evaluations teachers may not know that the student is struggling. Since there is no evaluation in the
traditional sense, the student may not be creating knowledge as the theory asserts, but just be copying
what other students are doing.
Another disadvantage is that it can actually lead students to be confused and frustrated because they
may not have the ability to form relationships and abstracts between the knowledge they already have
and the knowledge they are learning for themselves.
Constructivism can have its place in the learning system, but as an absolute learning system it has some
flaws. Students may benefit with some constructivism principles integrated into the classroom setting,
however, most students need more structure and evaluation to succeed.

Topological and Vector Theory/ Field Theory by Kurt Lewin

Behavior is the function of the present life space. This theory has also extended the
concept of “wholeness” of the learning condition by showing the role played by the cultural and social
environment in determining what man responds to. The behavior of an individual at a given moment
is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space (internal and external forces).
An individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions in learning. Inner forces include
person’s motivation, attitudes, and feelings. Outer forces may be attitude of parents or teachers. Lewin
explains the individual behavior on the basis of life-space. An individual’s life-space depends on his psychological
force. It includes the person; his drives, tensions, thoughts and his environment, which consists of perceived
objects and events.
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Lewin represents his theory through a diagram in which an individual is in the center. He moves through
his life-space which consists of the totality of facts that determine his behavior at a given time.
A life-space contains the individual himself, the goals he is seeking (positive valence) or avoiding
(negative valence), the barriers that restrict the individual’s movements and the path he must follow
to reach his goal.
Desire creates tensions in the individual and tensions come to a balancing state and the person acts.
After the goal has been achieved, the organism (individual) returns to a state of repose until a new
desire activates him.
In Lewin’s theory, threat, goal and barrier are the main factors. An individual who has to achieve some
goal has to cross a barrier. The barrier may be psychological or physical. Because of the changes in the
barrier in the life- space of an individual, continuous reconstruction takes place.
Lewin’s theory is called field theory as to a psychologist field means the total psychological world in
which a person lives at a certain time. It includes matters and events of past, present and future,
concrete and abstract, actual and imaginary – all interpreted as simultaneous aspects of a situation.
Lewin states that each person exists within a field of forces. The field of forces to which the individual
is responding or reacting is called his life-space.
Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new insight or
changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of connecting stimuli
and responses within a biological organism. Field psychology explains development of insight as a
change in cognitive structure of life-space.
Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learnt develops new insight or
changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of connecting stimuli
and response within a biological organism.

Lewin’s theory may be explained as under:

Suppose a person P is moving towards a goal of getting social recognition. But to achieve the goal, he
has to apologies. New asking for apology is the barrier coming in his way. The barrier may be physical
or psychological forces preventing him from reaching the goal. These forces organize themselves into
a pattern which determines his future behavior.

Main Concepts of Lewin’s Field Theory:

Lewin’s system leans heavily on concepts derived from topology, a branch of higher mathematics that
deals with transformation in space, from vector analysis, or the mathematics of directed lines and from
the sciences of chemistry and physics concepts as Valence, equilibrium and field force. Lewin’s most
important publication is Principles of Topological Psychology (1936).
The main concepts used in Lewin’s field theory are as follows:
1. Topology:
It is also called topological. Two basic concepts which topological space denotes are:
(i) Connectedness, and (ii) Part-whole relationships.

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Topological concepts are used to represent the structure of life- space in such a way as to define the
range of possible perceptions and actions. This is accomplished by showing the arrangements of the
functional parts of life-space. The parts are shown as various regions and their boundaries. When an
individual structures his life-space, he divides it into regions.
2. Vector:
The term vector represents a force which is influencing movement towards a goal or away from it. If
there is only one vector (force), there is movement in the direction of the vector. However, if there are
two or more vectors acting simultaneously in different directions, the movement is in the direction of
the resultant force.
3. Life-Space:
It is also called the psychological field. The psychological field is the space in which the person moves
psychologically. It contains the whole of one’s psychological reality – one’s self and what one thinks of
or what one gains from one’s physical and social environment.
4. The Person in Life-Space:
The person is often represented as a point moving about in his life-space, affected by pulls and pushes
upon him, circumventing barriers in his locomotion in his own life-space.
5. Valence:
When a person is attracted by an object, that object is said to have a positive valence. When a person
is repelled by an object that is said to have a negative valence. The person tends to move towards a
region in life- space that has positive valence and he tends to move away from a region in life-space
that has negative valence. Because life-space may contain regions with several valences active at a
time, these give rise to conflict, especially when the opposing forces are approximately in balance.

Lewin specifies three chief kinds of conflict:

(1) Two Positive Valence:
Such as when a child has to choose between going to picnic and playing with his friends.
(2) A Simultaneous Positive and Negative Valence:
Such as when a child is offered for a reward for the school task he does not wish to perform.
(3) Two Negative Valence:
Such as when a child is threat-end with punishment if he does not do a task which he does not wish to
perform.
6. Distance and Direction:
When there is a close correspondence between life-space and physical space, physical distances and
directions may be used for experimental purposes as approximations of distances and directions in life
space.
7. Behaviour:
Lewin regards behaviour as a function of present life space. He insists that behaviour depends upon
the present and not upon the past or future.
8. Barrier:
It is a dynamic part of an environment which resists motion through it. It stands in the way of a person’s
reaching his goal.
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9. Goal:
Goal is a region of valence-region of life-space to which a person is psychologically attracted.
10. Tension:
It is very closely to and is descriptive of psychological needs. Release of tension may be achieved either
through reaching a goal or through reconstructing a life-space.
11. Cognitive Structure:
It is an environment including a person as known by the person. It is synonymous with insight or
understanding.

The Learning Process

Learning is the most universal and important occupation of a man. It is the great task of childhood and
youth. This is the means of achieving progress in any period in one’s life. At every moment in his life,
man engage to some form of learning.
Learning is integrated, directed, systematic, purposive, and ongoing process that occurs in the
individual that enables him to meet specific objectives, fulfill his interest, and satisfy his needs, and
cope with problems that confront him.
Phases of Learning according to Lewin’s Theory
1. Unfreezing
Stage where individual become motivated and ready to consider changes in attitudes, behaviors,
knowledge and skills.
2. Problem Diagnosis
Stage of determining and examining the forces supporting the need for change.
3. Goal-Setting
Stage where the desire changes in attitude, knowledge, skills, and behaviors are explicitly stated.
4. New Behavior
Stage where the individual learns, adapts, and practices the newer knowledge, attitudes, skills, and
behaviors which are desired.
5. Refreezing
Stage where learning have found to be relevant and beneficial and assimilated into the learner’s
ongoing frame work of knowledge, attitudes, skill and behavior.
Classroom Implications of Field Theory:
Taking into consideration, the field theory as a whole, the classroom teaching-learning implications
include the significance of seeing the total situation at the beginning of the lesson or an activity. The
teacher should preview the activities involved and the problem to be encountered. Moreover, from
the point of view of a field theorist, the teacher should keep in mind that the student, the teacher
himself, other teachers, the school and the peer group- are all parts of the total situation.
The need for seeing the whole and details of the situation is very necessary. The teacher must assist
the students to perceive the goal and the barrier. The goal must be presented in an easier and simplified
way. Sometimes partial insight of a situation may provide partial relief from tension.

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Following are the major educational implications of this theory:

1. Reward and Punishment:
According to Lewin, the learner because of attraction to rewards may resort to shortest methods. For
example, to get distinction in the examination (record) the student may like to cheat (shortcut method).
It is, therefore, necessary to put some barriers over the reward situation, to avoid access to such short
methods.
In the case of punishment, however, there is a tendency to leave the field because of the
unpleasantness of the task, unless some strong barriers are there to keep one in the field. Reward
activities often become interesting and are liked so that motivation is no longer extrinsic while the
activities controlled by the threat of punishment tend to become extremely hated.
2. Success and Failure:
Psychological analysis of success from the point of view of the learner shows the following
possibilities:
(1) To reach a goal constitutes success.
(2) To get within the region of the goal may be a success experience.
(3) To make some progress in the direction of the goal also constitutes a success experience.
(4) To select a socially approved goal is also a success experience.
Psychological success or failure depends upon ego involvement and the level of aspiration. Success in
easy task is not a success experience, since it does not involve the ego of the person. Similarly, failure
in a very difficult task is no failure experience.
3. Motivation:
The repetition of an activity brings change both in the cognitive structure and in the need-tension
systems. As a result of this goal, attractiveness changes. Lewin calls goal attractiveness valence and
valence change.
The valence may change in any of the following ways:
(1) Attractive goals may lose attention if the activity related to them is repeated to the points of
satiation.
(2) Choice of goals is influenced by previous experiences of success and failure.
4. Memory:
The field theory states the following regarding memory:
Tasks which have no sense in completion are not remembered.

CUMULATIVE LEARNING THEORY

Learning occurs as the individual develops higher level skills that build successively on
lower skills.

TYPES OF LEARNING

1. SIGNAL LEARNING - when two stimuli are simultaneously presented and the response previously
drawn only by the unconditioned stimulus is also elicited by the newly conditioned stimulus.
2. STIMULUS RESPONSE LEARNING - when a response to specific stimuli that has been discriminated
against from other stimuli.

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3. MOTOR CHAINS / VERBAL CHAINS LEARNING - when two or more separated motor/verbal
responses may be combined to develop a more complex learning skill.
4. DISCRIMINATING LEARNING - when discriminating a specific stimulus from other.
5. CONCEPT LEARNING - when making a common response to stimuli that are different in various
ways.
6. RULE LEARNING - when learning two or more concepts in a given period of time.
7. PROBLEM SOLVING - this is learning to recall and apply a rule.

Situated Learning Theory by Jean Lave

Situated learning theory argues that learning occurs best when it takes place in the
context in which it is applied. Students should act in an apprentice capacity within
communities of practice where learning opportunities arise situationally. As students gain experience
and competence they gradually move from an apprenticeship role to full participants in their
community of practice. Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity,
context and culture in which it occurs. This contrast with the classroom learning activities which
involve knowledge which is abstract and out of context. Social Interaction is a critical component of
situated learning – learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain
beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As a beginner or newcomer moves from the periphery of this
community to its center, he/she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and hence
assumes the role of expert or old-timer.

Principles of Situated Learning

1. Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context like settings and applications that
will normally involve that knowledge.
2. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.

Key Features of Situated Learning Theory

1. It is based on Sociocultural Theory
Situated learning theory embraces a sociocultural view of learning. It sees knowledge as being
defined and agreed upon by a society or community.
For example:
If you want to learn how to be a doctor, learn from doctors! You’ll never learn on your own…
This view of learning as ‘social’ is juxtaposed to cognitive-constructivist theory, which believes
knowledge can be learned from logic and discovery alone. Cognitive constructivism doesn’t think much
about the importance of social interaction in learning.
According to SLT, to become an effective practitioner, you need to know how your community uses
knowledge.

2. Learning should take Place in Communities of Practice

Because knowledge is socially co-constructed by a community, the only way to learn is to learn from
others. Talking and listening to others can help you learn what information is important to society
and how society views certain topics!
Lave and Wegner (1991) say that there are some “communities of practice” who all share the same
knowledge. The typical community of practice is a group of professionals who share a craft.
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Some examples of communities of practice are:

Educators: As an educator, this is my community of practice. Things we know about include pedagogy,
identifying learning disabilities, how to get the best out of students, and how to develop a curriculum.

3. Learners start out as Legitimate Peripheral Participants

Lave and Wegner argue that learning should take place through an apprenticeship model.
In their teaching method, students are embedded in real-world contexts. They follow actual
practitioners around to observe their practice and learn from them through ‘guided practice’ or what
Barbara Rogoff calls ‘cognitive apprenticeships’.
The apprentices are what Lave and Wegner call “legitimate peripheral participants”. This term shows
that, when you start out, you’re in the outside of the community of practice. You’re not a central
member of the community. When you’re starting out you might do low risk, easy, achievable tasks that
are valuable to the community but not the most complex or difficult tasks.
As you gain experience and competence, you’ll start assuming more and more responsibility and
becoming a more and more central member of the community of practice.

4. Learners Slowly Become Full Members of the Community of Practice

Each community of practice has its own rules or structures for progressing from peripheral to full
participation.

In a traditional apprentice-mentor relationship, it is the mentor who has control over the gradual
release of responsibility to the apprentice. The mentor controls the level of participation and the pace
of progression.

In more formal contexts, progression may be structured through formal testing, accumulation of time
such as number of hours practicing, or age.

Implications for Classroom Practice

SLT may seem like a learning theory best suited for adults, apprentices, or cultures where learning takes
place outside of the classroom. However, teachers who like this approach may be able to use some of
its ideas to develop their own classroom teaching strategies.
Some ways educators can use SLT include:

School Excursions: Encouraging students to take internships or mentorship roles in the local
community. Students should be given opportunities to shadow practitioners as they complete their
daily tasks.
School Incursions: Having community members come into the classroom to share how they do things
and vocabulary from their profession.
Learning through Doing: Focus on project or phenomenon based learning where students learn by
doing real-world problem solving tasks rather than learning from books.
Act as Mentors: Educators can take on a mentorship role in which the students become apprentices in
their practice. For example, students can come along to attend adult meetings and listen in on how the
meetings are conducted and decisions are made. Here, the students become ‘legitimate peripheral
participants’.

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Advantages of Situated Learning Theory

A focus on social learning: SLT has at its core the belief that learning must be social. An
educator who uses SLT in the classroom will therefore bring community members into the
classroom, have students learning in groups, provide opportunities for communication, and
set up the classroom layout in table groups rather than rows.
Links learning to life: Students are shown how the knowledge they’re learning is relevant to
their real lives.
Learning must be active: Students learn through active approaches such as project-based
learning. This allows students to make important neural connections and develop their
knowledge through trial-and-error.
Prepares students for the 21st Century: Students learn skills required in the workforce, and in
particular, are prepared for 21st Century workforces which require strong collaboration and
communication skills.

Disadvantages of Situated Learning Theory

While there are many advantages of this theory, there are also several weaknesses:
Failure to Acknowledge Objectivity: Unlike cognitive constructivism, SLT does not
acknowledge that people can learn objective knowledge through independent study. Clearly
people can learn without social interaction, so this theory does not fully account for how
learning happens.
Failure to Acknowledge Creative Individuality: Creativity requires thinking in ways that are
new and not normal within social groups, whereas SLT encourages learning socially agreed
upon information and processes. Creativity and individuality are driving forces behind social
progress. Creative people come up with alternative ways of completing tasks or new
technologies that make life more efficient and prosperous.

Schema Theory by Rumelhart

All knowledge is packaged into units called Schemata that helped us to comprehend
events or situations and to make predictions about unobserved events.

Modes of Learning
1. Accretion – learning of facts
2. Tuning – schema is refined throughout the life span as new situations are encountered.
3. Restructuring – development of new schema.

Network Model
A model that attempts to mimic human memory through associative networks. It
resembles net or a chain- connected in a huge network with related information
connected hierarchically.

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Module Activity
Make sure to perform all the activities specified on this module.

ACTIVITY 3.1 – GESTALT

Instruction: Identify the gestalt principle in each of the following learning activities.
_______________________1. The teacher relates a new topic with something the
students already know.
_______________________2. Topics with commonalities are taught next to each other.
_______________________3. The most important words in the paragraph are written in
bolder fonts.
_______________________4. The teacher slows down her pace and varies her tone of
voice to emphasize a point.
______________________5. Teachers remind children to keep their numbers in straight
columns when doing Math operations

ACTIVITY 3.2 – INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Instruction: Cite a teaching implication of the Information Processing Theory
Process Teaching Implications
Information is received through the senses Make sure that learners are wide awake when
introducing a lesson by giving an energizer

If information is not relevant, it will decay

If information goes into the short term

memory and given attention, it is sent to long
term memory

If information is not properly encoded,

forgetting occurs

There are methods to increase retrieval of

information when needed

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for cognitive theories.

Hat Color Gestalt Information Processing Conditions of Learning

(first impression
when you heard
the theory)

(Important
concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive
aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of
the theory)

(application of the
theory in
teaching)

(your own insight

about the theory)

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for Purposive Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory

Hat Color Subsumption Theory Constructivist theory

(first impression when

you heard the theory)

(Important concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of the
theory)

(application of the theory in

teaching)

(your own insight about the

theory)

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR MODULE 3

Instruction: Read each statement carefully and encircle the letter of the best
answer from the given choices.

1. You are an academic supervisor giving a workshop on Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction. You
decide that the best way to teach this is through leading by example. How would you display
Gagne's Ninth Step?
A. Give a 10 question test on the Nine Events
B. Give a complete notes to each of your teacher
C. Give an example of a real-life lesson that they could teach that follows the Nine Events
D. Have teachers recall other instructional design theories that they may have learned
about in College
2. You are a 12th grade honors chemistry teacher, and you see that your students are having
trouble balancing chemical equations. What could you do to provide guidance?
A. Have students memorize the periodic table of elements
B. Let them copy from their classmates who master the process
C. Create a detailed study guide with examples ranging from basic to difficult
D. Demonstrate how oxygen and hydrogen can ignite to produce an explosion
3. Learners interpret information based on what they already know and construct knowledge in a
way that makes sense to them. What characteristics of constructivism is referring to the
statement?
A. Learners construct understanding.
B. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
C. New learning depends on current understanding.
D. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning task.
4. What does Gagne’s hierarchical theory propose for effective instruction?
A. Sequence instruction
B. Reward good behavior
C. Teach beginning with the concrete
D. Be concerned with socio-emotional climate in the classroom.

5. Teacher Z always checks on entry knowledge and skills before she proceeds to her new lesson.
On which principle is Teacher Z’s practice grounded?
A. Attention is essential for learning
B. New learning builds on previous learning
C. Learning increase when the lesson is relevant
D. Effective teaching proceeds from the concrete to the abstract

6. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and collaborate in discovering learnings. What
characteristics of constructivism is referring to the statement?
A. Learners construct understanding.
B. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
C. New learning depends on current understanding.
D. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning task
7. What is the major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel?
A. Spiral curriculum C. Teaching sequence
B. Graphic organizers D. Discovery learning

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8. Learning takes place through the relationships between people and connecting prior knowledge
with authentic, informal and often unintended contextual learning. Which theory posits that
learning is affected by the teaching environment?
A. Individual Differences in learning C. Learning Styles
B. learning Modalities D. Situated Learning
9. Children are well- acquainted with the eight planets, the sun and the stars and later on they
have learned those are part of the Milky Way Galaxy. What process of meaningful learning theory
does the situation depict?
A. Superordinate Learning C. Combinatorial Learning
B. Correlative Subsumption D. Derivative Subsumption
10. A lesson is presented from Grade one up until grade ten but differ in ways and approaches
depending on the students’ developmental levels. What concept of Bruner is presented in the
situation?
A. Discovery learning C. Spiral curriculum
B. Representations D. Reinforcement

11. According to Bruner, it refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be arranged so
that it can be most readily grasped by the learner.
A. Predisposition to learn C. Effective Sequencing
B. Structure of Knowledge D. Reinforcement
12. Which of Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction would have been displayed if we had given a
formal assessment?
A. Presenting Stimulus C. Providing Feedback
B. Assess Performance D. Gaining Attention
13. Having a discussion about personal knowledge and experience with practices that poorly
impact the environment before a science unit on environmentalism is an example of which of
Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction?
A. Recalling Prior Learning C. Providing Guidance to Learning
B. Eliciting Performance D. Informing the learner of the objective
14. Which of Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction would come before an individualized formal
assessment?
A. Provide Feedback C. Enhance Retention and Transfer
B. Assess Performance D. Eliciting performance
15. A 7th grade math teacher giving students a worksheet to practice what they just learned
would be an example of which event?
A. Provide Feedback C. Provide Learner Guidance
B. Elicit Performance D. Enhancing Retention and Transfer
16. It is becoming increasingly common for school districts to require their teachers to write the
goal of each lesson on their board. This would be consistent with which of Gagne's Nine Events
of Instruction?
A. Enhance Retention and Transfer C. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning
B. Inform Learners of the Objective D. Assessing Performance
17. Teacher Anna plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate,
Investigate and explore in learning the new knowledge. What instructional tool of Bruner used
by the teacher?
A. Discovery learning C. Spiral curriculum
B. Representations D. Reinforcement

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18. A 10th grade TLE teacher shows her students how their current project would be handled in a
rea-life working environment. If the teacher is adhering to Gagne’s Nine Events of instruction,
which event
is she displaying here?
A. Assessing Performance C. Enhancing Retention and Transfer
B. Recalling Prior Learning D. Giving Feedback
19. Teacher Anna plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate,
Investigate and explore in learning the new knowledge. What instructional tool of Bruner used
by the teacher?
A. Discovery learning C. Spiral curriculum
B. Representations D. Reinforcement
Read the situation to answer questions 20, 21 and 22.

The Principal encourages her teachers to make use of the representation concept of Bruner in teaching the
subjects in all levels.
Teacher A: Use mathematical equation for the learners to learn the skills in mathematics.
Teacher B: Use real objects in presenting the concept of addition and subtraction to her pupils.
Teacher C: Use varied pictures in learning the concept of counting and the basic mathematical processes.

20. What concept of representation is being use and applied by teacher B?

A. Enactive representation C. Symbolic representation
B. Iconic representation D. Cognitive representation
21. Who among the teachers make use of the symbolic representation in the instructions?
A. Teacher A B. Teacher B C. Teacher C D. The principal
22. Who among the teachers make use of the iconic representation in the instructions?
A. Teacher A B. Teacher B C. Teacher C D. The principal
23. On which assumption/s is the principal actions anchored?
I. Student learn by personally constructing meaning of what is taught.
II. Students construct and reconstruct meanings based on experiences.
III. Students derive meaning from the meaning that teacher gives.
A. I and III B. I only C. I and II D. II only
24. Which concept/s of learner will a constructivist teacher will accept?
I. “Empty Vessel” II. “Tabula rasa” III. Candle to be lighted
A. I only B. I and II C. II only D. III only
25. Which of the following does not belong to the group in applying constructivism approach in
teaching?
A. Have lots of hands-on activities C. Provide opportunities for experiment
B. Concept-centered discussion D. Give varied examples
26. Which of the following statement best describes Ausubel’s theory?
I. It believes that knowledge is hierarchically organized.
II. It believes that information is meaningful when it is attached to what is known.
III. It emphasize the instructional design and step by step process to develop intellectual skills.
III. It anchors the belief that learners learn best with materials from verbal/textual
presentations.
A. I and III B. II and IV C. I, II and III D. I,II and IV
27. Which of the following does NOT belong to the advance organizers of Ausubel?
A. Expository B. Narrative C. Scanning D. Skimming

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28. What advance organizers proposed by Ausubel where learners outline the new information
through pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, and concept map?
A. Expository B. Narrative C. Skimming D. Graphic organizer
29. Jerome Bruner, who developed his own learning theory, felt that ideally ___ is the best
stimulus for learning, not grades or class ranking?
A. Model Instruction C. Reward and Punishment
B. Remodeling instruction D. Interest of the Subject matter
30. Which of the following statement best describes the Individual Constructivism?
I. Learners should be allowed to discover learnings in their own exploration.
II. Teachers direct instruction inside the classroom greatly contributes learning.
III. Instructions should be child-centered in a discovery learning approach.
A. I and II B. II and III C. I and III D. I, II and III
31. Which major learning theory simplifies the interaction of the individual and the learning
environment?
A. Social Theories C. Field and Gestalt Theories
B. Cognitive Theories D. Behavioral Theories
32. During the examination, students try to remember the topics they have discussed especially
the different theories in education. What knowledge is used in the situation?
A. Procedural B. Episodic C. Declarative D. Iconic
33. What type of memory temporarily holds new information for a limited time while it is still
being process by the learner?
A. Sensory Memory B. Long-Term Memory C. Short-Term Memory D. Storage Memory
34. For the students to recall the correct series of the color spectrum, the teacher teaches the
students an acronym. What memory method was used in the situation?
A. Distributed Practice B. Visual Imagery C. Context D. Mnemonic Aids
35. What is the correct sequence of Information Processing Theory?
I. Storage II. Working Memory III. Sensory Register IV. Long-Term Memory
A. I, IV,II,III B. III,II,I,IV C. II,III,I,IV D. IV,II,I,III
36. Ms. Lara uses advance organizers in preparing her students for learning. Which theory is her
strategy based on?
A. Robert Gagne B. Jerome Bruner C. David Ausubel D. Wolfgang Kohler
37. Teacher Marie helps learners take responsibility for their own learning by letting her students
cooperate and collaborate to solve problems and discover things. What characteristic of
Constructivism is this?
A. Learners construct understanding C. New learning depends on current understanding
B. Learning is facilitated by social interaction D. Meaningful learning occurs with real-life tasks
38. The teacher is having a lecture about plant respiration and relates it to how human breath air.
A. Superordinate Learning C. Combinatorial Learning
B. Correlative Subsumption D. Derivative Subsumption
39. This involves the changing of information as it gets stored in the memory. Which information
processing relates?
A. Storage B. Encoding C. Retrieval D. Sensing
40. Students already know the definition of Behaviorism in the previous semester. And they later
found out in their Facilitating class that they can use Behaviorism in facilitating the classroom.
A. Superordinate Learning B. Combinatorial Learning
C. Correlative Subsumption D. Derivative Subsumption
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MODULE
4

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding on Constructivism and its relevance in

teaching-learning process
2. Identify the different motivation theories and recognize its significance in
facilitating learner-centered teaching
3. Explain the crucial role of the different classroom management theories
and how it applies in the teaching-learning process
4. Extrapolate the different classroom management theories in the classroom
settings
5. Analyze the impact of classroom managements style towards the learning
experience of the students
6. Reflect one’s own role in applying cognitive processes and classroom
processes in facilitating learner-centered teaching.

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COURSE STUDY GUIDE

College of Education
Program: Bachelor of Elementary/ Secondary Education
Course Code: ED 216
Course Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
University of the Visayas Credit Unit: Three Units (3)
Module 4 WEEK NO. 4
Module Topic Cognitive Process and Classroom Processes
Intended Learning 1. Demonstrate understanding on Constructivism and its relevance in teaching-learning
Outcomes process
2. Identify the different motivation theories and recognize its significance in facilitating
learner-centered teaching
3. Explain the crucial role of the different classroom management theories and how it
applies in the teaching-learning process
4. Extrapolate the different classroom management theories in the classroom settings
5. Analyze the impact of classroom managements style towards the learning experience
of the students
6. Reflect one’s own role in applying cognitive processes and classroom processes in
facilitating learner-centered teaching.
No. of Hours 13.5 hours
1. Why do educators need to be aware of the importance of the different cognitive
processes and classroom processes?
2. What are the necessary concepts that influences the learning experience of the
Study Questions learners?
3. How can I use the concepts proposed by the cognitive theories?
4. What will be the different considerations that I need to keep in mind in using these
theories in facilitating learner centered teaching?
Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
Print Module 3–Lesson 1 : Course Module on Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, 3rd
Digital Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching edition. Corpuz et.al, Lorimar Publishing

(Printed for Offline. OTG USB for Hybrid, MS Teams

for Online)
Activity
Students will be provided with an activity to condition their minds about the possible topic they will
explore
Analysis
Learning Activity Students will give their initial thoughts based from the “Activity”
Abstraction
Students will read and understand the content of the module
Application
Students will apply what they have learned by doing the performance task.
1. Six Thinking Hats Analysis
Required Output 2. Module Activity
3.. Major Examination - Prelim
Assessment Task 1.Module Activity
2. Formative Assessment
1. Rubric for Module Activity
Assessment Tool 2. Rubric for Six Thinking Hats Analysis
3. Microsoft Forms/ Questionnaire for Summative Assessment
Target Competency Metacognitive Skills, Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
Prepared by: Reviewed by: Approved for Use:

Jade S. Tagab Jhon Mark I. Aroa , M.Ed Dr. Nerissa S. Lopez

Date: Date: Date:

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Clasrr

Read the quotation below:

“Teaching is not about filling up the pail; it is about lighting a fire.”

What do you mean by “Teaching is filling up the pail”? How can you
relate it to the theories of learning?

What do you mean by “Teaching is about lighting a fire”?

Which of the two lines encourages the learner to think independently?

Justify.

What is your interpretation on the quote?

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CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism focuses on knowledge construction. It is a theory of knowledge that
argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between
their experiences and their ideas. This theory signifies that teaching involves giving
opportunities for learners to explore and discover. Learners construct their own
meaning and generate insights thus likened to lighting a fire (being enlightened).

Two Views of Constructivism

Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive constructivism. It

emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is largely based
on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type choose child-centered and discovery
learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover principles
through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher.

Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a social

context and is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely
in the mind of an individual.” It is based on Vygotsky’s theory. Here,
construction of knowledge is shares by two or more people. According to social
constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share among learners help to
shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction becomes social, not
individual.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
Learners construct understanding
Constructivists do not view learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as
active thinkers who interpret new information based on what they already know. They construct
knowledge in a way that makes sense to them.

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New learning depends on current understanding

Background information is very important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner
has that new information will be interpreted.
Learning is facilitated by social interaction
Constructivist believe in creating a “community of learners” within classrooms. Learning communities
help learners take responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to
cooperate and collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator
rather than an expert who has all the knowledge.
Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks
An authentic task is one that involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and
understanding that is so akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real
world.

Students are said to be utilizing constructivism in organizing knowledge.

Concepts - a concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind.
➢ Concepts as feature lists - learning a concept involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the concept.

a. Defining feature- characteristic present in ALL instances

b. Correlational feature-present in many positive instances but not essential for concept
membership

➢ Concepts as prototypes – prototype is an idea or visual image of a “typical example. It is usually

formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often. Example, close
your eyes now and think of a cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You probably think of a
common cat we usually see rather than the rare breed or species. Once learners have their own
concept prototypes, the new examples that they see are checked against existing prototype.
➢ Concepts as exemplars – exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learners to know
that an example under a concept may have variability. Example, a learner’s concept of a
vegetable may include wide variety of different examples like cauli flower, kangkong, string
beans etc. When he encounters a new type of vegetable like “bitsuelas”, he would search from
the examplars he knows and looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.

Making concept-learning effective. As a future educator, you can help students learn concepts by
doing the following:
a) Provide a clear definition of the concept
b) Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
c) Give a variety of positive instances
d) Give negative instances
e) Cite a “best example” or a prototype
f) Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances
g) Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
h) Point out how concepts can be related to each other

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Schemas and scripts

A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like a file of information you hold
in your mind about a certain thing.
A script is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity. Examples would
include knowing the series of steps some when we visit a doctor or what transpires at the beginning of
the class when the teacher arrives.

Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge such that they have a well-
organized set of concepts. Aim to make clear those concepts that are still vague for them, and to pave
the way for them to overcome misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how to
facilitate concept formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent guide for you.

Applying constructivism in facilitating learning

Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than taking
up so many topics superficially.
Give varied examples
Provide opportunities for experimentation
Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction
Have lots of hands-on activities
Relate your topic to real life situations
Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of materials
affects performance in another context or with other related materials. It occurs when
learning in one context or with one set of materials impacts on performance in another
context or with other related materials. Simply put, it is applying to another to another
situation what was previously learned. For example, learning to use roller skates later helps a person
to learn more quickly to ice skate. Frequently, the circumstance of learning (classroom, workbooks)
differs significantly from the situations when what is learned is to be applied (home, job or complex
task). As a result, the educational goals are not met until transfer occurs. This makes transfer a very
important aspect of instruction. It may be true that in most cases the goal of transfer of learning from
classroom to real life situations in not achieved. So it is vital that as a future educator you have a clear
understanding of how best to teach your learners so that transfer of learning is facilitated. Afterall,
what good is there in providing your learners with tons of knowledge and a multitude of skills if they
cannot apply them when they need to.

Transfer - An act of moving something or someone to another place

Learning - An act of gaining knowledge or skill by experience, study, being taught, or creative
thought

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The notion was originally introduced as transfer of practice by Edward Thorndike and Robert S.
Woodworth. Thorndike and Woodworth explored how individuals would transfer learning in one
context to another context that shared similar characteristics – or more formally how "improvement
in one mental function" could influence another related one. Their theory implied that transfer of
learning depends on the proportion to which the learning task and the transfer task are similar, or
where "identical elements are concerned in the influencing and influenced function", now known as
identical element theory.

Importance of Transfer of Learning

If there were no transfer, students would need to be taught every act that they would ever
perform in any situation. Because the learning situation often differs from the context of
application, the goal of training is not accomplished unless transfer occurs All new learning
involves transfer based on previous learning.
If we did not transfer some of our prior knowledge, then each new learning situation would
start from scratch. Assumption of education: what is taught in a course will be used in relevant
situations in other courses, in the workplace and out of school.
It is the very essence of understanding, interacting and creating. Furthermore, it is the ultimate
aim of teaching and learning.
WHAT GETS TRANSFERRED?
Explanations of transfer usually fall somewhere between two general points of view:
❖ General Transfer occurs when students learn general principles or attitudes that they apply
elsewhere.
❖ Specific Transfer occurs when students learn specific facts and techniques and then use these
in new situations that contain the same elements or features of the original learning situation.
LEVELS AND TYPES OF TRANSFER
➢ Positive Transfer
Transfer is said to be positive when learning in one context improves learning or performance in
another context.
➢ Negative Transfer
Negative transfer occurs when previous learning or experience inhibits or interferes with learning or
performance in a new context.
➢ Simple versus Complex Transfer
Simple transfer happens when little or no effort is required to apply what has been learned in one
situation to a new situation. In class, students are taught how to use a spread sheet to create a budget.
Later they need to create a budget for a club trip, and set up a spread sheet for this. This is an example
of simple transfer. However, if the same students were engaged in gathering data for a research project
and thought about the ways in which the spread sheeting program could assist with the data
management and analysis, this would be an example of more complex transfer.

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➢ Near and Far Transfer

Another distinction used is between near and far transfer. Usually these terms distinguish the closeness
or distance between the original learning and the transfer task. Near transfer has also been seen as the
transfer of learning within the school context, or between a school task and a very similar task. Far
transfer is used to refer to the transfer of learning from the school context to a non-school context.
High Road and Low Road Transfer

➢ Low Road and High Road

Low road transfer happens when stimulus conditions in the transfer context are sufficiently similar to
those in a prior context of learning to trigger well-developed semi-automatic responses. High road
transfer, in contrast, depends on mindful abstraction from the context of learning or application and a
deliberate search for connections.
Conditions of Transfer
Positive findings of transfer, near and far, suggest that whether transfer occurs is too bald a question.
It can, but often does not. One needs to ask under what conditions transfer appears.
➢ Thorough and diverse practice
Transfer may depend on extensive practice of the performance in question in a variety of context. This
yields a flexible relatively automatized bundle of skills easily evoked in new situations.
➢ Explicit abstraction
Transfer sometimes depends on whether learners have abstracted critical attributes of a situation.

➢ Active self-monitoring
Metacognitive reflection on one's thinking processes appears to promote transfer of skills.
➢ Arousing mindfulness
Mindfulness refers to a generalized state of alertness to the activities one is engaged in and to one's
surroundings, in contrast with a passive reactive mode in which cognitions, behaviors, and other
responses unfold automatically and mindlessly.
➢ Using a metaphor or analogy
Transfer is facilitated when new material is studied in light of previously learned material that serves
as an analogy or metaphor. Things known about the ``old'' domain of knowledge can now be
transferred to a ``new'' domain thereby making it better understood and learned.

Factors Affecting Transfer

Initial acquisition of knowledge is necessary for transfer.

▪ Rote learning (memorizing isolated facts) does not tend to facilitate transfer, learning with
understanding does
▪ Transfer is affected by degree to which students learn with understanding
Context plays a fundamental role.
▪ Knowledge learned that is too tightly bound to context in which it was learned will significantly
reduce transfer
▪ Knowledge that is overly contextualized can reduce transfer; abstract representations can
promote transfer.

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Attempts to cover too much too quickly may hinder transfer. Motivation affects the amount of time
people are willing to devote to learning.
▪ People are more motivated when they can see the usefulness of what they are learning
STRATEGIES: TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Teach subject matter in meaningful contexts

Employ informed instruction
Students should learn not only how to explain a concept, but also to understand when and why
the concept is useful
Teach subject matter in circumstances as similar as possible to those in which it will be
employed
Provide chances to practice using the subject matter in situations that embody the full range of
practical applications that the learner is likely to come across
Present opportunities for allocating practice after the information has been originally learned
Practice should be spread out over a period of time (not combined into a single study session)
Encourage positive attitudes toward subject matter
Students will be less likely to avoid topics when they are encountered somewhere else
SUMMARY: TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer is improved when the learner abstracts the profound principles underlying the
information being learned, and that abstraction is assisted by chances to experience concepts
and principles in numerous contexts.
In school, students study a topic until reaching some level of mastery and then move on to the
next topic. However, research suggests that transfer is improved by visiting the topics often
rather than once intensely.
Clarity and coherence are most efficient as helping learners attain core knowledge, but after
accomplishing some level of knowledge it may serve the learner better to rely less on instruction
and more on his/her own mental efforts to make sense and refine the knowledge into a form
useful for future use.
Students must generalize, have a desire to solve new problems, move toward new situations,
and ultimately take risks.

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Now that you have been acquainted with the different learning theories from the previous lessons, let
us explore on how do educators design the teaching-learning process. Educators should begin with the
end in mind and the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom has been a great help in
designing a teaching-learning experience.

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational

psychologist, Dr. Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as
analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just
remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training, and
learning processes. Domains may be thought of as categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and
educators often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge [cognitive], Skills [psychomotor],
and Attitudes [affective]). This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be thought of as “the goals of the
learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill,
knowledge, and/or attitude.

The Three Domains of Learning

Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or
emotional areas (attitude or self)
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills
(skills)

COGNITIVE DOMAIN

The cognitive domain involves

knowledge and the
development of intellectual
skills. This includes the recall or
recognition of specific facts,
procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual
abilities and skills. There are six
major categories of cognitive
processes, starting from the
simplest to the most complex.

Lorin Anderson, a former

student of Bloom, and David
Krathwohl revisited the
cognitive domain and revised
the taxonomy.

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REMEMBERING - Recall previous learned information.

UNDERSTANDING - Comprehending the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of
instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words.
APPLYING - Breaking the concept into parts and understand how each part is related to one
another.
ANALYZING - Breaking the concept into parts and understand how each part is related to one
another.
EVALUATING - Making judgments based on a set of guidelines and the value of ideas or materials.

CREATING - Builds a structure or pattern from

diverse elements. Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning
or structure.
-Putting information together in an innovative
way.

Remembering: C Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a

customer. Recite the safety rules.
Recall or retrieve previous learned
Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels,
information. lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
R reproduces, selects, states
Technologies: book marking, flash cards, rote learning based
on repetition, reading

Understanding: Examples: Rewrite the principles of test writing. Explain in

E one's own words the steps for performing a complex task.
Comprehending the meaning, Translate an equation into a computer spreadsheet.
translation, interpolation, and Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes,
estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example,
interpretation of instructions and
A infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
problems. State a problem in one's summarizes, translates
own words. Technologies: create an analogy, participating in
cooperative learning, taking notes, storytelling, Internet
search
T Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's
Applying:
vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the
Use a concept in a new situation or reliability of a written test.
unprompted use of an abstraction. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs,
I demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
Applies what was learned in the predicts, prepares, produces, relat es, shows, solves, uses
classroom into novel situations in Technologies: collaborative learning, create a process,
the work place. blog, practice
N
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Analyzing: Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using

logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in
Separates material or concepts into reasoning. Gathers information from a department and
component parts so that its selects the required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
organizational structure may be
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates,
understood. Distinguishes between discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers,
facts and inferences. outlines, relates, selects, separates
Technologies: Fishbowls, debating, questioning what
happened, run a test
Evaluating: Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most
qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.
Make judgments about the value of Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts,
ideas or materials. criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates,
evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports
Technologies: survey, blogging
Creating: Examples: Write a company operations or process manual.
Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates
Builds a structure or pattern from training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises
diverse elements. Put parts together and process to improve the outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes,
to form a whole, with emphasis on
creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies,
creating a new meaning or structure. organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes
Technologies: Create a new model, write an essay, network
with others

Cognitive Processes and Levels of Knowledge Matrix

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using action words, but added a
cognitive and knowledge matrix.
While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or products that
could be processed, they were not discussed very much and remained one-dimensional:
o Factual - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve
problems.

o Conceptual – The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that
enable them to function together.

o Procedural - How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms,
techniques, and methods.

In Krathwohl and Anderson's revised version, the authors combine the cognitive processes with the
above three levels of knowledge to form a matrix. In addition, they added another level of knowledge
- metacognition:

o Metacognitive – Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as awareness and knowledge of

one’s own cognition.

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PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The psychomotor domain includes physical
movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill
areas. Development of these skills requires practice
and is measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.
Thus, psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks,
such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more
complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of
machinery or dancing.
The seven major categories are listed from the
simplest behavior to the most complex:

Perception (awareness): Examples: Detects non-verbal

communication cues. Estimate where a ball
The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor
will land after it is thrown and then moving to
activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation,
the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts
through cue selection, to translation.
heat of stove to correct temperature by smell
and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the
forks on a forklift by comparing where the
forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes, identifies,
isolates, relates, selects.
Set: Examples: Knows and acts upon a
Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and sequence of steps in a manufacturing
emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions process. Recognize one's abilities and
that predetermine a person's response to different limitations. Shows desire to learn a new
situations (sometimes called mindsets). process (motivation).
Key Words: begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,
volunteers.
Guided Response: Examples: Performs a mathematical
The early stages in learning a complex skill that equation as demonstrated. Follows
includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of instructions to build a model. Responds
performance is achieved by practicing. hand-signals of instructor while learning to
operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the Examples: Use a personal
intermediate stage in learning a complex computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a
skill. Learned responses have become habitual car.
and the movements can be performed with some
Key Words: assembles, calibrates,
confidence and proficiency.
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response (Expert ): The skillful Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight
performance of motor acts that involve complex parallel parking spot. Operates a computer
movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quickly and accurately. Displays competence
quick, accurate, and highly coordinated while playing the piano.
performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This
category includes performing without hesitation,

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and automatic performance. For example, players Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates,
are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
football, because they can tell by the feel of the mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
act what the result will produce.
Adaptation: Examples: Responds effectively to
Skills are well developed and the individual can unexpected experiences. Modifies
modify movement patterns to fit special instruction to meet the needs of the learners.
requirements. Perform a task with a machine that it was not
originally intended to do (machine is not
damaged and there is no danger in
performing the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,
rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Examples: Constructs a new theory.
Creating new movement patterns to fit a Develops a new and comprehensive training
particular situation or specific problem. Learning programming. Creates a new gymnastic
outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly routine.
developed skills.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines,
composes, constructs, creates, designs,
initiate, makes, originates.

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
The affective domain includes the manner in
which we deal with things emotionally, such as
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms,
motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories
are listed from the simplest behavior to the most
complex

Receiving: Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and

Awareness, willingness to hear, remember the name of newly introduced people.
selected attention.
Key Words: acknowledge, asks, attentive, courteous, dutiful,
follows, gives, listens, understands
Responds: Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a
Active participation on the part presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in
of the learners. Attend and react order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and
to a particular phenomenon practice them.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, presents, tells
Valuing: The worth or value a Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is
person attaches to a particular sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value
object, phenomenon, or diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a
behavior. Valuing is based on plan to social improvement and follows through with
the internalization of a set of commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels
specified values, while clues to strongly about.
these values are expressed in Key Words: appreciates, cherish, treasure, demonstrates,
the learner's overt behavior and initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, respect, shares
are often identifiable.
Organization: Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom
Organizes values into priorities and responsible behavior. Explains the role of systematic
by contrasting different values, planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical
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resolving conflicts between standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities,
them, and creating an unique interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the
value system. The emphasis is needs of the organization, family, and self.
on comparing, relating, and Key Words: compares, relates, synthesizes
synthesizing values.
Internalizes Values: Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently.
Has a value system that controls Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an
their behavior. The behavior is objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional
pervasive, consistent, commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises
predictable, and most important judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence.
characteristic of the learner. Values people for what they are, not how they look.
Instructional objectives are
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences,
concerned with the student's
modifies, performs, qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
general patterns of adjustment
solves, verifies
(personal, social, emotional).

Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS model

The triarchic theory describes three distinct types of intelligence that a person can
possess. Sternberg calls these three types practical intelligence, creative intelligence and analytic
intelligence.
Four Major Skills in Sternberg’s Theory
1. Memory skills - help us recall facts and pieces of information. It helps us retain
the knowledge we acquire.

2. Analytic skills- help the person determine if a certain idea is good.

3. Creative skills- allow a person to come up with new idea, usually to answer a
need or solve a problem. It makes one flexile and able to adjust changes in one’s
situation.
4. Practical skills- enable a person apply what one has learned. It also allows one to
carry through implement a plan.

Types of People Based on the Triarchic Intelligence

The Analyzer - fares well in academic environments, but isn't likely to make a creative
contribution to the field
The Creator- generates ideas easily, but is unable to analyze these ideas or to put them into
practice
The Practioner- is persuasive and maybe entertaining, but lacks substance in thinking.
The Analytical Creator - is able to analyze created ideas, but doesn't easily communicate these
ideas to others.
The Analytical Practioner - succeeds in conventional terms because high IQ is translated into
practical work, but he is unlikely to make a lasting contribution.
The Creative Practioner - has the ability to come up with new ideas and can persuade other
people of the value of these ideas, regardless whether those ideas are worth it or not.

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The Consummate Balancer - is able to apply all of the three intelligences as needed, and is
therefore in the best position to make a valuable contribution to society.

WICS Model

WICS Model proposes that intelligence set of fluid abilities to learn from experience and to adapt to
one’s surrounding. In the WICS model, intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities to learn from
experience and to adapt to one’s surroundings. WICS stands for wisdom, intelligence, creativity and
synthesized.
“The basic idea is that citizens of the world need creativity to form a vision of where they want to go
and to cope with changes in the environment, analytical intelligence to ascertain whether their
creative ideas are good ones, practical intelligence to implement their ideas, and wisdom in order to
ensure that the ideas will help achieve some ethically-based common good, over the long and short
terms, rather than just what is good for them and their families and friends”

APPLICATION

How to Develop the Analytical Skills of the students?

Analyze the development of the character of Ibarra in Noli Me Tangere

Critique the design and features of the latest smart phone
Judge the artistic merits of Filipino cartoonist, Larry Alcala’s “ slice of life
Compare and contrast the Italian approaches of Montessori and Reggio Emilia in early
childhood education.
Evaluate the validity the theory of evolution. Write a term paper on this
Assess the strategy of the manila city government to improve the traffic situation around the
city
How to Develop the Creative Skills of the students?
Create an alternative ending for Florante at Laura (Literature)
Invent a dialogue that would transpire if Jose Rizal and Ninoy Aquino met ( AP)
Discover a way to explain why heavy ships float at sea. (Science)
Suppose that you were to design a computer game to help childen learn about love and
sacrifice. Describe the game you will create ( computer education, EPP)
Predict changes that will happen if humans had a third eye at the back of their heads. Choose
an appliance or gadget that would need to be changed in order to be useful. Propose a new
functional design (HELE)
How to Develop the Practical Skills of the students?
Apply addition concept in determining number of boys and girls in the classroom (Math)
Use knowledge of excel to keep track of daily household expenses (Comp Ed, Math,TLE)
Put into practice what you learn about classroom rules in making your own classroom rules
poster (classroom management)
MOTIVATION THEORIES

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Motivation is a drive that forces an individual to work in a certain way. It is the energy that pushes us
to work hard to accomplish the goals, even if the conditions are not going our way. refers to the
initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of human behavior. It is internal state that activates and
gives direction to our behaviors.

To measure student motivation, we must look at engagement in learning (connection to the task)

Behavioral Engagement (effort put into the learning task). Look at how much attention, effort
and persistence shown.
Emotional engagement (emotional reactions to learning task). Look at how much interest d
enjoyment shown.
Cognitive Engagement (mental effort out into learning tasks including learning styles and
strategies). Look at how much investment and preference for challenge is shown.

TWO DISTINCT FORM OF MOTIVATION

Intrinsic Motivation refers to an inherent interest in pursuing a topic. These individuals find a
subject enjoyable and naturally desire to learn mastery of it. This is influenced by personal
factors such as satisfaction or enjoyment.

Extrinsic Motivation refers to a desire to pursue for reasons outside of the individual such as
rewards, grades or parental/instructor approval. These individuals are motivated to learn not
solely because they want to learn it but because learning the material will get them good
grades, parental praise or because jobs in that filed pay well; all of which are external rewards.
This is influenced by external events such as grades, points or money.

Hierarchy of Needs by Abraham Maslow

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of

human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher
up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and
belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

1. Physiological needs - these are biological

requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink,
shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot
function optimally. Maslow considered physiological
needs the most important as all the other needs
become secondary until these needs are met.

2. Safety needs - Once an individual’s physiological

needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety
become salient. People want to experience order,
predictability and control in their lives. These needs
can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police,
schools, business and medical care).
For example, emotional security, financial security
(e.g. employment, social welfare), law and order,
freedom from fear, social stability, property, health
and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury).

3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third
level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal
relationships motivates behavior
Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love.
Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4. Esteem needs are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy - which Maslow classified into two
categories:
(i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence)
(ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and
adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.

5. Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a
person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow (1943)
describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one
can be.

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ERG Theory by Clayton Alderfer

An American psychologist Clayton Paul Alderfer had proposed this theory and
believed that each need carries some value and hence can be classified as lower-order needs and
higher-order needs. He also found some level of overlapping in the physiological, security and social
needs along with an invisible line of demarcation between the social, esteem and self-actualization
needs. This led to the formation Alderfer’s ERG theory, which comprises of the condensed form of
Maslow’s needs.
There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.

Existence Needs: The existence needs

comprise of all those needs that relate to
the physiological and safety aspects of
human beings and are a prerequisite for the
survival. Thus, both the physiological and
safety needs of Maslow are grouped into
one category because of their same nature
and a similar impact on the behavior of an
individual.
Relatedness Needs: The relatedness needs
refer to the social needs, that an individual seeks to establish relationships with those for whom he
cares. These needs cover the Maslow’s social needs and a part of esteem needs, derived from the
relationship with other people.
Growth Needs: The growth needs cover Maslow’s self-actualization needs as well as a part of esteem
needs which are internal to the individual, such as a feeling of being unique, personnel growth, etc.
Thus, growth needs are those needs that influence an individual to explore his maximum potential in
the existing environment.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory by Fredrick Herzberg

Hygiene Factors: Herzberg identified ten

maintenance or hygiene factors, that are not intrinsic parts of
a job, but are related to the conditions in which the job has to
be performed. These are company policy and administration,
technical supervision, job security, working conditions,
interpersonal relationship with peers, subordinates and
supervisors, salary, job security, personal life.

Motivational factors: These factors have a positive effect on

the functioning of the employees in the organization. There are six factors that motivate employees:
Achievement, Recognition, Advancement, Work-itself, Possibility of growth and Responsibility. An
increase in these factors satisfies the employees and the decrease in these will not affect the level of
satisfaction. Thus, Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory studied the variables which were
responsible for the level of satisfaction and had been applied in the industry that has given several
new insights
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Needs Theory by McClelland

McClelland’s Needs Theory was proposed by a

psychologist David McClelland, who believed that the specific needs
of the individual are acquired over a period of time and gets molded
with one’s experience of the life. McClelland’s Needs Theory is
sometimes referred to as Three Need theory or Learned Needs
Theory.

Need for Power (n-pow): What is Power? Power is the ability to

induce or influence the behavior of others. The people with high power needs seek high-level
positions in the organization, so as to exercise influence and control over others. Generally, they are
outspoken, forceful, demanding, practical/realistic-not sentimental, and like to get involved in the
conversations.

Need for Affiliation (n-affil): People with high need for affiliation derives pleasure from being loved by
all and tend to avoid the pain of being rejected. Since, the human beings are social animals, they like
to interact and be with others where they feel, people accept them. Thus, people with these needs
like to maintain the pleasant social relationships, enjoy the sense of intimacy and like to help and
console others at the time of trouble.

Need for Achievement (n-ach): McClelland found that some people have an intense desire to achieve.
He has identified the following characteristics of high achievers:

High achievers take the moderate risks, i.e. a calculated risk while performing the activities in the
management context. This is opposite to the belief that high achievers take high risk.

High achievers seek to obtain the immediate feedback for the work done by them, so as to know their
progress towards the goal.

Once the goal is set, the high achiever puts himself completely into the job, until it gets completed
successfully. He will not be satisfied until he has given his 100% in the task assigned to him.

A person with a high need for achievement accomplishes the task that is intrinsically satisfying and is
not necessarily accompanied by the material rewards. Though he wants to earn money, but
satisfaction in the accomplishment of work itself gives him more pleasure than merely the cash
reward.

Hence, McClelland’s Needs Theory posits that the person’s level of effectiveness and motivation is
greatly influenced by these three basic needs.

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Goal Setting Theory of Motivation

It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback
contribute to higher and better task performance.
In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and
how much efforts are required to be put in.
Advantages of Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work
quickly and effectively.
Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also
through increasing and improving the feedback quality.
The Reinforcement Theory of Motivation was proposed by B.F. Skinner and his associates. This theory
posits that behavior is the function of its consequences, which means an individual develops a
behavior after performing certain actions.

Reinforcement Theory
The reinforcement theory of motivation is based on the “Law of Effect” concept, i.e. an
individual is likely to repeat those actions having the positive consequences, and will
avoid those behaviors that result in negative or unpleasant outcomes.
The behaviors that elicit consequences is called as operant behavior and reinforcement theory work
on the relationship between the operant behavior and the associated consequences and, therefore, is
often called as Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning means, the change in the behavior caused
due to the reinforcement (Positive reward or punishment) given after the response.
The reinforcement theory lay emphasis on the environmental factors that shape the behaviors and
thus, Skinner believed that environment external to the organization must be designed effectively so
as to increase the motivation among the employees.
Thus, the reinforcement theory of motivation mainly focuses on what happens when an individual
takes some action. It is observed, that people tend to repeat those activities which gives them pleasure
and avoid the activities with negative consequences.

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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Classroom management refers to the procedures, strategies and instructional
techniques teachers use to manage student behavior and learning activities. There is
no universal explanation of how teachers should teach or how students learn. However, there are
many theories that can support educational outcomes and create a welcome, friendly, and safe
classroom environment. To understand learning, teachers have to understand the theories and their
use in the classroom. Following are some of the key theories that have influenced the discipline of
education.
Choice theory by William Glasser
Kohn's student-directed learning
Canter's assertive discipline
Skinner's behavior management theory
Positive behavior support
Preventative theories by the following theorists: Carl Rogers, Jacob Kounin and Harry Wong

Choice Theory-Glasser
Developed by William Glasser and introduced in the 1998 book, Choice Theory: A New Psychology of
Personal Freedom
Built on the following principles:
• All we do is behave
• Almost all behavior is chosen
• We are driven internally to satisfy five basic needs: survival, love and belonging, power,
freedom, and fun

Kohn’s Student Directed Learning

Alfie Kohn writes about issues of education, parenting, and human behavior
Theories are based on intrinsic motivational factors
Critical of the use of competition (or any other extrinsic means) as a motivating factor
In the classroom, curiosity, creativity, and collaboration should be focuses

Canter's Assertive Discipline

Teacher should maintain a leadership role in the classroom but not in an authoritarian or
unfriendly way.
Teacher should understand learners personal and educational needs and be willing to help
them.
Teacher should be able to build the trust relationship with the students.
Teacher should teach students how to behave acceptably in the classroom.
Supporting appropriate behavior in the classroom equals showing students that the teacher
care about a learner personal life and success at school
Students need structures and clearly defined limits on behavior
Teacher should develop a classroom environment that is supportive, safe, peaceful, calm,
predictable and concentrated on student
To develop respect and trust in the classroom, teachers should model that kind of behavior

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Teacher should listen carefully to students, speak to them with respect, and treat everyone
fairly.
Knowing students as individuals and acknowledging them support a positive behavior as well.
Carl Rogers
Teachers should create supportive environment and emotionally warm in which they work
collaboratively with learners to achieve educational goals.
Rogers underlined the importance of a learning environment in which students are engaged in
peer teaching and collaborative learning activities that demand multiple levels of thinking
Teachers are facilitators of learning.
Control Theory
There are 4 basic human needs: love, control, freedom, and fun. These are necessary for a healthy
psychological balance. People can choose how they must act.
Jones Model
Children need to be controlled and that teachers can achieve this control through body language and
administration. Teacher’s presence and nonverbal messages are critical.
Hawthorne and Pygmalion Effect
The Hawthorne effect is a term referring to the tendency of some people to work harder and perform
better when they are participants in an experiment. The term is often used to suggest that individuals
may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving.
Pygmalion Effect or Rosenthal Effect
It refers to situations in which students performed better than other students simply because they
were expected to do so.

Jacob Kounin Theory

Ripple Effect - If a teacher corrects the misbehavior of one individual student, the other students in
the classroom normally will correct their misbehavior as well!

Withitness - All teachers need to be aware of what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all
times. If students are off-task, the teacher should clearly communicate to students the awareness
that they are not working and that they need to become engaged.

Overlapping – This process involves attending to two or more events at the same time rather than
becoming engrossed in one and ignoring the other.

Effective Transitions – Student behavior can be affected by the smoothness and effectiveness of
transitions between tasks.

Momentum – Momentum is the force and flow of a lesson. An effective lesson pulls the student
along by engaging the learners in activities, thus preventing student misbehavior.

Smoothness – Teachers should maintain direction in the lesson without being diverted by irrelevant
incidents, thus preserving instructional time by eliminating common barriers.
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Patterns to avoid during Classes

1. Flip-flops – Teacher terminates one activity and begins another, then returns to the original activity
2. Over dwelling – Teacher spends more time than is necessary on a topic, event or misbehavior.
3. Fragmentation – Teacher breaks directions into choppy steps instead of one fluid unit
4. Thrusts – Sudden interruptions that break class momentum making teacher or learners shift focus
5. Dangles – Teacher leaves a thought or an activity without completion or appropriate wrap-up
6. Stimulus-bound - When a teacher has the students engaged in a lesson and something else
attracts the teacher’s attention, that teacher is stimulus bound.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT STYLES

Authoritarian
The authoritarian teacher places firm limits and controls on the students.
Students will often have assigned seats for the entire term. The desks are
usually in straight rows and there are no deviations. Students must be in their
seats at the beginning of class and they frequently remain there throughout
the period. This teacher prefers vigorous discipline and expects swift
obedience. Failure to obey the teacher usually results in punishment.

Authoritative
The authoritative teacher places limits and controls on the students but
simultaneously encourages independence. This teacher often explains the
reasons behind the rules and decisions. If a student is disruptive, the teacher
offers a polite, but firm, reprimand. This teacher sometimes metes out
discipline, but only after careful consideration of the circumstances.

Indifferent
The indifferent/wit teacher is not very involved in the classroom. This teacher places few demands, if
any, on the students and appears generally uninterested. The indifferent teacher just doesn’t want to
impose on the students and often feels that class preparation is not worth the effort. Things like field
trips and special projects are out of the question. This teacher simply won’t take the necessary
preparation time and may use the same materials, year after year. Also, classroom discipline is lacking.
This teacher may lack the skills, confidence, or courage to discipline students.

Laissez-faire
The laissez-faire teacher places few demand or controls on the students. “Do your own thing” describes
this classroom. This teacher accepts the students’ impulses and actions and is less likely to monitor
their behavior. The teacher strives not to hurt the students’ feelings and has difficulty saying no or
enforcing rules. If a student disrupts the class, the teacher may assume that the student is not getting
enough attention. When a student interrupts a lecture, the teacher accepts the interruption with the
belief that the student must surely have something valuable to add. When discipline is offered, it is
likely to be inconsistent.

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Module Activity
Make sure to perform all the activities specified on this module.

ACTIVITY 4.1 – CONSTRUCTIVISM

Instruction: Think of a topic in your specialization and indicate how you can apply constructivism
for your students to construct their own understanding of the topic. The first one is done for you.
Constructional Implications What will I do to teach the topic?
Have key ideas

Give varied examples

Provide hands-on activities

Relate the topic to real life situations

ACTIVITY 3.2– BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instruction: Compare and contrast the original and revised taxonomy of educational objectives.

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ACTIVITY 3.2– BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instruction: Review the picture below. List down the problems you see and apply what
you have learned on Classroom Management by providing possible solutions to the
problem. Your answer should be on essay form and must have at least 10 possible
solutions to the problem you noticed.

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for Kounin’s Theory, Maslow’s Theory & Self-Efficacy

Hat Color Jacob Kounin Maslow’s Theory Self-Efficacy Theory

(first impression
when you heard
the theory)

(Important
concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive
aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of
the theory)

(application of the
theory in
teaching)

(your own insight

about the theory)

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SIX THINKING HATS ANALYSIS

Trivia: The six thinking hats was created by Edward de Bono. It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking
style, and to look at things from a number of different perspectives.

Instruction: Create a six thinking hats analysis for Constructivism and Sternberg’s Theory

Hat Color Constructivism Sternberg’s Theory

(first impression when

you heard the theory)

(Important concepts/facts to
remember)

(positive aspect/advantages
of the theory)

(negative
/disadvantages of the
theory)

(application of the theory in

teaching)

(your own insight about the

theory)

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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR MODULE 4

Instruction: Read and analyze each question carefully. Encircle the letter
of your answer.

1. Teacher Shawn believes that learning is a personal construction of meaning. So she allows her
students to express their own ideas. Which of the approach describes the teacher’s stand?
A. Cumulative B. Connectionist C. Constructionist D. Behaviorist

2. All of these statements are considered cognitivist principles, EXCEPT __________

A. Belief of the non-observable behavior
B. Preference to concentrate on analyzing cognitive process
C. Studying of the structures and components of information processing
D. Concluding based on observation of external manifestations of learning

3. Teacher Renita never fails to give positive feedback and realistic praise to her students. Teacher
Renita does this so that her students will __________
A. be motivated to study B. know what to do
C. like and love her D. praise her

4. This theory distinguishes three aspects of intelligence such as the ability to think abstractly,
creativity and practical skills.
A. Goal Theory B. Choice Theory
C. Self-Efficacy Theory D. Triarchic Theory

5. Which major paradigm of learning focusses and explores a learner’s inner mental activities, such
as thinking, memory, knowing and problem solving?
A. Behavioral Theories B. Cognitive Theories
C. Field and Gestalt Theories D. Social Theories

6. What mistake is committed by a teacher who lacks clear direction and sequence on activities by
going from one activity to another?
A. Thrusting B. Truncating C. Dangling D Flip-Flopping

7. Which of the following phrases best describes the idea of “classroom management”?
A. Disciplining the learners for better behavior in the classroom
B. Maintaining classroom order and a positive learning environment
C. Dealing with student’s misbehavior and keeping it minimal
D. Managing the students in such a way that bullying is avoided.
8. Which of the following characteristics is not particular to an effective classroom manager?
A. Avoiding win-lose conflicts B. Imposing firm but flexible limits
C. Explaining the rationale behind the rules D. Resorting to authoritarian means
9. Which classroom situation is the LEAST of the discipline problems?
A. Some boys teasing the girls during a group activity and unable mingle
B. Teacher locks the door so the tardy students cannot enter the classroom
C. Student looking outside the classroom and not listening to the teacher
D. A girl forged her mother’s signature because mother forgot to sign the note

10. In which situation is learning MOST apt to happen? When the _________________.
A. pupils are provided all necessary references B. handle things skillfully by himself
C. apply principles in a new situation D. given appropriate feedback

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SUMMMATIVE ASSESSMENT IN FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

Instruction: Read and analyze the questions carefully. Use the answer sheet and shade the letter of
your answer.

SUMMATIVE
ASSESSMENT
IN
FACILITATING
LEARNER
CENTERED
TEACHING

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Use this for

items 101-130.

Start with no. 1

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You have successfully completed the module!

“If you teach a person what to learn, you are preparing that person for the past. If
you teach a person how to learn, you are preparing for the future.” - Cyril Houle

The evolving role of educators requires them to be contemplative in order to effectively

facilitate the learner-centered teaching. Thus, as a future educator, it is your responsibility
to be acquainted with the various theories and concepts on how to effectively facilitate the
21st century landscape of education.

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